1

Topology Comparison for Solid State

Transformer Implementation
Sixifo Falcones, Student Member, IEEE, Xiaolin Mao, Member, IEEE, and Raja Ayyanar, Senior
Member, IEEE

power support to grid, power quality, current limiting, storage

Abstract—In this paper, a comparison of six representative management and a DC bus. Fig. 2 shows the SST interfacing
topologies for the implementation of Solid State Transformers DER, DES, electric loads as well as plug-in hybrid electric
(SST) is performed. The objective is to help identify the most vehicles (PHEV).
suitable topology capable of supporting additional functionalities
Since the selection of the appropriate topology for the SST
as compared to a regular transformer, e.g. on-demand reactive
power support to grid, voltage regulation, and current limiting. implementation is a key aspect, this paper addresses that issue
The comparison is based on switch loss, switch count, control by comparing some of the potential topologies that at least
characteristics and supported functionalities. It has been meet the bidirectional power flow requirement.
concluded that a three-stage configuration comprising distinct
AC-DC, DC-DC and DC-AC stages results in the most suitable
implementation. A Simulink model corresponding to this three-
stage configuration is developed to demonstrate the desired
characteristics and functionalities of the SST.

Index Terms--HF transformers, Solid state transformers, Dual

active bridge, Power Electronics, Power distribution, Power
transformers, Pulse width modulation.

I. INTRODUCTION

M ODERNIZATION of the power distribution system is a

key task for a future Smart Grid. Fig. 1 shows such a
modern distribution system envisioned by the Future
Renewable Electric Energy Delivery and Management
(FREEDM) Systems Center. The power electronics-based
transformer, or so-called Solid State Transformer (SST), is
Fig. 1. Envisioned SST based distribution system.
one of the enabling technologies for the FREEDM system.
The SST plays a key role in such a system since it will provide
the links for the integration of distributed energy resources
(DER), distributed energy storage (DES) and intelligent loads.
The SST will also enable the implementation of distributed
intelligence through secure communication network (COMM)
to ensure the stability and optimal operation of the distribution
system. In addition, the Intelligent Fault Management (IFM)
devices, which are used for proper fault isolation, are also
critical to the system as shown in Fig. 1.
Besides the advantage of its reduced size and weight due to
AC Load

AC Load
DC Load
Storage
PHEV
PV

the high frequency (HF) transformer [1], the SST will make
use of state-of-the-art Power Electronics devices that will help
it achieve efficiency comparable to that of a regular
transformer of the same ratings. However, the SST will Fig. 2. Integration of DES, DER and intelligent loads through the SST.
provide additional functionalities such as on-demand reactive
II. SST CONFIGURATIONS

The authors acknowledge the support of the Future Renewable Electric

In order to perform topology comparison, a number of
Energy Distribution Management Center; a National Science Foundation available topologies for SST as well as for general AC-AC
supported Engineering Research Center, under grant NSF EEC-0812121. power conversion have been considered herein [1]-[20]. Many
The authors are with the School of Electrical, Computer and Energy
of these SST topologies do not support bidirectional power
Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281 USA (e-mail:
{sfalcon}, {xmao}, {rayyanar} @asu.edu). flow. An approach to classify the SST topologies and select
 2

the appropriate configuration according to the specific needs A modular two-stage configuration is shown in Fig. 5 where
was introduced in [3]. In this classification, as seen in Fig. 3, only the AC-DC stage is modular. As in the previous case, in
four SST configurations that cover all the possible SST this configuration, the voltage and current sharing may not be
topologies are identified: a) single-stage with no DC link, b) intrinsic since it depends on the type of AC-DC converter.
two-stage with low voltage DC (LVDC) link, c) two-stage
LVDC
with high voltage DC (HVDC) link, and d) three-stage with + +
both HVDC and LVDC links. Since the DC link of the third Vi/n
-
Vo
-

configuration is not appropriate for DES and DER integration, Ii

topologies under that classification are not considered herein. +
Vi/n
-

Idc/n
+
Vi/n
-

Fig. 5. Modular two-stage SST.

Fig. 6 shows a modular three-stage configuration. Here, the

input stage is implemented by a multilevel converter;
therefore, depending on its type, it may not require a modular
implementation. However, the isolated DC-DC stage needs to
be modular. In this configuration, current and/or voltage
control is required to ensure voltage and current sharing
depending on the selected topology.

Fig. 3. SST configurations: a) single-stage, b) two-stage with LVDC link, c)

two-stage with HVDC link, and d) three-stage.

Presently, IGBTs and HF transformers with distribution

voltage ratings are not readily available. In order to solve this
problem, a modular approach can be used to meet this
requirement [21]. Additionally, by using the interleaving
approach, the ripple currents may be reduced which translates
into smaller filter size. Fig. 4 shows a fully modular single-
stage configuration. Here, for many AC-AC topologies the
voltage and current sharing is intrinsic; therefore, it may not
require a specific control to ensure that. However, this is not Fig. 6. Modular three-stage SST.
true for all of the AC-AC converters. For instance, a converter
with a gyrator type large-signal average model has issues III. SELECTED SST TOPOLOGIES
conducting the same input current under parameter mismatch. The SST topologies considered herein are bidirectional,
If a shunt capacitor at the input sinks the current difference, which is the minimum requirement to be able to replace a
then voltage control is required to ensure input voltage sharing regular transformer. Some of SST topologies from the
which, in turn, will ensure output current sharing. literature review have been modified to add the bidirectional
feature. Six representative SST topologies have been selected
for detailed analysis and comparison: a) modular single-stage
comprising AC-AC Full-bridge converters, b) modular single-
stage comprising AC-AC Flyback converters, c) modular two-
stage comprising AC-DC isolated Boost converters and a
PWM dual-phase inverter, d) modular two-stage comprising
AC-DC Dual Active Bridges (DAB) and a PWM dual-phase
inverter, e) modular three-stage comprising a cascaded full-
bridges based multilevel rectifier, DC-DC DAB modules and
a PWM dual-phase inverter, and finally, f) modular three
stage comprising a diode-clamped multilevel rectifier, DC-DC
Full-bridge converters and a PWM dual-phase inverter.
Fig. 4. Modular single-stage SST.
 3

A. Single-stage: AC-AC Full-bridge Converter LC Filter

AC-AC Flyback
HFT Load
As for all the single-stage SST topologies, this topology Li
requires simple control. The main drawback is the lack of
capabilities that the presence of a DC link offers, e.g. input Grid
Co

power factor correction. A simplified version of this converter Ci

is introduced in [9]. In this case, the input voltage is turned
into a high-frequency square wave with a 50% duty cycle Co

before passing it through the HF transformer. On the low

voltage side, the voltage is rectified back into its original
sinusoidal shape. This simple approach eliminates the need for Fig. 8. Single-stage SST based on an AC-AC Flyback converter.
input and output inductive filters.
In order to add output voltage regulation, the duty cycle
may be modulated. However, an inductive filter must be C. Two-stage: AC-DC Isolated Boost + PWM Inverter
added to the output to enable the buck mode and another one This SST topology is based on the AC-DC version of the
to the input to filter the generated ripple current. Fig. 7 shows isolated Boost converter; therefore, its large-signal average
one module for the implementation of this SST topology. The model is the same as that of the isolated DC-DC version [14].
main disadvantage of this approach is the increased size of the In order to obtain a sinusoidal input current, the duty cycle of
filters which affects the input power factor. the PWM voltage at the input terminals must be modulated
accordingly. The switches on the high side must be four-
7.2 kV LC Filter AC-AC Full-bridge Converter LC Filter
Load quadrant to be able to withstand bi-polar voltage and current.
Li Lo Fig. 9 shows this topology with only one AC-DC module.
A disadvantage, as in the DC-DC version, is the use of two
Co different controls depending on the direction of the power
HFT flow. Additionally, due to the lack of a HVDC link, the LVDC
Grid
link voltage will have a larger 120Hz ripple, since the 120Hz
Ci
ripple currents coming from both AC sides must be absorbed
by the LVDC link capacitor. Also, its bandwidth is
Co considerably lower than that of the input current because of
the cascaded control; therefore, its voltage regulation is not
tight.
The DC-AC stage is a double-phase inverter, which
Fig. 7. Single-stage SST based on an AC-AC Full-bridge converter. provides bi-directional power flow between the LVDC link
and the ±120 V AC buses. Compared to a regular H-bridge
converter, it has an extra leg, which is driven by a gate signal
B. Single-stage: AC-AC Flyback
with a constant 50% duty cycle and provides a ground level
Many DC-DC converter topologies can be converted into output. This DC-AC stage implementation is common for the
AC-AC converters by replacing some or all of the switches rest of the SST topologies.
with four-quadrant ones to allow for bipolar voltage and
current. This AC-AC converter is derived from the simplest D. Two-stage: AC-DC DAB + PWM Inverter
isolated DC-DC converter topology, the Flyback, as depicted This SST topology is based on the AC-DC version of the
in Fig. 8. It features the least number of switches per module DAB [15]. The large-signal average model is the same as that
[13]; however, it requires twice the number of modules as of the DC-DC version. In order to obtain a sinusoidal input
compared to the previous single-stage topology since it nearly current, the phase shift angle can be modulated. In either
doubles the voltage stress on the switches. The duty cycle version, the DAB provides seamless control of the power in
modulation allows for output voltage regulation. In addition to both directions and zero voltage switching (ZVS) for a wide
the lack of a DC link, the main drawback is the large size of load range [15]-[17]. Two disadvantages of this converter are
the filters needed due to its large ripple currents. the high sensitivity of the average active power flow to
leakage inductance variation and the large ripple currents. Fig.
10 shows this topology with only one AC-DC module.
Since the phase shift is the main control variable, the
LVDC link voltage and the input current must be controlled in
a cascaded fashion. Moreover, due to the presence of the
second order filter at the input, the design of the controls is
highly constrained and results in a low bandwidth for the
input current loop and an even lower bandwidth for the LVDC
link voltage loop. This translates into a poor regulation of the
 4

AC-DC Isolated Boost

Li
LVDC link Double-Phase Inverter LC Filter
400 V Load
Lo
HFT
Co
Grid CL

Co
Lo

Fig. 9. Two-stage SST based on an AC-DC Isolated Boost converter.

Fig. 10. Two-stage SST based on an AC-DC DAB.

LVDC link. size of the Full-bridge inductors, and impedance mismatching

that leads to run away problems. Fig. 12 illustrates the
E. Three-stage: PWM Rectifier + DC-DC DAB + PWM
modular configuration of this topology.
Inverter
This SST topology receives the most interest from the IV. SST TOPOLOGY COMPARISON
FREEDM researchers due to its superior controllability that
enable several functions that are desirable for an SST [18]. The six selected topologies are compared herein to
This topology featuring only one module in both the AC-DC investigate their suitability for SST application as envisioned
and isolated DC-DC stages is illustrated in Fig. 11. in the FREEDM concept. The comparison is done on the
The AC-DC stage is based on full-bridges which in the basis of switch count, switch stress, switch losses, control
modular configuration will implement a cascaded multilevel characteristics and the ability to meet the required and
rectifier. The isolated DC-DC is based on DAB modules that desirable functionalities of FREEDM system. Although not
interface the HVDC link to the LVDC link. The DC-AC stage considered here, transformer size and loss may also need to be
is again implemented by a double-phase inverter. The main considered for the comparison to be complete.
drawback of this SST topology is the large number of A. Comparison Based on Switch Loss and Switch Count
components which translates into possibly lower efficiency For this comparison, commercial voltage ratings for the
and reliability. switches are considered. The switch count is based on the
F. Three-stage: Multilevel Rectifier + DC-DC Full-bridge number of 6500 V switches for the high side and the number
Converter + PWM Inverter of 600 V switches for the low side that are required by each
The AC-DC stage on this topology is based on a diode- topology. This also takes into account the switch stress
clamped multilevel rectifier; therefore, input voltage sharing characteristics. Additionally, the frequency used for the HF
does not require a modular configuration [19], [20]. For the transformer is tied to the maximum switching frequency of the
isolated DC-DC stage, a modular and bidirectional version of high side IGBTs. Based on this, all of the SST topologies
the one presented in [5] is used. The Full-bridge converter require 3 modules, except for the Flyback based topology
provides bidirectional power flow and injects low ripple which requires 6 module due to its higher voltage stress.
currents into the LVDC link. The main drawbacks of this This comparison is performed through extensive simulation
topology are the large number on clamping diodes, the large of each switching model using Simulink®, PLECS®, and
 5

Fig. 11. Three-stage SST based on a DC-DC DAB.

Fig. 12. Modular three-stage SST based on a Four-level Rectifier and three DC-DC Full-bridge converters.

SimPowerSystems®. As a basic feature for this analysis, TABLE II

SWITCH LOSSES FOR AC-AC FLYBACK
PLECS® allows the V-I characteristics from IGBT data sheets
to be input for each switch. This information is used for Loss per No. of Total
PARTS
accurate conduction loss and switching loss calculation Device Devices Loss (W)
directly from the simulation of the switch model for the worst Flyback HV IGBT+Diode 38.906 12 466.872
case conditions. Table I through table VI show the switch (1080 Hz) LV IGBT+Diode 23.792 24 570.996
Total 1037.868
losses and switch count for each topology obtained from
running the switching models at unity input power factor and TABLE III
total rated power of 20 kVA. The SST input and output SWITCH LOSSES FOR AC-DC ISOLATED BOOST + INVERTER
voltages are 7.2 kV and ±120 V, respectively. The LVDC and
Loss per No. of Total
HVDC link voltages are 400 V and 11.4 kV, respectively. PARTS
Device Devices Loss (W)
Boost HV IGBT+Diode 23.5848 24 566.035
TABLE I
SWITCH LOSSES FOR AC-AC FULL-BRIDGE (1080 Hz) LV IGBT+Diode 10.076 12 120.912
Inverter Phase IGBT+Diode 74.748 4 298.992
Loss per No. of Total (15 kHz) Neutral IGBT+Diode 6.5454 2 13.091
PARTS Total 999.030
Device Devices Loss (W)
Full-bridge HV IGBT+Diode 8.523 24 204.552
(1080 Hz) LV IGBT+Diode 8.467 24 203.197 TABLE IV
Total 407.749 SWITCH LOSSES FOR AC-AD DAB + INVERTER

Loss per No. of Total

PARTS
Device Devices Loss (W)
DAB HV IGBT+Diode 25.494 24 611.856
(1080 Hz) LV IGBT+Diode 41.700 12 500.400
Inverter Phase IGBT+Diode 74.748 4 298.992
(15 kHz) Neutral IGBT+Diode 6.5454 2 13.091
Total 1424.339
 6

TABLE V TABLE VII

SWITCH LOSSES FOR INVERTER + DAB + INVERTER FUNCTIONAL CAPABILITIES SUPPORTED BY THE SST TOPOLOGIES

Loss per No. of Total Single-stage Two-stage Three-stage

PARTS
Device Devices Loss (W) Cascaded Diode-
Rectifier Full- clamped
IGBT+Diode 52.867 12 634.406 AC-AC AC-DC AC-DC bridge Multilevel
(1080 Hz) Functionality AC-AC
Full Boost + DAB + Multilevel Rectifier +
DAB HV IGBT+Diode 37.090 12 445.082 Flyback
Bridge Inverter Inverter Rectifier + Full-
(3 kHz) LV IGBT+Diode 13.935 12 167.220 DAB + bridge +
Inverter Phase IGBT+Diode 74.748 4 298.992 Inverter Inverter
(15 kHz) Neutral IGBT+Diode 6.5454 2 13.091 Bidirectional power Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Total 1558.792 LVDC for DES and DER No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
DES management No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
TABLE VI Reactive power support to grid No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
SWITCH LOSSES FOR MULTILEVEL RECTIFIER + FULL BRIDGE + INVERTER HVDC link regulation NA NA NA NA Good Good
LVDC link regulation NA NA Good Poor Very good Very Good
Loss per No. of Total
PARTS Output voltage regulation Poor Poor Good Good Good Good
Device Devices Loss (W)
Input current regulation No No Very good Good Very good Very good
Rectifier IGBT+Diode 34.854 12 418.243
Input voltage sag ride through Poor Poor Good Good Very good Very good
(1080 Hz) Diode 0.746 12 8.955
Input current limiting No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Full-bridge HV IGBT+Diode 77.457 12 929.484
Output current limiting No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
(3 kHz) LV IGBT+Diode 7.860 12 94.320
HVDC undervoltage protection NA NA NA NA Yes Yes
Inverter Phase IGBT+Diode 74.748 4 298.992
HVDC overvoltage protection NA NA NA NA Yes Yes
(15 kHz) Neutral IGBT+Diode 6.5454 2 13.091
LVDC undervoltage protection NA NA Yes Yes Yes Yes
Total 1763.085
LVDC overvoltage protection NA NA Yes Yes Yes Yes
independent frequency No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
independent power factor No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
As expected, the single-stage topologies are among the Modularity Inplementation Simple Simple Simple Hard Simple Simple
ones with the least switch losses. Although each AC-AC
Flyback module requires only two high voltage switches as
compared to eight in an AC-DC module of the three-stage V. SIMULATION RESULTS
cascaded multilevel configuration, the voltage and current A Simulink® block-set with an SST has been developed
stress of individual switches in the Flyback are significantly based on the three-stage average model and a novel energy-
higher than the other topologies. This leads to doubling its based control design method [22], [23]. This model
number of modules. There is no difference in the switch count implements all the desired functionalities that the ideal SST
between the two-stage and three-stage topologies. provides and that are listed in table VII. The Simulink® block-
B. Comparison Based on SST Functional Capabilities set also includes a PV system and a battery converter that can
The lower switch losses and switch count in the single- be connected to the SST LVDC link and are custom designed
stage topologies are at the expense of limited functionalities. to receive commands from the SST. This library is meant to be
For instance, the presence of a DC link decouples the input combined with blocks from the SimPowerSystem® library and
and output, allows for reactive power support to grid and input can be used for research on system theory, fault current study,
voltage sag ride-through. The extra DC link on the three-stage transient analysis and power flow control.
topologies as compared to the two-stage ones helps improve Fig. 13 shows the simulation output from running the
the LVDC link voltage regulation. This is done by transferring switching model of the three-stage DAB based SST. Fig. 14
the 120 Hz voltage ripple onto the HVDC link. through Fig. 16 show the simulation outputs from running the
Based on this comparison, the three-stage topology based average model. Fig. 14 verifies the performance of the input
on DAB seems to be the most suitable for SST voltage sag ride-though. The response of the SST to a reactive
implementation mainly due to its ability to support all the power command is observed in Fig. 15. Finally, the bi-
functionalities expected from an SST. Hence the development directional property of the SST is verified in Fig. 16.
of an SST model to be used for system level studies focuses
on the three-stage SST. Table VII summarizes the functional
capabilities of each topology.
 7

Grid Voltage (kV), Grid Current (A) Q*(kVar), Q(kVar)

5
10
5 0
0
-5 -5
-10
-10
4
x 10 HV Vdclink (V)
1.18 -15
Vi(kV), Ii(A)
1.16 15

10
1.14
5

1.12 0
LV Vdclink (V) -5
410
-10
405
400 -15
4

395 x 10 HV Vdclink (V)

1.18
390
385 1.16
vo+ (V), vo- (V)
200 1.14

100
1.12
0

-100 1.1
0.47 0.48 0.49 0.5 0.51 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.55 0.56 0.57
-200 Time (sec)

ILdab(A)
Fig. 15. Simulation results from average model demonstrating on-demand
2
reactive power support capability.
0

-2
Vo+(V), Io+(A)
0.24 0.25 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29 200
Time (sec)
100

Fig. 13. Three-stage DAB based SST switching model waveforms (refer to 0

Fig. 11 for definition of variables.) -100

-200
Vi(kV), Ii(A)
10

Vi(kV), Ii(A) 5
15 0
10 -5

5 -10

0 LV Vdclink (V)
405
-5

-10
400
-15
Vo+(V), Io+(A)
200
395
4
x 10 HV Vdclink (V)
100 1.2

0
1.15
-100

1.1
-200 0.48 0.5 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66
4
x 10 HV Vdclink (V) Time (sec)
1.16

1.15 Fig. 16. Simulation results from average model demonstrating reverse power
1.14 flow from PV to the grid through the SST (initially the load is larger than the
1.13 PV generation, and at 0.5 s a step drop in load is simulated leading to injection
1.12 of excess PV power into the grid.)
1.11
1.1
0.47 0.48 0.49 0.5 0.51 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.55 0.56 0.57 VI. CONCLUSIONS
Time (sec)
A topology comparison of six representative SST
Fig. 14. Simulation results from average model demonstrating voltage sag
topologies has been presented herein. The single-stage
ride-through capability.
topologies do not represent a significant advantage in terms of
switch count, and provide limited functionalities as compared
to the three-stage topologies. The three-stage DAB based
topology provides all the desired SST functionalities while
simplifying the control design. The LVDC link in this
configuration provides a convenient port to interface DER and
 8

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[10] M.D. Manjrekar, R. Kieferndorf, and G. Venkataramanan, "Power Engineering from Tsinghua University, Beijing,
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Rajapandian Ayyanar (M’00, SM’06) received the M.S. degree from the
Interleaved AC-AC Flyback Topology for Solid State Transformer”, in
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, and the Ph.D. degree from the
Proc. FREEDM Annual Conference 2009, North Carolina State
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presently an Associate Professor at the Arizona State
[14] X. Mao, and R. Ayyanar, “Average and Phasor Models of Single Phase
University, Tempe, AZ, USA. He has many years of
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supplies. His current research interests include
1964-1970.
topologies and control methods for switch mode
[15] Vangen, K.; Melaa, T.; Adnanes, A.K., "Soft-switched high-frequency,
power converters, fully modular power system
high power DC/AC converter with IGBT," Power Electronics
architecture, new pulse width modulation
Specialists Conference, 1992. PESC '92 Record., 23rd Annual IEEE ,
techniques, design of power conversion systems and
vol., no., pp.26-33 vol.1, 29 Jun-3 Jul 1992.
distribution systems for large scale, distributed
[16] De Doncker, R.W.; Divan, D.M.; Kheraluwala, M.H., "A three-phase
integration renewable energy resources - mainly solar PV and wind, and
soft-switched high power density DC/DC converter for high power
power electronics applications in enabling ‘smart grid’.
applications," Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, 1988.,
Dr. Ayyanar received an ONR Young Investigator Award in 2005. He
Conference Record of the 1988 IEEE , vol., no., pp.796-805 vol.1, 2-7
serves as an Associate Editor for IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics.
Oct 1988.
[17] Kheraluwala, M.N.; Gascoigne, R.W.; Divan, D.M.; Baumann, E.D.,
"Performance characterization of a high-power dual active bridge DC-to-
DC converter," Industry Applications, IEEE Transactions on , vol.28,
no.6, pp.1294-1301, Nov/Dec 1992.