Department of Mechanical Engineering

Lab Manual

THERMAL AND DESIGN LAB

(MEC 595)

Laboratory Location: Mechanical Vibration Lab (1st Floor),

Heat Transfer Lab (Ground Floor)

Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines)

Dhanbad-826004

1
 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS ON SAFETY
1. Measurement are mostly acquired from rotary or reciprocating and vibrating
structures, therefore loose dresses should avoided.
2. Wearing shoes are mandatory.
DO'S DON'TS
 Condition monitoring lab deals with very  Jerk to sensors and
sophisticated sensors and analyzers, care should FFT analyzers.
be taken while handling.
 Go through the interfacing software and  Twisting, bending and
theoretical background of instrument before tension in the cables.
conducting experiment.

2
 Table of Content
Experiment No. Name of Experiment Page No.

1 Determination of heat transfer co-efficient in free convection 4-8

2 Performance analysis of plate heat exchanger 9-12

3 Experimental study of Pool boiling heat transfer 13-19

4 Experimental study of film wise and drop wise condensation heat 20-27
transfer

5 Free Vibration of Cantilever Beam System 28-30

6 Forced Vibration of a Cantilever Beam 31-34

7 Calculation of damping using simple pendulum 35-37

8 Modal Analysis of Cantilever Beam 38-41

9 Whirling of shaft 42-46

3
 EXPERIMENT NO: 1

Title of experiment: - Determination of heat transfer co-efficient in free convection

Objective: To find average heat transfer coefficient experimentally and theoretically
To find local heat transfer coefficient of air experimentally

INTRODUCTION:
In contrast to the forced convection, natural convection phenomenon is due to the temperature difference
between the surface and the fluid and is not created by any external agency. Natural convection flow
patterns for some commonly observed situations are shown in Fig.1 The present experimental set up is
designed and fabricated to study the natural convection phenomenon from a vertical cylinder in terms of the
variation of local heat transfer coefficient and its comparison with the value obtained by using an appropriate
correction.
APPARATUS
The experimental apparatus shown in Fig. 5 consists of a brass tube fitted in a rectangular duct in a vertical
position.The duct is open at the top and bottom and forms an enclosure and serves the purpose of
undisturbed surrounding. One side of the duct is made up of Perspex for visualization. An electric heating
element is kept in the vertical tube, which in turn heats the tube surface. The heat is lost from the tube to the
surrounding air by natural convection. The temperature of the vertical tube is measured by eight
thermocouples.The heat input to the heater is measured by an ammeter and a voltmeter and is varied by a
dimmerstat. The vertical cylinder with the thermocouple positions is shown in the Fig.2, while the possible
flow pattern and also the expected variation of local heat transfer coefficient is shown in Figs. 1, 3 and 4.
The tube surface is polished to minimize the radiation losses.

THEORY
When a hot body is kept in a still atmosphere, heat is transferred to the surrounding fluid by natural
convection. The process is continuous and the heat transfer takes place due to the relative motion of the hot
and cold fluid particles.The heat transfer coefficient is given by :

ℎ= Equation (1)
( )

Where

h =Average surface heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K

Q heat transfer rate, Watts

As =Area of the heat transferring surface
=𝜋𝑑𝑙 𝑚

Ts =

𝑇 =Ambient temperature in the duct ( °C)

The surface heat transfer coefficient,of a system transforming heat by natural convection depends on the
shape dimensions and origination of the fluid and the temperature difference between the heat transferring

4
surface and the fluid. The dependence of h on all the above mentioned parameters is generally expressed in
terms of non dimensional groups, as follows:

∆
=𝐶 (2)

Where hL/k is called Nusselt Number

∆
𝐺𝑟 = is called Grashof number

and

Pr = is called Prandtl Number

C and n are constants depending upon the shape and orientation of the heat transferring surface.
Where,
L Characteristic dimension of the surface
k Thermal Conductivity of the fluid.
𝜐 Kinematic viscosity of the fluid.
μ Dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
cp Specific heat of the fluid.
𝛽 Coefficient of volumetric expansion of the fluid.
g =Acceleration due to gravity.
∆T = Ts-Ta
for gas

β = K-1

( )
Where Tmf =

For a vertical cylinder losing heat by natural convection,the constant A and n of eqn 2 have been determined
and the following empirical corrections obtained.
hL/k =0.56 (Gr.Pr)0.25 for 104 < Gr.Pr < 108 (3)
hL/k =0.13(Gr.Pr)1/3 for 108 < Gr.Pr < 1012 (4)
Here L =Length of the cylinder.
All the properties of fluid are determined at the mean film temperature (T f)
Specifications:
1. Cylinder O.D. = 38 mm
2. Length of Cylinder = 500 mm
3. Input to heater = VI watts (In SI Units)

OBSERVATION TABLE

5
 I=----------------------- amp; V=-------------Volt
Thermocouple 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ts Ta
No i.e.T8

Temperature

CALCULATIONS
1. Calculate the value of average surface heat transfer coefficient, neglecting end losses using equation
h = Q / As(Ts-Ta)
Local heat transfer coefficient, hx
hx1 = Q / As(T1-Ta)
hx2 = Q / As(T2-Ta)
and so on
hx7 = Q / As(T7-Ta)
Aveargel heat transfer coefficient, ha
ha = Q / As(Tsa-Ta)
Tsa = (T1+T2+T3+T4+T5+T6+T7)/7
Q = VI
Theoretical heat transfer coefficient, h:
Determine from empirical correlation as given in Eqs (3) and (4)
hL/k =0.56 (Gr.Pr)0.25 for 104 < Gr.Pr < 108
hL/k =0.13(Gr.Pr)1/3 for 108 < Gr.Pr < 1012
Here L =Length of the cylinder.
All fluid properties are to be found at temperature, T mf = (Tsa + Ta)/2
Results and discussion:
1. Calculate and plot the variation of local heat transfer coefficient along the length of the tube.
2. Compare the experimentally obtained value with the predictions of the correlation equation
3 and 4

6
Fig. 5 Experimental setup of Natural convection apparatus

7
8
 EXPERIMENT NO: 2

Title of experiment: - Performance analysis of plate heat exchanger

Objective- To find LMTD, Overall heat transfer coefficient, Effectiveness, NTU and pressure drop in
chevron type plate heat exchanger

Theory: -

A plate heat exchanger is a type of heat exchanger that uses metal plates to transfer heat between two fluids.
This has a major advantage over a conventional heat exchanger in that the fluids are exposed to a much
larger surface area because the fluids are spread out over the plates. This facilitates the transfer of heat, and
greatly increases the speed of the temperature change. Plate heat exchangers are now common and very
small brazed versions are used in the hot-water sections of millions of combination boilers. The high heat
transfer efficiency for such a small physical size has increased the domestic hot water (DHW) flow rate of
combination boilers. The small plate heat exchanger has made a great impact in domestic heating and hot-
water. Larger commercial versions use gaskets between the plates, whereas smaller versions tend to be
brazed.

Working Principle: -

A plate exchanger consists of a series of parallel plates that are placed one above the other so as to allow the
formation of a series of channels for fluids to flow between them. The space between two adjacent plates
forms the channel in which the fluid flows. Inlet and outlet holes at the corners of the plates allow hot and
cold fluids through alternating channels in the exchanger so that a plate is always in contact on one side with
the hot fluid and the other with the cold.

The size of a plate can range from a few square centi-meters (100 mm x 300 mm side) up to 2 or 3 square
meters (1000 mm x 2500 mm side). The number of plates in a single exchanger ranges from just ten to
several hundred, so reaching surface exchange areas up to thousands of square meters. The figure shows the
flow of fluids inside the exchanger. Fluids are divided into several parallel streams and can produce a perfect
counter current.

9
 Figure1. Flow distribution in counter flow corrugated PHE in U-type flow arrangement

Classification of Plate HXs

• Gasketed plate heat exchangers (plate and frame heat exchangers)

• Brazed plate heat exchangers
• Welded plate heat exchangers
Gasketed plate heat exchangers

Flow Arrangements
In below figures different types of flow arrangements have been shown. But present works mainly based on
Z type flow arrangement and comparison between thermal and hydraulic performance of U and Z type flow
arrangements.

Figure 4 U type flow arrangement Figure 5 Z type flow arrangement

Observation Table
S.N. Flow Rate Flow Rate Tin Tout Tin Tout
(HOT) (COLD) (HOT) (HOT) (Cold) (Cold)
1.

10
2.
3.
4.
5.

Calculations
The primary measurement for thermal analysis consist of flow rates of each fluid stream (cold and hot), and
their inlet and outlet temperatures.

The total heat transfer rates (Q) between the hot and cold fluids are derived from energy balance equation as;

Q  m. h (hhi  hho )  m. c (hco  hci ) (1)

If the fluids are not undergoing a phase change and constant specific heats are assumed, these expressions
reduce to

Q  m. h C ph (Thi  Tho )  m. c C pc (Tco  Tci ) (2)

The overall heat transfer coefficient, U is determined by

Q
U (3)
ATlmtd
 T1   T 2
Q  UA  UAT lmtd (4)
ln(  T1 /  T 2 )
For adiabatic heat exchanger;
Q  h h A  T h  hc A  Tc (5)
Effectiveness is a measure of thermal performance of a heat exchanger. It is defined for a given heat
exchanger of any flow arrangement as a ratio of the actual heat transfer rate from the hot fluid to the cold
fluid to the maximum possible heat transfer rate q max thermodynamically permitted:
The effectiveness is calculated from
Q
 
Q max
(6)

The maximum heat transfer rate is calculated from

Q max  C min (Thi  Tci )
(7)
Number of transfer unit is defined below as
UA
NTU 
C min (8)

The heat transfer rate from the hot fluid to the cold fluid in the exchanger is expressed as
Q   C min (T hi  T ci )   C min  T max (9)

11
The heat exchanger effectiveness " is non-dimensional, and it can be shown that in general it is dependent on
the number of transfer units NTU, the heat capacity rate ratio R, and the flow arrangement for a direct-
transfer type heat exchanger:
Heat capacity ratio R is defined as

C min
R 
C max
Results: -
1. Draw a graph between effectiveness versus NTU
2. Draw a graph between effectiveness versus heat capacity ratio (R)
3. Draw a graph between effectiveness versus mass flow rate

12
 EXPERIMENT NO: 3

Title of experiment: - Experimental study of Pool boiling heat transfer

Introduction:
When heat is added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface which is at a temperature higher than the
saturation temperature of the liquid, it is usual for a part of the liquid to change phase. This change of phase
is called boiling.

Boiling is of various types, the type depending upon the temperature difference between the surface and the
liquid. The different types are indicated in Fig. 1, in which a typical experimental boiling curve obtained in a
saturated pool of liquid is drawn.

This heat flux supplied to the surface is plotted against (Tw - Ts), the difference between the temperature of
the surface and the saturation temperature of the liquid. It is seen that the boiling curve can be divided into
three regions:

1. Natural Convection Region

2. Nucleate Boiling Region
3. Film Boiling Region

The region of natural convection occurs at low temperature differences (of the order of 10 o C or less). Heat
transfer from the heated surface to the liquid in its vicinity causes the liquid to be superheated. This
superheated liquid rises to the free liquid surface by natural convection, where vapour is produced by
evaporation. As the temperature difference (Tw - Ts) is increased, nucleate boiling starts. In this region, it is
observed that bubbles start to form at certain locations on the heated surface. Region II consists of two parts.
In the first part, II-a, the bubbles formed are very few in number. They condense in the liquid and do not
reach the free surface.
In the second part, II-b, the rate of bubble formation as well as the number of locations where they are
formed, increases. Some of the bubbles now rise all the way to the free surface.

With the increasing temperature difference, a stage is finally reached when the rate of formation of bubbles
is so high, that they start to coalesce and blanket the surface with a vapour film. This is the beginning of
region III viz. film boiling. In the first part of this region III-a, the vapour film is unstable, so that film
boiling may be occurring on a portion of the heated surface area, while nucleate boiling may be occurring on
the remaining area. In the second part, III-b, a stable film covers the entire surface. The temperature
difference in this region is of the order of 1000oC and consequently radiative heat transfer across the vapour
film is also significant. It will be observed from Fig. 1, that the heat flux does not increase in a regular
manner with the temperature difference. In region, I, the heat flux is proportional to (Tw - Ts) n where n is
slightly greater than unity (about 1.3). When the transition from natural convection to nucleate boiling
occurs the heat flux starts to increase more rapidly with temperature difference, the value of n increasing

13
about 3.At the end of region II, the boiling curve reaches a peak (Point A). Beyond this, in region III-a, inspite of
increasing temperature difference, the heat flux decreases because the thermal resistance to the heat flow increases
with the formation of a vapour film. The heat flux passed through a minimum (Point B) at the end of region III-a. It
starts to increase again with (Tw - Ts) only when stable film boiling begins and radiation becomes increasingly
important.

It is of interest to note how the temperature of the heating surface changes as the heat flux is steadily increased
from zero. Up to the point A, natural convection boiling and then nucleate boiling occur and the temperature of the
heating surface is obtained by reading off the value (Tw - Ts) from the boiling curve and adding t o it the value Ts.
If the heat flux is increased even a little beyond the value at A, the temperature of the surface will shoot up to the
value corresponding to the point C. It is apparent from Fig. 1, that the surface temperature corresponding to point C
is high. For most surfaces, it is high enough to cause the material to melt. Thus in most practical situations, it is
undesirable to exceed the value of heat flux corresponding to point A. This value is therefore of considerable
engineering significance and is called the critical or peak heat flux. The pool boiling curve as described above is
known as Nukiyama Pool Boiling Curve. The discussion so far has been concerned with various types of boiling
which occur in saturated pool boiling. If the liquid is below the saturation temperature we say that sub-cooled pool
boiling is taking place. Also in many practical situations, e.g. steam generators, one is interested in boiling the
liquid flowing through tubes. This is called forced convection boiling and may also be saturated or sub-cooled or
nucleate or film type.

Thus in order to completely specify boiling occurring in any process, one must state (i) whether it is forced
convection boiling or pool boiling, (ii) whether the liquid is saturated or sub-cooled, and (iii) whether it is in the
natural convection, nucleate or film boiling region.

APPARATUS:
The apparatus consists of a cylindrical glass container housing the test heater and a heater coil for the initial heating
of the water. This heater coil is directly connected to the mains (Heater R1) and the test heater (Nichrome wire) is
connected also to mains via a dimmerstat. An ammeter is connected in series while a voltmeter across it to read the
current and voltage, respectively. The glass container is kept on an iron stand which could be fixed on a platform.
There is provision of illuminating the test heater wire with the help of a lamp projecting light from behind the
container and the heater wire can be viewed through lens. The schematic arrangement of the apparatus is shown in
Fig. 2.

SPECIFICATIONS:

1. Glass Container Diameter - 150 mm

14
 Height - 100 mm (Approx)
2. Heater for initial Heating
Nichrome Heater (R1) 1 Kw
3. Test Heater (R2)
Nichrome wire size 0.07 mm (phi)
(to be calculated according to wire used say 36 SWG to 40 SWG)
4. Test heater length (R2) 78 mm

5. Dimmerstat for (3) --- Test heater 10 Amp, 230 volts.

6. Voltmeter for (3) 0 to 300 V
7. Ammeter for (3) 0 to 5 Amp
8. Thermometer (3) 0 to 100 °C : No
One for water temperature,

EXPERIMENTS:
This experimental set up is designed to study the pool boiling phenomenon up to critical heat flux point. The pool
boiling over heater wire can be visualised in the different regions up to critical heat flux point at which the wire
melts. The heat from the wire is slowly increased by gradually increasing applied voltage across the test wire and
the change over from natural convection to nucleate boiling can be seen.

The formation of bubbles and their growth in size and number can be visualised, followed by the vigorous bubble
formation and their immediate carrying over to surface and ending thus in the breaking of the wire indicating the
occurrence of critical heat flux point. This is repeated for various temperatures of the water in the container upto
the saturation temperature.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take 3 to 4 litres of distilled water in the container.

2. See that both the heaters are completely submerged.

3. Connect the heater coil R1 (1 Kw Nichrome coil) and test heater wire across the studs and make the
necessary electrical connections.
4. Switch on the heater R1.

15
5. Keep it on till you get the required bulk temperature of water in the container say 50 oC, 60oC, 70oC up to
the saturation temperature.
6. Switch off the heater R1.

7. Switch off the heater R2.

8. Very gradually increase the voltage across it by slowly changing the variac from one position to the other
and stop a while at each position to observe the boiling phenomenon on wire.
9. Go on increasing the voltage till wire breaks and carefully note the voltage and current at this point.

10. Repeat this experiment by altering the bulk temperature of water.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Keep the variac at zero voltage position before starting the experiments.

2. Take sufficient amount of distilled water in the container so that both the heaters are completely immersed.
3. Connect the test heater wire across the studs tightly.

4. Do not touch the water or terminal points after putting the switch in the on – position.

5. Very gently operate the variac in steps and allow sufficient time in between.

6. After the attainment of critical heat flux condition decrease slowly the voltage and bring it to zero.

OBSERVATIONS: (FOR FINDING CRITICAL HEAT FLUX VALUES)

1. Diameter of test heater wire, d = 0.07 mm

2. Length of the test heater, L = 0.078 m

3. Surface area, A = ᴫdL = 0.00001715 m2

16
 Bulk Temperature of water Ammeter Reading I Amp. Voltmeter Reading V volts
degree C
40
50
60
70
80
90
95
Saturation Temperature

NOTE:

The Ammeter and the Voltmeter readings are to be noted down when the wire melts.

RESULTS: (EXPERIMENT BASED)

The critical heat flux at various bulk temperatures of water can be calculated by the following procedure.

17
18
19
 EXPERIMENT NO: 4

Title of experiment: - Experimental study of film wise and drop wise condensation heat transfer
Introduction:
The condensation process is the reverse of boiling process. The condensation sets in whenever a saturated
vapour comes in contact with a surface whose temperature is lower than the saturation temperature corresponding
to the vapour pressure. As the vapour condenses, latent heat is liberated and there is flow of heat to the surface. The
liquid condensate may get somewhat sub-cooled by contact with the cooled surface and that may eventually cause
more vapour to condense on the exposed surface or upon the previously formed condensate.
Depending upon the condition of cool surface, condensation may occur in two possible ways:
1. Filmwise condensation

2. Dropwise condensation

1. FILMWISE CONDENSATION:- If the condensate tends to wet the surface and there by forms a liquid
film, then the condensation process is known as Film condensation. Here, the heat from the vapour to the
cooling medium is transferred through the film of the condensate formed on the surface. The liquid flow
down the cooling surface under the action of gravity and the layer continuously grows in thickness because
of newly vapour. The continuous film offers thermal resistance and checks further transfer of heat between
the vapour & surface.

The heat is transferred from the vapour to the condensate formed on the surface by 'convection' and
it if further transferred from the condensate film to the cooling surface by the conduction. This combined
mode of heat transfer by conduction and convection reduces the heat transfer considerably.
2. DROPWISE CONDENSATION:- In dropwise condensation, the vapour condenses into small liquid
droplets of various sizes which fall down the surface in random fashion. The drops formed in cracks and
pits on the surface, gows in size, break away from the surface, knock off other droplets and eventually run
off the surface, without forming a film under the influence of gravity.

In this type of condensation, a large portion of the area of solid surface is directly exposed to vapour
without an insulating film of condensate liquids. Consequently, higher heat transfer rate is achieved.
Dropwise condensation has been observed to occur either on highly polished surface or on surface
contaminated with impurities like fatty acids and organic compounds.
This type of condensation gives coefficient of heat transfer generally 5 to 10 times larger than with film
condensation. Although dropwise condensation would be preferred to filmwise condensation, yet it is
exptemely difficult to achieve or maintain. This is because most surface become wetted after being
exposed to condensing vapour over a period of time.
Dropwise condensation can be obtained under controlled conditions with teh help of certain additives to
the condensate and various surface coatings but its commercial viability has not been approved.

20
 For this reason the conditioning equipment in use is designed on the basis of filmwise condensation.

APPARATUS:
This Unicool apparatus is designed for finding heat transfer coefficients of two modes of condensation and
for visualization of these processes. It consists of a vertical frame. Condensation tubes are fitted inside compact
glass cylinder. Steam generator is also fitted for generation of steam with control valve. Steam comes directly from
generator to cylinder. Two valves are fitted to control flow rate of water in individual tubes. Temperatures are
recorded by temperature indicator.

SPECIFICATIONS:

1. Steam generator of suitable capacity

2. Copper tubes with -

 Natural finish

 Polished surface finish

3. Temperature indicator (0-6000C) with Chromel Alumel thermocouples.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Thermocouple positions-
T1 - Plated Condenser Wall Temperature.
T2 - Plane (Copper) Condenser Wall Temperature.
T3 - Steam Temperature (Ts).
T4 - Water Inlet Temperature.
T5 - Water Outlet Temperature for Plated Condenser.
T6 - Water Outlet Temperature for Plane Condenser.

Sl. No. Water mass Flow Rate T1(0C) T2(0C) T3(0C) T4(0C) T5(0C) T6(0C)
(Kg/min.)

21
 1.

2.

CALCULATIONS:
We will calculate the heat transfer coefficient for the condenser under test. For this, properties of water are taken at
bulk mean temperature of water, i.e.,

Bulk Mean Temperature = Tbm = (Twi + Two)/2

where,
Twi = water inlet temperature to the condenser.
Two = water outlet temperature to the condenser.
Following properties are required-
ρ = Density of water, kg/m3
μ = Dynamic Viscosity (Pa.s)
K1 = Thermal Conductivity, kcal/hr m oC (in MKS units), w/m-K (in SI units)
Pr = Prandtl number.

Now Reynolds Number -

Re = 4mw/(3.14μ Di)

where,
mw = mass flow rate.
Di = inner diameter of condenser = 19.0 mm = 0.019 m.

If the value of Re > 2100, then flow is turbulent and below this value, flow is laminar.
Normally flow will be turbulent in pipe.

22
Now Nussent Number -
Nul = 0.023 (Re)0.8 * (Pr)0.4

and h = Nul * k/L kcal/hr-m2-oC (in MKS units), w/m2K (in SI units)

where h = convective heat transfer coefficient.

Same procedure can be repeated for other condenser.

RESULT:

Except for some experimental cases, overall hear transfer coefficient for dropwise condensation will be
higher than that of filmwise condensation.

Results may vary from theory in some degree due to unavoidable heat losses.

OBJECTIVE-
To calculate the heat transfer coefficient for filmwise and dropwise condensation.
APPARATUS:
This NEC apparatus is designed for finding heat transfer coefficients of two modes of condensation and for
visualization of these processes. It consists of a vertical frame. Condensation tubes are fitted inside compact
transparent cylinder. Steam generator is also fitted for generation of steam with control valve. Steam comes directly
from generator to cylinder. Two valves are fitted to control flow rate of water in individual tubes. Temperatures are
recorded by temperature indicator.
SPECIFICATIONS:

1. Steam generator of 3 ltr. capacity and 2 kW heater.

2. Copper tubes with -

 Natural finish (Length 150mm and Dia. 19mm)

 Polished surface finish (Length 150mm and Dia. 19mm)

23
 3. Temperature indicator (0-6000C) with 1oC least count fitted with Chromel Alumel thermocouples.

4. Control valves of 0.25'' size = 4 Nos. to control the flow in copper pipes.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Thermocouple positions-

T1 - Plated Condenser Wall Temperature.

T2 - Plane (Copper) Condenser Wall Temperature.
T3 - Steam Temperature (Ts).
T4 - Water Inlet Temperature.
T5 - Water Outlet Temperature for Plated Condenser.
T6 - Water Outlet Temperature for Plane Condenser.

Sl. No. Water mass Flow Rate T1(0C) T2(0C) T3(0C) T4(0C) T5(0C) T6(0C)
(Kg/min.)

CALCULATIONS:

Now calculate the heat transfer coefficient for the condenser under test. For this, properties of water are taken at
bulk mean temperature of water, i.e.,

Bulk mean temperature = Tbm = (Ts + Tw) / 2

where,
Ts = Saturation temperature of steam.
Tw = Temperature of wall surface on which condensation takes place.
Now, we calculate:
24
 h = 0.94(ρ2ghfgK3)0.25 / {Lμ(Ts – Tw)}0.25 W/m2K
where,
h = Convective heat transfer coefficient.
L = Length of the cylinder = 0.019 m.
g = 9.81m/s2
ρ = Density of water, kg/m3.
μ = Dynamic viscosity of condensing liquid.
K = Thermal Conductivity of water.
Ts = Saturation temperature of steam.
Tw = Temperature of wall surface on which condensation takes place.
Same procedure can be repeated for other condenser.
RESULT:
Except for some exceptional cases, overall heat transfer coefficient for dropwise condensation will be higher than
that of filmwise condensation.
Results may vary from theory in some degree due to unavoidable heat losses.
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Do not start heater supply unless water is filled in the steam generator if water is insufficient in the steam
generator.

2. Operate gently the selector switch of temperature indicator as well as control valves.

3. Always run one type of Condenser at a time.

SAMPLE READINGS:
Thermocouple positions-
T1 - Plated Condenser Wall Temperature.
T2 - Plane (Copper) Condenser Wall Temperature.
T3 - Steam Temperature (Ts).
T4 - Water Inlet Temperature.
T5 - Water Outlet Temperature for Plated Condenser.
25
T6 - Water Outlet Temperature for Plane Condenser.

Sl. No. Water mass Flow Rate T1(0C) T2(0C) T3(0C) T4(0C) T5(0C) T6(0C)
(Kg/min.)

1. (for
Dropwise
Condensation) 1.5 35 - 78 28 30 -

2. (for
Filmwise
Condensation) 1.5 - 34 78 28 - 29

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:

Now calculate the heat transfer coefficient for the condenser under test. For this, properties of water are taken at
bulk mean temperature of water, i.e.,

Bulk mean temperature = Tbm = (Ts + Tw) / 2 = (78+34)/2 = 56 0C

where,

Ts = Saturation temperature of steam.

Tw = Temperature of wall surface on which condensation takes place.

Now, we calculate:
h = 0.94(ρ2ghfgK3)0.25 / {Lμ(Ts – Tw)}0.25 W/m2K
Case1: Dropwise Condensation

h = 0.94(10002*9.8*2480*1000*0.65073)0.25 / {0.15*0.04668*10-3(78 – 35)}0.25 W/m2K

h = 6861 W/m2K

26
Case2: Filmwise Condensation

h = 0.94(10002*9.8*2480*1000*0.65073)0.25 / {0.15*0.04668*10-3(78 – 34)}0.25 W/m2K

h = 6821 W/m2K

27
 EXPERIMENT-5
FREE VIBRATION OF CANTILEVER BEAM SYSTEM
(i). Aim: To study the damped free vibration of cantilever beam system.
(ii). Theory: Natural frequency is of major importance in the study of vibrations. Because of friction & other resistances,
vibrating systems are subjected to damping to some degree due to dissipation of energy. Damping has very little effect on
natural frequency of the system, and hence, the calculations for natural frequencies are generally made on the basis of no
damping. Damping is of great importance in limiting the amplitude of oscillation at resonance. Natural frequency of
aluminum plate analytically:

We know that for isotropic continuous beam materials the first three natural frequencies can be calculated as:

First natural frequency

𝐸𝐼
𝜔 = 1.875
𝜌𝐴𝐿

Second natural frequency

𝐸𝐼
𝜔 = 4.694
𝜌𝐴𝐿

Third natural frequency

𝐸𝐼
𝜔 = 7.855
𝜌𝐴𝐿

(iii). Experimental Setup: The arrangement is shown in Fig.1. It is designed to study free damped and undamped
vibrations. It consists of mild steel rectangular beam fixed to a support and the other end is free to move.

Fig. 1: An experimental setup for the free vibration of a cantilever beam

28
 Fig. 2: A close view of an accelerometer mounted on the free end of the beam

(iv). Instruments required

 Data acquisition system,
 Accelerometer/ Laser vibrometer
 Force transducers
 Modal exciter
 Specimens with arrangements of CFFF (Cantilever).
 Computer with signal display and processing software.
Experimental Procedure
i. Choose a beam of a particular material (steel, aluminum or copper), dimensions (L, w, d) and transducer (i.e.,
measuring device, e.g. accelerometer, laser vibrometer).
ii. Clamp one end of the beam as the cantilever beam support.
iii. Place an accelerometer (with magnetic base) at the free end of the cantilever beam as shown in Fig.2, to
measure the free vibration response (acceleration).
iv. Give an initial deflection to the cantilever beam and allow it to oscillate its own. To get the higher frequency it
is suggested to give initial displacement at an arbitrary position apart from the free end of the beam.
v. This could be done by bending the beam from its static equilibrium position by applying a small static force at
the free end of the beam and suddenly releasing it, so that the beam oscillates its own without any external force
during the oscillation.
vi. The free oscillation could also be started by giving a small tap at the free end of the beam.
vii. Record the data obtained from the chosen transducer in the form of graph (variation of the vibration response
with time).
viii. Repeat the procedure for 5 to 10 times to check the repeatability of the experimentation.
ix. Repeat the whole experiment for different material, dimensions, and measuring devices.
x. Record the whole set of data in a data base.

(v). Observation table:

Table 1 Material properties of various beams

S.No. Materials Density (Kg/m3) Young’s Modulus E Cross sectional
(N/m2) area (A)

29
 Table 2 Geometry of beams
S.No. Length L (m) Breadth b (m) Height h (m) Moment of inertia
(I)

Table 3 Natural frequency

S. No. Beam Damping ratio Natural frequency Natural frequency
Material (experimental) Hz (Analytical) Hz
1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd

(vi). Results and Discussion

(vii). Conclusions

Precautions

o Fixed end condition of the cantilever beam could be ensured by properly gripping one end of the beam.
o Care should be taken that the cables of accelerometer should not affect the beam motion.
o The mass of the accelerometer should be small as compared to beam mass.
o The power of excitation should be proper, too less power may cause of insufficient vibration and too high
power may cause of damage of the system.

Questions:
1. Explain natural frequency.
2. List the various transducers used for vibration measurement.
3. Give the difference between contact and non-contact type sensors.

30
 EXPERIMENT- 6
FORCED VIBRATION OF A CANTILEVER BEAM

(i). Aim: The aim of the experiment is to analyse the forced vibrations of a cantilever and, the phenomena of
resonances, the phase of the vibration signal; and also to obtain the fundamental natural frequency and damping
ratio of the system, and compare the results with theoretically calculated values.

(ii). Theory: The basic objective of these experiments is to provide a feel of actual experiments along with learning
of basics while performing the virtual experiments.
Basic Definitions

i. Forced vibration: When a dynamic system is subjected to a steady-state harmonic excitation, it is forced to
vibrate at the same frequency as that of the excitation. The harmonic excitation can be given in many ways like
with constant frequency and variable frequency or a swept-sine frequency, in which the frequency changes
from the initial to final values of frequencies with a given time-rate (i.e., ramp).

ii. Resonances: If the frequency of excitation coincides with one of the natural frequencies of the system, a
condition of resonance is encountered and dangerously large oscillations may result, which results in failure of
major structures, i.e., bridges, buildings, or airplane wings etc.

iii. Calculation of natural frequencies: Natural frequency is of major importance in the study of vibrations. Because of
friction & other resistances, vibrating systems are subjected to damping to some degree due to dissipation of energy.
Damping has very little effect on natural frequency of the system, and hence, the calculations for natural frequencies are
generally made on the basis of no damping. Damping is of great importance in limiting the amplitude of oscillation at
resonance. Natural frequency of aluminium plate analytically:
We know that for isotropic continuous beam materials the first three natural frequencies can be
calculated as:

First natural frequency

𝐸𝐼
𝜔 = 1.875
𝜌𝐴𝐿

Second natural frequency

𝐸𝐼
𝜔 = 4.694
𝜌𝐴𝐿

Third natural frequency

31
 𝐸𝐼
𝜔 = 7.855
𝜌𝐴𝐿

Calculation of Damping Ratio:The damping ratio can be calculated with the help of phase difference between
the force and the response at any excitation frequency especially which is close to the natural frequency of the
system. The damping ratio can be calculated as follows:

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 =

Where, φ is phase difference between the force and the response, and

𝜔=

Final equation for damping is,

(𝟏 − 𝝎𝟐 )
𝜻= 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝋
𝟐𝝎
(𝟏 − 𝝎𝟐 )
𝜻= 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝋
𝟐𝝎
(iii). Experimental setup

Fig. 1: An experimental setup for the forced vibration of a cantilever beam.

32
 (iv). Instruments required
 Data acquisition system,
 Accelerometer/ laser vibrometer
 Function Generator
 Amplifier
 Force transducers,
 Exciter, and
 Specimens with arrangements of CFFF (Cantilever).
 Computer with signal display and processing software.
Accelerometer is a sensing element (transducer) to measure the vibration response (i.e., acceleration, velocity and
displacement). Data acquisition of system takes vibration signal from the accelerometer and encodes it in digital
form of FRF (frequency response function). Computer acts as a data storage and analysis system. It takes encoded
data from data acquisition system and after processing (e.g., FFT, etc.), it displays on the computer screen by using
analysis software.

When we perform the experiment, the exciter keeps the excitation force in such a way that the displacement
increases almost linearly. Because of this reason, we get continuously increasing displacement-frequency graph,
but the force- frequency graph decreases up to the resonance than it increases. The controller of the exciter
minimizes the force amplitude so that at resonance large oscillations does not take place.

Table 1 Material properties of various beams

Sl no. Materials Density (Kg/m3) Young’s Modulus E Cross sectional

(N/m2) area (A)

Table 2 Different geometry of a beams

Sl no. Length L (m) Breadth b (m) Height h (m) Moment of inertia

(I)

Experimental procedure

o Choose a beam of a particular material (steel or aluminium), dimensions (L, b, h) and transducer (e.g.,
accelerometer or laser vibrometer).
o Clamp one end of the beam as the cantilever beam support (see Fig.1).

33
o Place an accelerometer (with magnetic base) at the free end of the cantilever beam, to measure the forced
vibration response (acceleration).
o Place the exciter stinger on the beam slightly offset from the middle of the beam .Ensure the connection of the
exciter with the controller and the level of input power.
o Connect another accelerometer at the exciter string tip to measure the forced applied by the exciter to the beam.
o Construct a proper connection of accelerometer with data acquisition system and with computer to capture the
vibration data.
o During setting of the swept-sine parameter make sure that in the vibration measurement software the time
duration should be greater than the total time of excitation.
o Provide swept-sine signal exciter to the exciter from the signal generator.
o Start the experiment by giving force signal to the exciter and allow the beam to force vibrate. Record all the
data obtained from the chosen transducer in the form of variation of the vibration response with time.
o Repeat the experiments for required no. of times to check the repeatability of the experimentation (i.e.,
vibration data).
o Repeat the whole experiment for different material, dimensions, and measuring devices.

(v). Observation table

Sl no. Beam Damping ratio Natural frequency Natural frequency
Material (experimental) Hz (Analytical) Hz
1st 2nd 3rd 1 st
2nd 3rd

(vi). Results and discussion

(vii). Conclusions: The forced vibration parameter like natural frequencies, resonance frequency, damping ratio is
studied.

Precautions
Fixed end condition of the cantilever beam can be ensured by properly gripping one end of the beam.
o Care should be taken that the cables of accelerometer should not affect the beam motion.
o The mass of the accelerometer should be small as compared to beam mass.
o The power of excitation should be proper, too less power may cause of insufficient vibration and too high
power may cause of damage of the system

Questions:

 Explain the differences between free and forced vibration?

 Explain damping ratio.
 What is resonance and its significance?

34
 EXPERIMENT- 7
Determination of Damping co-efficient (c) of air by using Simple Pendulam
Aim : To find out the damping co-efficient (c ) of air by using a simple pendulum.
Theory:
(i) Quality factor (Q): Quality factor of an oscillating system is defined as the ratio of the natural frequency
of the system to the ratio of damping co-efficient to the mass of the system ( denoted by ‘γ’ = c/m).
Q=
𝜔 = natural frequency of the system.

(ii) The expression of displacement for a under damped free vibration is given as
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 cos( 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝛼 )
Where, A is the amplitude at t = 0 & 𝛼 = 0,
𝜔 = damped frequency = 𝜔 1 − 𝜉
Where, 𝜉 = damping factor, α = initial phase difference.
/
𝛾
𝜔 = 𝜔 −
4
/
𝜔
= 𝜔 −
4𝑄
/
1
= 𝜔 1−
4𝑄
/
1
𝜔 = 𝜔 1−
4𝑄
( In terms of ‘𝜔 ′ & ‘Q’ )
(iii) So, if we put t = , then , amplitude of the system becomes
𝐴
𝑥 = ≈ 0.37 𝐴
𝑒
‘ t = ‘ is called ‘Decay time’ .
(iv) No. of Oscillation : Number of oscillations to become amplitude to become are

2
𝑁= =
𝑇 𝑇 𝛾
Where 𝑇 = Time period of undamped free vibration.

2𝜔 𝜔
𝑁= =
𝛾 . 2𝜋 𝛾 𝜋
As 𝛾 = , and even for very high damping , 𝜔 𝜔 is almost equal to 𝜔 , (𝜔 ≈ 𝜔 ).
35
 We can replace 𝛾 = ,

𝑄
𝑁 =
𝜋

By counting the number of oscillations, we can calculate Q (quality factor) and from Q , c (damping co-
efficient) of air can be calculated.

Initial displacement is given 10 cm and 100 cm for two sets of observation and the number of
oscillations is counted till the amplitude of the simple pendulum reduced to 3.7 cm (almost 4) and (37.7
cm ). Here we taook initial displacement 13.5 cm. and counted till amplitude becomes 5 cm [ as 5 ≈
𝑋 13.5 ].

110cm 110cm

Ball of plastic (7 gm) Ball of steel

Observation Table:
L= Length from the bob to the center of mass of the pendulum
Material Initial Displacement No. of Average Q 𝑐
oscillations (N)

Calculations :

Q= =

As, Q= N 𝜋

36
 So, =N𝜋

Now, c= .

= [as 𝜔 = ]

G = gravitationbal acceleration = 9.81 m/s2 = 981 cm/s2

𝑐 =

For plastic ball ( m =7 gm) we provide an initial displacement of 13.5 cm and counted number of oscillations till
the amplitude becomes 5 cm (almost) & for the steel ball (57 gm ) we gave an initial displacement of 27.9 cm and
calculated the no. of oscillations till the amplitude becomes 10cm (almost).

Precautions:
i) There are some assumptions and experimental errors which we can’t avoid as its all depends on human
observation, air conditions and how close all the system behaves to the ideal system. But, the observer
should be as much as accurate as one can and initial velocity should be zero.
ii) Initial displacement can not be more than a certain amount such that angle formed between the
equilibrium position and the extreme position should not exceed more than 4° - 8° (as after that sin 𝜃

can not be approximated as 𝜃 & 𝜔 = would not be valid)

iii) Rope should be as light ( in weight) as possible and hold tightly with the fixed support.

37
 EXPERIMENT-8
MODAL ANALYSIS OF CANTILEVER BEAM
(i). Aim: To determine mode shapes, natural frequency, damping coefficient of cantilever beam in order to obtain
beam characteristics of cantilever beam by using modal analysis of beam.
(ii). Apparatus required: Cantilever beam, Impact hammer, Accelerometer, B & K modal analyzer, BK connect
software.

Fig. 1. Modal analyzer (Data acquisition board) and hammer.

(iii). Theory: When external varying force is applied to cantilever beam induces vibration and response of
vibration measured to determine the mode shape of beam. Amplitude of response changes with rate of oscillation.
It increases as well as decreases in amplitude at different points as we sweep up in time. The response amplifies as
we apply a force with a rate of oscillation that gets closer and closer to the natural frequency (or resonant
frequency) of the system and reaches a maximum when the rate of oscillation is at the resonant frequency of the
system. This time data provides very useful information. But if we take the time data and transform it to the
frequency domain using the Fast Fourier Transform then we can compute something called the frequency response
function. Now there are some very interesting items to note. We see that there are peaks in this function which
occur at the resonant frequencies of the system. And we notice that these peaks occur at frequencies where the time
response was observed to have maximum response corresponding to the rate of oscillation of the input excitation.
When excitation frequency coincides with natural frequency of beam, corresponding deformation shapes of
cantilever beam called mode shapes of beam.

38
Experimental Procedure
 The frequency response function is the ratio of the output response of a structure to an applied force. We
measure both the applied force and the response of the structure due to the applied force simultaneously. (The
response can be measured as displacement, velocity or acceleration.)
 Now the measured time data is transformed from the time domain to the frequency domain using a fast Fourier
transform algorithm found in any signal processing analyser and computer software packages.
 Let’s first evaluate a simple beam with only 3 measurement locations. Notice that the beam has 3 measurement
locations and 3 mode shapes. There are 3 possible places that forces can be applied and 3 possible places where
the responses can be measured. This means that there are a total of 9 possible complex-valued frequency
response functions that could be acquired; the frequency response functions are usually described with
subscripts to denote the input and output locations as ℎ , .

Fig. 2. Modal analysis setup for cantilever beam.

 Mark the cantilever beam at different point as 1,2 and 3.

39
 Set the all features of BK connect software properly.
 Collection of data of the input excitation, output response and frequency response function by using BK
connect Software package called data acquisition. Assemble an accelerometer at point 3 and excite the
cantilever beam at point 1,2 and 3. Collect data from the cantilever beam for every condition. Name the
frequency response spectrum as ℎ , .
 Repeat same procedure for point 1 and 2.
 Check the collected data is feasible or not by seeing the coherence plot in B & K modal analyser.

Fig. 3. BK connect software interface

 Develop model of cantilever beam in B & K connect software or Import it from any other software.
 After data acquisition post processing of data takes place. In post processing the FRF taken from experiment
imposed to the model in BK connect software to find mode shapes, natural frequency and damping ratio of
cantilever beam.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.1 (a) Marked cantilever beam (b) Excitation and response at point 3 (c) Excitation at point 2 and response
taken from point 3

40
(iv). Observation and Analysis
After post processing of data develop an observation table
Sl No Type of mode shapes Natural frequency Damping coefficient

(v). Conclusion:
Questions:
1. Define modal analysis and modal parameters.
2. What is the significance of modal frequencies?
3. Explain FRF.

41
 EXPERIMENT- 9

WHIRLING OF SHAFT

AIM: To find out critical speed experimentally and to compare the Whirling Speed of a shaft
with theoretical values.
LEARNING OUTCOME: Students will understand the phenomena of whirling in a shaft

THEORY:

In actual practice, a rotating shaft carries different mountings and accessories in the form of
gears, pulleys etc. when the gears or pulleys are put on the shaft, the center of gravity of the
pulley or gear does not coincide with the center line of the bearings or with the axis of the
shaft, when the shaft is stationary. This means that the center of gravity of the pulley or gear is
at a certain distance from the axis of rotation and due to this, the shaft is subjected to
centrifugal force. This force will bend the shaft, which will further increase the distance of
center of gravity of the pulley or gear from the axis of rotation. The bending of shaft not only
depends upon the value of eccentricity (distance between center of gravity of the pulley and
axis of rotation) but also depends upon the speed at which the shaft rotates. The speed, at which
the shaft runs so that the additional deflection of the shaft from the axis of rotation becomes
infinite, is known as critical or whirling speed.
APPARATUSES: Whirling of shaft Apparatus, and shafts of different diameters
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of a DC motor as the driving unit, which drives the shaft supported in
Fixing ends. Fixing ends can slide and adjust according to the requirement on the guiding
pipes. Motor is connected to the shaft through flexible coupling. The shafts of different
diameters can be replaced easily with the help of fixing ends. A dimmer stat is provided to
increase or decrease the rpm of the motor. The whole arrangement is fixed on M.S. frame.
Guards are provided to protect the user from accident.
PROCEDURE :

1. Fix the shaft to tube tested in the fixed ends.

2. Supply the main power to the motor through dimmer stat.

3. Gradually increase the speed of motor until the first mode of vibration is not arrived.

4. Study the first mode of vibration and note down the corresponding speed of the shaft
with the help of hand tachometer.
5. Gradually increase the speed of motor again, until the second mode of vibration is not
arrived.
42
 6. Study the second mode of vibration and note down the corresponding speed of the
shaft with the help of hand tachometer.
7. Reduce the speed gradually and when shaft stop rotating, cut off the main power
supply.
8. Repeat the experiment for the shafts of different diameters.

FORMULAE:

1. Moment of inertia of shaft, I = (п/64) x D4 m4

2. Mass of the shaft = Area x Length x density

3. Area of shaft: = (п/4) x D2 m2

When,

Static deflection of shaft due to mass of the shaft,

4
δs = 𝖶𝐿 m
185𝐸𝐼

Frequency of transverse vibration,

fn = 0.56196 Hz

√{δs/1.27}
Critical or Whirling speed of the shaft (in r.p.s.) is equal to the frequency of transverse
vibration in Hz.

Nc (r.p.s.) = fn Hz
Nc (rpm) = 60 × fn

When the both ends are supported:

State deflection of shaft due to mass of the shaft,

4
δs = 𝖶𝐿 m
38#𝐸𝐼

Frequency of transverse vibration,

43
 fn = 0.56196 Hz
√{δs/1.27

Critical or Whirling speed of the shaft (in r.p.s) is equal to the frequency of transverse
vibration in Hz.

Nc (r.p.s.) = fn Hz
Nc (rpm) = 60 × fn

When one end is fix and other is supported:

State deflection of shaft due to mass of the shaft,

𝖶𝐿!
δ s= meter
185𝐸𝐼

44
 Frequency of transverse vibration,
fn = 0.56196 Hz

√{δs/1.27}
Critical or Whirling speed of the shaft (in r.p.s) is equal to the frequency of transverse
vibration in Hz.

Nc (r.p.s.) = fn Hz
Nc (rpm) = 60 × fn

OBSERVATION & CALCULATION:

GIVEN DATA:

1. Diameter of shaft 1, d1 = mm = m

2. Diameter of shaft 2, d2 = mm = m

3. Diameter of shaft 3, d3 = mm = m

4. Length of shaft 1, L1 = meter

5. Length of shaft 2, L2 = meter

6. Length of shaft 3, L3 = 1 meter

7. Young’s Modulus of Elasticity, E = 2 × 106 kg/cm2
8. Density of shaft material = 0.0078 kg/cm2
9. Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/s2

When both the ends are fixed:

S. No. Actual whirling speed, Na Theoretical Whirling speed, Nt

45
 When one end is fix and other end is supported:

S. No. Actual whirling Theoretical Whirling

speed, Na speed, Nt

Possible Experiments with Elastic Rods:

Experiment End Fixing Mode Of

No. Whirl
1 One supported other 1st Mode
Fixed
5 Both end Fixed 1st Mode

CONCLUSION: Critical speed of shaft is identified.

QUESTIONS:
1. What is critical speed of the shaft?
2. Explain the movement of shaft near or away from fixed axis at different speed relative to
critical speed.
3. What type of excitation is produced during whirling.

46