Acta Psychologica 247 (2024) 104309

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Acta Psychologica
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/actpsy

Exploring challenges in academic language-related skills of EFL learners in

Chinese EMI settings
Meiyan Li *, Lihua Pei
Faculty of International Studies, Henan Normal University, Henan 453007, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Chinese universities have placed increasing emphasis, on incorporating English as a medium of instruction (EMI)
Academic language-related skills courses to enhance their competitiveness both nationally and internationally. However, the successful imple­
Chinese learners mentation of these courses requires learners to acquire content knowledge. To promote EMI courses, specific
English medium instruction (EMI)
initiatives and policies have been put in place by universities reflecting a trend in the globalization of higher
learners’ success
Scholastic circumstances
education and the growing demand for English proficiency in academic settings. Despite the attention given to
education in Chinese society, many learners are not adequately prepared to overcome challenges associated with
EMI classes. This leads to inefficiencies and drawbacks within the educational system. For instance, some
learners struggle with understanding subject matter due to language barriers or encounter difficulties fully
engaging with course materials because of language related challenges. This study aims to fill a significant
research gap by providing a comprehensive exploration of the main challenges faced by learners in the Chinese
EMI context and by highlighting the crucial contribution of EMI courses to China’s higher education competi­
tiveness internationally. By identifying factors and variables that can predict success in EMI contexts, particularly
by studying learners’ academic language-related skills as potential predictors of EMI success, this study offers
novel insights into the impact of EMI courses on China’s position in the global academic arena. A total of 361
male and female EFL learners participated in the study and completed the EMI Challenges Scale. The data
analysis, including descriptive statistics and multiple linear regression, revealed that writing, reading, and
listening skills significantly predicted success in EMI. Writing emerged as the best predictor, explaining 28.19 %
of the variance in EMI success, followed by reading (19.54 %). The results of this study contribute to current
debates on international affairs of higher education by not only illustrating the problems students face in EMI
courses, but also providing important suggestions for improving the learning environment on EMI language in
China. This leads to ongoing debates about the globalization of higher education and the need for English
proficiency in academic settings. In addition, the results of this study are useful for teachers and policy makers; it
emphasizes the importance of improving EMI learners’ writing, reading, and listening skills in EMI learners to
enhance their success in academic settings. In particular, they may consider implementing language development
programs and provide EMI learners with additional support to improve their writing, reading and listening skills.
This study also highlights the need for appropriate support and resources to address the specific language
challenges faced by EMI students, paving the way for better instructional strategies and guidelines in Chinese
EMI terms.

1. Introduction Similarly, Curle and Derakhshan (2021) and Roothooft (2022) noted
that the internationalization of education and the need to outperform
To reinforce the statement that an increasing number of educational global competitors have led to the expansion of advanced-level EMI.
institutions have incorporated English learning programs due to glob­ Breeze (2021) and Derakhshan et al. (2022) defined EMI as teaching
alization, Doiz et al. (2012) found that the use of EMI has become a subjects using English as a medium in countries where their first lan­
growing trend in non-English speaking countries. This trend is driven by guage is not English. The prominent increase in EMI in higher education
the need to communicate in English on the international stage. has triggered the need for investigating EMI in practice EMI, as a mode

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104309
Received 22 December 2023; Received in revised form 1 May 2024; Accepted 7 May 2024
Available online 17 May 2024
0001-6918/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Li and L. Pei Acta Psychologica 247 (2024) 104309

of instruction, presents various language-related issues for students, language skills in EMI programs in the Chinese context. By identifying
including challenges in reading, writing, speaking, and listening and understanding these challenges, the study aims to improve learners’
(Derakhshan et al., 2023; Jinghui, 2023). educational experiences and outcomes through evidence-based in­
In China, the Ministry of Education has endorsed the need for EMI terventions and support mechanisms. The significance of a study lies in
courses by issuing educational statements that highlight the important its potential to contribute to our understanding of the complexities and
role of EMI courses in enhancing the international employability of local nuances involved in language acquisition and academic performance
graduates and attracting foreign learners to Chinese universities (Li within a specific educational framework. By delving into this topic, the
et al., 2024; Liu, 2020; Mellati et al., 2015; Wang & Derakhshan, 2023; study can shed light on the unique linguistic and academic obstacles
Wang & Pan, 2023; Wu et al., 2023). This endorsement has led to the faced by Chinese learners in EMI settings, offering insights that can
development of academic policy initiatives that regulate the use of EMI inform the development of targeted pedagogical strategies, curriculum
in Chinese universities (Rose et al., 2020). China’s rich history, diverse design, and language support initiatives. Also, the findings of this study
regional dialects, and unique cultural norms significantly influence the may have broader implications for EMI programs globally, as they could
learning environment and language acquisition process. China’s vast provide valuable guidance for educators and policymakers seeking to
history and culture have created a linguistic landscape that includes enhance the academic language proficiency and overall learning out­
many languages and varieties, each with its own unique characteristics comes of learners in similar contexts. In considering the potential im­
and nuances. This linguistic diversity can create problems for students plications of this study, it is important to provide a brief preview of how
participating in EMI because they may face problems in navigating and these implications might manifest. The insights gained from this
comprehending the various dialectal differences, which can impact their research could lead to the development of tailored language support
language acquisition and academic language-related skills (Jablonkai & programs that address the specific linguistic challenges faced by Chinese
Hou, 2021). Furthermore, China’s unique cultural norms, social prac­ learners in EMI settings. Additionally, the study’s findings may inform
tices, and traditions play a pivotal role in shaping the sociocultural the adaptation of curriculum design to better accommodate the lin­
context within which language learning takes place. These cultures in­ guistic and academic needs of EMI students, ultimately enhancing their
fluence communication patterns, language use in different contexts, and academic language proficiency and overall learning outcomes. Addi­
interpretation of academic discourse. Therefore, students participating tionally, identifying effective teaching strategies for Chinese EMI cour­
in EMI may encounter cultural barriers that impact their ability to ses can serve as a model for similar educational settings around the
effectively engage with academic content and develop the language world and thus contribute to best practices in EMI programs worldwide.
skills needed to graduate (Li & Zhang, 2019). Ultimately, by elucidating the potential practical applications of its
The literature on EMI in Chinese higher education also offers valu­ findings, this study aims to advance scholarly knowledge, inform
able insights into the language-related challenges and opportunities of educational practices, and enhance the educational experiences and
EMI in this context. For example, the special issue on EMI in Chinese achievements of learners in EMI programs in China and beyond.
higher education by Jablonkai and Hou (2021) presents a systematic
review of EMI research in China, encompassing research literature in 2. Review of the literature
both English and Chinese. This review provides insights into the current
state of knowledge and the research gaps in EMI implementation in 2.1. English Medium Instruction (EMI)
China, thereby establishing a clear research agenda. Additionally, the
study by Li and Zhang (2019) delves into the challenges and opportu­ English Medium Instruction (EMI) encompasses various theoretical
nities of EMI in higher education in China, focusing on the impact of EMI frameworks to understand its complexities and effectiveness in different
on students’ language proficiency and academic performance. Further­ educational contexts. Sociolinguistic perspectives delve into the intri­
more, the study by Zhang and Yuan (2019) scrutinizes the imple­ cate interplay of sociocultural and sociopolitical elements that shape
mentation of EMI in a Chinese university, exploring the challenges and language utilization within educational settings. These perspectives not
opportunities of EMI from the perspectives of students, teachers, and only elucidate language policy formulation but also illuminate its
administrators. These studies underscore the necessity for a focused implementation and impact on diverse stakeholders. By scrutinizing
inquiry into the specific challenges that may arise for learners in the language policies, sociolinguistic analyses reveal how they intersect
Chinese EMI context, particularly in the development of their academic with identity formation processes among language learners and educa­
language-related skills. The study by Al Zumor (2019) on the challenges tors, influencing their linguistic choices and self-perception. Further­
of using EMI in teaching and learning scientific disciplines can further more, sociolinguistic frameworks shed light on power dynamics
inform the specific challenges and implications of EMI in the Chinese inherent in language education, delineating how language hierarchies
context. Additionally, the study by Wang and Zhang (2020) furnishes a and inequalities manifest within educational institutions. Understand­
comprehensive review of the literature on EMI in Chinese higher edu­ ing these sociolinguistic dynamics is crucial in the context of English
cation, encompassing the challenges and opportunities of EMI, the Medium Instruction (EMI), where language policies, identity negotia­
impact of EMI on students’ language proficiency and academic perfor­ tion, and power dynamics significantly influence the effectiveness and
mance, and the implications for policy and practice. These studies equity of language learning experiences. Therefore, integrating socio­
collectively justify the significance of investigating linguistic challenges linguistic perspectives into EMI research and practice can foster a deeper
in the EMI context in China, as they reveal the complexities and impli­ understanding of how language functions within educational environ­
cations of EMI implementation and the need for a deeper understanding ments and inform policies and pedagogical approaches that promote
of the challenges faced by learners in this context. linguistic equity and inclusivity. Educational frameworks such as
By investigating students’ academic challenges and the strategic Constructivism and Experiential Learning Theory are highly relevant to
tactics used by students for learning, this study aims to develop a better English Medium Instruction (EMI) classrooms. Constructivism empha­
understanding of the effectiveness of EMI in higher education in China. sizes that learners actively construct their understanding of the world by
Also, the unique sociocultural and linguistic characteristics of the Chi­ engaging with new information and experiences, which aligns with the
nese context necessitate a focused inquiry into the specific challenges dynamic nature of language acquisition in EMI settings. Learners in EMI
that may arise for learners in this environment. Therefore, there is a classrooms are encouraged to interact with English language content
critical need to investigate and identify the precise obstacles that impede through meaningful activities and tasks, fostering their language
learners’ development of academic language-related skills in EMI in the development through authentic experiences. Similarly, Experiential
Chinese context. Furthermore, this study aims to investigate the obsta­ Learning Theory posits that individuals learn best through direct expe­
cles hindering learners’ acquisition and application of academic rience and reflection, suggesting that language learning in EMI

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M. Li and L. Pei Acta Psychologica 247 (2024) 104309

environments can be optimized by providing learners with hands-on and these differences can influence the dynamics of the EMI classroom.
opportunities to use English in real-life situations. By engaging with Ma et al. (2021) conducted a qualitative investigation on Chinese stu­
English language materials and activities, learners not only enhance dents’ willingness to communicate in English in the graduate school EMI
their language skills but also deepen their understanding of English classroom, shedding light on the students’ perspectives and experiences.
language and culture. Therefore, integrating Constructivism and Expe­ Another study by Song (2019) critically examined international and
riential Learning Theory into EMI pedagogy can facilitate more effective Chinese students’ epistemic practices in EMI Master’s degree programs
and engaging language instruction, promoting both linguistic profi­ in China, highlighting the implicit hegemonic hierarchy among students
ciency and cultural competence among learners. These theoretical and its impact on their epistemic awareness. Moreover, the role of
frameworks, such as Constructivism and Experiential Learning Theory, teachers’ emotions and communication skills play a crucial part in
play a crucial role in shaping our understanding of English Medium shaping students’ experiences in EMI classrooms. The interaction be­
Instruction (EMI) by providing valuable insights into how language tween English as an EMI teacher from Western countries and Chinese
learning occurs within diverse educational settings. students often leads to misunderstandings and miscommunications due
English as the EMI is aimed at enhancing content learning, with to differing communication styles, nonverbal cues, and cultural norms.
language learning perhaps acquired as a collateral benefit. There is a hot The study by Chudnovskaya and Millette (2023) analyzed the intercul­
controversy in the EMI literature over whether or not the efficacy of EMI tural experiences of Chinese graduate students at U.S. universities,
programs can be assessed regarding L2 learning, content learning, or highlighting the challenges they faced with differences in nonverbal
both (Macaro et al., 2018; Hu & Wang, 2023; Li et al., 2024; Wang, norms, classroom environment expectations, and excellence in school­
Derakhshan, et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2024; Wu et al., 2024). As an work. Their study sheds light on the impact of cultural differences on the
international phenomenon, EMI is becoming a commonplace reality experiences of Chinese students in a Western academic setting.
given the growing trend of globalization and is defined as the instruction Within the EMI program, structural challenges refer to general pro­
of academic subjects in non-English speaking countries using English as grammatic coherence, which involves problems associated with an
the vehicle of instruction (Dearden, 2015). Dearden and Macaro (2016) inadequate number of EMI courses or the support personnel’s failure to
described EMI as teaching learners who are residents in regions where deal with diverse populations (Bradford, 2016). This underscores the
English is not the commonly spoken language, using the vehicle of En­ importance of creating structurally and conceptually coherent programs
glish. In the same vein, Unterberger and Wilhelmer (2011) asserted that for prospective teachers. Furthermore, the successful implementation of
EMI does not follow any specific L2 goals, but it is characterized as an EMI programs depends on factors such as effective communication
approach that attaches great importance to learners’ academic knowl­ among stakeholders, faculty selection and support, and curriculum
edge (Alfehaij, 2018). This is consistent with the description given by design with consideration for students’ language proficiency and
Smit and Dafouz (2012) that EMI only concentrates on content learning, meaningful connections to mainstream programs (Brown, 2018). For
with gaining mastery over English emerging as a byproduct. Indeed, as instance, in the study by Mahawattha and Rassool (2023), which focuses
pointed out by Rose et al. (2020), one of the key advantages associated on the challenges posed by the transition from secondary education to
with EMI, learners can simultaneously obtain both English and content higher education concerning EMI in Sri Lanka, it was found that students
knowledge. Additionally, Chinese students studying overseas during the and lecturers faced structural, institutional, and linguistic challenges
pandemic faced concerns regarding their foreign qualifications obtained during the transition to EMI in universities. This suggests that inade­
partially online, language barriers, cultural differences, and struggles quate structural support for EMI programs can lead to significant ob­
with understanding course materials and meeting academic expecta­ stacles for both students and faculty members. In the context of the
tions (Davies et al., 2020). Chinese educational system, similar challenges may be observed,
particularly concerning the transition from primary and secondary ed­
2.2. Challenges in EMI classes ucation, conducted mainly in the first language, to higher education
programs that are delivered in English. Moreover, Wang (2023) exam­
Bradford (2016) elaborated on four groups of challenges teachers ined the development of the modern Chinese education system since
and learners experience concerning EMI, namely, cultural, structural, 1949, highlighting the impact of societal trends, political upheaval, and
identity-related (institutional), and linguistic challenges. Cultural chal­ global economic trends. His study sheds light on the crucial elements
lenges involve the effect of a diverse range of learners’ and teachers’ influencing the Chinese educational sector, which could inform the
variables that vary based on their cultural backgrounds and social norms challenges related to the transition from primary and secondary edu­
(Bradford, 2016). Kirkpatrick et al.’s (2024) study relates to the cultural cation to higher education in China. Additionally, Bahtilla and Xu
challenge in EMI as it highlights the importance of understanding the (2021) explored the influence of Confucius’s educational thoughts on
motivations and attitudes of students from different cultural back­ China’s educational system. The study emphasized the emphasis on
grounds when implementing EMI programs. Their study emphasizes the moral education and character development, indicating the significant
need for comprehensive investigations into the factors that influence influence of traditional Chinese educational philosophy, which may
students’ motivation and attitudes toward learning English, as this can have implications for the transition to English-medium higher education
help improve the delivery of EMI courses and better cater to the needs of programs. According to Davies et al. (2020), the COVID-19 pandemic
students from diverse cultural backgrounds. Cultural differences like posed significant challenges for providing effective English for Aca­
contextual background can bring about cultural challenges in Chinese demic Purposes (EAP) support in Sino-foreign universities in China. The
educational contexts. The clash between traditional Chinese education, challenges included the need to transform face-to-face learning to online
which emphasizes rote memorization and teacher-centered learning, delivery at extremely short notice, difficulties in providing effective EAP
and the interactive, student-centered approach often found in EMI support, and the need to adapt to new academic and social environ­
programs presents challenges in student engagement and participation. ments. Additionally, Chinese students studying overseas during the
Recent encouragement by the Chinese government for education to pandemic faced concerns regarding their foreign qualifications obtained
move away from passive learning and rote memorization has resulted in partially online, language barriers, cultural differences, and struggles
tensions and challenges, as students previously used to traditional pas­ with understanding course materials and meeting academic expecta­
sive transmission learning struggle with constructivist, experience-based tions. Therefore, the structural challenges in EMI programs in China may
courses (Bell, 2020; Wang & Derakhshan, 2023; Wang & Hemchua, lead to significant disruptions in programmatic coherence and exacer­
2022; Wang & Kruk, 2024). Chinese students’ cultural expectations bate the inability to effectively address the needs of diverse student
regarding the role of the teacher, classroom hierarchy, and academic populations.
authority differ from those prevalent in Western educational systems, The challenge associated with the identity, which is known as the

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institutional challenge, is concerned with the external perceptions and demands of academic English, making it challenging for students to
image of the EMI program and identity, the teachers covering the EMI extract key ideas from passages and comprehend the core meaning of
program, and the learners’ registration (Bradford, 2016). External per­ texts (Nuraini et al., 2022). Firman et al. (2021) conducted a study on
ceptions can greatly impact the success of an EMI program. If the pro­ students’ abilities and difficulties in comprehending English reading
gram is not well-regarded or if there are misconceptions about its texts at the secondary level, emphasizing factors such as low reading
effectiveness, it can be challenging to attract students (Puspitasari et al., exercises, vocabulary, phonemic awareness, and grammatical compe­
2020). Zhang and Pladevall-Ballester (2021) emphasize the need for tence as challenges affecting reading achievement. Alhassan et al.
empirical investigation in EMI practices, particularly in the Asian (2021) enumerated a set of difficulties faced by EMI learners as they
context, to assess students’ language and content learning outcomes took part in business programs and the results indicated that partici­
objectively. This indicates a growing recognition of the importance of pants experienced difficulty with reading abilities because of their
measuring the actual effectiveness of EMI programs, which can signifi­ inadequate vocabulary richness. Boutovwick (2018) came up with the
cantly influence external perceptions. Moreover, the study by Phuong same results, indicating that many learners experienced problems due to
and Nguyen (2019) sheds light on students’ perceptions of EMI classes, their insufficient vocabulary for subject knowledge. The prevalent use of
providing insights into the benefits and drawbacks perceived by stu­ such new terminology in EAP classes has been found to highly influence
dents. They found out that learners’ perceptions of academic compre­ EMI learners’ reading ability (Li & Akram, 2023; Li et al., 2024; Uchi­
hension, books, course resources, tests, and classroom debate can hara & Harada, 2018; Zhi et al., 2023).
emerge as the challenges related to EMI experienced by learners. Un­ Inadequate language proficiency can manifest in students’ writing
derstanding these perceptions is crucial in addressing any mis­ skills which can have an impact on academic success in EMI (Kiyong
conceptions or concerns that may impact the program’s success in et al., 2011). This type of inadequacy can lead to challenges in con­
attracting and retaining students. Similarly, Keles et al. (2020) address structing coherent and grammatically correct written responses, essays,
the impacts of exclusive language policies in the context of EMI pro­ and assignments. Moreover, low proficient learners in writing skills may
grams, emphasizing the inequities that can arise due to discrepancies struggle with spelling, grammar, and organizing their ideas effectively
between de jure and de facto language policies. These discrepancies can in written English (Kargar, 2013). Given that learners feel anxious and
significantly influence students’ external perceptions of the program. assessed in their writing courses in universities, these challenges can
Despite the increasing use of EMI, several studies have revealed that directly influence how they act. The mainstream of the issues learners
L2 English learners who have insufficient English proficiency face come across can be attributed to their unfamiliarity with academic
several issues while seeking to adapt to an English-only situation discourses, writing styles, and referencing conventions, which differ
(Bradford, 2016; Hu & Wang, 2023; Hu & Hemchua, 2023; Galloway & from one context to another (e.g., Abouzeid, 2021; Eriksson, 2018;
Ruegg, 2020; Pan, 2022; Wang & Hemchua, 2022). The term “linguistic Wang, Derakhshan et al., 2023).
challenges” encompasses a wide range of obstacles encountered in the Addressing these challenges requires targeted support, such as lan­
field of natural language processing and language-related studies. These guage development programs, additional language support within the
challenges, in academic settings, can include issues such as language EMI curriculum, and strategies to scaffold language learning across all
barriers, translation problems, dialect differences, and communication subject areas. By recognizing and addressing the impact of inadequate
breakdowns due to linguistic differences (Akram & Li, 2024; Steigerwald language proficiency on these key language skills, educators can better
et al., 2022). These academic language-related skills challenges refer to support students in EMI programs to achieve academic success (Davies
the difficulties that students encounter when trying to comprehend, et al., 2023; Pan et al., 2023; Wang & Kruk, 2024; Wang & Wang, 2024).
communicate, and excel in academic subjects taught in English, espe­ Investigating the challenges of learners’ academic language-related
cially when it is not their first language. These challenges can encompass skills in EMI in the Chinese context is a critical area of concern given
issues related to reading, writing, listening, speaking, critical thinking, the growing internationalization of higher education and the wide­
and academic language proficiency within an English-medium educa­ spread implementation of EMI policies in this country (Zhang, 2018).
tional environment (Aizawa et al., 2020). Aizawa et al. (2020) examined Ismailov et al. (2021) conducted a detailed study to understand the
the challenges faced by Japanese learners in an EMI program, demon­ difficulties in implementing student-focused teaching in EMI programs
strating that English language proficiency was a significant predictor of at Chinese universities. They found that the challenges faced by Chinese
challenges in the EMI program. This emphasizes the importance of students in these programs are multifaceted, including issues such as
language proficiency in addressing academic language-related limited English proficiency among both students and teachers and a lack
challenges. of teaching methods that prioritize student involvement. Their research
Inadequate language proficiency can make it challenging for stu­ shed light on the complexities of internationalizing university programs,
dents to comprehend spoken English, especially when teachers or peers with a specific focus on learner-centered EMI pedagogy. The study
are speaking at a natural pace. This can lead to difficulties in following highlighted that the primary obstacles stemmed from difficulties in
lectures, understanding instructions, and engaging in classroom in­ understanding and using English in an EMI setting. An investigation was
teractions (Li, 2021; Li, 2022; Li, 2023; Lin & Wang, 2024; Zhang & conducted by Zhou et al. (2022) to examine the challenges relating to
Pladevall-Ballester, 2021). Similarly, Kithinji and OHirsi (2022) found a language acquisition and the assistance provided in EMI programs at
positive correlation between English language proficiency and academic eight universities in China. The dataset comprised a student question­
performance among non-English speaking undergraduate students, with naire, with a sample size of 394 respondents, designed to assess chal­
specific difficulties in listening and speaking having a strong influence lenges encountered in 45 academic tasks, and categorized according to
on their academic performance. Liu and Yuan (2021) have highlighted four distinct skills. The study findings indicate that students encountered
the impact of foreign language anxiety and listening anxiety on students’ the most significant challenges in the development of productive skills,
English proficiency in the context of EMI programs, especially during the particularly in the area of writing. In order to investigate the structural
COVID-19 pandemic. Their findings reflect the critical influence of the language support necessary for addressing these challenges, fieldwork
learning environment on the levels of foreign language anxiety and interviews were carried out with 26 senior faculty members from 8
underscore the seriousness of these issues in the foreign language universities located in four cities within China. The study identified
learning context. Students with limited language proficiency may find it three primary forms of institutional support: 1) concurrent language
difficult to comprehend written English texts, including academic ma­ support provided by English language instructors in conjunction with
terials. They may struggle with vocabulary, sentence structure, and English medium programs; 2) preparatory programs undertaken prior to
overall comprehension, which can impede their ability to grasp the students’ enrollment in English medium courses, particularly prevalent
content across various subjects. This difficulty stems from the linguistic in language-specialist universities; and 3) self-access learning and

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writing centers present at two transnational universities. Kamaşak and population, and collaboration with relevant departments to facilitate a
Sahan (2023) conducted a study to investigate the influence of various comprehensive and inclusive recruitment process. These considerations
factors on the academic achievement of students in the context of EMI in were instrumental in ensuring a representative sample of Chinese EFL
Turkey. The study specifically focused on four factors: (1) language- learners for the study. The participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 48, with
related difficulties experienced by students, (2) students’ perceptions an average age of 21. The majority of participants (84.76 %) were un­
of the efficacy of EMI, (3) students’ self-reported levels of language dergraduate learners, while 3.0 % were Ph.D. learners. Proficiency
proficiency, and (4) the extent to which L2 English is utilized in EMI levels varied among the participants, with 33.24 % at level 4, 5.26 % at
courses. The students’ subjective assessment of their own academic 3, and 61.5 % at other proficiency levels. The ILR (Interagency Language
achievement was utilized as a measure of success in EMI. A total of 498 Roundtable) proficiency scale was used to assess learners’ language
learners participated in the data collection process by completing an proficiency in the study. Level four equals full professional proficiency.
online questionnaire. The findings indicated that students’ language- Individuals at this level can use the language fluently and accurately on
related difficulties and their perceived language competency were the all levels pertinent to professional needs. Level three signifies profes­
sole predictors significantly linked to their academic achievement in sional working proficiency. It indicates that individuals can effectively
EMI courses. Pun and Jin (2021) conducted a study to investigate the communicate in a wide range of contexts and handle complex tasks. The
perceived language challenges and language-related learning strategies recruitment process involved collaboration with university language
of Chinese university students enrolled in EMI programs. The study departments and EMI course coordinators to ensure a diverse repre­
surveyed 73 EMI university students, exploring their self-evaluations of sentation of learners. Additionally, the data collection period spanned 3
their academic circumstances and their attitudes toward disciplinary weeks, commencing in December 2022, during which university part­
learning. The research revealed that students demonstrated a minimal ners facilitated participant access and engagement. The data collection
perception of language and learning hardships, and expressed a pref­ period of 3 weeks in December 2022 was chosen to align with the aca­
erence for utilizing learning strategies associated with their second demic calendar of the participating institutions, during which university
language (L2) as opposed to those pertaining to their first language. partners facilitated participant access and engagement. This time frame
Although the bulk of research mentioned above has sought to scru­ was selected to capture a representative snapshot of the Chinese EFL
tinize the linguistic challenges related to EMI contexts, very few studies learners’ language proficiency and learning experiences within the
have examined the predicting power of these linguistic challenges in context of their academic coursework. Additionally, the December
determining learners’ success. In particular, scant research has investi­ timeframe was considered to minimize potential seasonal variations in
gated this relationship in a Chinese setting. This gap in the existing participant availability and engagement, as it falls outside major holiday
research is significant for several reasons. Firstly, by identifying lin­ periods in China. The aim was to ensure that the data collected would
guistic challenges, we aim to generate a comprehensive understanding accurately reflect the typical learning experiences and language profi­
of the specific linguistic and academic hurdles that Chinese learners ciency levels of Chinese EFL learners within the context of their aca­
encounter in their pursuit of academic success in an English-medium demic studies. The ages of the participating teachers ranged from 28 to
environment. Moreover, understanding the predictive influence of aca­ 42, reflecting the diverse teaching demographics within the university
demic language-related skills challenges on learners’ success is crucial partnerships. The researchers aimed to ensure the validity of the find­
for developing targeted interventions and support mechanisms. Identi­ ings by addressing several key factors. Firstly, they achieved a
fying these challenges and their impact can lead to more effective commendable response rate of 65 % from the target demographic, sur­
teaching strategies and student support initiatives. Furthermore, the passing the industry average of 33 %. To mitigate potential biases, they
lack of research specifically focused on the predictive power of linguistic also implemented measures such as anonymizing responses and utilizing
challenges in a Chinese setting indicates a need for localized and a diverse sample pool to minimize demographic skew.
context-specific insights. Different linguistic factors may come into play
in this particular context, and therefore, understanding the unique 3.2. Instrument
challenges faced by Chinese EFL learners is essential to provide tailored
support and pedagogical approaches. The findings of this study can 3.2.1. Academic language-related skills questionnaire
underscore the importance of considering the psychological and peda­ This study used a 45-item questionnaire that was developed by
gogical factors in the development and implementation of EMI pro­ Aizawa et al. (2020) as an adapted version of a scale developed by Evans
grams. In line with the identified gaps and their significance, the specific and Morrison (2011). This questionnaire elicits learners’ perceptions of
research questions in our study are designed to address these limitations: how easy or difficult they find each item in four types of academic tasks
by selecting the appropriate point on the scale from very difficult to very
1. What are the academic language-related challenges that Chinese EFL easy. These tasks are along these lines; writing (15 items), speaking (10
learners perceive? items), reading (10 items), and listening (10 items). The adaptation
2. To what extent do academic language-related challenges perceived process involved modifying the scale to focus on EMI tasks and adjusting
by Chinese EFL learners predict their perceived success in EMI? the response options to a seven-point Likert scale. The answers were
elicited, using a seven-point Likert scale with the options ranging from 1
3. Method (very difficult) to 7 (very easy). This study labels this instrument as the
EMI Challenges Scale. Given that it was not possible to directly measure
3.1. Participants success through GPA in this study, the researcher resorted to self-
reported EMI success in the same questionnaire. In the questionnaire,
The sample of 361 male and female participants, consisting of 26.8 % participants were asked to rate their success in EMI based on two key
and 73 % respectively, comprised Chinese EFL learners. The researchers items. The wording of the first item was designed to capture partici­
extended invitations to EFL students from various esteemed universities pants’ perceptions accurately by prompting them to evaluate their own
across Guangdong Province, China, including prominent institutions academic achievement and competence within the specific context of
such as Wuyi University, Shantou University, and Shenzhen University, EMI. The second item delved into the success of their learning of aca­
aiming to ensure a diverse and representative sample for their study of demic content through EMI courses, capturing their perception of how
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning dynamics. Participants effectively they were able to grasp and engage with the subject matter
were recruited through university partnerships with institutions offering within the EMI context. This item was carefully crafted to accurately
EMI) courses in China. The criteria for selecting university partners were capture participants’ perceptions of their learning outcomes within the
centered on the availability of EMI courses, the diversity of the learner EMI framework. Although one may argue that students’ evaluation of

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M. Li and L. Pei Acta Psychologica 247 (2024) 104309

their success may not be quiet representative of their actual success and estimates were found to be significant. Nor did any item have stan­
their answers might be, to some extent, biased, the researchers believe dardized loading below 0.5. This was followed by checking the modi­
that the students are among the best sources to evaluate their progress. fication indices, using a threshold of 10. An attempt was made to apply
The results obtained from the analysis of the two items also showed that the suggestions that were consistent with the literature. The results are
they have high consistency and the pattern of the answers suggests the displayed in the Appendix.
convergent validity of the obtained results. By evaluating both their Fig. 1 illustrates the final modified CFA model.
performance in EMI courses and the perceived success of their academic After checking the modifications, the model’s goodness of fit was
learning, the questionnaire aimed to provide a comprehensive under­ scrutinized. As stated by Hu and Bentler (1999), some criteria have to be
standing of participants’ overall success in the EMI program, encom­ assured for the model to have a goodness of fit as they are stated in
passing both their academic performance and their learning outcomes. A Table 1.
pilot test was conducted to evaluate the clarity and comprehensibility of Table 2 presents an evaluation of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis
the questionnaire. The results of Cronbach Alpha showed a reliability (CFA) goodness of fit using various criteria and thresholds. The obtained
index of 0.82 (r = 0.82). value for CMIN is 2935.202. Typically, a CMIN value greater than the
threshold indicates a poor fit. However, no specific threshold is provided
3.3. Data collection procedures for this criterion, so interpretation may be limited without additional
context. The CMIN/df value is 2.903. A ratio <5 is considered excellent,
The data collection process commenced with a pilot study involving indicating a good fit. With a value of 2.903, the model demonstrates an
30 participants who closely resembled the demographics of the main excellent fit. The RMSEA value is 0.071. RMSEA values below 0.08 are
study’s participants. Their task was to complete questionnaires to ensure generally considered acceptable, while values below 0.06 indicate
the clarity of all items and assess the reliability of the instruments used. excellent fit. Thus, the model’s RMSEA falls within the acceptable range.
Following confirmation of both factors, the main study was initiated, Both CFI and TLI indices have values of 0.919 and 0.915, respectively.
ensuring the robustness of the data collection procedure. Throughout Values above 0.9 suggest an acceptable fit, while values above 0.95
this investigation, meticulous attention was paid to ethical consider­ indicate an excellent fit. Hence, the model’s CFI and TLI demonstrate an
ations to safeguard the rights and well-being of all participants. acceptable fit. The SRMR value is 0.075, which is below the threshold of
Prior to their involvement, a total of 361 male and female Chinese 0.08, indicating an excellent fit.
EFL learners, aged 18–48, provided informed consent to partake in the As described, all of the variables had CR values above 0.7, which
survey, underscoring the importance of ethical standards. Participants shows satisfactory reliability. For both constructs the average variance
were emailed the questionnaire and encouraged to complete it while explained (AVE) was above 0.5, representing the convergent validity.
being offered the opportunity to raise any concerns regarding clarity. Moreover, the maximum shared variance (MSV) was lower than AVE
Emphasizing confidentiality and anonymity, participants were assured and the square root of AVE (the bold values in the Table 2) was above the
of the confidentiality of their responses and their right to withdraw from inter-correlations of the factors, signifying discriminant validity (Fornell
the study at any time without repercussions. Detailed instructions were and Larcker, 1981).
provided to ensure the accuracy and validity of their responses, further
enhancing the integrity of the data. 4.1. First research question
Additionally, to incentivize participation, a nominal monetary
reward was offered upon completion of the survey, provided as a token To answer this question, the descriptive statistics for each item as
of appreciation for their time and contribution. Participants were well as the average total score for each component were examined (see
explicitly informed that the findings would solely be utilized for Table 3).
research purposes and assured that they would receive their individual Table 3 presents descriptive statistics of scores across various do­
results via email, reinforcing transparency and accountability in the mains. The mean scores for Writing Skills range from 2.71 to 3.19, with
research process. “Writing the introduction to an assignment” having the highest mean
and “Proofreading written work” the lowest. Skewness and kurtosis
3.4. Data analysis values indicate the distribution’s shape and degree of peakedness,
respectively. Mean scores for Reading Skills range from 3.53 to 4.44,
To ensure the construct validity of the ALRSQ (Adolescent Life Re­ with “Understanding specific vocabulary” having the highest mean.
view Self-Questionnaire), Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was Negative skewness values suggest a longer left tail in the distribution.
conducted. This involved examining the item loadings onto their The mean scores for Speaking Skills range from 2.71 to 2.91, with “Using
respective components and assessing convergence criteria. Subse­ visual aids” having the highest mean. Skewness values indicate the
quently, the goodness of fit of the model was evaluated to ascertain its asymmetry of the distribution. Mean scores for Listening Skills range
generalizability across the data. Additionally, the Fornell-Larker Crite­ from 3.80 to 3.88, with “Understanding key vocabulary” having the
rion was employed to verify the divergence validity, ensuring that the highest mean. Negative skewness values suggest a longer left tail in the
factors measured distinct constructs. In addressing the first research distribution. Mean scores for EMI-related items are around 3.22, indi­
question, descriptive statistics were utilized to provide an overview of cating moderate agreement with the statements. Overall, students tend
the data. Following this, a multiple linear regression employing struc­ to perform better in reading and listening skills compared to writing and
tural equation modeling techniques was employed to investigate the speaking. Understanding specific vocabulary and key ideas of a text
relationships between variables and answer the second research ques­ appear to be strengths, while proofreading and speaking accurately
tion. This approach allowed for a comprehensive analysis of the data, exhibit room for improvement. These findings can inform targeted in­
considering both the descriptive characteristics and the underlying terventions to enhance specific skill areas and tailor instructional stra­
structural relationships. tegies to meet students’ needs.
In the Table above, the highlighted rows represent the issues with the
4. Results lowest mean within each category. These items are the ones that the
participants found the most challenging. In writing, proofreading,
At first, the construct validity of the instrument was probed by writing the sources, and writing a bibliography/reference section were
running CFA. The first step was to examine the loadings against two the most challenging tasks. In reading, the three most challenging tasks
criteria: a) the significance of unstandardized loadings and b) having were working out the meaning of difficult words, identifying supporting
standardized loadings above 0.5. As testified, all unstandardized ideas, and using one’s own words in note-taking. Regarding speaking,

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Fig. 1. The Final Modified CFA Model with Standardized Estimates.

4.2. Second research question

Table 1
Evaluation of the CFA goodness of fit.
To answer the second question, a prediction model was shaped to
Criteria Threshold Evaluation investigate the predictability of learners’ perceived success by academic
Terrible Acceptable Excellent skills challenges (see Table 4).
CMIN 2935.202
As reported in Table 4, among the four skills, writing (β = 0.531, p =
Df 1011 .000 < 0.01), reading (β = 0.442, p = .000 < 0.01), and listening (β =
CMIN/df 2.903 > 5 >3 >1 Excellent − 0.168, p = .000 < 0.01) significantly predicted learners’ perceived
RMSEA 0.071 > 0.08 < 0.08 < 0.06 Acceptable success in EMI. Writing was the best predictor, uniquely explaining
CFI 0.919 0.9 > 0.9 > 0.95 Acceptable
28.19 % of the variance in perceived EMI success, followed by reading
<
TLI 0.915 < 0.9 > 0.9 > 0.95 Acceptable
SRMR 0.075 > 0.1 > 0.08 < 0.08 Excellent (explaining 19.54 %) (Fig. 2).

5. Discussion
confident and fluent communication, as well as accurate speaking, were
the three high-ranked challenges, and listening, understating the orga­ This study was to determine which language skills, namely,
nization of the speech, understanding classmates’ accents, and identi­ speaking, writing, listening, and reading pose more challenges in EMI
fying different views and ideas were marked as top challenges. settings. Another aim was to scrutinize the extent to which EMI can
Comparing the average mean scores of the participants showed that the predict the learners’ perceived success in EMI courses. The statistical
four tasks ranked in difficulty in the following order: Speaking > Writing results and the derived SME results showed the predictability of learner
> Reading > Listening. success by EMI course. The results showed that learners faced some
challenges related to the four skills of language. The results are in line
with Aizawa et al.’s (2020) study, which emphasized the importance of

Table 2
Composite reliability and discriminant validity of the factors.
CR AVE MSV Fornell – Larcker Criterion

Writing Reading Speaking Listening EMI

Writing 0.963 0.637 0.522 0.798

Reading 0.981 0.835 0.540 0.723** 0.914
Speaking 0.938 0.601 0.482 0.602** 0.694** 0.775
Listening 0.960 0.705 0.540 0.522** 0.735** 0.533** 0.840
EMI 0.977 0.955 0.500 0.707** 0.639** 0.445** 0.386** 0.977
**
Correlation is significant at p < .01.

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M. Li and L. Pei Acta Psychologica 247 (2024) 104309

English language proficiency in addressing academic language-related language’s academic conventions and those of English. Additionally,
challenges in EMI programs, and highlighted the significant impact of variations in rhetorical organization and discourse patterns between
inadequate English language proficiency on L2 English learners in EMI languages can impact their writing proficiency in English. The study also
programs, particularly about the challenges faced in speaking, listening, found that learners faced challenges related to all four language skills,
reading, and writing skills However, this study does not directly with speaking being the most challenging skill In the case of speaking,
corroborate the findings of Steigerwald et al. (2022), which encompass a learners may encounter difficulties with fluency due to the influence of
wide range of obstacles encountered in the field of natural language their first language’s phonological and prosodic features. Differences in
processing and language-related studies, including language barriers, intonation patterns, stress, and rhythm between their native language
translation problems, dialect differences, and communication break­ and English can affect their fluency in spoken English. Additionally,
downs due to linguistic differences. While this study discusses language- cultural factors such as fear of making mistakes or lack of exposure to
related challenges, the specific focus and findings differ, authentic English-speaking environments can contribute to speaking
Regarding writing, learners’ struggles with referencing in a required challenges in an EMI context. In the context of reading, difficulties in
format may stem from differences in citation styles between their native identifying supporting ideas in a passage may be influenced by the

Table 3
Descriptive statistics of the scores (N = 361).
Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis
Writing Wr01: Planning written assignments 3.13 1.441 .365 -.071
Wr02: Expressing ideas in correct English 3.05 1.358 .272 -.024
Wr03: Revising written work 3.08 1.336 .204 -.079
Wr04: Using appropriate academic style 2.83 1.285 .321 -.031
Wr05: Writing a bibliography/ references 2.76 1.410 .446 -.245
section
Wr06: Proofreading written work 2.71 1.368 .402 -.208
WR07: Referring to sources in written work 2.75 1.383 .418 -.123
Wr08: Summarizing/ paraphrasing ideas in 2.83 1.380 .324 -.338
sources
Wr09: Organizing ideas in coherent 2.90 1.371 .389 .001
paragraphs
Wr10: Expressing ideas clearly and 2.85 1.315 .026 -.947
logically
Wr11: Linking ideas from different sources 2.94 1.361 .364 .050
Wr12: Writing the introduction to an 3.19 1.555 .058 -1.317
assignment
Wr13: Writing the body of an assignment 3.12 1.559 .115 -1.300
Wr14: Writing the conclusion to an 2.99 1.403 .306 -.247
assignment
Wr15: Linking sentences smoothly 2.92 1.305 .195 -.504
Total 44.0526 16.84439 -.343 -.583
Average Total 2.9368 1.12296 -.343 -.583
Reading Re01: Understanding specific vocabulary 4.44 1.246 -1.124 .199
Re02: Working out the meaning of difficult 3.53 .983 -.312 .038
words
Re03: Reading carefully to understand a text 4.42 1.269 -1.111 .114
Re04: Reading quickly to find specific 4.42 1.256 -1.114 .179
information
Re05: Identifying supporting ideas and 3.63 .989 -.421 .203
examples
Re06: Identifying the key ideas of a text 4.42 1.274 -1.102 .101
Re07: Reading quickly to get overall 3.67 1.044 -.260 .096
meaning
Re08: Taking brief, relevant notes 3.68 .998 -.315 .018
Re09: Understanding the organization of a 4.44 1.266 -1.096 .098
text
Re10: Using your own words when taking 3.63 1.032 -.334 .041
notes
Total 40.2825 10.51338 -.972 .086
Average Total 4.0283 1.05134 -.972 .086
Speaking Sp01: Speaking accurately (grammar) 2.77 1.299 .373 -.784
Sp02: Speaking clearly (pronunciation) 2.91 1.305 .357 -.715
Sp03: Presenting information/ ideas 2.89 1.308 .256 -.878
Sp04: Participating actively in discussion 2.84 1.340 .319 -.826
Sp05: Communicating ideas fluently 2.78 1.257 .330 -.715
Sp06: Speaking from notes 2.86 1.330 .336 -.785
Sp07: Asking questions 2.84 1.331 .401 -.737
Sp08: Answering questions 2.81 1.342 .356 -.801

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Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis

Sp09: Communicating ideas confidently 2.71 1.285 .353 -.736
Sp10: Using visual aids (e.g. PowerPoint) 2.85 1.370 .523 -.667
Total 28.1828 10.54750 .013 -.352
Average Total 2.8183 1.05475 .013 -.352
Listening Li01: Understanding the main ideas of 3.8449 1.12214 -.438 -.576
lectures
Li02: Understanding the overall 3.8006 1.12255 -.430 -.646
organization of lectures
Li03: Understanding key vocabulary 3.8837 1.10694 -.510 -.393
Li04: Taking brief, clear notes 3.8615 1.13661 -.388 -.559
Li05: Identifying supporting ideas and 3.8781 1.10383 -.480 -.369
examples
Li06: Understanding lecturers’ accents 3.8504 1.09788 -.511 -.508
Li07: Following a discussion 3.8366 1.11225 -.453 -.549
Li08: Identifying different views and ideas 3.8033 1.11684 -.424 -.585
Li09: Understanding questions 3.8393 1.15792 -.493 -.478
Li10: Understanding classmates’ accents 3.8089 1.18299 -.414 -.703
Total 38.4072 9.65216 -.468 -.137
Average Total 3.8407 .96522 -.468 -.137
EMI EMI01: I perform well in my EMI courses: 3.2188 1.30140 -.024 -.095
EMI02: My learning of academic content 3.2300 1.29100 -.020 -.046
through my EMI courses is successful
Total 6.4515 2.56331 .005 -.091
Average Total 3.2258 1.28166 .006 -.091

Table 4
Results of Linear Regression Analysis with SEM.
Weight S.E. C.R. P β R2

EMI <— Writing 0.611 0.071 8.587 0.000 0.531 0.2819

EMI <— Reading 0.490 0.085 5.745 0.000 0.442 0.1954
EMI <— Speaking − 0.113 0.068 − 1.647 0.099 − 0.092 0.0085
EMI <— Listening − 0.232 0.080 − 2.915 0.004 − 0.168 0.0282
Writing <–> Speaking 0.697 0.084 8.281 0.000 0.602
Speaking <–> Listening 0.513 0.066 7.822 0.000 0.533
Writing <–> Listening 0.532 0.069 7.680 0.000 0.522
Writing <–> Reading 0.921 0.095 9.662 0.000 0.723
Reading <–> Speaking 0.836 0.087 9.583 0.000 0.694
Reading <–> Listening 0.779 0.078 10.037 0.000 0.735

learners’ familiarity with the cultural and contextual references speaking, such as difficulties with reduced forms and colloquial lan­
embedded in the text. Differences in discourse structure, inference pat­ guage, adds depth to our understanding of the challenges faced by
terns, and background knowledge required for comprehension can pose Chinese EFL learners in EMI settings. This insight can inform targeted
challenges for learners in an EMI setting. As for listening, challenges in interventions and support for these learners, taking into account the
recognizing the organization of incoming speech may be linked to dif­ specific linguistic and non-linguistic obstacles they encounter.
ferences in discourse markers, turn-taking norms, and pragmatic con­ The regression results indicate that several predictors significantly
ventions between the learners’ native language and English. Cultural contribute to explaining perceived success in EMI courses. Notably,
factors, such as varying conversational styles and norms, can also impact learners’ vocabulary skills show positive and significant correlations
their ability to comprehend spoken English in academic contexts. with academic achievement in EMI courses. This suggests that a strong
The research results show that learners’ level of EFL proficiency, vocabulary plays a crucial role in EMI success, possibly facilitating
which is composed of four main skills, greatly predicts the extent to comprehension and expression in English. Practical implications of these
which they perceive themselves as successful in EMI. This finding is findings include the importance of integrating vocabulary-building ac­
corroborated by an investigation carried out by Rose et al. (2020) that tivities into EMI curricula to enhance students’ language proficiency and
reported English proficiency-related variables as the strongest predictor academic performance. Educators may consider implementing strate­
of successful performance in EMI. This suggests a strong link between gies such as explicit vocabulary instruction, contextualized learning
language proficiency and perceived success in EMI, a pattern that seems tasks, and frequent exposure to academic English materials to support
to hold true across different contexts. As far as writing is concerned, learners in mastering essential vocabulary for success in EMI courses.
learners grapple with issues, such as ineffective writing style and Additionally, identifying and addressing vocabulary gaps early on can
composition of extended written texts. They fail to satisfy the stricter help students overcome language barriers and thrive in EMI environ­
requirements of academic written tasks. It should be pinpointed that ments, ultimately promoting equitable access to academic
many of these problems stem from new academic discourses and refer­ opportunities.
encing requirements, as well as their insufficient language knowledge Corresponding to the results of this research, speaking was found to
(Chen et al., 2021; Pessoa et al., 2014). be the most challenging skill, which learners found the most challenging
Furthermore, the study’s identification of specific issues related to skill. This result was expected given that the learners are learning

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Fig. 2. The final measurement model.

English in an EFL context where they have limited access to naïve programs in countries, including Japan run preliminary or training
speakers of English. Therefore, they need to find alternative ways of courses to enable learners to acquire the skills required for success.
accessing authentic input. Similarly, a study conducted by Brown (2001) Regarding listening skills, learners whose L2 knowledge is insufficient
found that learners encounter serious problems in EMI programs. They experience issues and problems when it comes to processing input in
are exposed to the reduced form and colloquial language. They are more EMI programs. Therefore, they have difficulty following lectures and
likely to miss the track of connected speech, which is replete with completing courses (Brown, 2018; Tran, 2020). Similarly, Kithinji and
phrasal form. When it comes to language learning, L2 learners are not OHirsi (2022) revealed that learners with poor listening competence
accustomed to using such forms in speech. This makes it hard for them to find it very hard to comprehend core information provided by lecturers.
figure out the meaning. The result of this study regarding the chal­ Regarding reading, the stream of novel terms employed in disciplinary
lenging nature of speaking is also in line with a study conducted by textbooks is deemed as a recurring obstacle in the way of EMI learners’
Heriansyah (2012) who identified twenty-two sources of speaking dif­ reading ability (Uchihara & Harada, 2018).
ficulties. Some of these issues were concerned with linguistic problems Exploring the academic language-related challenges perceived by
and 13 issues were non-linguistic problems. Chinese EFL learners offers insights into the specific linguistic diffi­
In the context of EMI, connectionist theory suggests that learners can culties they encounter in English Medium Instruction (EMI) environ­
develop their language skills by being exposed to L2 input in a mean­ ments. This research sheds light on areas such as listening
ingful manner. According to this theory, learners build up their L2 comprehension, speaking proficiency, vocabulary acquisition, and aca­
knowledge step by step through exposure to a significant amount of demic discourse, contributing to a better understanding of the com­
linguistic characteristics. As learners are exposed to L2 characteristics in plexities of language learning for this population. Investigating how
both situational and linguistic settings, they develop a solid network of academic language-related challenges perceived by Chinese EFL
connections between these elements, which contributes to their lan­ learners influence their perceived success in EMI provides valuable in­
guage development. Specifically in the EMI context, connectionist the­ sights into the predictors of academic achievement in such contexts. This
ory implies that by studying content in English, learners can enhance research helps identify the factors that contribute to students’ academic
their language skills (Lightbrown & Spada, 2006). This means that even performance, including language proficiency, language gain, and the
if the instructional program is not primarily aimed at improving the specific linguistic barriers they face. Understanding these predictors can
students’ L2 level, exposure to English in meaningful contexts can still inform educational practices and interventions aimed at improving
lead to positive changes in learners’ L2 abilities. The theory suggests that students’ success and retention in EMI programs.
through consistent exposure to English language characteristics,
learners can gradually internalize and improve their language skills. In 6. Conclusion and implications
the case of the reading, the results are following (Macaro & Akincioglu,
2018; Sert, 2008) who proved that EMI influences learners’ performance This study seeks to examine and identify the challenges faced by
negatively due to inadequate L2 knowledge which leads to failure to learners while switching to a kind of educational context were EMI,
comprehend and fully internalize the subject matters. namely, higher education context. The foremost aim of this research was
The learners’ ill-preparedness in terms of the required skills for to examine these challenges. The results can be used to enhance the
interacting with content presented in English deprives them of many distribution of the EMI programs and the supportive EAP provision
opportunities to learn both content and language. As a ramification, EMI aimed at preparing learners to deal with the EMI study. The results show
may influence the quality of education negatively, which is interpreted that the challenges associated with academic language skills at this level
by Macaro et al. (2018) as a destructive consequence of content should be addressed carefully at the university, national, and individual
learning. To mitigate these negative effects, Galloway and Ruegg (2020) levels. Indeed, effective measures and efforts on the part of faculty fel­
emphasize that both the language and academic skills of learners should lows, the government, and learners can pave the way for changing these
be enhanced by supporting training and programs. To this end, EMI difficulties into success. Otherwise, the efforts aimed at using EMI will

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M. Li and L. Pei Acta Psychologica 247 (2024) 104309

be doomed to failure in higher education. An investigation of the vari­ encounter in acquiring English proficiency. By pinpointing these chal­
ables contributing to learners’ successful performance in EMI allows lenges, educators and curriculum developers can gain valuable insights
teachers to develop effective courses, take better teaching approaches, into the specific linguistic areas that require targeted support and in­
and enhance program curricula (Akimov et al., 2018). It follows that struction. This knowledge enables them to tailor their teaching ap­
EMI learners’ inadequate English proficiency can deter the effective proaches and develop specialized materials designed to address the
implementation of EMI courses that not only hinder learners’ content identified linguistic difficulties. Moreover, armed with a comprehensive
knowledge but also affect their success. understanding of the academic language-related challenges, educators
Hopefully, this study will have important implications for policy­ can implement effective strategies and interventions to support Chinese
makers and lecturers working in Chinese higher education associations. EFL learners in overcoming these obstacles. By incorporating targeted
At the same time, the findings can contribute to enriching the available support mechanisms into their teaching practices, educators can create a
literature on EMI globally. In line with the findings, language profi­ more conducive learning environment that caters to the specific needs of
ciency can predict the success of EMI programs; therefore, English me­ Chinese EFL learners. This proactive approach fosters a supportive and
dium programs should implement language proficiency benchmarks for inclusive educational setting where students feel empowered to tackle
entrance to EMI programs. This can be achieved through standardized linguistic challenges with confidence. Ultimately, the identification and
language proficiency tests or assessments, ensuring that students have targeted addressing of academic language-related challenges contribute
the necessary language skills to succeed in EMI environments. Policy­ to the enhancement of English language learning outcomes for Chinese
makers can also establish linguistic support programs. They can imple­ EFL learners. By providing tailored support and instruction, educators
ment comprehensive linguistic support programs for students enrolled play a pivotal role in facilitating the language acquisition process and
in EMI programs. These programs could include language workshops, empowering students to achieve academic success. This proactive
tutoring services, and language enhancement courses tailored to the approach not only fosters linguistic proficiency but also cultivates a
specific needs of EMI students. Additionally, providing language support positive and enriching learning experience for Chinese EFL learners.
resources within the respective department can facilitate continuous Understanding the extent to which academic language-related
linguistic development. Policymakers can offer pedagogical training for challenges impact the perceived success of Chinese EFL learners in
EMI lecturers. They can provide specialized training and professional EMI programs is crucial for educational institutions. By recognizing the
development opportunities for EMI lecturers to enhance their peda­ influence of these challenges, institutions can tailor their student sup­
gogical skills in multicultural settings. This could involve workshops, port services and academic advising to better meet the needs of EFL
seminars, and courses focused on effective teaching strategies for EMI learners. This knowledge enables institutions to develop proactive
environments, catering to the diverse linguistic needs of students. strategies to address language-related obstacles and create a more
Policymakers can also provide accommodations for language-related conducive learning environment for students in EMI contexts. Moreover,
challenges. They can encourage EMI lecturers to make accommodations these understanding prompts institutions to implement targeted in­
for language-related challenges experienced by learners. This can terventions designed to enhance language proficiency, academic
involve creating additional opportunities for out-of-class learning ac­ achievement, and student retention rates among Chinese EFL learners.
tivities, promoting self-revision for low-proficient students, and adapt­ By offering specialized support programs and resources, institutions can
ing teaching methods to address the linguistic diversity present in EMI empower students to overcome language-related barriers and succeed
classrooms. Moreover, they can strengthen out-of-class learning activ­ academically in EMI settings. These interventions play a pivotal role in
ities. They are required to emphasize the importance of creating ample fostering a supportive and inclusive educational environment that pro­
prospects for strengthening out-of-class learning activities, such as lan­ motes the holistic development of EFL learners. Furthermore, the
guage clubs, conversation groups, and language immersion experiences. recognition of the importance of comprehensive language support pro­
These activities can provide additional support for students to improve grams underscores the commitment of institutions to student success
their language skills outside of formal classroom settings. However, the and academic excellence. By investing in resources that cater to the
continuous assessment and improvement of educators is helpful. They linguistic needs of EFL learners, institutions demonstrate their dedica­
can establish mechanisms for continuous assessment and improvement tion to fostering an inclusive learning environment where all students
of EMI programs. Regular evaluation of language support initiatives, have the opportunity to thrive. This proactive approach not only bene­
pedagogical approaches, and student outcomes can help identify areas fits individual students but also contributes to the overall success and
for improvement and inform future interventions. reputation of the institution.
EMI lecturers must become conscious of the language-related chal­ The limitation of the current study lies in the potential lack of
lenges experienced by learners while doing their studies. To tackle these representativeness of the practices of all EFL learners in China or other
issues, lecturers are advised to make respective accommodations. similar contexts. This raises questions about the generalizability of the
Moreover, they need to create ample prospects for strengthening out of- study’s findings to a broader population. The sample size and specificity
class learning activities and low-proficient learners’ self-revision, as this of the context may limit the applicability of the results to a wider
can assist them to deal with challenges efficiently. EMI lecturers need to audience. To address this limitation, future research could consider
make modifications to their pedagogical style by acquiring new teaching expanding the sample size to include a more diverse group of EFL
skills. This would meet the requirements of EMI pedagogy in multicul­ learners from various regions in China or even from different countries.
tural settings where learners are exposed to EMI. Put another way, Additionally, conducting surveys and interviews with lecturers and
lecturers should develop both linguistically and pedagogically through observing their classrooms could provide a more comprehensive un­
EMI. derstanding of the impact of EMI on thinking abilities in learners’ first
The results of this investigation can be used by stakeholders engaged language (L1) and whether it leads to any cognitive disadvantages or
in the domain of EMI. Based on the results, despite learners’ and pro­ “brain-drain.” By addressing these aspects in future studies, a more
fessors’ positive perceptions of EMI, they encounter challenges in nuanced and comprehensive perspective on the issue can be gained,
practice. A wide range of factors leads to these challenges as language allowing for more robust and generalizable findings. It can be
proficiency was found to be the main one. Accordingly, there should be a acknowledged that students’ self-perception of their success might be
focus on increasing the efficacy of the English preparatory programs not sharply accurate but measuring the success through other measures
attended by learners. They need to be provided with constant linguistic needs longitudinal data collection which was not possible in this study
support by the respective department. due to the large number of participants involved. Future studies may be
Identifying the academic language-related challenges faced by Chi­ designed to overcome this limitation.
nese EFL learners is crucial for understanding the unique obstacles they Future research could delve deeper into the specific linguistic areas

11
M. Li and L. Pei Acta Psychologica 247 (2024) 104309

that pose challenges for Chinese EFL learners in academic contexts. By Ethics approval and consent to participate
conducting qualitative studies such as focus groups or interviews, re­
searchers can gain a nuanced understanding of learners’ perceptions and All procedures followed were in accordance with the ethical stan­
experiences regarding academic language challenges. Further investi­ dards of the responsible committee of human experimentation (institu­
gation is warranted to explore the potential factors that mediate or tional and national). Written informed consent was obtained from all the
moderate the relationship between academic language-related chal­ participants for being included in the study.
lenges and perceived success in EMI among Chinese EFL learners. Lon­
gitudinal studies or experimental designs could help elucidate the CRediT authorship contribution statement
complex interplay between language proficiency, individual differences,
and contextual factors in predicting academic success in EMI settings. Meiyan Li: Writing – original draft, Formal analysis, Data curation.
Lihua Pei: Writing – review & editing, Methodology.
Funding
Declaration of competing interest
This work was supported by Henan Academic Humanities and Social
Sciences Research General Project in 2024, Research on the Construc­ The authors declare no competing interests.
tion Strategy and Promotion Approach of Henan Regional Culture’s
International Discourse System [grant number 2024-ZDJH-596], and Data availability
the Education Science Research Foundation of Henan Normal Univer­
sity, Research on the Optimization of English Teaching Ecology in High Data will be made available on request.
Schools of Henan Province from the Perspective of Discipline Core Lit­
eracy [grant number 2021JK09].

Appendix A

Unstandardized and standardize estimates of the initial CFA model.

Unstandardized Standardized estimate

Estimate S.E. C.R. P

Wr01 <— Writing 1.000 0.775

Wr02 <— Writing 0.966 0.058 16.684 0.000 0.794
Wr03 <— Writing 0.975 0.057 17.246 0.000 0.815
Wr04 <— Writing 0.946 0.054 17.449 0.000 0.822
Wr05 <— Writing 1.066 0.059 18.038 0.000 0.844
Wr06 <— Writing 1.044 0.057 18.271 0.000 0.852
Wr07 <— Writing 1.058 0.058 18.325 0.000 0.854
Wr08 <— Writing 1.090 0.057 19.144 0.000 0.882
Wr09 <— Writing 1.098 0.056 19.492 0.000 0.894
Wr10 <— Writing 0.855 0.057 14.941 0.000 0.726
Wr11 <— Writing 1.073 0.056 19.084 0.000 0.880
Wr12 <— Writing 0.838 0.070 11.992 0.000 0.602
Wr13 <— Writing 0.826 0.070 11.770 0.000 0.592
Wr14 <— Writing 1.082 0.058 18.529 0.000 0.861
Wr15 <— Writing 0.847 0.057 14.922 0.000 0.725
Re01 <— Reading 1.000 0.923
Re02 <— Reading 0.743 0.028 26.702 0.000 0.870
Re03 <— Reading 1.047 0.030 35.341 0.000 0.949
Re04 <— Reading 1.035 0.029 35.156 0.000 0.948
Re05 <— Reading 0.764 0.027 28.390 0.000 0.889
Re06 <— Reading 1.048 0.030 34.861 0.000 0.946
Re07 <— Reading 0.811 0.028 28.836 0.000 0.894
Re08 <— Reading 0.803 0.025 32.236 0.000 0.926
Re09 <— Reading 1.029 0.031 33.395 0.000 0.935
Re10 <— Reading 0.774 0.030 26.147 0.000 0.863
Sp01 <— Speaking 1.000 0.809
Sp02 <— Speaking 0.920 0.058 15.765 0.000 0.741
Sp03 <— Speaking 0.996 0.057 17.511 0.000 0.800
Sp04 <— Speaking 1.039 0.058 17.952 0.000 0.815
Sp05 <— Speaking 0.894 0.056 15.927 0.000 0.747
Sp06 <— Speaking 0.982 0.059 16.771 0.000 0.776
Sp07 <— Speaking 1.019 0.058 17.635 0.000 0.804
Sp08 <— Speaking 1.037 0.058 17.867 0.000 0.812
Sp09 <— Speaking 0.928 0.057 16.288 0.000 0.759
Sp10 <— Speaking 0.907 0.062 14.516 0.000 0.696
Li01 <— Listening 1.000 0.832
Li03 <— Listening 1.017 0.049 20.691 0.000 0.857
Li02 <— Listening 0.999 0.051 19.631 0.000 0.830
Li04 <— Listening 1.079 0.049 21.865 0.000 0.886
Li05 <— Listening 1.029 0.049 21.204 0.000 0.870
Li06 <— Listening 1.063 0.047 22.645 0.000 0.903
(continued on next page)

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(continued )
Unstandardized Standardized estimate

Estimate S.E. C.R. P

Li07 <— Listening 1.050 0.048 21.658 0.000 0.881

Li08 <— Listening 1.051 0.052 20.273 0.000 0.847
Li09 <— Listening 0.932 0.052 17.771 0.000 0.779
Li10 <— Listening 0.909 0.058 15.787 0.000 0.717
EMI01 <— EMI 1.000 0.981
EMI02 <— EMI 0.984 0.022 45.217 0.000 0.973

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Meiyan Li was born in Henan, China, in 1982. From 2000 to 2004, she studied in Anyang
skills, and motivation. Studies in Higher Education, 45(11), 2149–2161. https://doi.
Normal University and received her bachelor’s degree in 2004. From 2004 to 2007, she
org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1590690
studied in Henan Normal University and received her Master’s degree in 2007. Currently,
Sert, N. (2008). The language of instruction dilemma in the Turkish context. System, 36
she works in Henan Normal University. She has published a total of ten papers. Her
(2), 156–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2007.11.006
research interests include Applied linguistics and Intercultural Communication.
Smit, U., & Dafouz, E. (2012). Integrating content and language in higher education: An
introduction to English-medium policies, conceptual issues and research practices
across Europe. AILA Review, 25(3), 1–12. Lihua Pei was born in Henan, China, in 1986. From 2008 to 2011, she studied in Xinjiang
Song, Y. (2019). ‘Uneven consequences’ of international English-medium-instruction Normal University and received her Master’s degree in 2011. From 2018 to 2022, she
programmes in China: A critical epistemological perspective. Journal of Multilingual studied in Pusan National University (Korea) and received her Doctoral degree in 2022.
and Multicultural Development, 42, 342–356. Currently, she works in Henan Normal University. She has published a total of 15 papers,
Steigerwald, E., Ramírez-Castañeda, V., Brandt, D. Y., Báldi, A., Shapiro, J. T., and one of them is SSCI. Her research interests include English education, semantics, and
Bowker, L., & Tarvin, R. D. (2022). Overcoming language barriers in academia: applied linguistics.
Machine translation tools and a vision for a multilingual future. Bioscience, 72,
988–998.

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