CHAPTER 3.
[Ocean Environment ]
1. 🌍 Introduction
The ocean environment governs the loads, responses, and design philosophy of offshore
structures.
Unlike controlled laboratory conditions, offshore structures operate in:
● Dynamic seas → irregular waves, random currents, variable winds.
● Spatial variability → conditions differ by location (North Sea vs Gulf of Mexico).
● Uncertainty → no two wave trains are identical → probability/statistics essential.
Thus, engineers cannot design for a single wave; they must model the entire sea state.
2. 🌊 Properties of Ocean Water
● Density (ρ): ~1025 kg/m³ (depends on salinity, temperature, pressure).
● Viscosity (μ): Low, but critical for damping oscillations.
● Temperature stratification: Drives internal waves (hidden but powerful).
These properties control buoyancy, drag, damping, and wave propagation.
3. 📈 Wave Theories
Waves are oscillatory motions of water particles driven by wind. No single theory works
everywhere; applicability depends on wave steepness (H/L) and relative depth (d/L).
(a) Linear (Airy) Theory
● Assumes small amplitude → sinusoidal.
● Surface profile:
η(x,t)=H2cos(kx−ωt)\eta(x,t) = \frac{H}{2}\cos(kx - \omega t)η(x,t)=2Hcos(kx−ωt)
● Particle velocities decay exponentially with depth.
● Valid when:
HL<0.05,d/L>0.5\frac{H}{L} < 0.05, \quad d/L > 0.5LH<0.05,d/L>0.5
● Use case: Preliminary design, deep water, regular seas.
⚡ Limitation: Cannot handle steep or breaking waves → underestimates loads in storms.
(b) Stokes’ Theory
● Accounts for non-linearity (wave crests sharper, troughs flatter).
● 2nd-order form:
η(x,t)=H2cosθ+12(πHL)2cos2θ\eta(x,t) = \frac{H}{2}\cos \theta + \frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{\pi
H}{L}\right)^2 \cos 2\thetaη(x,t)=2Hcosθ+21(LπH)2cos2θ
● 5th-order Stokes used for accurate design (H/L up to ~0.14).
● Valid in intermediate depths.
⚡ Key Insight: Offshore platforms in storms see Stokes-type waves, not linear ones → loads
are higher.
(c) Cnoidal Wave Theory
● For shallow water (d/L < 0.1).
● Surface profile involves elliptic functions:
η(x,t)=a+b cn2(2K(m)L(x−ct),m)\eta(x,t) = a + b \, \text{cn}^2\left(\frac{2K(m)}{L}(x-ct),
m\right)η(x,t)=a+bcn2(L2K(m)(x−ct),m)
● Produces long, flat crests and sharp troughs.
● Used in coastal engineering, harbors, pipelines near shore.
(d) Stream Function Theory
● Numerical, iterative → can handle very steep irregular waves.
● Used in design software for offshore structures.
● No closed form → solved via Fourier series.
⚡ Why important: At extreme steepness, only stream function gives realistic pressures and
velocities.
(e) Wave Breaking
● Occurs when:
HL>0.142orHd>0.78\frac{H}{L} > 0.142 \quad \text{or} \quad \frac{H}{d} >
0.78LH>0.142ordH>0.78
● Breaking waves = maximum loads on structures → must be designed for safety.
✅ Hierarchy of Usefulness
● Linear: simple, deep water.
● Stokes: moderate depth, higher steepness.
● Cnoidal: shallow water.
● Stream Function: steep, extreme, realistic.
4. 🌊 H/L → The Wave Steepness Parameter
● H=H =H= wave height, L=L =L= wavelength.
● Governs which theory to use:
○ Small H/L: Linear valid.
○ Moderate H/L: Stokes needed.
○ Large H/L: Non-linear or breaking.
This ratio directly determines design loads.
5. 📊 Spectral Models (Sea as Random Process)
The real ocean = irregular, random waves, not a single sine.
Hence, engineers use wave spectra → statistical representation of sea surface elevation.
(a) Pierson–Moskowitz (PM) Spectrum
● Fully developed sea (strong wind blowing long enough).
● Equation:
S(ω)=αg2ω−5exp[−β(ωpω)4]S(\omega) = \alpha g^2 \omega^{-5} \exp\left[-\beta
\left(\frac{\omega_p}{\omega}\right)^4\right]S(ω)=αg2ω−5exp[−β(ωωp)4]
● Smooth curve → used in North Atlantic design codes.
(b) JONSWAP Spectrum
● For fetch-limited seas (younger seas).
● Enhances the peak:
S(ω)=SPM⋅γexp[−(ω−ωp)22σ2ωp2]S(\omega) = S_{PM} \cdot
\gamma^{\exp\left[-\frac{(\omega - \omega_p)^2}{2\sigma^2
\omega_p^2}\right]}S(ω)=SPM⋅γexp[−2σ2ωp2(ω−ωp)2]
● γ\gammaγ = peak enhancement factor.
● More realistic for storms.
(c) Directional Spectrum
● Adds spreading function D(θ)D(\theta)D(θ).
● Because waves come from different angles, not just one direction.
⚡ Engineering Use:
● From spectrum → compute significant wave height (H_s), average period (T_z).
● Generate random sea surface via Fourier superposition.
● Feed into CFD codes / model tests → design offshore platforms.
6. 🌊 Sea Simulation
● Steps to simulate irregular sea:
1. Choose spectrum (PM, JONSWAP).
2. Discretize into frequency components.
3. Assign random phases.
4. Sum components → time series of η(t).
η(t)=∑i=1N2S(ωi)Δωcos(ωit+ϕi)\eta(t) = \sum_{i=1}^{N} \sqrt{2S(\omega_i)\Delta\omega}
\cos(\omega_i t + \phi_i)η(t)=i=1∑N2S(ωi)Δωcos(ωit+ϕi)
● This generates a realistic sea state for design.
⚡ Key Point: Structures are not designed for one wave, but for the statistical distribution of
many.
7. 🌬 Currents & Wind
● Currents: Steady (uniform), shear (vary with depth), combined with waves.
● Winds: Generate waves; modeled with wind spectra (e.g., Harris spectrum).
● Currents + wind amplify wave loads → nonlinear coupling.
8. 🌍 Regional Variations
● North Sea: extreme seas, short crests → harshest designs.
● Gulf of Mexico: hurricanes dominate.
● West Africa: long-period swells.
● Brazil: loop currents affect risers.
🔑 Resummarization (Exam Ready)
● Linear theory → simple sinusoidal waves, small steepness.
● Stokes theory → includes higher harmonics, handles steep/intermediate waves.
● Cnoidal theory → long shallow water waves.
● Stream function → realistic steep/complex waves.
● H/L = steepness → the critical parameter that dictates applicability.
● Spectral models (PM, JONSWAP) → treat the ocean as random → basis for modern
offshore design.
● Sea simulation → random superposition of waves → realistic input for structural
analysis.
● Breaking waves & currents → ultimate design cases.
