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I. INTROUDCTION

Foraminifera (Forms. for short) are single-celled protists with shells. Their shell,
or test, shells are also referred to as tests because in some forms the protoplasm covers
the exterior of the shell. The shells are commonly divided into chambers which are cells
during growth, though the simplest forms are open tubes or hollow spheres. Depending
on the species, the shell may be made of organic compounds, sand grains pecies known
and other particles cemented together, or crystalline calcite.

Fully grown individuals range in size from about 100 micrometers to almost 20
centimeters long. A single individual may have one or many nuclei within its cell. The
largest living species have a symbiotic relationship with algae, which they "fam" inside
their shells. Other species eat foods ranging from dissolved organic molecules bacteria,
diatoms and other single celled phytoplankton, to small animals such as copepods.

They move and catch their food with a network of thin extensions of the
cytoplasm called reticulopodia, similar to the pseudopodia of an amoeba, although
much more numerous and thinner.

Foraminifera are found in all marine environments, they may be planktic or

benthic in mode of life. The generally accepted classification of the foraminifera is
based on that of Loeblich and Tappan.

Figure.1 Microshell in foraminifera

1.1 History

The name Foraminiferida is derived from the foramen, the connecting hole
through the wall (septa) between each chamber. The study of Foraminifera has
limestone of the Egyptian pyramids contained the large benthic foraminifer
Nummulites .In 1835 Dujardin recognised foraminifera as protozoa and shortly
alterwards D'Orbigny produced the first classification.
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The famous 1872 HMS challenger cruise, the first scientific oceanographic
research expedition to sample the ocean floor collected so many samples that several
scientists, including foraminiferologists such as HB Brady were still working on the
material well in to the 1880's.

Work on Foraminifera continued throughout the 20th century, workers such as

Cushman in the USA and Subbotina in the Soviet Union developed the use of
foraminifera as biostratigraphic tools. Later in the 20th century Loeblich and Tappan
and Bolli carried out much pioneering work.

Table.1. Geologic Time Scale (based on Harland 1989).

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II. CLASSIFICATION

Foraminifera are classified primarily on the composition and morphology of the

test. Three basic wall compositions are recognised, organic (protinaceous mucopoly
saccharide ie. the allogromina), agglutinated and secreted calcium carbonate (or more
rarely silica). Agglutinated forms, ie the Textulariina, may be composed of randomly
accumulated grains or grains selected on the basis of specific gravity, shape or size;
some forms arrange particular grains in specific parts of the test. Secreted test
foraminifera are again subdivided into three major groups, microgranular (ie.
Fusulinina), porcelaneous (ie. Miliolida) and hyaline (ie. Globigerinina). Microgranular
walled forms (commonly found in the late Palacozoic) are composed of
equidimensional Isubspherical grains of crystalline calcite.

Porcelaneous forms have a wall composed of thin inner and outer veneers
enclosing a thick middle layer of crystal laths, they are imperforate and made from high
magnesium calcite. The hyaline foraminifera add a new lamella to the entire test each
time a new chamber is formed; various types of lamellar wall structure have been
recognised, the wall is penetrated by fine pores and hence termed perforate. A few
"oddities" are also worth mentioning, the Suborder Spirillinina has a test constructed of
an optically single crystal of calcite, the Suborder Silicoloculinina as the name suggests
has a test composed of silica.

Another group (the Suborder Involutina) have a two chambered test composed
of aragonite. The Robertinina also have a test composed of aragonite and the Suborder
Carterina is believed to secrete spicules of calcite which are then weakly cemented
together to form the test. The morphology of foraminifera tests varies enormously, but
in terms of classification two features are important.Chamber arrangement and aperture
style, with many subtle variations around a few basic themes. These basic themes are
illustrated in the following two diagrams but should be remembered that these are only
the more common forms and many variations are recognized.
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Figure 2. Foramineral suborders and their envisaged phyologeny.

2.1 Morphology of Foraminifera

Foraminifera are single-celled protozoans with a very wide distrbution pattern

ranging from the paralic (littoral) to abyssal depths and with a geological history
sparaing since the Early Cambrian (See Figure 3). Three major group of forams are
noted, planktic (Fig.3 (1-5), smaller foraminifera benthic (Fig.3(6-9)), and larger
benthic: the latter are identified by their larger Size and complex interiors, visible in
thin sections (Fig.3(10-12).
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Figure.4 Major groups of Foraminifera group Figure 1-5 Planktonic foraminifera, 6-9
Smaller benthic foraminifera ,10-12 Larger benthic foraminfera13 The foraminifera test
which encloses the cytoplasm of the forminiferan cell with an outer layer called
ectoplasm, the latter gives cell to sticky peudopodia tat trap food for the organism (Fig
3(14). All photographs are from Kender et al. (2008), courtesy Michael A. Kaniniki and
with permiasids from Micropaleontology.
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2.2 Planktonic Foraminifera

Planktonic foraminifera live floating in the surface waters of the open ocean and
secrete a calcium-carbonate shell.) They are thus part of the 'zillions of little organisms'
shown in the figure in the handout on sediment cycleing and climate. These shells fall
to the sea floor after e organisms reproduce. Planktonic foraminifera live in the oceans
in species assemblages which elect the temperature of the ocean waters. Note that high
latitude species assemblages have fewer numbers of species nd the few species are all
small, round balls (we call them potatoes).

At lower latitudes there are many more species, similar to species richness
plients on land (see diversity hand out). These species show much more arability in
shape, with flat species surrounded by a heavy rim (called keel), glassy hoking round
balls and many varieties of pitted, potato shapes. Planktonic foraminifera from.
Planktonic foraminifera originated from benthic foraminifera in the late jurassic to
earliest Cretaceous (that's in the Mesozoic, about 100 million years ago). The first
planktonic foraminifera were small, rounded forms (popcorn), without ridges, probably
with spines.

During the Cretaceous, many new species evolved, in many different shapes,
with ridges and trangular shapes and so on. Almost all of them became extinct at the
end of the Cretaceous, at the time of extinction of the dinosaurs, and only the small,
round forms survived. In the early Cenozoic planktonic foraminifera evolved into many
new, elaborately shaped forms again. Many of these forms became extinct in the later
part of the Eocene, between and 33 million years ago, when the Earth went through a
period of severe oling and the ice sheetson Antarctica became established.

Once again, the rounded form survived, and for about 10 million years were
dominant forms. Then, in the early Miocene (about 22-23 million years ago), the
planktonic foraminifera once again evolved and diversified into many different shapes.

Descendants of the Miocene species now populate all the world's oceans
Foraminifera are not very abundant and diverse at high latitudes, and only one species
occurs at the highest latitudes, in the Arctic Ocean and around the Antarctic continent.
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Fig 4. Sediment trap and deepsea core top sediments as tracers of recent changes in
planktonic foraminifera.
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Figure 5. Biostratigraphic and Geological Signifence of Planktonic Foraminifera.

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Figure 6. Living Planktonic Foraminifera.

2.3. Benthic Foraminifera

Benthic foraminifera are an important component of the deep-sea biomass in

the present oceans, adapted to its cold, dark, and extremely oligotrophic environments.

Faunas are highly diverse, and many species have a cosmopolitan distribution.
In addition to their interest as indicator species living in the largest habitat on earth,
their tests have been used extensively in isotope and trace element annlysis aimed at
reconstruction of past environments. This section is designed to introcuce the basics of
what we benthic foraminiferal taxonomy, ecology and padeoccology and their use as a
proxy for interpreting the state of past oceans and climates, specifically oceanic
productivity and deep water oxygenation.

All common deep-sea groups today (rotaliids, buliminids, lagenids textulariids)

and many of the more common families and morphotypes within these groups have
existed in the deep sea (>1000 m) since the Late Cretaccous ( Campanian) Miliolids are
dominantlywarm, shallow water forms, with few gener in the deep sea, since middle
Miocene.
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They depend upon food delivered from primary productivity in the surface
waters, 1000s of meters away, Delivery of food to ocean floor: Marine snow: particles
mm-cm sized, consisting of dead and dying phytoplankton, zooplankton exoskeletons.
fecal matter.

These fall at a speed of 102-103 m/day; a single unicellular alga would probably
not even sink to the ss floor, being re-suspended many times. Seasonality of
productivity at pelagic mid latitudes: pulse of phytodetritus, followed by rapid growth-
reproduction of some benthic foraminifera. Relatively high, continuous supply along
continental margins; there freshly produced organie matter is augmented with more
refractory organic material derived from lateral transport. Food from surface to bottem.
Very little (-1% or less) primary produced material reaches sea floor, follows seasonal
productivity (fresh phytodetritus).

Figure 7. Food from surface to bottom.

Ballasted by silica (diatoms), carbonate (foraminifera), dust;in fecal pellets;in

glutinous material (diatoms, cyanobacteria); in giant balls of mucusl, larvacean
(tunicate) houses; carrion falls (dead whales 1); lateral transport (refractory organic
matter). Discrepancy between food requirements of faunas and supply in sediment
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traps: faunas need more than what is delivere. In the present world we thus see bentho-
pelagic coupling, in which the benthic faunas reflect what happens at the occan surface
where their food is produced.

Figure 8. Morphological features of benthic Foraminifera explained and illustrated.

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Figure 9.Biostratigraphy of large benthic foramifera.

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2.4. Chambers Development, architecture and shape

The test of Foraminifera may consist of single chamber called unilocular

(monothalamus) which chamber growth proceeds gradully along woth protoplasmic
growth. e.g. Lagena or of two or more chamber called multilocular (polithelamous) e.g.
Nodosaria, In multilocular forms protoplasmic growth is gradual but test growth is
periodic and the addition of new and larger chamber will takes place in different way
to produce different growth planes. They are:-

Planispiral -When chambers arranged spirally around an exis of coiling and

spiral lies in a single plane, e.g. Nodosaria.

Trocospiral -When the spiral does not lie in one plane, but progress up the axis

of coiling the chamber arrangement becomes helicoids. e.g. Ammonia.

Uniserial- Arranged in a single raw or arcuate if curve and rectilinear if a

staraight series, e.g. Dentaline.

Biserial - Chambers are arranged in two raws, e.g. Textulorio.

Non-laminar - When there is no overlap of previous chamber walls by the new

wall, e.g. Fusulinina.

Multilaminar -If overlap occurs, thin section will reveal the layers of successive
walis.e.g.Rotolina.

Whorl or Coll - When a series of chambers is arranged spirally or coiled about

an axis.

Involute - The majority of the previous coil are hidden and shows ventral
side.e.g.Cilicidis.

Evolute(convolute) - Majority of the previous coil are visible, shows dorsal side.

Umbo When central depression (umbilicus) are filled with secondary material.

Proloculus-The initial chamber of foraminifera.

Diamorphism - A significant feature which exhibit two distinct morphological

character i.e. megalosphiric and microsphiric.e.g.Nummulites.
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Dextral and Senistral - Clockwise and anticlockwise colling.

Suture The joint of each whorl with the other.

Aperture-Opening found in the wall of the final chamber.

Figure 10. Principal types of chamber arrangment.1,single chambrted; 2, uniserial; 3,

biserial; 4, triserial; 5, planispirial; 6, milioline; 7, planispirial evolute; 8, planispirial
involute; 9, streptosprial; 10-11-12, trochospirial (10, dorsal view; 11, edge view; 12,
ventral view).
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Figure 11.Principle types of aperture. 1, open end of tube; 2, terminal radiate; 3,

terminal slit; 4, umbilical; 5, loop shaped; 6, interiomarginal; 7, interiomarginal
multiple; 8, areal crbrate; 9, with phialine lip; 10, with bifid tooth; 11, with umbilical
teeth; 12, with umbilical bulla.
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Figure 12. Terminology for chamber shape and arrangments (bottom row) of
foraminifera.
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Figure 13. Terminology for various chamber and apetural shapes and modifications.
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III. PALEOECOLOGY AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

It has been estimated that more than 80,000 species of Foraminifera are
described in the literature. Foraminifera are adapted to all aquatic habitats, most in
marine waters, but some can exist in salt or brackish water and the member of one
family (Allogronida) live in fresh water. Most are typically siow moving bottom
dwellers and some are pealgic. Foraminifera are usually extremely sensitive to
environmental condition such as temperature, salinity, bathymetry etc. and therefore
their study is significant to understand the palaeoecological condition of the time of
their living. The benthonic forms are indicative of the temperature, salinity, depth and
bottom condition while the temperature, and bathymetry and paleao current patterns are
indicated by planktonic forms.

Figure14. The ecological distribution of larger and key smaller benthic planktonic
foraminifera through space and time.
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IV. GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION

Foraminifera are thought to have been present in the Pre-cambrian seas, but as
yet to undepted fonsils of this order have been described from rocks older than the
Cambrian The Foraminifera found in the sediments are of all the ages ranging from
Cambrian to Recent. They made their first appearance in Cambrian and comparatively
rare till Carboniferous, but they became prominent and of great geological importance
during uppper Carboniferous and Permian. Again during Triassic they become less
abundant, but during Jurassic and Cretaceous they are presented by large numbers, they
reached the maximum developed during Tertiary and Recent.

V. USES OF FORAMINIFERA

Because of their diversity, abundence, and complex morphology, fossil

Foraminiferal assemblages are useful for biostratigraphy, and can accurately give
relative dates to rocks. The oil industry relies heavily on microfossils such as forams to
find potential oil deposits. Calcareous fossil Foraminifera are formed from elements
found in the ancient seas they lived in. Thus they are very useful in Palaeoclimatology
and Palaeoceanography. They can be used to reconstruct past climate by examining the
stable isotope ratios of oxygen, and the history of the carbon cycle and oceanic
productivity by examining the stable isotope ratios of carbon. Foraminifera also be
utilised in Archaeology in the Foraminifera can provenancing of some stone raw
material types, Some stone types, such as limestone, are commonly found to contain
fossilised Foraminifera.

VL. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Foraminifera are abundant in most marine environments so only small sediment

samples (a few grams) are needed to obtain statistically significant numbers of
microfossils to perform environmental analysis. They are sensitive to environmental
change and their of the biomass in many marine ecosystems. They must therefore
considered as one of the most significant organism groups living today. Some recent
studies indicate that Foraminifera are not only a group of great ecological importance
as food organisms for fish and invertebrates, but also play an important role in the
turnover of nutrients and energy in the sea. They are extremely useful in Applied
Geology, such as in history of Climate, Stratigraphy and in Oil Prospecting
Foraminiferal analyses of dated sediment cores represent a quick and cost efficient way
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to evaluate possible environmental differences between present and pre-impact

(reference) conditions without previous knowledge of the area being examined.