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PALGRAVE STUDIES IN NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Global Water
Funding
Innovation and Efficiency as Enablers
for Safe, Secure and Affordable Supplies

David Lloyd Owen

Palgrave Studies in Natural Resource
Management

Series Editor
Justin Taberham
London, UK
This series is dedicated to the rapidly growing field of Natural Resource
Management (NRM). It aims to bring together academics and profes-
sionals from across the sector to debate the future of NRM on a global
scale. Contributions from applied, interdisciplinary and cross-sectoral
approaches are welcome, including aquatic ecology, natural resources
planning and climate change impacts to endangered species, forestry or
policy and regulation. The series focuses on the management aspects of
NRM, including global approaches and principles, good and less good
practice, case study material and cutting edge work in the area.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/15182
 David Lloyd Owen

Global Water
Funding
Innovation and efficiency as enablers
for safe, secure and affordable
supplies
David Lloyd Owen
Envisager
Newcastle Emlyn, UK

Palgrave Studies in Natural Resource Management

ISBN 978-3-030-49453-7    ISBN 978-3-030-49454-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49454-4

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
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or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
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Cover design: D-BASE/gettyimages

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Contents

1 The Case for Universal and Sustainable Access  1

1.1 Introduction   1
1.2 A Brief History of Water and Sewerage Infrastructure   2
1.2.1 Bulk Water and Water Treatment   2
1.2.2 Water Carriers and Household Connections   3
1.2.3 Sanitation and Sewerage   4
1.2.4 Sewage Treatment   6
1.3 Where Should We Be? Water, Public Health,
Development and Sustainability   7
1.3.1 Water and the Burden of Disease and Lost
Time  8
1.4 The Impact of Poor Sanitation in South East Asia  11
1.5 In Search of Lost Time  13
1.6 The Human Right to Water  13
1.7 The European Union and Common Standards  15
1.8 Access to Safe Water and Sanitation  17
1.9 International Initiatives ‘Progress on Drinking Water,
Sanitation and Hygiene’  18
1.9.1 The Sustainable Development Goals  18
1.9.2 Access Can Depend on Seasons  23
1.10 Potable or Safe Water Standards: The World Health
Organization 24
v
vi Contents

1.11 Water Availability  26

1.11.1 Renewable Water Resources  26
1.11.2 Water Stress and Scarcity  27
1.12 The Impact of Climate Change  30
1.12.1 Observed and Predicted Impacts of Climate
Change on Water Management  31
1.13 Conclusions  34
References 34

2 Where We Are 43
2.1 Introduction  43
2.2 Data and Data Gaps  44
2.3 A Water and Sanitation Infrastructure Integrity Index  46
2.4 Levels of Water Access  47
2.5 Regional Overview: Europe—Developed  48
2.5.1 Advanced Treatment: Nutrient Removal  54
2.5.2 Comments on Countries  59
2.6 Regional Overview: The Americas—Developed  63
2.6.1 Canada  63
2.6.2 Chile  65
2.6.3 USA  65
2.7 Regional Overview: South East, East Asia and
Oceania—Developed 68
2.7.1 Improvement of Asset Condition in Australia  70
2.7.2 Japan’s Recent Adoption of Sewerage  71
2.7.3 Infrastructure Development in South Korea  71
2.8 Regional Overview: Middle East and North Africa,
Developed 73
2.9 Regional Overview: Eastern Europe and Central Asia  75
2.9.1 The Danube Countries: Outside the
European Union  77
2.10 Regional Overview: South Asia  78
2.10.1 Bangladesh  79
2.10.2 India  80
2.10.3 Pakistan  82
 Contents vii

2.11 Regional Overview: South East, East Asia and

Oceania—Developing 84
2.11.1 China  86
2.11.2 Indonesia  86
2.11.3 Taiwan  88
2.12 Regional Overview: The Americas—Developing  88
2.12.1 Brazil  90
2.12.2 Cuba  90
2.13 Regional Overview: Middle East and North Africa  91
2.13.1 Water Resources and Management in the
Gulf States  91
2.13.2 Egypt  94
2.13.3 Saudi Arabia  95
2.14 Regional Overview: Sub-Saharan Africa  95
2.14.1 Mauritius  97
2.14.2 Democratic Republic of Congo  97
2.14.3 Uganda  97
2.14.4 Kenya  98
2.15 Conclusions  99
References100

3 Where We Need to Be109

3.1 Introduction 109
3.2 The Other Sustainable Developmental Goals 6 Targets 109
3.2.1 Sewage Treatment 110
3.2.2 Inland Water Quality 110
3.2.3 Water Use Efficiency and Stress 111
3.2.4 Integrated Water Resources Management 115
3.2.5 Inland Water Quality Restoration 118
3.2.6 Monitoring Water-Related Ecosystems 118
3.3 Central Assumptions for 2030 and 2050119
3.3.1 Population Projections and Assumptions 120
3.3.2 Population and Water Stress 120
3.3.3 Water Access and Water Stress 121
3.3.4 Household Size and Water Demand 122
viii Contents

3.3.5 Connections and Populations 123

3.3.6 The Impact of Rising Standards 123
3.4 Forecasts for Needs by 2030 and 2050124
3.5 Conclusions 142
References142

4 The Costs Involved145

4.1 Introduction 145
4.2 Cost Assumptions 145
4.2.1 The Timescale 146
4.2.2 The Cost of Extending Water and Sewerage
Services146
4.2.3 Defining the Sector 147
4.3 Previous Cost Estimates 147
4.3.1 The Water and Sanitation Millennium
Development Goals 147
4.3.2 Estimating the Millennium Development
Goals148
4.3.3 The World Water Vision—Universal Water
and Sanitation by 2025148
4.3.4 OECD Reviews 150
4.3.5 Some Other Recent Surveys 151
4.3.6 Global Water Intelligence—Global Water
Market Surveys 153
4.3.7 World Bank Analysis 156
4.4 Per Capita Estimates 160
4.4.1 Meeting the Millennium Development
Goals: Basic Urban Services 160
4.5 Rehabilitation and Renewal 162
4.6 European Union Compliance: Advanced Asset
Development164
4.6.1 Upgrading and Extending Services in
England and Wales 165
4.6.2 Complying with European Union Directives 166
4.7 North America: US Environmental Protection
Agency Needs Surveys 169
4.8 Latin America 171
 Contents ix

4.9 Cost Assumptions 171

4.9.1 Timing 171
4.9.2 Central Cost Assumptions 172
4.9.3 Quality of Input Data and Costs 173
4.10 Cost Estimates 176
4.11 Comparing the Costs of New Assets and Rehabilitation181
4.12 Conclusions—The Forecasts in Context 182
References184

5 Funding Flows Today189

5.1 Introduction 189
5.2 Tariffs 190
5.2.1 Cost Recovery 190
5.2.2 Cost Recovery Policy 190
5.2.3 Cost Recovery in Practice 191
5.2.4 Cost Recovery and Utility Finance Data 192
5.2.5 How Far Can We Go? Affordability and the
Limits to Tariffs 194
5.2.6 Water Tariffs and Household Incomes 196
5.2.7 Tariff Limits in Theory 197
5.2.8 Cost Recovery and Politics 198
5.2.9 Consumer Choice: ‘Can’t Pay, Won’t Pay!’ 198
5.2.10 Cost and Confidence 199
5.2.11 Service in Formal and Informal Settlements 199
5.2.12 A Focus on Sub-Saharan Africa 201
5.2.13 Tariff Structures 204
5.3 Non-tariff Sources of Funding 205
5.3.1 Official Development Assistance 205
5.3.2 Official Development Assistance as a Part of
Funding Flows 207
5.4 Debt Finance 210
5.4.1 Lending by Multilaterals, Development
Banks and National Aid Agencies (Non-­
Official Development Assistance) 210
5.4.2 Green Bonds and Water Infrastructure 210
5.4.3 Debt Issuance 211
5.5 Subsidies 212
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x Contents

5.6 Indirect Financing 214

5.7 Funding Flows for Private Sector Water Utilities 215
5.8 Funding Flows 217
5.9 A Caveat About Data Quality and Availability 220
5.10 Conclusions 221
References222

6 The Gap Between Aspirations and Realities225

6.1 Introduction 225
6.2 What Happens Where There Is Insufficient Access? 225
6.2.1 Alternatives to Piped Water 226
6.2.2 Bottled Water 227
6.2.3 Point of Use and Point of Entry 227
6.2.4 Can Point of Use Represent the Best of
Both Worlds? 230
6.3 Tariffs and Cash Flow Generation 231
6.3.1 Tariff Generation Today 231
6.3.2 Tariffs and Economic Growth 232
6.3.3 Tariffs: Affordability and the Willingness
to Pay 233
6.4 Gaps in Governance and Funding 235
6.4.1 Plans and Their Implementation 236
6.4.2 A Look at Africa’s Funding Gap 240
6.4.3 The Ability to Meet Targets 241
6.4.4 O&M and Cost Recovery 243
6.5 Assessing Operating Costs 245
6.5.1 Tariffs and Funding Needs 249
6.5.2 Tariff Generation Between 2015 and 2050249
6.5.3 Global Capital Spending Needs, 2015–50249
6.5.4 Can Other Funding Sources Cover Such
Spending Gaps? 256
6.6 Conclusions: An Unbreachable Gap? 258
References259
 Contents xi

7 Addressing Capital Costs263

7.1 Introduction 263
7.2 Gold Plating and Incentivising Efficiency 264
7.2.1 The Impact of Community Involvement 265
7.2.2 Regulation and Incentivising Efficiency 266
7.2.3 Incentive-Based Economic Regulation in
England and Wales 267
7.2.4 USA—Cost Savings Through Design-­­Build-­
Operate Contracts 269
7.2.5 Lowering Costs in Supplying Villages in
Punjab270
7.2.6 Rural Water Pumps in Sub-Saharan Africa 270
7.3 Sanitation and Sewage Treatment 271
7.3.1 Condominial Sanitation 272
7.3.2 Localised Labour 273
7.3.3 Distributed Sludge Management 274
7.4 Cutting the Cost of Procurement 274
7.4.1 Urban Sanitation 275
7.4.2 Rural Sanitation 276
7.5 Grinding Away at Corruption 277
7.5.1 The Impact of Corruption in India and China278
7.5.2 Transparency International’s ‘Corruption in
the Water Sector’ Report 279
7.5.3 The Water Integrity Network’s 2016 Report 279
7.5.4 Aid-Related Outflows: A World Bank Study 279
7.5.5 Some Examples of Progress 280
7.5.6 Combatting Corruption 281
7.6 ‘Nature-Based Solutions’ 282
7.7 Conclusions—The Scope for Capital Efficiency 286
References288

8 Lowering Operating Costs295

8.1 Introduction 295
8.2 Smart Operations 297
Another Random Scribd Document
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 Philosophy - Cheat Sheet
Third 2024 - Center

Prepared by: Teaching Assistant Garcia

Date: August 12, 2025

Test 1: Problem-solving strategies and techniques

Learning Objective 1: Study tips and learning strategies
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 5: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 6: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 8: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 8: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Module 2: Ethical considerations and implications
Example 10: Experimental procedures and results
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 11: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 12: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 12: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 13: Key terms and definitions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 16: Literature review and discussion
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 17: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 18: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 19: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Introduction 3: Best practices and recommendations
Practice Problem 20: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 22: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 23: Ethical considerations and implications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 24: Historical development and evolution
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 25: Best practices and recommendations
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Appendix 4: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 31: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 32: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 32: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 33: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 37: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 38: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 39: Practical applications and examples
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 40: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Appendix 5: Study tips and learning strategies
Example 40: Research findings and conclusions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 42: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 45: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 48: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 49: Ethical considerations and implications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 50: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice 6: Key terms and definitions
Example 50: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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