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SERIES EDITORS
CHENNUPATI JAGADISH
Distinguished Professor
Department of Electronic Materials Engineering
Research School of Physics and Engineering
Australian National University
Canberra, ACT2601, Australia

EICKE R. WEBER
Director
Fraunhofer-Institut
f€
ur Solare Energiesysteme ISE
Vorsitzender, Fraunhofer-Allianz Energie
Heidenhofstr. 2, 79110
Freiburg, Germany
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CONTRIBUTORS

S. Albert
ETSI Telecomunicación, Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain. (ch7)
T. Auzelle
Universite Grenoble Alpes, INAC-PHELIQS; CEA, INAC-PHELIQS, «Nanophysique et
semiconducteurs group», Grenoble, France. (ch6)
C. Bayram
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Champaign, IL, United States. (ch12)
A.M. Bengoechea-Encabo
ETSI Telecomunicación, Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain. (ch7)
P. Bhattacharya
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States. (ch11)
E. Calleja
ETSI Telecomunicación, Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain. (ch7)
L.J. Chen
National Tsing-Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan. (ch10)
M.H. Crawford
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, United States. (ch1)
B. Daudin
Universite Grenoble Alpes, INAC-PHELIQS; CEA, INAC-PHELIQS, «Nanophysique et
semiconducteurs group», Grenoble, France. (ch6)
T. Detchprohm
Center for Compound Semiconductors, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States. (ch4)
A. Dobrinsky
Sensor Electronic Technology, Inc., Columbia, SC, United States. (ch2)
R.D. Dupuis
Center for Compound Semiconductors, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States. (ch4)
T. Frost
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States. (ch11)
W. Guo
University of Massachusetts, Lowell, MA, United States. (ch11)
S. Gwo
National Tsing-Hua University; National Synchrotron Radiation Research Center
(NSRRC), Hsinchu, Taiwan. (ch10)

ix
x Contributors

A. Hazari
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States. (ch11)
H. Hirayama
RIKEN, Quantum Optodevice Laboratory, Wako, Saitama, Japan. (ch3)
S. Jahangir
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States. (ch11)
R. Jain
Sensor Electronic Technology, Inc., Columbia, SC, United States. (ch2)
C.T. Kuo
National Tsing-Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan. (ch10)
K. Kusakabe
Center for SMART Green Innovation Research, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan. (ch9)
X. Li
Electrical Engineering Program, Computer, Electrical, Mathematical Science and
Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi
Arabia. (ch4)
H.W. Lin
National Tsing-Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan. (ch10)
R. Liu
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Champaign, IL, United States. (ch12)
M.Y. Lu
National Tsing-Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan. (ch10)
Y.J. Lu
National Tsing-Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan. (ch10)
Z. Mi
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States. (ch5, 8)
M.Á. Sánchez-Garcı́a
ETSI Telecomunicación, Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain. (ch7)
T. Saxena
NXP Semiconductors, Tempe, AZ, United States. (ch2)
M. Shatalov
Sensor Electronic Technology, Inc., Columbia, SC, United States. (ch2)
S.-C. Shen
Center for Compound Semiconductors, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States. (ch4)
M. Shur
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States. (ch2)
C.L. Wu
National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan. (ch10)
Contributors xi

P.D. Yoder
Center for Compound Semiconductors, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States. (ch4)
A. Yoshikawa
Center for SMART Green Innovation Research, Chiba University, Chiba; Graduate School
of Engineering, Kogakuin University, Tokyo, Japan. (ch9)
S. Zhao
McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada. (ch5, 8)
PREFACE

III-nitride semiconductors have bandgaps that span a very large spectral range,
from deep ultraviolet (UV) (200 nm) to near infrared (1900 nm). Over
the past two decades, tremendous progress has been made in GaN-based opto-
electronic devices, including light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and lasers operating
in the blue and near-UV spectral range. The use of III-nitrides to realize high
efficiency LEDs and lasers operating in the deep UV, deep visible, and near-
IR spectral range, however, has remained very limited. The underlying causes
include the presence of large densities of defects and dislocations, due to the
lack of suitable lattice-matched substrates, and large polarization fields and the
resulting quantum-confined Start effect. Moreover, it has remained challeng-
ing to achieve efficient current conduction in Al-rich AlGaN, due to the large
ionization energy (up to 600 meV) for Mg dopant. Similar issues also exist for
In-rich InGaN, wherein the realization of efficient p-type conduction has
often been limited by the presence of surface electron accumulation.
This book covers the latest breakthrough research and exciting develop-
ments in the field of III-nitride compound semiconductors, including quan-
tum well, quantum dot, nanowire, and dot-in-nanowire heterostructures,
which have addressed some of the fundamental materials issues of Al-rich
AlGaN and In-rich InGaN and have led to optoelectronic devices operating
in the deep UV, deep visible, and near-infrared spectral ranges with signif-
icantly improved performance. This book includes two parts. Part I is con-
cerned about AlGaN optoelectronic devices, and Part II discusses the
emerging III-nitride nanowire heterostructures for application in deep vis-
ible and near-infrared optoelectronics.
Part I consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 discusses two of the most signif-
icant materials roadblocks to high-performance AlGaN devices: substrates
and doping, and further reviews various strategies to mitigate these issues.
Chapter 2 discusses key factors currently affecting device performance and
reviews progress in development of deep UV LEDs, including high-
temperature epitaxy and transparent LED structure design. Chapter 3 presents
the epitaxy and performance of AlGaN deep UV LEDs on high-quality AlN
on sapphire. The enhancement in device performance by using a transparent
p-AlGaN contact layer and by using a low threading dislocation density AlN
template is described. Chapter 4 discusses the growth and properties of AlGaN
and the simulation, design, processing, and performance of state-of-the-art

xiii
xiv Preface

deep UV lasers and photodetectors. Chapter 5 presents the recent progress

made on the growth and characterization of Al(Ga)N nanowires and nano-
wire deep UV LEDs. The demonstration of electrically pumped semiconduc-
tors lasers operating in the UV-B and UV-C bands is also described.
Part II comprises Chapters 6–12. Chapter 6 reviews the self-nucleation
process and structural properties of GaN nanowires grown by plasma-
assisted molecular beam epitaxy. The crucial issue of GaN crystalline polarity
is elucidated. Chapter 7 provides an insight into the selective area epitaxy of
InGaN/GaN nanostructures, with a focus on their potential as building
blocks for next-generation LEDs operating in the deep visible spectral range.
Chapter 8 reviews the recent progress made on the growth, characterization,
and device application of InN nanowires. The achievement of intrinsic InN
nanowires with the absence of surface electron accumulation and the dem-
onstration of p-type conduction of InN are discussed. Chapter 9 introduces a
unique epitaxial process, i.e., dynamic atomic layer epitaxy, and describes
the epitaxy and properties of III-N ordered alloys, such as coherent
monolayer-InN on/in GaN-matrix nanostructures. Chapter 10 provides a
detailed discussion of InGaN nanorod heterostructures, including polarization
effects, growth and polarity control, doping and surface properties, hetero-
junction band alignments, axial heterostructures for full-color and tunable
white LEDs, as well as green and full-color core–shell nanorod plasmonic
nanolasers. Chapter 11 describes the epitaxial growth and characteristics of
edge-emitting electrically pumped GaN/In(Ga)N disk-in-nanowire lasers
operating from 533 nm (green) to 1.3 μm. The characteristics of the nanowire
heterostructures and the steady state and small-signal modulation characteris-
tics of the lasers are described. Chapter 12 discusses a new method of cubic
phase GaN generation: hexagonal-to-cubic phase transition based on novel
nanopatterning. The modeling and structural and optical characterization of
the novel cubic materials is also discussed.
This book is well suited for students and researchers in the field of semi-
conductors. It will also be very valuable to researchers and engineers in
III-nitrides and optoelectronics. Moreover, the in-depth discussions on the
growth and characterization of a broad range of semiconductor nanostructures
will benefit students and researchers working on nanomaterials, nanotechnol-
ogy, and emerging devices.
ZETIAN MI,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
CHENNUPATI JAGADISH,
Australian National University, Canberra
Editors
 CHAPTER ONE

Materials Challenges of
AlGaN-Based UV
Optoelectronic Devices
M.H. Crawford1
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, United States
1
Corresponding author: e-mail address: [email protected]

Contents
1. Introduction 3
2. Doping Challenges of AlGaN Alloys 4
2.1 P-Type Doping 5
2.2 n-Type doping 20
3. Substrates for UV Optoelectronics 23
3.1 Introduction 23
3.2 Strain Management and Reduction of Extended Defects 25
3.3 Electrically Conductive Substrates and Alternative Approaches
for Vertical-Injection-Geometry Devices 31
4. Summary and Outlook 34
Acknowledgments 36
References 36

1. INTRODUCTION
AlGaN alloys have emerged as the most promising compound semi-
conductors for DUV optoelectronics given band gaps that can be tuned over
an impressively wide range of the UV spectrum (
363–200 nm). With
desirable properties including low size, weight, and operating power,
AlGaN-based UV devices have the potential to replace traditional UV
sources such as Hg lamps in applications ranging from water purification
to fluorescence-based bioagent sensing. However, many AlGaN materials
properties are far from ideal. In Fig. 1, we present a generic design for
AlGaN-based UV emitters and highlight some of the materials challenges
to achieving high-performance light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser

Semiconductors and Semimetals, Volume 96 # 2017 Elsevier Inc. 3

ISSN 0080-8784 All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.semsem.2016.11.001
4 M.H. Crawford

Fig. 1 Schematic of an AlGaN-based deep UV LED and related material challenges.

diodes (LDs). This review focuses on two challenges that are largely respon-
sible for the poor performance of AlGaN UV emitters relative to InGaN
visible light emitters: doping and substrate challenges. For each of these
material challenges, we present the state of the art and exploratory concepts
for overcoming these challenges and enabling higher performance UV
devices.
The focus on doping and substrate challenges necessarily omits other
topics of interest. In particular, point defects in AlGaN alloys and related
impact on radiative efficiency (Chichibu et al., 2011), bandstructure
limitations to light extraction (Nam et al., 2004; Wierer et al., 2014), and
optical gain (Chow and Kneissl, 2005) are found in the provided references.
In addition, an excellent recent review on III-Nitride ultraviolet emitters
(Kneissl and Rass, 2016) is recommended.

2. DOPING CHALLENGES OF AlGaN ALLOYS

Typical LEDs and LDs rely upon the ability to achieve both n-type
and p-type doping; however, such bipolar doping is challenging for most
wide band gap semiconductors (Walukiewicz, 2001; Zunger, 2003). For
AlGaN alloys, p-type doping is the major challenge, increasingly so with
increasing Al composition and band gap. For these wider band gap alloys,
low p-type conductivity limits device performance through Joule heating
and poor hole injection, both of which contribute to reduced optical
efficiency. P-type GaN is often used for a contact layer in DUV AlGaN
LEDs, given higher conductivity than p-type AlGaN, but is absorbing
Materials Challenges of AlGaN UV Devices 5

for λ < 363 nm. Thus, while visible InGaN LEDs have up to 85% light
extraction efficiency, DUV AlGaN LEDs have light extraction efficiencies
of
25% or less, largely due to the p-GaN absorption (Shatalov et al., 2017).
Solutions are therefore needed for contact layers with both high p-type
conductivity and high UV transparency in order to help close the gap
between visible and UV LED performance.
Si-doping for n-type AlGaN is effective for Al compositions up to 80%
but becomes increasingly less efficient for higher-Al-composition alloys
(Borisov et al., 2005; Mehnke et al., 2013; Nakarmi et al., 2004;
Taniyasu et al., 2002). Despite both experimental and theoretical studies,
consensus on donor activation energies and the dominant mechanism
behind the strong increase in n-type resistivity in these high-Al-composition
alloys is still lacking. As applications drive AlGaN emitters further into the
DUV, greater understanding of these mechanisms, and how to circumvent
them, will be critical.
In this section, we review current understanding of the factors behind
p-type and n-type doping limitations in AlGaN, potential approaches to
overcoming these limitations, and state-of-the-art reports on p-type and
n-type AlGaN conductivity. We further emphasize how these advances
translate to improved performance of UV emitters.

2.1 P-Type Doping

One of the most formidable materials challenges of DUV AlGaN optoelec-
tronics is ineffective p-type doping. This challenge results from the interplay
of several materials properties including increasingly large acceptor ioniza-
tion energy with Al composition, limitations to dopant solubility, and low
formation energies of compensating defects. Density functional theory
(DFT) studies identified Mg as a promising acceptor candidate (Van de
Walle et al., 1999), and Mg is now the most commonly employed p-type
dopant in commercial InGaN-based visible LEDs and LDs. However,
Mg activation energies increase from
160 meV in GaN to as high as
510–630 meV in AlN (Nam et al, 2003; Taniyasu et al., 2006), thereby
becoming increasingly problematic for DUV devices with shorter emission
wavelengths. Simply increasing Mg dopant concentrations to compensate
for this high activation energy has typically not been successful (with
exceptions including Gunning et al. (2015), described later). Mg dopant
densities >4  1019 cm3 have been reported to cause defects such as inver-
sion domains which decrease both free carrier concentrations and mobilities
(Chakraborty et al., 2007).
6 M.H. Crawford

These observations point to multiple approaches to improving free

hole concentrations in AlGaN-based optoelectronic devices. The first is
to discover growth regimes under which high Mg concentrations are
achieved without creating a high concentration of compensating defects.
A second is to explore device architectures where free holes are achieved
by mechanisms other than thermal activation from deep acceptors, for
example, through polarization engineering approaches. Below, we review
the state of the art in Mg doping of AlGaN and present progress in these
strategies to achieve higher p-type conductivity in DUV devices.

2.1.1 Optimized Growth Conditions for p-Type Doping of AlGaN

A number of groups have explored the limits of p-type doping of AlGaN
through careful optimization of growth conditions. In Table 1, we highlight
some of the lowest reported p-type resistivities of AlGaN as a function of Al
composition. Several common themes can be gleaned from these reports.
First, higher hole concentrations are achieved with the use of high V/III
ratio during metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE). This condition
is thought to suppress the formation of nitrogen vacancies (VN), a
compensating donor with particularly low formation energies for AlGaN
alloys (Van de Walle and Neugebauer, 2004; Van de Walle et al., 1999).
Kinoshita et al. (2013) determined an optimal V/III ratio of 1800 by
minimizing deep-level photoluminescence (PL) at 4.1 eV; an energy level
potentially related to the 3 + charge state of the nitrogen vacancy (VN 3 + )
(Nakarmi et al., 2009). This approach to finding optimal V/III ratio yielded
a free hole concentration of 1.3  1017 cm3 and a resistivity of 47 Ωcm for
Al0.70Ga0.30N, the lowest p-type resistivity reported for x > 0.50 AlxGa1xN
alloys. Other notable reports include a resistivity of 60 Ωcm for Mg-doped
Al0.60Ga0.40N grown by MOVPE in a hot wall reactor using a V/III ratio of

1560 (Nilsson, 2014).
Another common observation is the need to limit the incorporated Mg
concentration to avoid structural degradation that ultimately reduces
conductivity, particularly for films grown by MOVPE. Jeon et al. (2005)
found that a low resistivity of 10 Ωcm was only achieved for a very narrow
window in Mg concentration of around 4  1019 cm3 in MOVPE-grown
p-Al0.30Ga0.70N films. This window was bound on the low end by the need
for sufficiently high Mg concentration to overcome compensating defects
and on the high end by the creation of inversion domain boundaries and
Materials Challenges of AlGaN UV Devices 7

Table 1 Highlights of Reported Resistivities, Hole Concentrations, Growth Approach,

and Incorporated Mg Concentration of Mg-Doped AlGaN as a Function of Al
Composition
Incorporated
Hole Mg
Al Resistivity Concentration Growth Concentration
(%) (Ωcm) (cm23) Approach (cm23) References
1 >1  108
1  1010 MOVPE 2  1019 Taniyasu
et al. (2006)
1
3  106
2  1011 MOVPE 7  1018 Nam et al.
(2003)
0.85 7000
1  1014 Hot wall 2  1019 Kakanakova-
MOVPE Georgieva
et al. (2010)
0.70 47 1.3  1017 MOVPE 3.3  1019 Kinoshita
et al. (2013)
0.60 60 — Hot wall 3  1019 Nilsson
MOVPE (2014)
0.45 8 2.7  1017 MOVPE
4  1019 Jeon et al.
(2005)
0.40 — 4.75  1018 MOVPE, delta
1  1019 Chen et al.
doping, and (2015)
Indium surfactant
0.30 10 2.2  1017 MOVPE 3.5  1019 Jeon et al.
(2005)
0.27 1.2 2.3  1019 Metal-modulated
1  1020 Gunning
epitaxy (MBE) et al. (2015)
0 0.59 1.6  1018 NH3-MBE, 6  1019 Kyle et al.
indium surfactant (2015)
0 0.2 3  1018 MOVPE, — Nakamura
low-energy et al. (1991)
electron beam
activation
0 0.19 1.9  1019 Metal-modulated 1–2  1020 Gunning
epitaxy (MBE) et al. (2012)
The majority of reported resistivity values were achieved after thermal annealing to reduce hydrogen
passivation of Mg acceptors.
8 M.H. Crawford

conversion to N-polar material. The onset of structural degradation was

found to be in a similar range of Mg concentration for x
0.70 alloys grown
by MOVPE, suggesting little dependence on Al composition (Chakraborty
et al., 2007; Kinoshita et al., 2013).
For both MBE and MOVPE growth approaches, employing indium as a
surfactant during growth was reported to improve p-type doping of AlGaN
(Chen et al., 2015; Kyle et al., 2015). Kyle et al. (2015) found that indium
enabled lower NH3-MBE growth temperatures, beneficial for reduced
defect incorporation, while maintaining step-flow growth. They reported
1–2 orders of magnitude reduction of compensating defects and increased
free hole concentrations compared to growths without indium. Mg-delta
doping by MOVPE, a pulsed-growth approach where metalorganic sources
and the Mg source (Cp2Mg) are turned on and off while NH3 is flowed
continuously, was also reported to reduce compensating defects and
increase free hole concentrations in AlGaN (Chen et al., 2015; Nakarmi
et al., 2003). Interestingly, these improvements were observed for two
distinct cases: when Cp2Mg was introduced during a growth interruption
with metalorganic sources turned off (Nakarmi et al., 2003) or solely when
the metalorganic sources are turned on (Chen et al., 2015).
Another approach to enabling high Mg concentrations in p-AlGaN
without structural degradation is through a molecular beam epitaxy
(MBE) approach called metal-modulated epitaxy (MME) (Gunning et al.,
2015). Similar in concept to pulsed-growth MOVPE, MME involves the
modulation of group III metal and Mg sources in time, while the
N source is held constant. A benefit of MME is that adatom mobility is
substantially increased within the metal adlayer, enabling growth at lower
temperatures while maintaining crystalline quality. The lower growth tem-
perature is deemed advantageous for p-type doping due to decreased forma-
tion energies of compensating defects, such as VN (Neugebauer and Van de
Walle, 1995). Incorporation of Mg
1  1020 cm3 into a 100-nm-thick
Al0.27Ga0.73N film yielded p ¼ 2.3  1019 cm3 and μ ¼ 0.2 cm2/Vs with
no evidence of inversion domains. This free hole concentration is
significantly higher than that of any other reported for p-AlGaN, and while
the mobility is very low, the corresponding resistivity of 1.2 Ωcm is still
among the lowest reported for x
0.3 AlxGa1xN alloys.

2.1.2 Polarization Engineering Approaches to p-Type Doping

Despite the aforementioned progress, it has proven quite challenging to
achieve >1  1018 cm3 free hole concentrations in x > 0.40 AlxGa1xN
Materials Challenges of AlGaN UV Devices 9

alloys through optimization of growth conditions alone. Over the past

decade, there have been exciting advances in the application of polarization
engineering to overcome the challenge of p-type doping in AlGaN.
The potential for very large spontaneous polarization in the (0001) crystal
orientation arises from the noncentrosymmetric crystal structure of wurzite
III-Ns combined with the ionic nature of atomic bonding. For strained
layers, spontaneous polarization is augmented by piezoelectric polarization,
aligned along a particular crystallographic direction depending on the nature
of the strain (e.g., tensile or compressive) (Ambacher et al., 1999). Typical
III-N LED heterostructures under equilibrium can have polarization-
induced internal fields on the order of MV/cm across quantum wells
(QWs) of
few nm thickness.
The effects of polarization are clearly seen in III-N heterostructures,
where the polarization discontinuity leads to a fixed charge at the interface
between the two alloys. An exemplar is a GaN/AlGaN high-electron-
mobility transistor (HEMT), where fixed charge at the GaN/AlGaN
interface is balanced by free electrons from surface donor states (Ibbetson
et al., 2000), yielding 2D electron channels with low-temperature mobilities
as high as 51,700 cm2/Vs at a sheet concentration of 2.2  1013 cm2
(Smorchkova et al., 1999). As an alternative to abrupt heterointerfaces,
various groups have explored distributed polarization doping (DPD),
whereby band gap grading results in 3D slabs of free charge (Jena et al.,
2002). Among other benefits, DPD avoids heterobarriers of abrupt-interface
designs with potential for improved carrier injection. In the following, we
review examples of such polarization engineering approaches applied to
p-type doping in AlGaN.

2.1.2.1 Mg-Doped Superlattices

Mg-doped AlGaN superlattices are one example of a polarization engineer-
ing approach to p-type doping that relies upon abrupt heterointerfaces. As
shown in Fig. 2A, these are periodic structures with repeated bilayers of
higher- and lower-Al-composition AlGaN, each layer typically being
0.5–10-nm thick. Schubert et al. (1996) first reported the potential to sig-
nificantly enhance activation of deep acceptors with a heterostructure that
is uniformly doped but periodically varying in composition. Assuming a
bulk acceptor activation energy Ea ¼ 200 meV (similar to that of Mg in
GaN) and a valence band offset between the two alloys approximately equal
to Ea, their modeling predicted an acceptor activation of 50%, some 10 
higher than for a similar material but without band modulation. Effectively,
10 M.H. Crawford

Fig. 2 (A) Cross-sectional transmission electron micrograph of an AlN/Al0.23Ga0.77N

Mg-doped superlattice grown by MOVPE. The constituent layers are 10-Å thick.
(B) Schematic of the bandstructure of a Mg-doped AlN/AlGaN superlattice. Ec is
the conduction band, Ev is the valence band, and EF is the Fermi level. The schematic
highlights the polarization-field-induced band bending that enables hole activation
and accumulation in 2D sheets at heterointerfaces. Panel (A): Reprinted from
Allerman, A.A., Crawford, M.H., Miller, M.A., Lee, S.R., 2010. Growth and characterization
of Mg-doped AlGaN-AlN short-period superlattices for deep-UV optoelectronic devices.
J. Cryst. Growth 312, 756–761 with permission from Elsevier.

this periodic structure enables ionization of deep acceptors in the wider band
gap barrier and accumulation of holes in the narrower band gap well.
III-N superlattices have the added effect of strong polarization fields
which lead to a significant modulation of the superlattice bandstructure
(Fig. 2B). This enables ionization of Mg acceptors where the band edge
is below the Fermi level and accumulation of resulting free holes at the
neighboring heterointerface. Such polarization-field-induced activation
of holes obviates the need for thermal activation of holes in higher-Al-com-
position AlGaN, thereby circumventing a primary roadblock to p-type con-
ductivity. As will be discussed later, this enhanced p-type conductivity is in
the lateral direction, i.e., perpendicular to the growth direction. In contrast,
vertical transport, aligned along the growth direction, is critical for p–n junc-
tion devices and can be substantially impeded due to heterobarriers inherent
in the superlattice structures.
Over more than a decade, a wide range of AlGaN-based superlattice
designs have been explored. In Table 2, we highlight some of the more
notable results, organized as a function of average Al composition of the
superlattice heterostructures. Earlier studies focused on lower average Al
composition superlattices and therefore relatively low Al composition
contrast between the layers. Across a range of designs and for both MBE
and MOVPE growth techniques, values of
0.2 Ωcm lateral resistivity
and 2–4  1018 cm3 free hole concentration were commonly achieved.
Table 2 Notable Reported AlGaN-Based Superlattice Designs and Measured Free Hole Concentrations, Lateral Resistivities, and Applied
Growth Technique
Thickness ρ lateral
Material (nm) Average Al p (cm23) (Ωcm) Growth Technique References
GaN/Al0.2Ga0.80N
7/7 0.10 2.5  1018 0.2 MOVPE Kozodoy et al. (1999)
GaN/Al0.2Ga0.80N 10/10 0.10 3.4  10 18
0.2 MBE, modulation Waldron et al. (2001)
doping
GaN/Al0.26Ga0.74N 7/7 0.13 4.2  1018 0.19 MOVPE Yasan and Razeghi (2003)
GaN/Al0.40Ga0.60N 5/5 0.20 3  10 18

1.5 MOVPE Kumakura et al. (2000)
GaN/AlN 5.6/2.4 0.43
2  10 18

0.8 PAMBE Simon et al. (2010a)
AlxGa1xN/AlyGa1yN — 0.6 — 9.6 MOVPE Cheng et al. (2013)
Al0.08Ga0.92N/AlN
0.7/0.7 0.72 1  10 18
6 NH3-MBE Nikishin et al. (2005)
Al0.23Ga0.77N/AlN 0.5/1 0.74 — 6 MOVPE Allerman et al. (2010)
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