DIGITAL ASSIGNMENT

1. Creating Tables

Example: Creating the departments Table

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CREATE TABLE departments (
dept_id NUMBER(5) PRIMARY KEY, -- Primary Key Constraint
dept_name VARCHAR2(50) UNIQUE -- Unique Constraint
);

Example: Creating the employees Table with Constraints

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CREATE TABLE employees (
emp_id NUMBER(5) PRIMARY KEY, -- Primary Key Constraint
first_name VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL, -- NOT NULL Constraint
last_name VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL, -- NOT NULL Constraint
salary NUMBER(10, 2) CHECK (salary > 5000), -- CHECK Constraint
dob DATE NOT NULL, -- Date of Birth
dept_id NUMBER(5), -- Foreign Key Column
CONSTRAINT fk_dept FOREIGN KEY (dept_id) REFERENCES
departments(dept_id) -- Foreign Key Constraint
);

2. Inserting Data

Example: Adding Records to Tables

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-- Insert into departments
INSERT INTO departments VALUES (1, 'HR');
INSERT INTO departments VALUES (2, 'IT');
INSERT INTO departments VALUES (3, 'Finance');

-- Insert into employees

INSERT INTO employees VALUES (101, 'Alice', 'Johnson', 6000.00,
TO_DATE('1990-06-15', 'YYYY-MM-DD'), 1);
INSERT INTO employees VALUES (102, 'Bob', 'Smith', 7500.00, TO_DATE('1985-
09-20', 'YYYY-MM-DD'), 2);
INSERT INTO employees VALUES (103, 'Charlie', 'Brown', 8000.00,
TO_DATE('1992-11-30', 'YYYY-MM-DD'), 3);

3. Querying Data

Basic Query

Retrieve names and salaries of all employees.

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SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM employees;

4. Joins

INNER JOIN

Combine employees and departments to get department names for each employee.

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SELECT
e.first_name,
e.salary,
d.dept_name
FROM
employees e
INNER JOIN
departments d
ON
e.dept_id = d.dept_id;

SELF JOIN

Find colleagues of Alice in the same department.

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SELECT
e1.first_name AS employee,
e2.first_name AS colleague
FROM
employees e1
JOIN
employees e2
ON
e1.dept_id = e2.dept_id
WHERE
e1.first_name = 'Alice' AND e1.emp_id != e2.emp_id;

5. ALTER TABLE Operations

a. Add a Column

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ALTER TABLE employees ADD hire_date DATE;

b. Modify a Column

Change the datatype or constraints of an existing column.

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ALTER TABLE employees MODIFY salary NUMBER(12, 2);

c. Drop a Column

Remove a column from a table.

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ALTER TABLE employees DROP COLUMN bonus;

d. Rename a Column

Rename an existing column (supported in databases like MySQL and PostgreSQL).

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ALTER TABLE employees RENAME COLUMN hire_date TO joining_date;

e. Add a Constraint

Add a new constraint to a column.

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ALTER TABLE employees ADD CONSTRAINT chk_salary CHECK (salary <= 20000);

f. Drop a Constraint

Remove an existing constraint.

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ALTER TABLE employees DROP CONSTRAINT chk_salary;

g. Rename the Table

Rename an entire table.

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RENAME employees TO employee_data;

6. Constraints

a. NOT NULL

Ensures a column cannot have NULL values.

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ALTER TABLE employees MODIFY first_name VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL;

b. UNIQUE

Ensures all values in a column are unique.

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ALTER TABLE employees ADD CONSTRAINT unique_last_name UNIQUE (last_name);

c. PRIMARY KEY

Ensures a column (or set of columns) uniquely identifies each row.

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ALTER TABLE employees ADD CONSTRAINT pk_emp_id PRIMARY KEY (emp_id);

d. FOREIGN KEY

Links a column to another table’s column, maintaining referential integrity.

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ALTER TABLE employees ADD CONSTRAINT fk_dept FOREIGN KEY (dept_id)
REFERENCES departments(dept_id);

e. CHECK

Ensures values meet specific conditions.

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ALTER TABLE employees ADD CONSTRAINT chk_salary_positive CHECK (salary >
0);

f. DEFAULT

Assigns a default value to a column when no value is provided.

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ALTER TABLE employees ADD hire_date DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE;

7. Aggregate Functions

Calculate Total and Average Salary

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SELECT
AVG(salary) AS average_salary,
SUM(salary) AS total_salary
FROM employees;

Group by Department

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SELECT
d.dept_name,
SUM(e.salary) AS total_salary,
AVG(e.salary) AS average_salary
FROM
employees e
INNER JOIN
departments d
ON
e.dept_id = d.dept_id
GROUP BY
d.dept_name;

8. Date Functions

Calculate Employee Ages

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SELECT
first_name,
FLOOR(MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE, dob) / 12) AS age
FROM employees;

Filter by Hire Date

Retrieve employees hired after January 1, 2020.

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SELECT first_name, hire_date
FROM employees
WHERE hire_date > TO_DATE('2020-01-01', 'YYYY-MM-DD');

9. Subqueries

Employees Earning Above the Average Salary

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SELECT first_name, salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary > (SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employees);

10. Views
Create a View for High-Salary Employees

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CREATE VIEW high_salary_employees AS
SELECT first_name, last_name, salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary > 7000;

Drop the View

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DROP VIEW high_salary_employees;

11. Summary Table

Operation Purpose Example

ALTER TABLE Add new columns to a ALTER TABLE employees ADD hire_date
Add table DATE;
ALTER TABLE Modify existing column ALTER TABLE employees MODIFY salary
Modify properties NUMBER(12, 2);
ALTER TABLE ALTER TABLE employees DROP COLUMN
Drop Remove a column bonus;
ALTER TABLE Add a foreign key ALTER TABLE employees ADD CONSTRAINT
Add FK constraint fk_dept ...;
ALTER TABLE ALTER TABLE employees ADD CONSTRAINT
Add CK Add a check constraint chk_salary ...;

INNER JOIN Combine rows from JOIN employees ON dept_id = dept_id

multiple tables
Compare rows within the JOIN employees e1 ON e1.dept_id =
SELF JOIN
same table e2.dept_id

GROUP BY Group rows for aggregate GROUP BY dept_name

calculations
HAVING
Filter groups after HAVING SUM(salary) > 15000
aggregation
Perform date-based MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE, dob)
DATE Functions
calculations
VIEW Create reusable virtual CREATE VIEW high_salary_employees ...;
tables
PL/SQL
Basic PL/SQL Syntax
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BEGIN
-- Your PL/SQL code here
END;
/

Declaring Variables
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DECLARE
v_salary NUMBER; -- Declaring a variable
BEGIN
v_salary := 1000; -- Assigning a value
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Salary is: ' || v_salary); -- Printing output
END;
/

Working with Tables

Example Table: employee

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CREATE TABLE employee (
empno NUMBER PRIMARY KEY,
empname VARCHAR2(50),
age NUMBER,
salary NUMBER,
department VARCHAR2(50)
);

-- Insert Sample Data

INSERT INTO employee VALUES (1, 'John Doe', 30, 3000, 'HR');
INSERT INTO employee VALUES (2, 'Jane Smith', 45, 5000, 'Finance');
INSERT INTO employee VALUES (3, 'Alice Johnson', 40, 4000, 'IT');
INSERT INTO employee VALUES (4, 'Bob Brown', 35, 4500, 'IT');
COMMIT;

Basic SELECT and Assignment

Fetch data from the table and assign it to a variable.

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DECLARE
v_salary NUMBER;
v_name VARCHAR2(50);
BEGIN
SELECT salary, empname
INTO v_salary, v_name
FROM employee
WHERE empno = 1;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Name: ' || v_name || ', Salary: ' || v_salary);

END;
/

Control Structures

IF-ELSE
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DECLARE
v_salary NUMBER := 3000;
BEGIN
IF v_salary > 4000 THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('High salary');
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Low salary');
END IF;
END;
/

Loops

FOR Loop

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BEGIN
FOR i IN 1..5 LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Iteration: ' || i);
END LOOP;
END;
/

WHILE Loop

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DECLARE
i NUMBER := 1;
BEGIN
WHILE i <= 5 LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Iteration: ' || i);
i := i + 1;
END LOOP;
END;
/

Cursors

Implicit Cursor Example

Oracle uses an implicit cursor for single SQL operations like SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE.

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DECLARE
v_count NUMBER;
BEGIN
SELECT COUNT(*) INTO v_count FROM employee;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Total Employees: ' || v_count);
END;
/

Explicit Cursor

An explicit cursor allows row-by-row processing for queries returning multiple rows.

Example: Fetch Employee Data

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DECLARE
CURSOR emp_cursor IS SELECT empname, salary FROM employee;
v_name VARCHAR2(50);
v_salary NUMBER;
BEGIN
OPEN emp_cursor;

LOOP
FETCH emp_cursor INTO v_name, v_salary;
EXIT WHEN emp_cursor%NOTFOUND;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Name: ' || v_name || ', Salary: ' ||
v_salary);
END LOOP;

CLOSE emp_cursor;
END;
/

Procedures

What is a Procedure?

A procedure is a named PL/SQL block stored in the database that performs a specific task.

Create Procedure

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CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE get_employee_salary (p_empno IN NUMBER) IS
 v_salary NUMBER;
BEGIN
SELECT salary INTO v_salary FROM employee WHERE empno = p_empno;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Salary: ' || v_salary);
END;
/

Call the Procedure

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BEGIN
get_employee_salary(1); -- Replace 1 with the desired employee number
END;
/

Functions

What is a Function?

A function is similar to a procedure but returns a value.

Create Function

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CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION get_department_count(p_department IN VARCHAR2)
RETURN NUMBER IS
v_count NUMBER;
BEGIN
SELECT COUNT(*) INTO v_count FROM employee WHERE department =
p_department;
RETURN v_count;
END;
/

Call the Function

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DECLARE
v_count NUMBER;
BEGIN
v_count := get_department_count('IT');
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Number of employees in IT: ' || v_count);
END;
/

Triggers

What is a Trigger?

A trigger is a stored PL/SQL block that automatically executes in response to an event on a

table.
Trigger Types

1. BEFORE INSERT
2. AFTER INSERT
3. BEFORE UPDATE
4. AFTER DELETE

Example Trigger: Log Employee Deletion

Create a Log Table

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CREATE TABLE employee_log (
empno NUMBER,
empname VARCHAR2(50),
action VARCHAR2(20),
action_date DATE
);

Create the Trigger

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CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER log_employee_deletion
AFTER DELETE ON employee
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
INSERT INTO employee_log (empno, empname, action, action_date)
VALUES (:OLD.empno, :OLD.empname, 'DELETE', SYSDATE);
END;
/

Test the Trigger

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DELETE FROM employee WHERE empno = 1;
SELECT * FROM employee_log; -- Check the log table

Exception Handling

Handle Errors Gracefully

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DECLARE
v_salary NUMBER;
BEGIN
SELECT salary INTO v_salary FROM employee WHERE empno = 999; -- Non-
existent empno
EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee not found.');
WHEN TOO_MANY_ROWS THEN
 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Query returned multiple rows.');
END;
/

CODES

1. Reverse Counting from 100 to 1

This program demonstrates the use of a loop to count in reverse.

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SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;
BEGIN
FOR i IN REVERSE 1..100 LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(i);
END LOOP;
END;
/

2. Fibonacci Series

This program generates a Fibonacci sequence up to n terms.

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SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;
DECLARE
a NUMBER := 0;
b NUMBER := 1;
n NUMBER := &n; -- Number of terms
c NUMBER;
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(a); -- First term
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(b); -- Second term

FOR i IN 3..n LOOP

c := a + b;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(c);
a := b;
b := c;
END LOOP;
END;
/

3. Factorial of a Number

This program calculates the factorial of a given number n.

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SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;
DECLARE
n NUMBER := &n; -- Input number
factorial NUMBER := 1;
BEGIN
FOR i IN 1..n LOOP
factorial := factorial * i;
END LOOP;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Factorial of ' || n || ' is: ' || factorial);
END;
/

4. Check if a Number is Prime

This program checks if a number is prime.

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SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;
DECLARE
num NUMBER := &num; -- Input number
is_prime BOOLEAN := TRUE;
BEGIN
IF num <= 1 THEN
is_prime := FALSE;
ELSE
FOR i IN 2..FLOOR(SQRT(num)) LOOP
IF MOD(num, i) = 0 THEN
is_prime := FALSE;
EXIT;
END IF;
END LOOP;
END IF;

IF is_prime THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(num || ' is a prime number.');
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(num || ' is not a prime number.');
END IF;
END;
/

5. Sum of Digits of a Number

This program calculates the sum of the digits of a number.

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SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;
DECLARE
num NUMBER := &num; -- Input number
digit NUMBER;
sum_digits NUMBER := 0;
BEGIN
 WHILE num > 0 LOOP
digit := MOD(num, 10); -- Extract the last digit
sum_digits := sum_digits + digit;
num := TRUNC(num / 10); -- Remove the last digit
END LOOP;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Sum of digits is: ' || sum_digits);

END;
/

6. Check Even or Odd

This program checks whether a number is even or odd.

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SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;
DECLARE
num NUMBER := &num; -- Input number
BEGIN
IF MOD(num, 2) = 0 THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(num || ' is even.');
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(num || ' is odd.');
END IF;
END;
/

7. Greatest of Three Numbers

This program finds the largest of three numbers.

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SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;
DECLARE
a NUMBER := &a; -- First number
b NUMBER := &b; -- Second number
c NUMBER := &c; -- Third number
greatest NUMBER;
BEGIN
greatest := CASE
WHEN a > b AND a > c THEN a
WHEN b > c THEN b
ELSE c
END;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('The greatest number is: ' || greatest);

END;
/

8. Sum of Series: 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + n

This program calculates the sum of an odd number series up to n.

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SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;
DECLARE
n NUMBER := &n; -- Last term in the series
sum NUMBER := 0;
i NUMBER := 1;
BEGIN
WHILE i <= n LOOP
sum := sum + i;
i := i + 2; -- Move to the next odd number
END LOOP;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Sum of series is: ' || sum);

END;
/

9. Reverse a Number

This program reverses a given number.

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SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;
DECLARE
num NUMBER := &num; -- Input number
reverse_num NUMBER := 0;
digit NUMBER;
BEGIN
WHILE num > 0 LOOP
digit := MOD(num, 10); -- Extract the last digit
reverse_num := reverse_num * 10 + digit;
num := TRUNC(num / 10); -- Remove the last digit
END LOOP;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Reversed number is: ' || reverse_num);

END;
/

10. Generate Multiplication Table

This program generates the multiplication table for a number.

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SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;
DECLARE
num NUMBER := &num; -- Input number
BEGIN
FOR i IN 1..10 LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(num || ' x ' || i || ' = ' || (num * i));
END LOOP;
END;
/
11. Check Palindrome Number

This program checks whether a number is a palindrome.

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SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;
DECLARE
num NUMBER := &num; -- Input number
original_num NUMBER := num;
reverse_num NUMBER := 0;
digit NUMBER;
BEGIN
WHILE num > 0 LOOP
digit := MOD(num, 10); -- Extract the last digit
reverse_num := reverse_num * 10 + digit;
num := TRUNC(num / 10); -- Remove the last digit
END LOOP;

IF reverse_num = original_num THEN

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(original_num || ' is a palindrome.');
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(original_num || ' is not a palindrome.');
END IF;
END;
/

12. Calculate the Sum of First n Natural Numbers

This program calculates the sum of the first n natural numbers.

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SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;
DECLARE
n NUMBER := &n; -- Input number
sum NUMBER := 0;
BEGIN
FOR i IN 1..n LOOP
sum := sum + i;
END LOOP;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Sum of first ' || n || ' natural numbers is: ' ||

sum);
END;
/