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The document is a study guide for the course 'Introduction to Sociology: Culture & Society' at Allama Iqbal Open University, designed to provide students with a comprehensive understanding of sociological concepts and their applications. It covers nine units focusing on key themes such as culture, socialization, social stratification, and inequality, with an emphasis on critical thinking and real-world applications. The guide also outlines course objectives, organization, assessment methods, and study strategies to support distance learning.

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STUDY GUIDE

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY
CULTURE & SOCIETY
BS Sociology

Unit: 1-9 CODE: 9410

Department of Sociology
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities
Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad
1
(All rights reserved with the publisher)

First Printing ...................................... 2025

Quantity.............................................. 1000

Layout Setting .................................... Ikram Yousaf

Incharge Printing ................................ Dr. Sarmad Iqbal

Printer................................................. AIOU-Printing Press, H-8, Islamabad

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COURSE TEAM

Chairperson & Dean: Prof. Dr. Abdul Aziz Sahir

Unit Writer: Dr. Nasim Khan Mahsud

Course Reviewers: 1. Prof. Dr. Arab Naz

2. Dr. Rabia Gull

Course Development Coordinator: Dr. Nasim Khan Mahsud

[email protected]

Editor: Mr. Fazal Karim

Layout: Ikram Yousaf

3
FOREWORD
Sociology is a powerful tool for understanding the world around us. It helps us
make sense of the social structures, cultural norms, and inequalities that shape our
lives. Introduction to Sociology: Culture & Society is a study guide designed
specifically for the students of Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) in Pakistan
and abroad, offering a clear and comprehensive introduction to the key concepts,
theories, and practices of sociology. Whether you are just beginning your journey
in the BS Sociology program or seeking to deepen your understanding of social
issues, this guide is here to support your learning in a flexible and accessible
manner, taking into account the unique needs of distance education.
This study guide is structured to help you explore the core themes of sociology,
such as culture, socialization, social stratification, conformity, deviance, and
inequality. Each unit is packed with explanations, examples, and case studies that
are relevant to both Pakistani society and the global context. For instance, when
discussing social stratification, you will find examples from Pakistan’s class and
caste systems, as well as comparisons with Western societies. These real-world
connections are designed to help you see how sociological concepts apply to
everyday life.
One of the key features of this guide is its focus on critical thinking and application.
Each unit includes self-assessment questions, discussion prompts, and further
readings to help you engage with the material and develop your own insights. By
reflecting on issues like poverty, gender inequality, and social mobility, you will
gain a deeper understanding of the challenges facing Pakistan and the world.
As students in Pakistan, you are uniquely positioned to analyze and address the
social issues that affect your communities. This guide is designed to empower you
with the knowledge and skills needed to think critically about these issues and
contribute to positive change. Sociology is not just about studying society; it is also
about understanding how to create a more just and equitable world.
We hope this study guide will inspire you to explore the fascinating field of
sociology with curiosity and enthusiasm. May it serve as a valuable resource in
your academic journey and beyond, helping you to better understand the social
forces that shape our lives and the role you can play in shaping the future.

Welcome to the study of the course “Introduction to Sociology: Culture & Society”.

Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood

Vice Chancellor-AIOU
4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

As the author of “Introduction to Sociology: Culture & Society”, I would like to

extend my heartfelt gratitude to the individuals and teams whose contributions have
made this study guide possible. This work is the result of collective effort,
collaboration, and dedication, and I am deeply thankful to everyone who played a
role in its development.
First and foremost, I would like to acknowledge the guidance and support of Prof.
Dr. Abdul Aziz Sahir, Chairperson of the Department of Sociology at Allama Iqbal
Open University (AIOU). His leadership and vision have been instrumental in
shaping this course and ensuring its alignment with the academic goals of the BS
Sociology program. I am also immensely grateful to the Course Reviewers, Prof.
Dr. Arab Naz and Dr. Rabia Gull, for their insightful feedback and constructive
suggestions. Their expertise and critical review have significantly enhanced the
quality and depth of this study guide.
I would also like to acknowledge the editorial team for their diligent work in
refining the content and ensuring clarity and coherence throughout the guide. Their
attention to detail has been invaluable in creating a resource that is both accessible
and academically rigorous. Finally, I extend my gratitude to the administration and
faculty of Allama Iqbal Open University for their support and encouragement. This
study guide is a testament to AIOU’s commitment to providing quality education
to students across Pakistan, particularly those pursuing distance learning.
To the students of AIOU, this guide is dedicated to you. I hope that it will serve as
a valuable resource in your academic journey, inspiring you to explore the
fascinating field of sociology and apply its insights to create a more just and
equitable society.

Dr. Nasim Khan Mahsud

Assistant Professor of Sociology/ Course Development Coordinator
Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU)-Islamabad-Pakistan

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INTRODUCTION

“Sociology is the study of human society, its structures, and the patterns of social
relationships that shape our lives. It provides us with the tools to understand the
complexities of social behavior, cultural systems, and the forces that drive social
change.” Introduction to Sociology: Culture and Society is a comprehensive course
designed to introduce students to the fundamental concepts, theories, and
applications of sociology. This course is structured into nine units, each focusing
on a key aspect of sociological inquiry. By exploring topics such as culture, society,
social interaction, socialization, conformity, deviance, social stratification, and
inequality, this course aims to provide students with a holistic understanding of the
social world and its dynamics.
Unit 1: Sociology and Its Importance
The course begins with an introduction to sociology as a discipline, exploring its
origins, development, and significance in understanding human behavior and social
structures. Students will examine whether sociology qualifies as a science and how
it contributes to our understanding of societal issues.
Unit 2: Culture
This unit delves into the meaning, nature, and development of culture. Students will
explore the elements of culture, cultural integration, and cultural variation, with
examples from Pakistani and global contexts.
Unit 3: Society
The focus of this unit is on the evolution of human societies, from hunting and
gathering to industrial societies. Students will analyze how different types of
societies are organized and how they shape social relationships and institutions.
Unit 4: Social Interaction
This unit examines the study of everyday social life, including nonverbal
communication, interaction in space and time, and the social processes that govern
human behavior.
Unit 5: Social Groups and Organizations
Students will explore the concept of social groups, voluntary associations, and
bureaucracy. This unit highlights the role of groups and organizations in shaping
social behavior and maintaining social order.
Unit 6: Socialization
This unit focuses on the process of socialization, its impact on individual
development, and the agencies that facilitate it. Students will also examine theories
of child development and the effects of social isolation.

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Unit 7: Conformity and Deviance
This unit explores the concepts of conformity and deviance, their biological,
psychological, and sociological explanations, and their implications for society.
Topics such as white-collar crime and the criminal justice system are also discussed.
Unit 8: Social Stratification
Students will analyze the systems of social stratification, theoretical perspectives
on stratification, and the concept of social mobility. This unit also examines the
class and caste systems in Pakistani society.
Unit 9: Dimensions of Inequality
The final unit focuses on the concept of inequality, its dimensions, and its impact
on society. Students will explore poverty, gender inequality, and age-based
disparities, with examples from Pakistan and the global context.
This course is designed to foster critical thinking, self-learning, and a deeper
understanding of the social world. Through a combination of theoretical insights,
real-world examples, and self-assessment exercises, students will develop the skills
needed to analyze social issues and contribute to positive social change.

Dr. Nasim Khan Mahsud

Assistant Professor of Sociology/ Course Development Coordinator
Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU)-Islamabad-Pakistan

7
OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

Sociology is a discipline that helps us understand the complexities of human

societies, cultures, and social interactions. Introduction to Sociology: Culture and
Society is designed to provide students with a comprehensive understanding of the
fundamental concepts, theories, and applications of sociology. This course aims to
equip students with the knowledge and skills to analyze social structures, cultural
systems, and societal issues, particularly in the context of Pakistani society and
global perspectives. By exploring key themes such as culture, socialization, social
interaction, social stratification, conformity, deviance, and inequality, this course
seeks to foster critical thinking, self-learning, and a deeper understanding of the
social world.
In a Nutshell:

1. Introduce foundational concepts and theories of sociology.

2. Explore the relationship between culture and society.
3. Understand social stratification, inequality, and mobility.
4. Analyze conformity, deviance, and their societal implications.
5. Apply sociological perspectives to real-world issues in Pakistan and
globally.
6. Foster critical thinking and self-learning through structured study and
assessments.
7. Prepare students for advanced study and practical application of sociology.

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ORGANIZATION OF THE COURSE

Introduction to Sociology: Culture and Society is a semester course of three credit

hours. The course has been carefully structured to make it as accessible and
manageable as possible for students pursuing their studies through distance
education. This course consists of nine units, each designed to be completed in one
week with approximately 12-16 hours of study time. This includes studying the
prescribed reading material, engaging in self-learning activities, and completing
self-assessment exercises. The course is organized to foster the skill of self-
learning, enabling students to develop a deep understanding of sociological
concepts and their applications. At the beginning of the course, you will find
a course content overview, and foreword, which provide a comprehensive
introduction to the course and its objectives. Each unit is structured to build a strong
foundation in sociological ideas and issues, supported by examples from Pakistani
society and global contexts to enhance understanding.

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HOW THE COURSE IS ORGANIZED:

1. Course Content, Foreword and Introduction:

• Provides an overview of the course, its objectives, and the structure
of the study material.
2. Unit Outlines and Learning Objectives:
• Each unit begins with a clear outline of its major themes and sub-
themes.
• Specific learning objectives are provided to guide your study and
help you identify the key knowledge and skills you should acquire
by the end of the unit.
3. Simplified Explanations and Examples:
• Complex sociological concepts are simplified and explained with
relatable examples from Pakistani society and global contexts.
4. Prescribed Reading Material:
• Each unit includes a list of required readings that are essential for
the successful completion of the course. These readings are carefully
selected to complement the study guide and provide a deeper
understanding of the topics.
5. Self-Assessment Questions:
• At the end of each unit, you will find self-assessment
questions designed to help you evaluate your understanding of the
material and reinforce key concepts.
6. Assignments and Final Examination:
• Assignment No. 1 is due after completing the first four units,
and Assignment No. 2 is due after completing the next four units.
• The final examination will cover all nine units, with a focus on
integrating knowledge from the entire course.

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HOW TO USE THE READING MATERIAL:

As this is a distance education course, the study material has been organized to help
you develop a self-learning process in the absence of formal classroom teaching.
Follow these steps to make the most of your study time:
1. Step 1: Read the course description thoroughly to understand the scope
and objectives of the course.
2. Step 2: Familiarize yourself with the structure of the course and how to
use the reading material effectively.
3. Step 3: Complete an initial quick reading of the required study material to
get an overview of the content.
4. Step 4: Conduct a second, more detailed reading, taking notes on points
that are unclear or require further clarification.
5. Step 5: Attempt the self-assessment questions at the end of each unit to
test your understanding and reinforce key concepts.
6. Step 6: Revise your notes and revisit any challenging topics. You may find
that concepts become clearer as you engage with the material repeatedly.
7. Step 7: Prepare for workshop classes by reviewing the material and noting
questions or topics you wish to discuss with your teacher.
8. Step 8: Conduct a final reading of the study material to consolidate your
understanding before the final examination.

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METHODS OF ASSESSMENT:

Your performance in this course will be assessed through the following

components:
1. Assignments:
• Two assignments are required for this course.
• Assignment No. 1 covers the first four units, and Assignment No.
2 covers the next four units.
2. Workshops/Quiz:
• Participation in workshops is encouraged to enhance your
understanding of the course material and attempt the course-based
quiz.
3. Final Examination:
• The final exam will cover all nine units, with an emphasis on
integrating knowledge from the entire course.
STUDY CHART:
To help you stay on track, follow this study chart:

1. Step 1: Read the course description thoroughly.

2. Step 2: Understand how to use the reading material.
3. Step 3: Complete an initial quick reading of the study material.
4. Step 4: Conduct a detailed second reading and take notes.
5. Step 5: Attempt self-assessment questions.
6. Step 6: Revise your notes and clarify challenging points.
7. Step 7: Prepare for workshop/quiz and complete assignments.
8. Step 8: Conduct a final reading before the exam.

By following this structured approach, you will be well-prepared to succeed

in Introduction to Sociology: Culture and Society. We wish you the best in your
academic journey and hope this course inspires you to explore the fascinating world
of sociology with curiosity and enthusiasm.

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CONTENTS

Unit No. 1 Sociology and Its Importance 15

Unit No. 2 Culture 31

Unit No. 3 Society 51

Unit No. 4 Social Interaction 63

Unit No. 5 Social Groups and Organizations 83

Unit No. 6 Socialization 97

Unit No. 7 Conformity and Deviance 117

Unit No. 8 Social Stratification 131

Unit No. 9 Dimensions of Inequality 143

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Unit- 01

SOCIOLOGY AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Written By: Dr. Nasim Khan Mahsud

Reviewed By: Prof. Dr. Arab Naz

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CONTENTS

Introduction 17

Objectives 18

Major topics 19

1.1 What is Sociology? 19

1.2 What is Science? 23

1.3 Is Sociology a Science? 24

1.4 The Development of Sociology 25

Self-Assessment Questions 29

By the end of this unit, students will be able to:

• define sociology and explain its scope.

• understand the scientific nature of sociology.
• trace the historical development of sociology.
• analyze the importance of sociology in understanding social issues in
Pakistan.
• compare sociological perspectives with other social sciences.

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Major Topics
• What is Sociology?
• What is Science?
• Is Sociology a Science?
• The Development of Sociology

1.1 What is Sociology?

Sociology is the systematic study of human society and social behavior. It examines
how individuals interact within groups, institutions, and societies. According to
Anthony Giddens (2021), sociology is "the study of human social life, groups, and
societies, and how they change over time." Sociologists study patterns of social
relationships, social interactions, and culture. For example, in Pakistan, sociology
can help us understand issues like gender inequality, poverty, and ethnic conflicts.
Society refers to a group of people who share a common culture, territory, and
institutions (Giddens, 2021). Social structure, on the other hand, refers to the
organized patterns of social relationships and institutions that shape society (Ritzer,
2022). In Pakistan, the caste system (e.g., the Biradari system) is a social structure
that influences marriage, occupation, and social mobility. Similarly, in the West,
social class systems play a significant role in shaping opportunities and lifestyles.
A dictionary defines sociology as the systematic study of society and social
interaction. The word “sociology” is derived from the Latin
word socius (companion) and the Greek word logos (speech or reason), which
together mean “reasoned speech about companionship”. How can the experience
of companionship or togetherness be put into words or explained? While this is a
starting point for the discipline, sociology is actually much more complex. It uses
many different methods to study a wide range of subject matter and to apply these
studies to the real world.
The sociologist Dorothy Smith defines the social as the “ongoing concerting and
coordinating of individuals’ activities”. Sociology is the systematic study of all
those aspects of life designated by the adjective “social.” These aspects of social
life never simply occur; they are organized processes. They can be the briefest of
everyday interactions—moving to the right to let someone pass on a busy sidewalk,
for example—or the largest and most enduring interactions—such as the billions of
daily exchanges that constitute the circuits of global capitalism. If there are at least
two people involved, even in the seclusion of one’s mind, then there is a social
interaction that entails the “ongoing concerting and coordinating of activities.” Why
does the person move to the right on the sidewalk? What collective process led to
the decision that moving to the right rather than the left is normal? Think about the
T-shirts in your drawer at home. What are the sequences of linkages and social
relationships that link the T-shirts in your chest of drawers to the dangerous and

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hyper-exploitive garment factories in rural China or Bangladesh? These are the
types of questions that point to the unique domain and puzzles of the social that
sociology seeks to explore and understand.
As a field of study, sociology has an extremely broad scope. The major goal of
sociology is to identify underlying, recurring patterns of and influences on social
behavior. For this, some of the questions sociologists ask and try to answer are
largely factual, comparative, developmental and theoretical in nature.
1.1.1 Factual Questions
Being members of a society, we all already have a certain amount of factual
knowledge about it. For example, everyone in Pakistan is aware that some laws are
supposed to be observed and to go against these is to risk criminal punishment. But
the knowledge possessed by the average individual of the legal system, and of the
nature and the types of criminal activity, is likely to be sketchy and incomplete.
Many aspects of crime and justice need direct and systematic sociological
investigation. Thus we might ask: what forms of crime are most common? What
proportions of people, who are engaged in criminal behavior, are caught by the
police? And how many of these are in the end found guilty? Factual questions are
often much more complicated and difficult to answer than one might think.
1.1.2 Comparative Questions
Factual information about one society, of course, will not tell us how far we are
dealing with an unusual case rather than a very general set of influences.
Sociologists often want to ask comparative questions, relating one social context
within a society to another, or contrasting examples drawn from different societies.
In each society, there are many institutions, which help in the smooth running of
society. Sociology helps in conducting a comparative study of all such institutions
and thus provides knowledge about their comparative importance and utility. This
comparison is not limiting, within a society. Sociology also compares different
societies and their cultures. For the sake of development, progress, growth and
better knowledge about other societies, it is essential to have comparative studies.
Sociology tries to compare the societies of the world. For instance, there are
significant differences between the marriage system of European societies and
Indian and Pakistani societies. In European societies arranging marriage is purely
a matter of concerned couples while in India and Pakistan, it is the responsibility of
parents to arrange the marriage of their children.
1.1.3 Developmental Questions
In sociology, we need to look not only at existing societies in relation to one another
but also to compare present and past. The questions sociologists ask here are
developmental. To understand the nature of the modem world, we have to look at
pre-existing forms of society and also study the main direction that processes of

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change have taken. For example, in Pakistani Society, we can investigate how the
custom of dowry originated and where it stands now.
1.1.4 Theoretical Questions
Factual investigation concerns how things occur. Yet sociology does not only
collect facts but also wants to know why things happen. To do so sociologists have
to learn to pose theoretical questions to enable us to interpret facts correctly and in
grasping the causes of whatever is the focus of a particular study. Theories involve
constructing abstract interpretations, which can be used to explain a wide variety
of empirical situations because theory is an explanation of the relationship between
two or more specific facts. Here are two examples to understand the importance of
theoretical questions.
Durkheim attempted to explain a theoretical question: why do some categories of
people have higher suicide rates than others? To do so he linked one set of facts
"suicide rate" to another set of facts "the level of social integration characteristic of
these various categories of people." Through systematic comparisons, Durklieim
was able to develop a theory of suicide, that people with low social integration are
more prone to take their own lives. Liddle and Joshi tried to find the answer to this
theoretical question: why are women subordinated in the relations between the
sexes in India? Such a question cannot be researched directly because it admits of
too many possible solutions. Instead, Liddle and Joshi addressed a series of related
questions designed to bring out the complex interplay between gender, class, and
caste arid the experience of British imperialism in India. Through research, they
found that women's subordination in India resulted from a combination of male
control over economic resources within the caste system and cultural conventions
controlling women's behavior and movements. These examples show the
importance of theoretical questions because they lead towards the explanations of
facts. Infect we need theories to help us make sense of facts. For the development
of theory, sociologists have to learn to pose theoretical questions.
1.1.5 Nature of Sociology
The nature of sociology is defined by several key characteristics. Firstly, sociology
employs a scientific approach, utilizing systematic and empirical methods to study
social phenomena. This involves observation, experimentation, and analysis to
draw conclusions about social behaviour and structures. Secondly, sociology
examines social relationships, focusing on how individuals interact within groups,
organizations, and societies. It studies the patterns and consequences of these
interactions, including the formation of social norms, roles, and institutions.
Additionally, sociologists explore diversity and inequality, investigating issues
related to race, gender, ethnicity, and class and how these factors contribute to social
inequality and power dynamics.

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Furthermore, sociology investigates social institutions, such as family, education,
religion, and the economy, analyzing how social behaviour shapes and shapes them.
It is also concerned with social change, striving to understand how and why
societies evolve over time. This includes studying social movements, technological
advancements, and shifts in cultural values and norms. Finally, sociology takes a
holistic perspective, considering the influence of individual actions and larger
social forces. It seeks to understand the interplay between personal experiences and
societal structures.
1.1.6 Scope of Sociology
The scope of sociology is extensive, covering various dimensions of social life,
behaviour, and structures. It includes the study of major social institutions such as
family, education, religion, government, and the economy, examining their
functions, structures, and impacts on individuals and society. Sociology also
focuses on social stratification, exploring hierarchical arrangements based on class,
caste, race, gender, and other forms of inequality, and the processes that maintain
or challenge these hierarchies.
Additionally, it delves into socialization, investigating how individuals learn and
internalize societal norms, values, and roles. The discipline also examines social
change, studying how societies evolve over time through movements, technological
advancements, and cultural shifts. Furthermore, sociology analyzes social
interactions and relationships within groups, communities, and networks,
considering micro-level individual behaviours and macro-level societal trends. By
addressing these and other areas, sociology provides a comprehensive
understanding of the complexities of human social life and the dynamics of societal
change.
The scope of sociology is vast, covering topics such as family, education, religion,
politics, and the economy. It examines both micro-level interactions, such as face-
to-face communication, and macro-level structures, such as global economic
systems. Unlike common sense, which relies on personal experiences and
assumptions, sociology uses systematic methods to study social phenomena. For
example, while common sense might suggest that poverty is caused by laziness,
sociological research shows that structural factors like unemployment and lack of
education are more significant causes.
In Pakistan, sociology has been used to study issues such as rural-urban migration,
the impact of terrorism on social cohesion, and the role of women in development.
By applying sociological concepts, researchers can provide insights into these
issues and suggest solutions that address them.
1.1.7 Importance of Sociology
The importance of sociology is multifaceted and far-reaching. Firstly, it offers a
comprehensive understanding of society by unraveling its structure, norms, and

22
institutions, shedding light on how societies function and evolve. Secondly,
sociology is crucial for addressing pressing social issues such as poverty, inequality,
and discrimination. By identifying their root causes and consequences, sociologists
can advocate for policies that promote social welfare and justice. Thirdly, sociology
serves as a champion for social justice, highlighting disparities and mobilizing
efforts to challenge systems of oppression and discrimination based on factors like
race, gender, and class. Additionally, sociological research informs public policy
decisions by providing evidence-based insights into social phenomena and the
effectiveness of interventions. Furthermore, sociology fosters social change by
analyzing social movements and activism and supporting efforts to create more
inclusive and democratic societies. Lastly, sociology enhances interpersonal
relationships by offering insights into communication, group dynamics, and
socialization, facilitating better understanding and empathy among individuals. In
essence, sociology’s importance lies in its ability to illuminate the complexities of
human social life and contribute to positive social change and human welfare.

1.2 What is Science?

Science is a systematic method of acquiring knowledge through observation,
experimentation, and analysis. It relies on empirical evidence and follows a
structured process to test hypotheses. The scientific method involves formulating a
question, conducting research, developing a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and
drawing conclusions.
Empirical evidence refers to information acquired through observation and
experimentation (Ritzer, 2022). A hypothesis, on the other hand, is a testable
statement about the relationship between variables (Giddens, 2021). In natural
sciences, experiments are conducted in controlled environments, such as testing the
effects of a drug. In social sciences like sociology, experiments may involve surveys
or field observations to study social phenomena, such as the impact of education on
income levels in Pakistan.
Science is characterized by objectivity, replicability, and falsifiability. Objectivity
means that researchers strive to minimize bias in their work. Replicability means
that other researchers should be able to repeat the study and obtain similar results.
Falsifiability means that scientific theories must be testable and open to being
proven wrong. Sociologists use the scientific method to study social phenomena.
For example, a sociologist might hypothesize that access to education reduces
poverty. They would then collect data through surveys or interviews, analyze the
data, and draw conclusions.
However, social sciences face challenges that natural sciences do not. Human
behavior is complex and unpredictable, making it difficult to control variables in
experiments. Ethical concerns also arise when studying sensitive topics like
discrimination or inequality. Despite these challenges, sociology remains a valuable

23
tool for understanding and addressing social issues.
Scientific research of an explanatory kind often involves establishing whether the
scientist's initial idea or hypothesis is true or false. The research is the means by
which the hypothesis becomes a proven theory. Here are different stages of the
process of explanatory-scientific enquiry.

These stages are:

1.Observation
2.Formulation of Hypothesis
3.Collection of Data
4.Analysis of Data
5.Test of Hypothesis Against Data
(Stages 3 to 5 involve verification and measurement)
6. Confirmation or Rejection of Hypothesis
7. Development of a Theory.
In natural science, a repeatedly continued hypothesis is known as a theory or law.

1.3 Is Sociology a Science?

Sociology is considered a social science because it uses systematic methods to
study society. While it may not involve laboratory experiments, it employs
empirical research methods such as surveys, interviews, and observations.
According to Emile Durkheim (1895), sociology is a science because it applies
systematic methods to study social facts—patterns of behavior that exist
independently of individuals.
When we ask, 'Is sociology a science?' We mean two things: 'Can the discipline be
closely modeled upon the procedures of natural science?' and can sociology hope
to achieve the same kind of precise knowledge that natural scientists have
developed with respect to the physical world? These issues have always been to
some degree controversial. Like the other 'social sciences' sociology is a scientific
discipline in the sense that it involves systematic methods of investigation, the
analysis of data and the assessment of theories in the light of evidence and logical
argument. Studying human beings, however, is different from observing events in
the physical world, and neither the logical framework nor the findings of sociology
can adequately be understood simply in terms of comparisons with natural science.
In investigating social life we deal with activities that are meaningful to the people
who engage in them. Unlike objects in nature, human are self-aware and capable of
changing their behavior when they choose so. We cannot even describe social life
accurately unless we first of all grasp the meanings that people apply to their
behavior. For example, we cannot say a natural or an accidental death a 'suicide'.
Suicide can only occur where an individual activity intends 'self-destruction'.
Auguste Comte, often regarded as the father of sociology, argued that sociology
should use scientific methods to study society. This perspective, known as
24
positivism, emphasizes the importance of empirical evidence and objective
analysis. In contrast, Max Weber’s e-interpretive approach focuses on
understanding the meanings individuals attach to their actions. Both perspectives
contribute to the richness of sociological research.
The fact is that sociologists cannot study human beings in exactly the same way as
objects in natural science. So if science is defined broadly as the accumulation of
verified knowledge, which has been secured through scientific investigation, then
sociology is a science. Because sociology is able to employ the same general
methods of investigation that all sciences do like natural scientists, sociologists
construct theories, collect and analyze data, conduct experiments and make
observations, keep careful records and try to arrive at precise and accurate
conclusions. If it is defined narrowly as the testing of a hypothesis by positivistic
methodology, then sociology can hardly claim to be a science.
In Pakistan, sociologists study marriage patterns using surveys and interviews to
understand the role of caste and religion. In the West, sociologists have used similar
methods to study trends like cohabitation and divorce rates. Despite debates about
whether sociology can be considered a science, its rigorous methods and
contributions to understanding society make it a valuable discipline.

1.4 The Development of Sociology

Sociology emerged in the 19th century as a response to the social changes brought
about by industrialization, urbanization, and political revolutions. Auguste Comte
coined the term "sociology" and emphasized the scientific study of society. Karl
Marx focused on class struggle and economic systems, arguing that society is
divided into classes based on ownership of the means of production (Marx &
Engels, 1848). Emile Durkheim studied social integration and the role of
institutions, demonstrating how social factors influence individual behavior in his
work on suicide (1897). Max Weber analyzed the impact of culture and religion on
society, exploring the relationship between religion and economic behavior in The
Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905).
However, it was not until the 19th century that the basis of the modern discipline
of sociology can be said to have been truly established. The impetus for the ideas
that culminated in sociology can be found in the three major transformations that
defined modern society and the culture of modernity: the development of modern
science from the 16th century onward, the emergence of democratic forms of
government with the American and French Revolutions (1775–1783 and 1789–
1799 respectively), and the Industrial Revolution beginning in the 18th century. Not
only was the framework for sociological knowledge established in these events, but
also the initial motivation for creating a science of society. Early sociologists like
Comte and Marx sought to formulate a rational, evidence-based response to the
experience of massive social dislocation and unprecedented social problems

25
brought about by the transition from the European feudal era to capitalism. Whether
the intention was to restore order to the chaotic disintegration of society, as in
Comte’s case, or to provide the basis for a revolutionary transformation in Marx’s,
a rational and scientifically comprehensive knowledge of society and its processes
was required. It was in this context that “society” itself, in the modern sense of the
word, became visible as a phenomenon to early investigators of the social
condition.
The development of modern science provided the model of knowledge needed for
sociology to move beyond earlier moral, philosophical, and religious types of
reflection on the human condition. Key to the development of science was the
technological mindset that Max Weber termed the disenchantment of the world:
“Principally there are no mysterious incalculable forces that come into play, but
rather one can, in principle, master all things by calculation” (1919). Modern
science abandoned the medieval view of the world in which God, “the unmoved
mover,” defined the natural and social world as a changeless, cyclical creation
ordered and given purpose by divine will. Instead, modern science combined two
philosophical traditions that had historically been at odds: Plato’s rationalism and
Aristotle’s empiricism. Rationalism sought the laws that governed the truth of
reason and ideas, and in the hands of early scientists like Galileo and Newton, found
its highest form of expression in the logical formulations of mathematics.
Empiricism sought to discover the laws of the operation of the world through the
careful, methodical, and detailed observation of the world. The new scientific
worldview therefore combined the clear and logically coherent conceptual
formulation of propositions from rationalism with an empirical method of inquiry
based on observation through the senses. Sociology adopted these core principles
to emphasize that claims about society had to be clearly formulated and based on
evidence-based procedures.
The emergence of democratic forms of government in the 18th century
demonstrated that humans had the capacity to change the world. The rigid hierarchy
of medieval society was not a God-given eternal order, but a human order that could
be challenged and improved upon through human intervention. Society came to be
seen as both historical and the product of human endeavours. Age of
Enlightenment philosophers like Locke, Voltaire, Montaigne, and Rousseau
developed general principles that could be used to explain social life. Their
emphasis shifted from the histories and exploits of the aristocracy to the lives of
ordinary people. Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of
Women (1792) extended the critical analysis of her male Enlightenment
contemporaries to the situation of women. Significantly for modern sociology, they
proposed that the use of reason could be applied to address social ills and to
emancipate humanity from servitude. Wollstonecraft for example argued that
simply allowing women to have a proper education would enable them to contribute

26
to the improvement of society, especially through their influence on children. On
the other hand, the bloody experience of the democratic revolutions, particularly
the French Revolution, which resulted in the “Reign of Terror” and ultimately
Napoleon’s attempt to subjugate Europe, also provided a cautionary tale for the
early sociologists about the need for sober scientific assessment of society to
address social problems.
The Industrial Revolution in a strict sense refers to the development of industrial
methods of production, the introduction of industrial machinery, and the
organization of labour in new manufacturing systems. These economic changes
emblemize the massive transformation of human life brought about by the creation
of wage labour, capitalist competition, increased mobility, urbanization,
individualism, and all the social problems they wrought: poverty, exploitation,
dangerous working conditions, crime, filth, disease, and the loss of family and other
traditional support networks, etc. It was a time of great social and political upheaval
with the rise of empires that exposed many people—for the first time—to societies
and cultures other than their own. Millions of people were moving into cities and
many people were turning away from their traditional religious beliefs. Wars,
strikes, revolts, and revolutionary actions were reactions to underlying social
tensions that had never existed before and called for critical examination. August
Comte in particular envisioned the new science of sociology as the antidote to
conditions that he described as “moral anarchy.”
Sociology therefore emerged as an extension of the new worldview of science; as
a part of the Enlightenment project and its appreciation of historical change, social
injustice, and the possibilities of social reform; and as a crucial response to the new
and unprecedented types of social problems that appeared in the 19th century. It did
not emerge as a unified science, however, as its founders brought distinctly different
perspectives to its early formulations.
In Pakistan, sociology has evolved to address local issues such as tribal systems,
religious diversity, and social stratification. For instance, the work of Pakistani
sociologist Akbar S. Ahmed highlights the role of tribal structures in shaping social
behaviour. The influence of the Enlightenment, the impact of industrialization, and
the legacy of colonialism have all played significant roles in shaping the
development of sociology as a discipline.
So, we can conclude that Sociology emerged as a distinct discipline in the early
19th century during a period of significant social and intellectual change. Several
key factors contributed to its development.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment period (18th century) emphasized reason, science, and
empirical evidence, challenging traditional authority and beliefs. Philosophers John
Locke, Voltaire, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau discussed society, governance, and
human nature, setting the stage for sociological thought.
27
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution (late 18th to early 19th century) brought massive social
changes, including urbanization, new social classes, and altered family structures.
These changes highlighted the need to understand and address social issues
scientifically.
Political Revolutions
The American and French Revolutions questioned traditional social and political
orders, promoting ideas of democracy, equality, and individual rights. These
upheavals fostered interest in understanding social order and change.
Scientific Advancements
Progress in natural sciences inspired scholars to apply scientific methods to the
study of society. This led to the development of systematic approaches to
understanding social phenomena.
Auguste Comte (1798-1857), who is the father of sociology, introduced the term
“sociology” and proposed a positivist approach to studying society, seeking to
apply the scientific method to social research. Comte, who is the father of sociology
vision of sociology as a science to discover the laws of human behaviour and
society influenced the discipline’s early development.
While the origins of sociology were mainly European, the subject has become
firmly established worldwide, and some of the most important developments have
taken place in the United States in the twentieth. Century. The work of George
Herbert Mead, a teacher at the University of Chicago, has had an important
influence on the development of sociological theory. He gave more attention to
studying small-scale social processes than overall societies. He developed the new
discipline of social psychology. The perspective he developed is called symbolic
interactionism. Talcott Parson was the most prominent American sociologist. He
was one of the main contributors to the development of functionalism, the
theoretical approach originally pioneered by Comte and Durkheim.
In the early 1900s, many of the leading sociologists of the United States saw
themselves as social reformers. They turned their attention to social problems and
the lives of criminals, drug addicts etc. and tried to improve a corrupt society. By
the middle of the twentieth century, however, the focus of the discipline had shitted.
Sociologists restricted themselves to theorizing and gathering information.
Today sociology has not been limited to one viewpoint or concern, its interests are
more diverse than ever. It is not limited to old social problems such as stratification,
power or control, it also enters to study new areas. Such as the impact of modern
industrial society or overpopulation on city planning and the natural environment.
So sociologists today are also busy in such fields as criminology, city planning,
epidemiology, demography and policymaking etc.

28
Self-Assessment Questions
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. What is the primary focus of sociology?
a) Individual behavior
b) Social relationships and institutions
c) Biological processes
d) Economic systems
Correct Answer: b) Social relationships and institutions
2. Which of the following is a characteristic of science?
a) Reliance on intuition
b) Systematic methods and empirical evidence
c) Focus on supernatural explanations
d) Lack of hypothesis testing
Correct Answer: b) Systematic methods and empirical evidence
3. Who is considered the father of sociology?
a) Karl Marx
b) Emile Durkheim
c) Auguste Comte
d) Max Weber
Correct Answer: c) Auguste Comte
4. Which method is commonly used in sociological research?
a) Laboratory experiments
b) Surveys and interviews
c) Astrology
d) Philosophical debates
Correct Answer: b) Surveys and interviews
5. Sociology is best described as:
a) A natural science
b) A social science
c) A physical science
d) A biological science
Correct Answer: b) A social science
Restricted Response Questions
1. Define sociology and explain its importance in understanding society.
2. Discuss the key differences between natural sciences and social sciences.
3. How did industrialization contribute to the development of sociology?
4. Explain the role of Emile Durkheim in the development of sociology.

29
5. Why is sociology considered a science? Provide examples to support your
answer.
Extended Response Questions
1. Analyze the relevance of sociology in addressing social issues in Pakistan.
2. Compare and contrast the contributions of Karl Marx and Max Weber to
sociology.
3. Discuss the challenges sociologists face when studying society
scientifically.
4. How can sociology help in understanding the impact of urbanization in
Pakistan?
5. Evaluate the role of sociology in promoting social change.

Further Readings
1. Giddens, A., & Sutton, P. W. (2021). Sociology (9th ed.). Polity Press.
2. Khan, M. A. (2020). Sociology in Pakistan: A Historical Perspective.
Journal of South Asian Studies, 45(2), 123-140.
3. OpenStax. (2023). Introduction to Sociology. Available for free
at OpenStax.org
4. Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. (2023). Social Indicators of Pakistan.
Retrieved from www.pbs.gov.pk
5. Ritzer, G. (2022). Introduction to Sociology (5th ed.). Sage Publications.

References
• Giddens, A., & Sutton, P. W. (2021). Sociology (9th ed.). Polity Press.
• Khan, M. A. (2020). Sociology in Pakistan: A Historical Perspective.
Journal of South Asian Studies, 45(2), 123-140.
• OpenStax. (2023). Introduction to Sociology. Available for free
at OpenStax.org
• Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. (2023). Social Indicators of Pakistan.
Retrieved from www.pbs.gov.pk
• Ritzer, G. (2022). Introduction to Sociology (5th ed.). Sage Publications.

30
Unit- 02

CULTURE

Written By: Dr. Nasim Khan Mahsud

Reviewed By: Dr. Rabia Gull

31
CONTENTS

Introduction 33

Objectives 34

Major topics 35

2.1 Meaning and Nature of Culture 35

2.2 Development of Culture 40

2.3 Elements of Culture 40

2.4 Cultural Integration 48

2.5 Cultural Variation 48

Self-Assessment Questions 49

By the end of this unit, students will be able to:

• define culture and explain its significance in society.

• identify the key elements of culture and their functions.
• analyze the development of culture and its impact on social behavior.
• understand cultural integration and variation in diverse societies.
• apply cultural concepts to real-world examples from Pakistan and the west.

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Major Topics
• Meaning and Nature of Culture
• Development of Culture
• Elements of Culture
• Cultural Integration
• Cultural Variation

2.1 Meaning and Nature of Culture

Culture is a complex and multifaceted concept that has been studied extensively by
sociologists and anthropologists. According to Edward B. Tylor (1871), one of the
earliest scholars to define culture, it is "that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society." This definition highlights the
comprehensive nature of culture, encompassing both material and non-material
aspects of human life. Culture is learned, shared, symbolic, and dynamic, making
it a powerful force in shaping human behavior and social structures.
In contemporary sociology, Geert Hofstede (2011) has contributed significantly to
the study of culture through his work on cultural dimensions. Hofstede identifies
six dimensions of culture, including individualism vs. collectivism, power distance,
and uncertainty avoidance, which help explain cultural differences across societies.
For example, Pakistani culture tends to be collectivist, emphasizing family loyalty
and community ties, while Western cultures like the United States are more
individualistic, prioritizing personal autonomy and self-expression.
Culture also plays a crucial role in shaping national identity. In Pakistan, cultural
symbols such as the national flag, the Urdu language, and traditional attire like
the shalwar kameez serve as unifying elements that reinforce a shared sense of
identity among diverse ethnic and linguistic groups. Similarly, in the West, symbols
like the Statue of Liberty in the United States or the Eiffel Tower in France represent
national pride and cultural heritage.
2.1.1 What Is Culture?
Humans are social creatures. Since the dawn of Homo sapiens nearly 250,000 years
ago, people have grouped together into communities in order to survive. Living
together, people form common habits and behaviours from specific methods of
childrearing to preferred techniques for obtaining food. In modern-day Paris, many
people shop daily at outdoor markets to pick up what they need for their evening
meal, buying cheese, meat, and vegetables from different specialty stalls. In the
Canada, the majority of people shop once a week at supermarkets, filling large carts
to the brim. The Parisian Roland Barthes disdainfully referred to this as “the hasty
stocking up” of a “more mechanical civilization” (Barthes 1977).
Almost every human behaviour, from shopping to marriage to expressions of

35
feelings, is learned. In Canada, people tend to view marriage as a choice between
two people, based on mutual feelings of love. In other nations and at other times,
marriages have been arranged through an intricate process of interviews and
negotiations between entire families, or in other cases, through a direct system such
as a “mail order bride.” To someone raised in Winnipeg, the marriage customs of a
family from Nigeria may seem strange, or even wrong. Conversely, someone from
a traditional Kolkata family might be perplexed with the idea of romantic love as
the foundation for the lifelong commitment of marriage. In other words, the way in
which people view marriage depends largely on what they have been taught.
Behaviour based on learned customs is not a bad thing. Being familiar with
unwritten rules helps people feel secure and “normal.” Most people want to live
their daily lives confident that their behaviours will not be challenged or disrupted.
But even an action as seemingly simple as commuting to work evidences a great
deal of cultural propriety.
Take the case of going to work on public transportation. Whether commuting in
Dublin, Cairo, Mumbai, or Vancouver, many behaviours will be the same in all
locations, but significant differences also arise between cultures. Typically, a
passenger would find a marked bus stop or station, wait for the bus or train, pay an
agent before or after boarding, and quietly take a seat if one is available. But when
boarding a bus in Cairo, passengers might have to run, because buses there often
do not come to a full stop to take on patrons. Dublin bus riders would be expected
to extend an arm to indicate that they want the bus to stop for them. And when
boarding a commuter train in Mumbai, passengers must squeeze into overstuffed
cars amid a lot of pushing and shoving on the crowded platforms. That kind of
behaviour would be considered the height of rudeness in Canada, but in Mumbai,
it reflects the daily challenges of getting around on a train system that is taxed to
capacity.
In this example of commuting, culture consists of thoughts (expectations about
personal space, for example) and tangible things (bus stops, trains, and seating
capacity). Material culture refers to the objects or belongings of a group of people.
Metro passes and bus tokens are part of material culture, as are automobiles, stores,
and the physical structures where people worship. Nonmaterial culture, in contrast,
consists of the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society. Material and nonmaterial
aspects of culture are linked, and physical objects often symbolize cultural ideas. A
metro pass is a material object, but it represents a form of nonmaterial culture,
namely, capitalism, and the acceptance of paying for transportation. Clothing,
hairstyles, and jewellery are part of material culture, but the appropriateness of
wearing certain clothing for specific events reflects nonmaterial culture. A school
building belongs to material culture, but the teaching methods and educational
standards are part of education’s nonmaterial culture. These material and
nonmaterial aspects of culture can vary subtly from region to region. As people

36
travel farther afield, moving from different regions to entirely different parts of the
world, certain material and nonmaterial aspects of culture become dramatically
unfamiliar. What happens when we encounter different cultures? As we interact
with cultures other than our own, we become more aware of the differences and
commonalities between others’ worlds and our own.
2.1.2 Cultural Universals
Often, a comparison of one culture to another will reveal obvious differences. But
all cultures share common elements. Cultural universals are patterns or traits that
are globally common to all societies. One example of a cultural universal is the
family unit: every human society recognizes a family structure that regulates sexual
reproduction and the care of children. Even so, how that family unit is defined and
how it functions varies. In many Asian cultures, for example, family members from
all generations commonly live together in one household. In these cultures, young
adults will continue to live in the extended household family structure until they
marry and join their spouse’s household, or they may remain and raise their nuclear
family within the extended family’s homestead. In Canada, by contrast, individuals
are expected to leave home and live independently for a period before forming a
family unit consisting of parents and their offspring.
Anthropologist George Murdock first recognized the existence of cultural
universals while studying systems of kinship around the world. Murdock found that
cultural universals often revolve around basic human survival, such as finding food,
clothing, and shelter, or around shared human experiences, such as birth and death,
or illness and healing. Through his research, Murdock identified other universals
including language, the concept of personal names, and, interestingly, jokes. Humor
seems to be a universal way to release tensions and create a sense of unity among
people (Murdock 1949). Sociologists consider humour necessary to human
interaction because it helps individuals navigate otherwise tense situations.
2.1.3 Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism
Despite how much humans have in common, cultural differences are far more
prevalent than cultural universals. For example, while all cultures have language,
analysis of particular language structures and conversational etiquette reveals
tremendous differences. In some Middle Eastern cultures, it is common to stand
close to others in conversation. North Americans keep more distance, maintaining
a large “personal space.” Even something as simple as eating and drinking varies
greatly from culture to culture. If your professor comes into an early morning class
holding a mug of liquid, what do you assume she is drinking? In the United States,
it’s most likely filled with coffee, not Earl Grey tea, a favourite in England, or Yak
Butter tea, a staple in Tibet.
The way cuisines vary across cultures fascinates many people. Some travellers, like
celebrated food writer Anthony Bourdain, pride themselves on their willingness to

37
try unfamiliar foods, while others return home expressing gratitude for their native
culture’s fare. Canadians often express disgust at other cultures’ cuisine, thinking it
is gross to eat meat from a dog or guinea pig, for example, while they do not
question their own habit of eating cows or pigs. Such attitudes are an example
of ethnocentrism, or evaluating and judging another culture based on how it
compares to one’s own cultural norms. Ethnocentrism, as sociologist William
Graham Sumner (1906) described the term, involves a belief or attitude that one’s
own culture is better than all others. Almost everyone is a little bit ethnocentric. For
example, Canadians tend to say that people from England drive on the “wrong”
side of the road, rather than the “other” side. Someone from a country where dogs
are considered dirty and unhygienic might find it off-putting to see a dog in a French
restaurant.
A high level of appreciation for one’s own culture can be healthy; a shared sense of
community pride, for example, connects people in a society. However,
ethnocentrism can lead to disdain or dislike for other cultures, causing
misunderstanding and conflict. People with the best intentions sometimes travel to
a society to “help” its people, seeing them as uneducated or backward, essentially
inferior. In reality, these travellers are guilty of cultural imperialism—the deliberate
imposition of one’s own cultural values on another culture. Europe’s colonial
expansion, which began in the 16th century, was often accompanied by a severe
cultural imperialism. European colonizers often viewed the people in the lands they
colonized as uncultured savages who were in need of European governance, dress,
religion, and other cultural practices. On the West Coast of Canada, the aboriginal
“potlatch” (gift-giving) ceremony was made illegal in 1885 because it was thought
to prevent natives from acquiring the proper industriousness and respect for
material goods required by civilization. A more modern example of cultural
imperialism may include the work of international aid agencies that introduce
modern technological agricultural methods and plant species from developed
countries while overlooking indigenous varieties and agricultural approaches that
are better suited to the particular region.
Ethnocentrism can be so strong that when confronted with all the differences of a
new culture, one may experience disorientation and frustration. In sociology, we
call this “culture shock.” A traveller from Chicago might find the nightly silence of
rural Montana unsettling, not peaceful. An exchange student from China might be
annoyed by the constant interruptions in class as other students ask questions—a
practice that is considered rude in China. Perhaps the Chicago traveller was initially
captivated by Montana’s quiet beauty and the Chinese student was originally
excited to see an American-style classroom firsthand. But as they experience
unanticipated differences from their own culture, their excitement gives way to
discomfort and doubts about how to behave appropriately in the new situation.
Eventually, as people learn more about a culture, they recover from culture shock.

38
Culture shock may appear because people aren’t always expecting cultural
differences. Anthropologist Ken Barger (1971) discovered this when conducting
participatory observation in an Inuit community in the Canadian Arctic. Originally
from Indiana, Barger hesitated when invited to join a local snowshoe race. He knew
he’d never hold his own against these experts. Sure enough, he finished last, to his
mortification. But the tribal members congratulated him, saying, “You really tried!”
In Barger’s own culture, he had learned to value victory. To the Inuit people,
winning was enjoyable, but their culture valued survival skills essential to their
environment: how hard someone tried could mean the difference between life and
death. Over the course of his stay, Barger participated in caribou hunts, learned how
to take shelter in winter storms, and sometimes went days with little or no food to
share among tribal members. Trying hard and working together, two nonmaterial
values, were indeed much more important than winning.
During his time with the Inuit, Barger learned to engage in cultural
relativism. Cultural relativism is the practice of assessing a culture by its own
standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one’s own culture. The
anthropologist Ruth Benedict (1887–1948) argued that each culture has an
internally consistent pattern of thought and action, which alone could be the basis
for judging the merits and morality of the culture’s practices. Cultural relativism
requires an open mind and a willingness to consider, and even adapt to new values
and norms. However, indiscriminately embracing everything about a new culture
is not always possible. Even the most culturally relativist people from egalitarian
societies ones in which women have political rights and control over their own
bodies would question whether the widespread practice of female genital mutilation
in countries such as Ethiopia and Sudan should be accepted as a part of cultural
tradition.
Sociologists attempting to engage in cultural relativism may struggle to reconcile
aspects of their own culture with aspects of a culture they are studying. Pride in
one’s own culture doesn’t have to lead to imposing its values on others. An
appreciation for another culture shouldn’t preclude individuals from studying it
with a critical eye.
Feminist sociology is particularly attuned to the way that most cultures present a
male-dominated view of the world as if it were simply the view of the world.
Androcentricism is a perspective in which male concerns, male attitudes, and male
practices are presented as “normal” or define what is significant and valued in a
culture. Women’s experiences, activities, and contributions to society and history
are ignored, devalued, or marginalized.
As a result, the perspectives, concerns, and interests of only one sex and class are
represented as general. Only one sex and class are directly and actively involved in
producing, debating, and developing its ideas, in creating its art, in forming its
medical and psychological conceptions, in framing its laws, its political principles,

39
and its educational values and objectives. Thus a one-sided standpoint comes to be
seen as natural, obvious, and general, and a one-sided set of interests preoccupy
intellectual and creative work.
In part, this is simply a question of the bias of those who have the power to define
cultural values, and in part, it is the result of a process in which women have been
actively excluded from the culture-creating process. It is still common, for example,
to use the personal pronoun “he” or the word “man” to represent people in general
or humanity. Despite the good intentions of many who use these terms, and the
grammatical awkwardness of trying to find gender-neutral terms to replace “he” or
“man,” the overall effect is to establish masculine values and imagery as normal. A
“policeman” brings to mind a man who is doing a man’s job, when in fact women
have been involved in policing for several decades now. Replacing “he” with “she”
in a sentence can often have a jarring effect because it undermines the “naturalness”
of the male perspective.

2.2 Development of Culture

The development of culture is a dynamic process influenced by historical,
environmental, and social factors. Sociologists identify three primary mechanisms
through which culture evolves: innovation, diffusion, and adaptation. Innovation
refers to the creation of new ideas, practices, or technologies that transform cultural
practices. For instance, the invention of the internet has revolutionized global
communication, creating new forms of cultural expression and interaction.
Diffusion, on the other hand, involves the spread of cultural traits from one society
to another. This process is often facilitated by globalization, which has increased
the interconnectedness of societies worldwide. A notable example of cultural
diffusion is the global popularity of Pakistani cuisine, such as biryani and kebabs,
which have been embraced by food enthusiasts in the West. Similarly, Western
cultural practices, such as fast food and pop music, have gained widespread
acceptance in Pakistan, particularly among urban youth.
Adaptation refers to the modification of cultural traits to fit new environments or
contexts. For example, multinational corporations like McDonald’s and KFC have
adapted their menus to cater to local tastes in Pakistan, offering spicy chicken
burgers and biryani-flavored rice. This process of adaptation highlights the
flexibility of culture and its ability to evolve in response to changing social and
economic conditions.

2.3 Elements of Culture

Culture consists of several key elements that work together to shape social life.
These elements include symbols, language, norms, values, and artifacts. Symbols
are objects, gestures, or words that carry specific meanings within a culture. For
example, the crescent moon and star on Pakistan’s flag symbolize progress and
enlightenment, while the green color represents Islam and prosperity. Language is
40
another critical element of culture, serving as a medium for communication and the
transmission of cultural knowledge. In Pakistan, Urdu serves as a unifying language
among diverse ethnic groups, while regional languages like Punjabi, Sindhi, and
Pashto reflect the country’s rich linguistic diversity. Language not only facilitates
communication but also shapes how individuals perceive and interpret the world
around them. Norms are the rules and expectations that guide behavior within a
society. They can be formal, such as laws, or informal, such as social customs. In
Pakistani culture, the norm of izzat (honor) emphasizes respect for elders and the
importance of maintaining family reputation. Violations of this norm can lead to
social sanctions, such as ostracism or criticism. Values are the shared beliefs about
what is desirable or important within a culture. In Western societies, individualism
is a core value that emphasizes personal autonomy and self-expression. In contrast,
Pakistani culture places a greater emphasis on collectivism, prioritizing family
loyalty and community ties. Artifacts are the material objects that reflect cultural
values and practices. Traditional Pakistani clothing, such as the shalwar kameez,
represents cultural identity and modesty, while Western artifacts like smartphones
and laptops symbolize technological advancement and modernity. Further, we can
understand these elements as follows:
2.3.1 Values and Beliefs
The first, and perhaps most crucial, elements of culture we will discuss are its
values and beliefs. Values are a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and
just in society. Values are deeply embedded and critical for transmitting and
teaching a culture’s beliefs. Beliefs are the tenets or convictions that people hold to
be true. Individuals in a society have specific beliefs, but they also share collective
values. To illustrate the difference, North Americans commonly believe that anyone
who works hard enough will be successful and wealthy. Underlying this belief is
the value that wealth is good and important.
Values help shape a society by suggesting what is good and bad, beautiful and ugly,
sought or avoided. Consider the value the culture North Americans place upon
youth. Children represent innocence and purity, while a youthful adult appearance
signifies sexuality. Shaped by this value, individuals spend millions of dollars each
year on cosmetic products and surgeries to look young and beautiful.
Sometimes the values of Canada and the United States are contrasted. Americans
are said to have an individualistic culture, meaning people place a high value on
individuality and independence. In contrast, Canadian culture is said to be more
collectivist, meaning the welfare of the group and group relationships are a primary
value. Seymour Martin Lipset used these contrasts of values to explain why the two
societies, which have common roots as British colonies, developed such different
political institutions and cultures (Lipset 1990).
Living up to a culture’s values can be difficult. It’s easy to value good health, but
it’s hard to quit smoking. Marital monogamy is valued, but many spouses engage
41
in infidelity. Cultural diversity and equal opportunities for all people are valued in
Canada, yet the country’s highest political offices have been dominated by white
men.
Values often suggest how people should behave, but they do not accurately reflect
how people behave. As we saw in Chapter 1, Harriet Martineau’s basic distinction
between what people say they believe and what they actually do are often at odds.
Values portray an ideal culture, the standards society would like to embrace and
live up to. But ideal culture differs from real culture, the way society actually is,
based on what occurs and exists. In an ideal culture, there would be no traffic
accidents, murders, poverty, or racial tension. But in real culture, police officers,
lawmakers, educators, and social workers constantly strive to prevent or repair
those accidents, crimes, and injustices. Teenagers are encouraged to value celibacy.
However, the number of unplanned pregnancies among teens reveals that not only
is the ideal hard to live up to, but that the value alone is not enough to spare
teenagers from the potential consequences of having sex.
One way societies strive to put values into action is through rewards, sanctions, and
punishments. When people observe the norms of society and uphold its values, they
are often rewarded. A boy who helps an elderly woman board a bus may receive a
smile and a “thank you.” A business manager who raises profit margins may receive
a quarterly bonus. People sanction certain behaviours by giving their support,
approval, or permission, or by instilling formal actions of disapproval and non-
support. Sanctions are a form of social control, a way to encourage conformity to
cultural norms. Sometimes people conform to norms in anticipation or expectation
of positive sanctions: good grades, for instance, may mean praise from parents and
teachers.
When people go against a society’s values, they are punished. A boy who shoves
an elderly woman aside to board the bus first may receive frowns or even a scolding
from other passengers. A business manager who drives away customers will likely
be fired. Breaking norms and rejecting values can lead to cultural sanctions such as
earning a negative label—lazy, no-good bum—or to legal sanctions such as traffic
tickets, fines, or imprisonment.
Values are not static; they vary across time and between groups as people evaluate,
debate, and change collective societal beliefs. Values also vary from culture to
culture. For example, cultures differ in their values about what kinds of physical
closeness are appropriate in public. It’s rare to see two male friends or coworkers
holding hands in Canada where that behaviour often symbolizes romantic feelings.
But in many nations, masculine physical intimacy is considered natural in public.
A simple gesture, such as hand-holding, carries great symbolic differences across
cultures.

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2.3.2 Norms
So far, the examples in this chapter have often described how people are expected
to behave in certain situations—for example, when buying food or boarding a bus.
These examples describe the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which
societies are structured, or what sociologists call norms. Norms define how to
behave in accordance with what a society has defined as good, right, and important,
and most members of the society adhere to them.
Formal norms are established written rules. They are behaviours worked out and
agreed upon in order to suit and serve the most people. Laws are formal norms, but
so are employee manuals, college entrance exam requirements, and “no running”
signs at swimming pools. Formal norms are the most specific and clearly stated of
the various types of norms, and the most strictly enforced. But even formal norms
are enforced to varying degrees, reflected in cultural values.
For example, money is highly valued in North America, so monetary crimes are
punished. It’s against the law to rob a bank, and banks go to great lengths to prevent
such crimes. People safeguard valuable possessions and install antitheft devices to
protect homes and cars. Until recently, a less strictly enforced social norm was
driving while intoxicated. While it is against the law to drive drunk, drinking is for
the most part an acceptable social behaviour. Though there have been laws in
Canada to punish drunk driving since 1921, there were few systems in place to
prevent the crime until quite recently. These examples show a range of enforcement
in formal norms.
There are plenty of formal norms, but the list of informal norms—casual behaviours
that are generally and widely conformed to—is longer. People learn informal norms
by observation, imitation, and general socialization. Some informal norms are
taught directly—“Kiss your Aunt Edna” or “Use your napkin”—while others are
learned by observation, including observations of the consequences when someone
else violates a norm. Children learn quickly that picking your nose is subject to
ridicule when they see someone shamed for it by other children. But although
informal norms define personal interactions, they extend into other systems as well.
Think back to the discussion of fast food restaurants at the beginning of this chapter.
In Canada, there are informal norms regarding behaviour at these restaurants.
Customers line up to order their food, and leave when they are done. They do not
sit down at a table with strangers, sing loudly as they prepare their condiments, or
nap in a booth. Most people do not commit even benign breaches of informal
norms. Informal norms dictate appropriate behaviours without the need for written
rules.
Sociologist Harold Garfinkel (1917–2011) studied people’s customs in order to find
out how tacit and often unconscious societal rules and norms not only influenced
behaviour but enabled the social order to exist (Weber 2011). Like the symbolic
interactionists, he believed that members of society together create a social order.

43
He noted, however, that people often draw on inferred knowledge and unspoken
agreements to do so. His resulting book, Studies in Ethnomethodology, published
in 1967, discusses the underlying assumptions that people use to create “accounts”
or stories that enable them to make sense of the world.
One of his research methods was known as a “breaching experiment.” His
breaching experiments tested sociological concepts of social norms and conformity.
In a breaching experiment, the researcher purposely breaks a social norm or
behaves in a socially awkward manner. The participants are not aware an
experiment is in progress. If the breach is successful, however, these “innocent
bystanders” will respond in some way. For example, he had his students go into
local shops and begin to barter with the sales clerks for fixed-price goods. “This
says $14.99, but I’ll give you $10 for it.” Often the clerks were shocked or flustered.
This breach reveals the unspoken convention in North America that the amount
given on the price tag is the price. It also breaks a number of other conventions that
seek to make commercial transactions as efficient and impersonal as possible. In
another example, he had his students respond to the casual greeting, “How are
you?” with a detailed and elaborate description of their state of health and well-
being. The point of the experiments was not that the experimenter would simply act
obnoxiously or weirdly in public. Rather, the point is to deviate from a specific
social norm in a small way, to subtly break some form of social etiquette, and see
what happens.
To conduct his ethnomethodology, Garfinkel deliberately imposed strange
behaviours on unknowing people. Then he would observe their responses. He
suspected that odd behaviours would shatter conventional expectations, but he was
not sure how. He set up, for example, a simple game of tic-tac-toe. One player was
asked beforehand not to mark Xs and Os in the boxes but on the lines dividing the
spaces instead. The other player, in the dark about the study, was flabbergasted and
did not know how to continue. The reactions of outrage, anger, puzzlement, or other
emotions illustrated the deep level at which unspoken social norms constitute social
life.
There are many rules about speaking with strangers in public. It is okay to tell a
woman you like her shoes. It is not okay to ask if you can try them on. It is okay to
stand in line behind someone at the ATM. It is not okay to look over their shoulder
as they make the transaction. It is okay to sit beside someone on a crowded bus. It
is weird to sit beside a stranger in a half-empty bus.
For some breaches, the researcher directly engages with innocent bystanders. An
experimenter might strike up a conversation in a public bathroom, where it’s
common to respect each other’s privacy so fiercely as to ignore other people’s
presence. In a grocery store, an experimenter might take a food item out of another
person’s grocery cart, saying, “That looks good! I think I’ll try it.” An experimenter
might sit down at a table with others in a fast food restaurant, or follow someone

44
around a museum, studying the same paintings. In those cases, the bystanders are
pressured to respond, and their discomfort illustrates how much we depend on
social norms. These cultural norms play an important role. They let us know how
to behave around each other and how to feel comfortable in our community.
Breaching experiments uncover and explore the many unwritten social rules we
live by.
Norms may be further classified as either mores or folkways. Mores (morays) are
norms that embody the moral views and principles of a group. Violating them can
have serious consequences. The strongest mores are legally protected by laws or
other formal norms. In the United States, for instance, murder is considered
immoral, and it is punishable by law (a formal norm). But more often, mores are
judged and guarded by public sentiment (an informal norm). People who violate
mores are seen as shameful. They can even be shunned or banned from some
groups. The more of the Canadian school system require that a student’s writing be
in the student’s own words or use special forms (such as quotation marks and a
whole system of citation) for crediting other writers. Writing another person’s
words as if they are one’s own has a name—plagiarism. The consequences for
violating this norm are severe, and can usually result in expulsion.
Unlike mores, folkways are norms without any moral underpinnings. Folkways
direct appropriate behaviour in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a
culture. Folkways indicate whether to shake hands or kiss on the cheek when
greeting another person. They specify whether to wear a tie and blazer or a T-shirt
and sandals to an event. In Canada, women can smile and say hello to men on the
street. In Egypt, it’s not acceptable. In Northern Europe, it is fine for people to go
into a sauna or hot tub naked. Typically in North America, it is not. An opinion poll
that asked Canadian women what they felt would end a relationship after a first date
showed that women in British Columbia were “pickier” than women in the rest of
the country (Times Colonist 2014). First-date “deal breakers” included poor
hygiene (82 percent), being distracted by a mobile device (74 percent), talking
about sexual history and being rude to waiters (72 percent), and eating with their
mouths open (60 percent). All of these examples illustrate breaking informal rules,
which are not serious enough to be called mores, but are serious enough to terminate
a relationship before it has begun.
Many folkways are actions we take for granted. People need to act without thinking
to get seamlessly through daily routines; they can’t stop and analyze every action
(Sumner 1906). People who experience culture shock may find that it subsides as
they learn the new culture’s folkways and are able to move through their daily
routines more smoothly Folkways might be small manners, learned by observation
and imitated, but they are by no means trivial. Like mores and laws, these norms
help people negotiate their daily lives within a given culture.

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2.3.3 Symbols and Language
Humans, consciously and subconsciously, are always striving to make sense of their
surrounding world. Symbols—such as gestures, signs, objects, signals, and
words—help people understand the world. Symbols provide clues to understanding
experiences. They convey recognizable meanings that are shared by societies.
The world is filled with symbols. Sports uniforms, company logos, and traffic signs
are symbols. In some cultures, a gold ring is a symbol of marriage. Some symbols
are highly functional; stop signs, for instance, provide useful instruction. As
physical objects, they belong to material culture, but because they function as
symbols, they also convey nonmaterial cultural meanings. Some symbols are only
valuable in what they represent. Trophies, blue ribbons, or gold medals, for
example, serve no other purpose other than to represent accomplishments. But
many objects have both material and nonmaterial symbolic value.
A police officer’s badge and uniform are symbols of authority and law enforcement.
The sight of an officer in uniform or a squad car triggers reassurance in some
citizens, and annoyance, fear, or anger in others.
It’s easy to take symbols for granted. Few people challenge or even think about
stick figure signs on the doors of public bathrooms. But those figures are more than
just symbols that tell men and women which bathrooms to use. They also uphold
the value, in North America, that public restrooms should be gender exclusive.
Even though stalls are relatively private, it is still relatively uncommon for places
to offer unisex bathrooms.
Symbols often get noticed when they are used out of context. Used
unconventionally, symbols convey strong messages. A stop sign on the door of a
corporation makes a political statement, as does a camouflage military jacket worn
in an antiwar protest. Together, the semaphore signals for “N” and “D” represent
nuclear disarmament—and form the well-known peace sign (Westcott 2008).
Internet “memes” images that spread from person to person through reposting often
adopt the tactics of “detournement” or misappropriation used by the French
Situationists of the 1950s and 1960s. The Situationists sought to subvert media and
political messages by altering them slightly “detouring” or hijacking them in order
to defamiliarize familiar messages, signs, and symbols. An ordinary image of a cat
combined with the grammatically challenged caption “I Can Has to Cheezburger?”
spawned an internet phenomenon (LOL Cats) because of the funny, nonsensical
nature of its non-sequitur message. An image of Prime Minister Stephen Harper in
a folksy sweater holding a cute cat, altered to show him holding an oily duck
instead, is a detournement with a more political message.
Even the destruction of symbols is symbolic. Effigies representing public figures
are beaten to demonstrate anger at certain leaders. In 1989, crowds tore down the
Berlin Wall, a decades-old symbol of the division between East and West Germany,
communism, and capitalism.

46
While different cultures have varying systems of symbols, there is one that is
common to all: language. Language is a symbolic system through which people
communicate and through which culture is transmitted. Some languages contain a
system of symbols used for written communication, while others rely only on
spoken communication and nonverbal actions.
Societies often share a single language, and many languages contain the same basic
elements. An alphabet is a written system made of symbolic shapes that refer to
spoken sounds. Taken together, these symbols convey specific meanings. The
English alphabet uses a combination of 26 letters to create words; these 26 letters
make up over 600,000 recognized English words.
Rules for speaking and writing vary even within cultures, most notably by region.
Do you refer to a can of carbonated liquid as a “soda,” “pop,” or “soft drink”? Is a
household entertainment room a “family room,” “rec room,” or “den”? When
leaving a restaurant, do you ask your server for the “cheque,” the “ticket,”
“l’addition,” or the “bill”?
Language is constantly evolving as societies create new ideas. In this age of
technology, people have adapted almost instantly to new nouns such as “email” and
“internet,” and verbs such as “downloading,” “texting,” and “blogging.” Twenty
years ago, the general public would have considered these nonsense words.
Even while it constantly evolves, language continues to shape our reality. This
insight was established in the 1920s by two linguists, Edward Sapir and Benjamin
Whorf. They believed that reality is culturally determined, and that any
interpretation of reality is based on a society’s language. To prove this point, the
sociologists argued that every language has words or expressions specific to that
language. In Canada, for example, the number 13 is associated with bad luck. In
Japan, however, the number four is considered unlucky, since it is pronounced
similarly to the Japanese word for “death.”
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is based on the idea that people experience their world
through their language and that they therefore understand their world through the
culture embedded in their language. The hypothesis, which has also been called
linguistic relativity, states that language shapes thought (Swoyer 2003). Studies
have shown, for instance, that unless people have access to the word “ambivalent,”
they do not recognize an experience of uncertainty due to conflicting positive and
negative feelings about one issue. Essentially, the hypothesis argues, if a person
cannot describe the experience, the person is not having the experience.
In addition to using language, people communicate without words. Nonverbal
communication is symbolic, and, as in the case of language, much of it is learned
through one’s culture. Some gestures are nearly universal: smiles often represent
joy and crying often represents sadness. Other nonverbal symbols vary across
cultural contexts in their meaning. A thumbs-up, for example, indicates positive
reinforcement in Canada, whereas in Russia and Australia, it is an offensive curse

47
(Passero 2002). Other gestures vary in meaning depending on the situation and the
person. A wave of the hand can mean many things, depending on how it is done
and for whom. It may mean “hello,” “goodbye,” “no thank you,” or “I’m royalty.”
Winks convey a variety of messages, including “We have a secret,” “I’m only
kidding,” or “I’m attracted to you.” From a distance, a person can understand the
emotional gist of two people in conversation just by watching their body language
and facial expressions. Furrowed brows and folded arms indicate a serious topic,
possibly an argument. Smiles, with heads lifted and arms open, suggest a light-
hearted, friendly chat.
2.3.4 Sanctions
Sanction is a social response that punishes or discourages violations of social
norms. Different norms evoke different sanctions when violated. Some norms are
highly codified and systematized into law, which are taken very seriously by
society. They are called mores. The vast majority of everyday life norms are
relatively minor in comparison. These norms are called folkways. They carry much
less serious punishments when violated. Sanctions not only punish an individual
for violating a norm, but they also symbolically reinforce the values and norms of
a given culture. By sanctioning a person who violates a norm, society informs its
members that this type of person should not become.

2.4 Cultural Integration

Cultural integration refers to the process by which different cultural groups come
together to form a cohesive society. This process involves the blending of cultural
traits and the creation of shared norms and values. In Pakistan, cultural integration
is evident in the coexistence of diverse ethnic groups, such as Punjabis, Sindhis,
Pashtuns, and Baloch, within a unified national identity. Despite linguistic and
regional differences, Pakistanis share a common cultural heritage rooted in Islam
and South Asian traditions.
In the West, cultural integration is often promoted through policies of
multiculturalism, which encourage the coexistence of diverse cultural groups while
preserving their unique identities. For example, Canada’s multiculturalism policy
recognizes the contributions of immigrants and promotes cultural diversity as a
source of national strength. This approach contrasts with assimilationist policies,
which require minority groups to adopt the dominant culture.

2.5 Cultural Variation

Cultural variation refers to the differences in cultural practices and beliefs across
societies. These variations arise from historical, geographical, and social factors. In
Pakistan, cultural practices vary significantly between rural and urban areas. Rural
areas tend to emphasize traditional practices, such as jirga (tribal councils) and
agrarian lifestyles, while urban areas are more influenced by globalization and

48
modernization.
In the West, cultural variations are evident in the distinct traditions of countries like
France, Germany, and Italy. For example, French culture is renowned for its
culinary arts and emphasis on leisure, while German culture is associated with
precision and engineering. These variations highlight the diversity of human
cultures and the ways in which they adapt to different social and environmental
conditions.
Self-Assessment Questions
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs):
1. Which of the following is NOT an element of culture?
a) Symbols
b) Language
c) Weather
d) Norms
Correct Answer: c) Weather

2. What is the process of spreading cultural traits from one society to

another called?
a) Innovation
b) Diffusion
c) Adaptation
d) Integration
Correct Answer: b) Diffusion

3. Which of the following is a cultural symbol in Pakistan?

a) The Statue of Liberty
b) The crescent moon and star
c) The Eiffel Tower
d) The Great Wall of China
Correct Answer: b) The crescent moon and star

4. What does the norm of izzat in Pakistani culture emphasize?

a) Individualism
b) Respect for elders
c) Material wealth
d) Technological advancement
Correct Answer: b) Respect for elders

5. Which country promotes multiculturalism as a national policy?

a) Pakistan
b) United States
c) Canada
d) France
Correct Answer: c) Canada

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Restricted Response Questions:
1. Define culture and explain its key characteristics.
2. Discuss the role of language in transmitting culture.
3. How does cultural diffusion contribute to the development of culture?
4. Explain the concept of cultural integration with an example.
5. What are the main differences between rural and urban cultures in Pakistan?

Extended Response Questions:

1. Critically analyze the impact of globalization on cultural variation.
2. Discuss the significance of cultural symbols in shaping national identity.
3. How do cultural values influence social behavior in Pakistan and the
West?
4. Compare and contrast the cultural practices of two different societies.
5. Evaluate the role of cultural adaptation in preserving cultural heritage.

Further Readings
1. Cerulo, K. A., Leschziner, V., & Shepherd, H. (2021). Rethinking culture
and cognition. Annual Review of Sociology, 47, 63–85.
2. Hall, S. (1997). Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying
Practices. SAGE Publications.
3. Khan, A. (2020). Cultural Dynamics in Pakistan: Tradition and Change.
Oxford University Press.
4. Seth, A., Cao, J., Shi, X., Dotsch, R., Liu, Y., & Bos, M. W. (2023). Cultural
differences in friendship network behaviors: A Snapchat case study. arXiv
preprint arXiv:2301.13801.
5. Wang, H. (2023). Is human culture locked by evolution? arXiv preprint
arXiv:2311.00719.
Online Resources:
• Google Scholar
• JSTOR
• Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences

References
• Appadurai, A. (1996). Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of
Globalization. University of Minnesota Press.
• Hall, S. (1997). Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying
Practices. SAGE Publications.
• Hofstede, G. (2011). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values,
Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations. SAGE
Publications.
• Khan, A. (2020). Cultural Dynamics in Pakistan: Tradition and Change.
Oxford University Press.
• Tylor, E. B. (1871). Primitive Culture. Harper & Row.

50
Unit- 03

SOCIETY

Written By: Dr. Nasim Khan Mahsud

Reviewed By: Prof. Dr. Arab Naz

51
CONTENTS

Introduction 53

Objectives 54

Major topics 55

3.1 Description of Society 55

3.2 Hunting and Gathering Societies 55

3.3 Horticultural and Agrarian Societies 56

3.4 Industrial Societies 58

Self-Assessment Questions 61

By the end of this unit, students will be able to:

• define society and explain its key characteristics.

• understand the different types of societies and their development over time.
• analyze the social structures and institutions that define societies.
• compare and contrast traditional and modern societies.
• apply sociological concepts to real-world examples from Pakistan and the
West.

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Major Topics
• Description of Society
• Hunting and Gathering Societies
• Horticultural and Agrarian Societies
• Industrial Societies

3.1 Description of Society

Society can be defined as a group of individuals who live together in a defined
geographical area, interact with one another, and share a common culture and social
institutions. According to Anthony Giddens (2009), society is characterized by
patterns of relationships, social norms, and institutions that shape human behavior.
Societies are not static; they evolve over time in response to changes in technology,
economy, and culture.
In contemporary sociology, Manuel Castells (2010) emphasizes the role of
networks in shaping modern societies. Castells argues that the rise of information
technology has transformed traditional social structures, creating a "network
society" where interactions are increasingly mediated by digital platforms. This
concept is particularly relevant in the context of Pakistan, where the rapid growth
of social media has transformed how individuals communicate, form relationships,
and participate in social and political movements.
Societies are also shaped by their social institutions, such as family, education,
religion, and government. These institutions provide the framework for social
interaction and help maintain social order. For example, in Pakistan, the family is a
central social institution that plays a key role in shaping individual identities and
social relationships. Similarly, in Western societies, institutions like the education
system and the legal system are critical for maintaining social cohesion and
promoting social mobility.

3.2 Hunting and Gathering Societies

Hunting and gathering societies are the earliest form of human society,
characterized by small, nomadic groups that rely on hunting, fishing, and gathering
wild plants for survival. These societies are typically egalitarian, with minimal
social stratification and a division of labor based on age and gender. According
to Richard Lee (2018), hunting and gathering societies are characterized by their
adaptability and resilience, as they rely on their knowledge of the natural
environment to meet their basic needs.
While hunting and gathering societies are rare in the modern world, they provide
valuable insights into the origins of human social organization. For example, the
indigenous communities of the Amazon rainforest, such as the Yanomami, continue
to practice a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, relying on their deep knowledge of the forest
ecosystem for survival. In Pakistan, the Kalash people of Chitral provide a unique

55
example of a society that has preserved many traditional practices, including
communal living and a close relationship with nature.
3.2.1 Preindustrial Societies
Before the Industrial Revolution and the widespread use of machines, societies
were small, rural, and dependent largely on local resources. Economic production
was limited to the amount of labour a human being could provide, and there were
few specialized occupations. The very first occupation was that of hunter-gatherer.
Hunter-Gatherer
Hunter-gatherer societies demonstrate the strongest dependence on the
environment of the various types of preindustrial societies. As the basic structure
of all human society until about 10,000–12,000 years ago, these groups were based
on kinship or tribes. Hunter-gatherers relied on their surroundings for survival—
they hunted wild animals and foraged for uncultivated plants for food. When
resources became scarce, the group moved to a new area to find sustenance,
meaning they were nomadic. These societies were common until several hundred
years ago, but today only a few hundred remain in existence, such as Indigenous
Australian tribes sometimes referred to as “aborigines,” or the Bambuti, a group of
pygmy hunter-gatherers residing in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Hunter-
gatherer groups are quickly disappearing as the world’s population explodes.
Pastoral
Changing conditions and adaptations led some societies to rely on the
domestication of animals where circumstances permitted. Roughly 7,500 years ago,
human societies began to recognize their ability to tame and breed animals and to
grow and cultivate their own plants. Pastoral societies rely on the domestication of
animals as a resource for survival. Unlike earlier hunter-gatherers who depended
entirely on existing resources to stay alive, pastoral groups were able to breed
livestock for food, clothing, and transportation, creating a surplus of goods.
Herding, or pastoral, societies remained nomadic because they were forced to
follow their animals to fresh feeding grounds. Around the time that pastoral
societies emerged, specialized occupations began to develop, and societies
commenced trading with local groups.

3.3 Horticultural and Agrarian Societies

Horticultural and agrarian societies represent a significant shift in human social
organization, as they involve the domestication of plants and animals and the
development of settled communities. Horticultural societies rely on small-scale
farming using simple tools, while agrarian societies are characterized by large-scale
agriculture, the use of plows, and the development of complex social structures.

56
According to Gerhard Lenski (2017), the transition to agriculture marked a turning
point in human history, leading to the development of permanent settlements, social
stratification, and the emergence of political and religious institutions. In agrarian
societies, land ownership becomes a key source of power and wealth, leading to the
development of social classes and hierarchies.
3.3.1 Horticultural
Around the same time that pastoral societies were on the rise, another type of
society developed, based on the newly developed capacity for people to grow and
cultivate plants. Previously, the depletion of a region’s crops or water supply forced
pastoral societies to relocate in search of food sources for their
livestock. Horticultural societies formed in areas where rainfall and other
conditions allowed them to grow stable crops. They were similar to hunter-
gatherers in that they largely depended on the environment for survival, but since
they did not have to abandon their location to follow resources, they were able to
start permanent settlements. This created more stability and more material goods
and became the basis for the first revolution in human survival.
3.3.2 Agricultural
While pastoral and horticultural societies used small, temporary tools such as
digging sticks or hoes, agricultural societies relied on permanent tools for survival.
Around 3000 BCE., an explosion of new technology known as the Agricultural
Revolution made farming possible and profitable. Farmers learned to rotate the
types of crops grown on their fields and to reuse waste products such as fertilizer,
leading to better harvests and bigger surpluses of food. New tools for digging and
harvesting were made of metal, making them more effective and longer lasting.
Human settlements grew into towns and cities, and particularly bountiful regions
became centres of trade and commerce.
This is also the age in which people had the time and comfort to engage in more
contemplative and thoughtful activities, such as music, poetry, and philosophy. This
period became referred to as the “dawn of civilization” by some because of the
development of leisure and arts. Craftspeople were able to support themselves
through the production of creative, decorative, or thought-provoking aesthetic
objects and writings.
As agricultural techniques made the production of surpluses possible, social classes
and power structures emerged. Those with the power to appropriate the surpluses
were able to dominate the society. Classes of nobility and religious elites developed.
Difference in social standing between men and women appeared. Slavery was
institutionalized. As cities expanded, ownership and protection of resources became
a pressing concern and militaries became more prominent.

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3.3.3 Feudal
In Europe, the ninth century gave rise to feudal societies. These societies contained
a strict hierarchical system of power based on land ownership, protection, and
mutual obligation. The nobility, known as lords, rewarded knights or vassals by
granting them pieces of land. In return for the resources that the land provided,
vassals promised to fight for their lords.
These individual pieces of land, known as fiefdoms, were cultivated by the lower
class of serfs. In return for maintaining and working the land, serfs were guaranteed
a place to live and protection from outside enemies. Power was handed down
through family lines, with serf families serving lords for generations and
generations. Ultimately, the social and economic system of feudalism was
surpassed by the rise of capitalism and the technological advances of the industrial
era.
In Pakistan, the agrarian society has played a central role in shaping the country’s
social and economic structure. The Indus Valley Civilization, one of the world’s
earliest agrarian societies, developed advanced systems of irrigation and
agriculture, laying the foundation for the region’s cultural and economic
development. Today, agriculture remains a critical sector of Pakistan’s economy,
with millions of people relying on farming for their livelihoods.
In the West, the transition to agrarian societies laid the groundwork for the
development of feudalism in medieval Europe, where land ownership was
concentrated in the hands of a small elite, and the majority of the population worked
as peasants. This system of social organization persisted for centuries, shaping the
political and economic structures of European societies.

3.4 Industrial Societies

Industrial societies emerged during the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th
centuries, marked by the transition from agrarian economies to industrialized
economies based on manufacturing and technology. According to Herbert
Spencer (2019), industrial societies are characterized by their emphasis on
rationality, efficiency, and technological innovation. The rise of industrial societies
led to significant social changes, including urbanization, the growth of the middle
class, and the development of new social institutions.
3.4.1 Industrial Society
In the 18th century, Europe experienced a dramatic rise in technological invention,
ushering in an era known as the Industrial Revolution. What made this period
remarkable was the number of new inventions that influenced people’s daily lives.
Within a generation, tasks that had until this point required months of labour
became achievable in a matter of days. Before the Industrial Revolution, work was
largely person- or animal-based, relying on human workers or horses to power mills

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and drive pumps. In 1782, James Watt and Matthew Boulton created a steam engine
that could do the work of 12 horses by itself.
Steam power began appearing everywhere. Instead of paying artisans to
painstakingly spin wool and weave it into cloth, people turned to textile mills that
produced fabric quickly at a better price, and often with better quality. Rather than
planting and harvesting fields by hand, farmers were able to purchase mechanical
seeders and threshing machines that caused agricultural productivity to soar.
Products such as paper and glass became available to the average person, and the
quality and accessibility of education and health care soared. Gas lights allowed
increased visibility in the dark, and towns and cities developed a nightlife.
One of the results of increased wealth, productivity, and technology was the rise of
urban centres. Serfs and peasants, expelled from their ancestral lands, flocked to
the cities in search of factory jobs, and the populations of cities became increasingly
diverse. The new generation became less preoccupied with maintaining family land
and traditions, and more focused on survival. Some were successful in acquiring
wealth and achieving upward mobility for themselves and their family. Others lived
in devastating poverty and squalor. Whereas the class system of feudalism had been
rigid, and resources for all but the highest nobility and clergy scarce, under
capitalism social mobility (both upward and downward) became possible.
It was during the 18th and 19th centuries of the Industrial Revolution that sociology
was born. Life was changing quickly and the long-established traditions of the
agricultural eras did not apply to life in the larger cities. Masses of people were
moving to new environments and often found themselves faced with horrendous
conditions of filth, overcrowding, and poverty. Social science emerged in response
to the unprecedented scale of the social problems of modern society.
It was during this time that power moved from the hands of the aristocracy and “old
money” to the new class of rising bourgeoisie who amassed fortunes in their
lifetimes. A new cadre of financiers and industrialists (like Donald Smith [1st Baron
Strathcona and Mount Royal] and George Stephen [1st Baron Mount Stephen] in
Canada) became the new power players, using their influence in business to control
aspects of government as well. Eventually, concerns over the exploitation of
workers led to the formation of labour unions and laws that set mandatory
conditions for employees. Although the introduction of new technology at the end
of the 20th century ended the industrial age, much of our social structure and social
ideas—like the nuclear family, left-right political divisions, and time
standardization—have a basis in industrial society.
In Pakistan, the process of industrialization has been uneven, with significant
disparities between urban and rural areas. Cities like Karachi, Lahore, and
Faisalabad have become centers of industrial activity, attracting migrants from rural
areas in search of employment opportunities. However, the rapid growth of urban

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populations has also led to challenges such as overcrowding, pollution, and
inadequate infrastructure.
In the West, the transition to industrial societies has been associated with the rise of
capitalism and the development of modern democratic institutions. According
to Karl Marx (2018), industrial societies are characterized by class conflict, as the
capitalist class (bourgeoisie) exploits the working class (proletariat) for profit. This
perspective highlights the social inequalities that are often inherent in industrial
societies.
3.4.2 Post-industrial Society
Information societies, sometimes known as postindustrial or digital societies, are a
recent development. Unlike industrial societies that are rooted in the production of
material goods, information societies are based on the production of information
and services. Digital technology is the steam engine of information societies, and
high -tech companies such as Apple and Microsoft are its version of railroad and
steel manufacturing corporations. Since the economy of information societies is
driven by knowledge and not material goods, power lies with those in charge of
creating, storing, and distributing information. Members of a postindustrial society
are likely to be employed as sellers of services—software programmers or business
consultants, for example—instead of producers of goods. Social classes are divided
by access to education, since without technical and communication skills, people
in an information society lack the means for success.

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Self-Assessment Questions
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs):
1. Which of the following is a characteristic of hunting and gathering
societies?
a) Large-scale agriculture
b) Nomadic lifestyle
c) Industrial production
d) Urbanization
Correct Answer: b) Nomadic lifestyle
2. What is a key feature of agrarian societies?
a) Egalitarian social structure
b) Reliance on hunting and gathering
c) Large-scale agriculture
d) Digital networks
Correct Answer: c) Large-scale agriculture
3. Which sociologist emphasized the role of networks in modern
societies?
a) Anthony Giddens
b) Manuel Castells
c) Gerhard Lenski
d) Karl Marx
Correct Answer: b) Manuel Castells
4. What is a major challenge associated with industrialization in
Pakistan?
a) Overcrowding in urban areas
b) Decline in agricultural production
c) Lack of technological innovation
d) Egalitarian social structure
Correct Answer: a) Overcrowding in urban areas
5. Which of the following is a characteristic of industrial societies?
a) Emphasis on rationality and efficiency
b) Nomadic lifestyle
c) Small-scale farming
d) Egalitarian social structure
Correct Answer: a) Emphasis on rationality and efficiency
Restricted Response Questions:
1. Define society and explain its key characteristics.
2. Discuss the social structure of hunting and gathering societies.

61
3. How did the transition to agriculture shape human societies?
4. Explain the role of social institutions in maintaining social order.
5. What are the key features of industrial societies?
Extended Response Questions:
1. Critically analyze the impact of industrialization on Pakistani society.
2. Compare and contrast agrarian and industrial societies.
3. Discuss the relevance of Manuel Castells’ concept of the network society in
the context of Pakistan.
4. How has the transition from agrarian to industrial societies influenced social
inequality?
5. Evaluate the role of technology in shaping modern societies.

Further Readings
1. Castells, M. (2010). The Rise of the Network Society. Wiley-Blackwell.
2. Giddens, A., Duneier, M., Appelbaum, R. P., & Carr, D. (2017).
Introduction to Sociology (10th ed.). New York, NY: W.W. Norton &
Company.
3. Lee, R. (2018). The !Kung San: Men, Women, and Work in a Foraging
Society. Cambridge University Press.
4. Lenski, G. (2017). Power and Privilege: A Theory of Social Stratification.
UNC Press Books.
5. Marx, K. (2018). Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Penguin
Classics.
6. Ritzer, G., & Dean, P. (2022). Globalization: A basic text (3rd ed.).
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Online Resources:
• Google Scholar
• JSTOR
• Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences

References
• Castells, M. (2010). The Rise of the Network Society. Wiley-Blackwell.
• Giddens, A. (2009). Sociology (6th ed.). Polity Press.
• Lee, R. (2018). The !Kung San: Men, Women, and Work in a Foraging
Society. Cambridge University Press.
• Lenski, G. (2017). Power and Privilege: A Theory of Social Stratification.
UNC Press Books.
• Marx, K. (2018). Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Penguin
Classics.

62
Unit- 04

SOCIAL INTERACTION

Written By: Dr. Nasim Khan Mahsud

Reviewed By: Dr. Rabia

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CONTENTS

Introduction 65

Objectives 66

Major topics 67

4.1 The Study of Day-to-Day Social Life 67

4.2 Nonverbal Communication 69

4.3 Interaction in Space and Time 71

4.4 Social Interaction and Social Processes 71

Self-Assessment Questions 79

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

• define social interaction and understand its role in shaping social life.
• examine the different forms of communication, particularly nonverbal cues.
• explore how space and time influence social interactions.
• identify the connection between social interaction and broader social
processes such as cooperation, conflict, and power dynamics.

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Major Topics
• The Study of Day-to-Day Social Life
• Nonverbal Communication
• Interaction in Space and Time
• Social Interaction and Social Processes

4.1 The Study of Day-to-Day Social Life

The study of day-to-day social life refers to the ways in which individuals and
groups engage in everyday activities that constitute social reality. Sociologists focus
on how these interactions are influenced by societal norms, values, and institutional
structures (Giddens et al., 2017). Phenomenological sociology, for example,
emphasizes the subjective experiences of individuals during routine interactions,
highlighting how meaning is created through shared understandings in ordinary
settings (Schutz, 1967). This micro-level perspective is essential for understanding
broader social patterns because it reveals how larger social forces are enacted in
everyday behavior (Simmel, 2020).
Social interactions are reciprocal relationships which not only influence the
interacting individuals but also the quality of relationships. According to Gillin and
Gillin, “By social interaction we refer to social relations of all sorts in functions –
dynamic social relations of all kinds – whether such relations exist between
individual and individual, between group and group and group and individual, as
the case may be”. Eldredge and Merrill say, “Social interaction is thus the general
process whereby two or more persons are in meaningful contact-as a result of which
their behaviour is modified, however, slightly”. The mere placing of individuals in
physical proximity, although it usually results in at least a medium of interaction,
does not weld them into a social unit or group. Social interaction may then be
defined as that dynamic interplay of forces in which contact between persons and
groups results in modifications of the attitudes and behaviour of the participants.
The two basic conditions of social interaction are (i) social contact and (ii)
communication. In the words of Gillin and Gillin, “Social contact is the first phase
of interaction”. Social contacts are always established through the medium of
someone causes sense organ. An object can be perceived by the sense organ only
when that object causes communication with that sense organ. Hence the means of
communication are essential adjuncts of social contact. Communication may be the
form of direct person to person or it may take place through some medium of long-
range contact such as the telephone, telegraph, television etc.
Social life is deeply embedded in everyday interactions. According to Erving
Goffman’s The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959), individuals perform
roles in their day-to-day interactions, which are crucial for shaping societal norms.
In Pakistan, the family unit plays a pivotal role in these interactions, where social
hierarchies, respect for elders, and gender roles dictate much of daily social

67
behavior (Khan, 2017). In the workplace, formal communication is often dictated
by hierarchical structures, while in informal settings, social interactions become
more fluid and personal.
Sociologists focus on these micro-level interactions to understand how broader
societal structures such as class, ethnicity, and religion shape individual behaviors.
For example, in Pakistan, the interaction between urban and rural populations often
reflects disparities in resources, education, and access to technology (Shah &
Hussain, 2020). These disparities highlight the intersectionality of social life in
diverse contexts, where interactions reflect deeply ingrained cultural norms and
institutional structures.
It means by studying social interaction at the micro level sociologists study the
behavior of individuals and at a macro level it helps to study larger groups,
institutions and social structure of any society. People act in a patterned way based
on soda! influences the structure of their respective societies. It would be
appropriate here to study the elements of social structure before going further, The
basic elements/components of social structure are Statues, Social Roles, Groups
and Social Institutions.
4.1.1 Status
A status refers to a recognized social position that an individual occupies in a
society. Each involves certain rights, privileges, obligations and expectations that
are widely recognized. Statuses guide the behavior of people in different social
situations and are an important part of how people act in certain situations. For
example in a college classroom professors and students have distinct well-defined
responsibilities and they have to act accordingly. A person can hold more than one
status at a given time for example a man can be a father, husband, male and doctor.
The term Status set refers to all the statuses a person holds at a particular time.
Sociologists -classify statuses as Ascribed and Achieved. An ascribed status is a
social position that someone receives at birth such as male, female, caste etc. In
contrast, an achieved status refers to a social position that someone assumes
voluntarily and that reflects personal ability and effort such as a doctor. Lawyer,
husband, wife or a criminal. Most often there is a combination of ascribed and
achieved factors in each of our statuses.
That is, people's ascribed statuses influence the statuses they achieve; For example,
people who achieve the status of doctor or lawyer are likely to share the ascribed
trait of being, born into relatively privileged families. Similarly many less desirable
statuses such as beggars, or being out of work are more likely to be achieved by
people born into poverty.
4.1.2 Social Role
The concept of role refers to behavior expected of someone who holds a particular
status. For example in Pakistan, we expect that a mother will look after the baby

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and fulfill her basic needs even at the cost of her own basic needs. A wife should
be obedient towards her husband in every aspect of her life. However, actual
performance varies from individual to individual. Roles are a significant
component of social structure. These expectations give a picture of a certain social
structure. For example, from the above examples, it is clear that in Pakistani society
mother has a very important role and people expect a lot from the mother. Similarly,
it also shows that it is a male- dominating society where it is expected that the wife
has to obey her husband at any cost.
4.1.3 Role Conflict
The concept of role conflict refers to incompatibility among roles corresponding to
two or more statuses. Even the roles attached to a single status can create problems
for an individual. Fulfillment of the role associated with one status may directly
violate the roles linked to the second status. For example, a working-mother is
physically and emotionally struggling to perform the duties of parenting and
working outside the home. Sometimes women experience a serious conflict
between these two roles.
4.1.4 Groups
A social group consists of two or more people who are bound to gather in relatively
stable patterns of interaction (You will study the groups in detail in the next unit).
4.1.5 Institutions
Horton and Hunt defined "institution' as 'an institution is an organized system of
social relationships that embodies certain common values and procedures and
meets certain basic needs of the society'. The family, the economy, the government,
the health care system, the education and religion system are all examples of social
institutions. By studying social institutions sociologists gain insight into the
structure of a society.

4.2 Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication plays a significant role in social interaction,
complementing or even substituting for verbal messages. It includes facial
expressions, gestures, body language, eye contact, posture, and spatial
arrangements (Argyle, 2021). Research has shown that nonverbal cues often
communicate more than words, particularly in establishing emotional connections
or reinforcing power dynamics (Burgoon, Guerrero, & Floyd, 2020). For example,
the "personal space" that individuals maintain in interaction varies by culture and
context, and these nonverbal cues can impact how individuals perceive one another
in different social settings (Hall, 2022).
Nonverbal communication, including facial expressions, gestures, and body
language, plays a vital role in social interaction. In Pakistan, for instance, a simple

69
handshake may signify a formal greeting, but the same gesture may be interpreted
differently depending on social status and gender dynamics (Ali & Raza, 2021).
Nonverbal cues, such as eye contact and posture, are key indicators of respect,
power, and status in Pakistani society.
The work of scholars such as Argyle (2021) and Burgoon et al. (2020) suggests that
nonverbal communication often carries more weight than verbal messages,
especially in cultures where indirect communication is preferred. In Pakistan, the
concept of “izzat” (honor) is frequently communicated through nonverbal cues,
making nonverbal communication a powerful tool for maintaining social
relationships.
Speech is important in most social behaviour. It distinguishes our social activities
from those of animals. However, even when an encounter is primarily
conversational, nonverbal cues of various kinds play an essential role in the process.
For example, clapping indicates a sign of appreciation and raising two fingers is a
sign of victory without using words.
4.2.1 Body Language
This is the most basic type of communication. Relation between an infant and other
people consists at first entirely of body contact. Later. These are largely replaced
by the visual cues of facial and gesture expressions. Body language can occur in a
very wide variety of ways but facial expressions and hand gestures are the most
obvious forms of body language. The certain facial expressions are universally
recognized such as fear, anger amusement etc. Gestures, however, are culturally
relative and the people belonging to that specific culture can understand their
meanings, for example, the people of India touch the feet of their elders to show
respect. In Pakistan, women usually cover their heads to show respect to elders.
People from these cultures can understand these gestures without any explanation.
4.2.2 Physical Proximity
Whenever people engage in a social encounter they must choose some degree of
physical proximity. Hall (1959, 1966) has suggested four zones of private space.
He calls them, intimate distance, casual-personal distance, social distance and
public distance. Intimate distance, of up to one and a half feet, is reserved for very
few social contacts. Only those involved in relationships in which regular bodily
touching is permitted such as parents and children, husband and wife. Casual-
Personal distance from one and a half feet to four feet is the normal distance for
encounters with friends and close acquaintances. In this distance, limited intimacy
of contact is permitted such as greeting someone with a hug or consoling someone
by holding hands etc. Social distance from four feet to twelve feet, this zone is
usually maintained in formal settings of interaction as in job interviews. The fourth
zone is that of public distance or beyond twelve feet. Proximity varies with the
social setting. At a crowded party, people stand close together, in a big sitting room

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people may sit 8-10 feet apart though 51/2 feet is more common for discussions in
the work situation. There are implicit cultural rules about these matters.

4.3 Interaction in Space and Time

Social interaction is inherently influenced by both spatial and temporal dimensions.
Geographical location and proximity affect how individuals interact, as seen in the
differences between urban and rural interactions, or between online and in-person
communication. The concept of proxemics, introduced by Hall (1966), refers to the
study of personal space and the distances individuals maintain during social
interactions. Similarly, time, or chronemics, plays a crucial role in interactions. The
pace of conversation, the timing of actions, and the expectations around punctuality
can vary significantly between cultures and social contexts (Tannen, 2020).
Sociologists have studied how both space and time are socially constructed,
determining norms for personal and collective behavior.
The spatial and temporal dimensions of social interaction are crucial in
understanding how social life is organized. Hall (1966) proposed that people
maintain different zones of personal space depending on cultural context. In
Pakistan, the concept of personal space varies, particularly between rural and urban
settings. In densely populated cities like Karachi, people are accustomed to being
in close proximity, while in rural areas, personal space is more respected.
Similarly, time—whether it’s punctuality or the pace of interaction—can
significantly alter the dynamics of social interaction. In Pakistan, “Pakistan
Standard Time” often refers to a more flexible approach to punctuality, which
reflects broader social attitudes toward time (Ahmad & Mustafa, 2019).
Understanding how different cultures perceive space and time provides valuable
insights into the nature of social interaction.

4.4 Social Interaction and Social Processes

Social interaction is at the core of broader social processes, such as cooperation,
conflict, and power dynamics. Interaction is not just about exchanging information,
but about negotiating roles, establishing relationships, and defining social norms.
Through interactions, individuals influence and are influenced by their social
environments. For instance, in cooperative interactions, people work together
toward shared goals, whereas conflict-based interactions reveal underlying power
relations and societal tensions (Coser, 2022). The way individuals engage in social
processes like conflict or cooperation often reflects their positions in larger social
hierarchies, shaped by factors like class, gender, and race (Collins, 2023). In this
way, everyday social interactions can reproduce or challenge existing social
structures.
Social interaction is central to processes like cooperation, conflict, and power
dynamics. In Pakistani society, these processes are particularly visible in political
and religious contexts. For instance, the interaction between various political
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parties during election cycles often exemplifies strategic cooperation and
competition for power. Likewise, conflicts, whether related to ethnicity or religion,
often emerge through intense social interactions that reflect larger societal tensions.
Social interaction also reinforces societal norms. For example, the interaction
between men and women in public spaces in Pakistan is heavily regulated by
societal expectations and religious norms, highlighting the intersection of gender
and social processes. These everyday interactions contribute to the maintenance or
disruption of social structures (Simmel, 2020).
4.4.1 Types of Social Processes:
Associative Process:
The associative or conjunctive social processes are positive. These social processes
work for the solidarity and benefit of society. This category of social processes
includes cooperation, accommodation, assimilation and acculturation etc. Three
major social processes such as cooperation, accommodation and assimilation are
discussed below.
1. Cooperation:
Cooperation is one of the fundamental processes of social life. It is a form of social
process in which two or more individuals or groups work together jointly to achieve
common goals. Cooperation is a form of social interaction in which all participants
benefit by attaining their goals. The term ‘cooperation’ has been derived from two
Latin words – ‘Co’ meaning ‘together and Operary meaning ‘to work’. Hence,
cooperation means working together for the achievement of a common goal or
goals. When two or more persons work together to gain a common goal, it is called
cooperation. Co-operation means working together in the pursuit of like or common
interests. It is defined by Green as “the continuous and common Endeavour of two
or more persons to perform a task or to reach a goal that is commonly cherished.
According to Merrill and Eldredge, “Cooperation is a form of social interaction
wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common end”. In the words
of Fairchild, “Cooperation is the process by which the individuals or groups
combine their effort in a more or less organized way for the attainment of common
objective”, Cooperation involves two elements: (i) Common end and (ii) Organized
effort. When different persons have the same goals and also realize that individually
they cannot achieve these goals, they work jointly for the fulfillment of these goals.
The following are the important characteristics of cooperation:
i. Cooperation is an associative process of social interaction that takes place
between two or more individuals or groups.
ii. Cooperation is a conscious process in which individuals or groups have to
work consciously.

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iii. Cooperation is a personal process in which individuals and groups
personally meet and work together for a common objective.
iv. Cooperation is a continuous process. There is continuity in the collective
efforts in cooperation.
v. Cooperation is a universal process that is found in all groups, societies and
nations.
vi. Cooperation is based upon two elements such as common end and organised
effort.
vii. Common ends can be better achieved by cooperation and it is necessary for
the progress of individuals as well as society.
Types of Cooperation:
Cooperation is of different types. Maclver and Page have divided cooperation into
two main types namely,
i. Direct Cooperation
ii. Indirect Cooperation.
i. Direct Cooperation:
Under direct cooperation may include all those activities in which people do things
together. For example, playing together, working together, carrying a load together
or pulling the car out of mud together. The essential characteristic of this kind of
cooperation is that people do such identical functions which they can also do
separately. This type of cooperation is voluntary e.g., cooperation between husband
and wife, teacher and student, master and servant etc.
ii. Indirect Cooperation:
Under indirect cooperation includes those activities in which people do, unlike
tasks together towards a common end. For example, when carpenters, plumbers and
masons cooperate to build a house. This cooperation is based on the principle of the
division of labour.
In it people perform different functions but for the attainment of the common
objective. In the modern technological age, specialization of skills and function are
more required for which indirect cooperation is rapidly replacing direct
cooperation. A.W. Green has classified cooperation into three main categories such
as
(i) Primary cooperation
(ii) (ii) Secondary cooperation
(iii) (iii) Tertiary cooperation.
i. Primary Cooperation:
This type of cooperation is found in primary groups such as the family. In this form,
there is an identity of interests between the individuals and the group. The

73
achievement of the interests of the group includes the realization of the individual’s
interests.
ii. Secondary Cooperation:
Secondary cooperation is found in secondary groups such as Government, industry,
trade unions and church etc. For example, in an industry, each may work in
cooperation with others for his own wages, salaries, promotion, profits and in some
cases prestige and power. In this form of cooperation there is disparity of interests
between the individuals.
iii. Tertiary Cooperation:
This type of cooperation is grounded in the interaction between the various big and
small groups to meet a particular situation. In it, the attitudes of the cooperating
parties are purely opportunistic; the organisation of their cooperation is both loose
and fragile. For example, two political parties with different ideologies may get
united to defeat their rival party in an election.
Ogburn and Nimikoff divided cooperation into three main types:
i. General Cooperation:
When some people cooperate for the common goals then there is cooperation,
which is known as general cooperation e.g. cooperation found in cultural functions
is the general cooperation.
ii. Friendly Cooperation:
When we want to attain the happiness and contentment of our group we cooperate
with each other, then this type of cooperation is known as friendly cooperation e.g.
dancing, singing, dating, etc.
iii. Helping Cooperation:
When some people work for the victims of famine or flood then this type of
cooperation is known as helping cooperation.
Role or Importance of Cooperation:
• Cooperation is the most elementary form of social process without which
society cannot exist. According to Kropotkin, it is so important in the life of
an individual that it is difficult to survive without it.
• Cooperation is the foundation of our social life. The continuation of the
human race requires the cooperation of males and females for the
reproduction and upbringing of children.
• Cooperation for human beings is both a psychological and social necessity.
It is needed at every step of our lives.
• The physical mental and even the spiritual needs of the individual remain
unsatisfied if he does not agree to cooperate with his fellow-members.

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• The outstanding progress in science and technology, agriculture and
industry, transport and communication would not have been possible
without Cooperation.
2. Accommodation:
Adjustment is the way of life. It can take place in two ways such as adaptation and
accommodation. Adaptation refers to the process of biological adjustment.
Accommodation, on the other hand, implies the process of social adjustment.
“Accommodation is the achievement of adjustment between people that permits
harmonious acting together in social situations. It is achieved by an individual
through the acquisition of behaviour patterns, habits and attitudes which are
transmitted to him socially. It is a process through which individuals or groups
make adjustments to the changed situation to overcome difficulties faced by them.
As Maclver and Page say, “the term accommodation refers particularly to the
process in which man attains a sense of harmony with his environment”. According
to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Accommodation is a term used by sociologists to describe
the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups.” As Horton and Hunt define
“Accommodation Is a process of developing temporary working agreements
between conflicting individuals or groups”. In the words of Gillin and Gillin
“Accommodation is the process by which competing and conflicting individuals
and groups adjust their relationship to each other in order to overcome the
difficulties which arise in competition, contravention or conflict”. It is the
termination of competing or conflicting relations between individuals, groups and
other human relationship structures. It is a way of inventing social arrangement
which enable people to work together whether they like it or not. This led Sumner
to refer to accommodation as ‘antagonistic cooperation’.
Characteristics:
i. It is the end result of Conflict
ii. It is both a Conscious and Unconscious Process
iii. It is a Universal Activity
iv. It is a Continuous Process
v. It is a mixture of both Love and Hatred:
Forms or Methods of Accommodation:
i. Admission of one’s Defeat: This method of accommodation is applicable
between the conflicting parties of unequal strength. The stronger group can
pressurize the weaker group by its strength. The weaker party submits to the
stronger one out of fear or because of fear of being overpowered.
ii. Compromise: This method is applicable when the combatants are of equal
strength. In a compromise, each party to the dispute makes some
concessions and yields to some demand of the other. The “all or nothing”

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attitude gives way to a willingness to yield certain points in order to gain
others.
iii. Arbitration and Conciliation: Accommodation is also achieved by means of
arbitration and conciliation which involves attempts of the third party to
resolve the conflict between the contending parties.
iv. Toleration: Toleration is the method of accommodation in which there is no
settlement of dispute but there is only the avoidance of overt conflict or
open conflict. Toleration is found in the field of religion where different
religious groups exist side by side, having different policies and ideologies.
v. Conversion: Conversion is a method of accommodation in which one of the
contending parties tries to convince his opponents of his view of the point
by proving that he is right and they are wrong. As a result, the party which
has been convinced is likely to accept the viewpoint of the other party.
vi. Rationalization: Accommodation can be achieved by rationalization. It is a
method that involves the withdrawal of the contending party from the
conflict on the basis of some imaginary explanations to justify his action. In
other words, it means an individual or a group rationalizes his behaviour by
plausible exercises and explanations.
Importance of Accommodation:
Accommodation is the way that enables people to work together whether they like
it or not. Society can hardly go on without accommodation. Since conflict disturbs
social integration, disrupts social order and damages social stability,
accommodation is essentially essential to check conflict and to maintain
cooperation which is the sine qua non of social life.
It not only reduces or controls conflict but also enables the individuals and groups
to adjust themselves to changed conditions. It is the basis of social organization. As
Burgess remarks: “Social organization is the sum total of accommodation to past
and present situations. All the social heritages, traditions, sentiments, culture, and
techniques are accommodations.
Accommodation makes for group life. It is indispensable in modern complex
society. In accommodation the barriers between the parties have been partially
broken down, social distance weakened and formal relations established whereby
groups can work together.
3. Assimilation:
Assimilation is a fundamental social process; it is that process by which individuals
belonging to different cultures are united into one. Successful accommodation sets
the stage for an additional consequence of human interactions, namely assimilation.
This implies the complete merging and fusion of two or more bodies into a single
common body, a process analogous to digestion, in which we say that food is
assimilated. For instance, American Indians adopted cultural elements of whites

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abandoning their own culture. But assimilation is not limited to this single field
only. For example, husbands and wives with dissimilar backgrounds often develop
a surprising unity of interest and purpose. Assimilation is a slow and gradual
process. It takes quite some time before individuals or groups once dissimilar
become similar. Acculturation is the first step to assimilation. Acculturation is the
name given to the stage when the cultural group that is in contact with another
borrows from it certain cultural elements and incorporates them into its own culture.
The contact between the two groups inevitably affects both; though it is natural that
culturally weaker group would do more of the borrowing from and would give very
little to the culturally stronger group. When two cultures meet, the dominant culture
becomes the common culture of the two interacting cultures.
Some of its definitions of assimilation are given below:
According to Biesanz and Biesanz, “Assimilation is the social process whereby
individuals or groups come to share the same sentiments and goals”.
“Assimilation”, says E.S. Bogardus, “is a process whereby attitudes of many
persons are united, and thus, develop into a united group”.
As Ogburn and Nimkoff define, “Assimilation is the process whereby individuals
or groups once dissimilar become similar, that it become identified in the interests
and outlook”.
Characteristics of Assimilation:
i. Assimilation is an associative process.
ii. Assimilation is a universal process. It is found in every place and at all
times.
iii. Assimilation is a slow and gradual process. It is gradual as the individual
comes to share the expectations of another group and slowly acquires a new
set of values.
iv. Assimilation is an unconscious process. Individuals are not conscious that
they discard their own values and acquire new set of values.
v. Assimilation is a two-way process. It is based on the principle of give and
take. Assimilation takes place when groups of individuals borrow cultural
elements from each other and incorporate them into their own culture.
Factors Conducive for Assimilation:
The following factors may account for the ready occurrence of assimilation:
i. Toleration: Tolerance helps people to come together, to develop contacts
and to participate in common cultural and social activities. When the
dominant group is hospitable and tolerant towards differences, the minority
groups have a greater opportunity to participate in the total community life.
ii. Close Social Contact: When people or groups of different cultures come
into close proximity with each other, the assimilation process takes place

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very easily. The close social contact creates a good understanding among
the people and the group and this creates a healthy atmosphere in which
people exchange their views in a better way. For instance, in India, the
assimilation between Hinduism and Buddhism is possible due to the close
social contact among the members of these two religious groups. Thus,
close physical proximity plays a vital role in promoting the assimilation
process.
iii. Amalgamation: Amalgamation is another promoting factor of assimilation.
By amalgamation we mean, individuals or groups come into close contact
with one another. It occurs when two different cultural groups establish
matrimonial relationships among themselves.
iv. Equal Economic Opportunity: The inequality of economic status among the
people of different cultural groups hinders the process of assimilation. But
the equal economic opportunities facilitate the assimilation process. The
people or groups having equal economic positions become more easily
intimate. Thus, intimate relationship promotes assimilation.
v. Common Physical Traits: Common physical traits or qualities of the people
of different cultures also promote the process of assimilation. The foreign
immigrants of the same race can more easily assimilate than those of
different races. For instance, the Indians who live in America permanently
can easily assimilate into the Indian culture.
vi. Cultural similarity: Cultural similarities between two groups of individuals
promote assimilation. If there are similarities between cultural groups,
assimilation is quick to take place. Similarly, assimilation occurs most
readily when two cultural groups have a common language. Without
knowledge of the language, the individual remains outside the adopted
society. The first step in assimilation into a new society is, therefore, to a
learn language.
Factors Hindering Assimilation:
Merely bringing persons of different backgrounds together does not assure that a
fusion of cultures and personalities takes place. Sometimes it results in conflict
rather than fusion between the contiguous groups. There are various factors that
retard assimilation. These factors are discussed below.
i. Physical Differences: Differences in features, the complexion of skin and
another physical traits may also help or hinder assimilation. Generally, the
adjustment problems are the easiest for those immigrants who in appearance
are supposedly most like the people of the new land.
ii. Cultural Differences: Language and religion are usually considered to be
the main constituents of culture, Immigrants having the same religion and
language can easily adjust themselves in other areas or countries.

78
iii. Prejudice: Prejudice is a barrier to assimilation. Prejudice is the attitude on
which segregation depends for its success. As long as the dominant group
prejudices those who have been set apart, neither they as a group nor their
individual members can easily become assimilated to the general culture.
Prejudice also impedes assimilation between constituent elements within a
given society.
iv. Sense of superiority and inferiority: Assimilation is hindered by the feelings
of superiority and inferiority. The people who have strong feelings of
superiority, generally hate the people who suffer from a sense of inferiority.
Due to this reason intimate relationship between two groups of people
become difficult. Hence, assimilation is retarded.
v. Domination and subordination: Assimilation between two groups of people
is almost impossible where one group dominate the other. In this case social
relation which is essential for assimilation does not develop among the
people of dominant and subordinate groups. The dominant group always
considers the people of subordinate group as inferior and exercises its power
over them. As a result jealousy, hatred, suspicion and conflict etc. develop
among them. All these hinder the process of assimilation.
vi. Isolation: Isolation also hinders assimilation. People who live in isolation
fail to establish social contact with others. The isolated people cut off entire
social relationships with other people in society. Therefore, the process of
assimilation becomes very difficult.
In short, it can be summed up that assimilation is a slow process of adoption and
adjustment on the part of individuals. There is no abrupt change in the way of life.
In short, assimilation is a process of cultural adoption and adjustment.

Self-Assessment Questions
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. What is the core idea of social interaction in sociology?
a) Communication between two individuals.
b) The exchange of goods in a market.
c) The process by which people act and react to others.
d) The way power is distributed across a society.
Correct Answer: c
2. Nonverbal communication can include:
a) Gestures and facial expressions.
b) Only spoken words.
c) Written language.
d) None of the above.
Correct Answer: a

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3. Which of the following is NOT an example of spatial interaction?
a) A handshake.
b) Standing in a queue.
c) A group discussion.
d) Sitting in a crowded bus.
Correct Answer: c
4. In Pakistani culture, personal space tends to be:
a) The same across all regions.
b) Larger in urban areas.
c) Respected more in rural areas.
d) Irrelevant to social interactions.
Correct Answer: c
5. What concept in Pakistani society reflects the nonverbal transmission
of honor?
a) Izzat
b) Bhatta
c) Salam
d) Shahadat
Correct Answer: a
6. Social interactions are primarily influenced by:
a) Economic factors.
b) Legal structures.
c) Cultural norms and values.
d) Technological advancements.
Correct Answer: c
7. Which factor does NOT impact social interaction?
a) Gender roles.
b) Social status.
c) Clothing trends.
d) The weather.
Correct Answer: d
8. The concept of "Pakistan Standard Time" refers to:
a) The country’s official time zone.
b) A flexible approach to punctuality in social settings.
c) The time difference between Pakistan and its neighbors.
d) Strict adherence to punctuality in urban areas.
Correct Answer: b

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9. Nonverbal communication is:
a) Always less important than verbal communication.
b) Often more important than verbal communication.
c) Only used in formal settings.
d) The same across all cultures.
Correct Answer: b
10. Interaction in space and time is referred to as:
a) Proxemics and chronemics.
b) Verbal and nonverbal communication.
c) Cultural norms and values.
d) Social roles and statuses.
Correct Answer: a
Restricted Response Questions
1. Define social interaction and explain its importance in shaping societal
norms.
2. Explain the role of nonverbal communication in social interactions. Provide
examples of how nonverbal cues function in Pakistani society.
3. What is proxemics, and how does it affect social interactions in different
social settings in Pakistan?
4. Discuss the significance of time in social interactions, focusing on how
Pakistan's cultural approach to time differs from Western perspectives.
5. How do social processes like cooperation and conflict manifest through
day-to-day interactions in Pakistani society?
Extended Response Questions
1. Analyze the role of social interaction in the construction of identity in
Pakistani society. In your response, include examples from various social
contexts such as family, education, and workplace.
2. Explain the concept of 'social space' and how it affects interactions in both
rural and urban areas of Pakistan. How does the interaction in public spaces
differ in cities like Karachi compared to rural areas?
3. How do gender roles influence social interactions in Pakistan? Provide
examples of how interactions differ based on gender in public and private
spaces.
4. Evaluate the impact of digital communication on social interaction in
contemporary Pakistan. How has the rise of social media and online
platforms changed the way people interact?
5. In what ways do social interactions in Pakistan contribute to social change?
Discuss specific examples where interactions have led to shifts in societal
values, practices, or power dynamics.

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Further Readings
• Ali, S., & Raza, H. (2021). Nonverbal communication in South Asian
societies: A study of Pakistan. Journal of Interpersonal Communication,
24(3), 197–211.
• Burgoon, J. K., Guerrero, L. K., & Floyd, K. (2020). Nonverbal
communication (2nd ed.). Routledge.
• Goffman, E. (2020). The presentation of self in everyday life. Anchor
Books.
• Khan, M. A. (2017). Social interaction and power dynamics in Pakistani
society. Pakistan Sociological Review, 5(2), 112–127.
• Simmel, G. (2020). The sociology of Georg Simmel. Free Press.

References
• Argyle, M. (2021). The psychology of interpersonal behavior (7th ed.).
Routledge.
• Burgoon, J. K., Guerrero, L. K., & Floyd, K. (2020). Nonverbal
communication (2nd ed.). Routledge.
• Coser, L. A. (2022). Functions of social conflict (Rev. ed.). The Free Press.
• Collins, R. (2023). Interaction ritual chains. Princeton University Press.
• Giddens, A., Duneier, M., Appelbaum, R. P., & Carr, D. (2017).
Introduction to Sociology (10th ed.). W.W. Norton & Company.
• Goffman, E. (2020). The presentation of self in everyday life. Anchor
Books.
• Hall, E. T. (1966). The hidden dimension. Doubleday.
• Hall, E. T. (2022). The silent language. Anchor Books.
• Schutz, A. (1967). The phenomenology of the social world. Northwestern
University Press.
• Simmel, G. (2020). The sociology of Georg Simmel. Free Press.
• Tannen, D. (2020). You just don’t understand: Women and men in
conversation. William Morrow Paperbacks.

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Unit- 05

SOCIAL GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS

Written By: Dr. Nasim Khan Mahsud

Reviewed By: Prof. Dr. Arab Naz
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CONTENTS

Introduction 85

Objectives 86

Major topics 87

5.1 Social Group 87

5.2 Voluntary Associations 77

5.3 Bureaucracy 78

Self-Assessment Questions 82

By the end of this unit, students will be able to:

• define social groups and organizations and explain their significance in
society.
• differentiate between primary and secondary groups.
• analyze the role of voluntary associations in promoting social cohesion and
civic engagement.
• understand the concept of bureaucracy and its impact on organizational
efficiency and social control.
• apply sociological concepts to real-world examples from Pakistan and the
West.

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Major Topics
• Social Group
• Voluntary Associations
• Bureaucracy

5.1 Social Group

A social group is a collection of individuals who interact with one another, share a
sense of identity, and have common norms, values, and goals. According to Charles
Horton Cooley (1909), social groups can be classified into two main types: primary
groups and secondary groups. Primary groups are small, intimate, and characterized
by face-to-face interaction, emotional bonds, and long-term relationships.
Examples include families, close friends, and peer groups. In Pakistan, the family
is a quintessential primary group, playing a central role in shaping individual
identities and providing emotional and financial support.
Secondary groups, on the other hand, are larger, more formal, and goal-oriented.
They are characterized by impersonal relationships and limited emotional
involvement. Examples include workplaces, schools, and professional associations.
In Western societies, secondary groups often dominate social life, particularly in
urban areas where individuals are more likely to interact in formal, task-oriented
settings.
Social groups play a critical role in socialization, providing individuals with a sense
of belonging and identity. They also serve as a source of social support, helping
individuals navigate challenges and achieve their goals. For example, in Pakistan,
religious groups such as Jamaats or Tablighi groups provide spiritual guidance and
foster a sense of community among their members. Similarly, in the West, support
groups for various causes, such as mental health or addiction recovery, play a vital
role in promoting well-being and social cohesion.
We live in a time of contradiction: while the pace of change and technology is
requiring people to be more nimble and less rigid in their thinking, large
bureaucracies like hospitals, schools, and governments are more hampered than
ever by their organizational format. At the same time, the past few decades have
seen a trend toward the standardization of previously individualistic local
institutions. Increasingly, Main Streets across the country resemble each other;
instead of a Bob’s Coffee Shop and a Jane’s Hair Salon, there is a Dunkin’ Donuts
and a Supercuts. This trend has been referred to as the McDonaldization of society.
While an analysis of formal organizations helps us understand macro-sociological
processes in society, or the “hardware” in our phone example, we will also examine
the role of groups, and take a close look at group dynamics. “Would you jump off
a cliff just because your friends are doing it?” You may think about this age-old
question differently after reading the section about groups and conformity. You’ll
see that the pressure to conform within a group sometimes leads people to do

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uncharacteristic and sometimes obviously stupid things. You’ll also learn that the
size and leadership styles of a group greatly affect how members act. Even weak
connections with others form an important network that provides us with benefits
and opportunities.
5.1.1 Types of Groups
Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) suggested that groups can broadly
be divided into two categories: primary groups and secondary groups (Cooley
1909). According to Cooley, primary groups play the most critical role in our lives.
The primary group is usually fairly small and is made up of individuals who
generally engage face-to-face in long-term, emotional ways. This group serves
emotional needs: expressive functions rather than pragmatic ones. The primary
group is usually made up of significant others—those individuals who have the
most impact on our socialization. The best example of a primary group is the family.
Secondary groups are often larger and impersonal. They may also be task focused
and time limited. These groups serve an instrumental function rather than an
expressive one, meaning that their role is more goal or task oriented than emotional.
A classroom or office can be an example of a secondary group. Neither primary nor
secondary groups are bound by strict definitions or set limits. In fact, people can
move from one group to another. A graduate seminar, for example, can start as a
secondary group focused on the class at hand, but as the students work together
throughout their program, they may find common interests and strong ties that
transform them into a primary group.
Peter Marsden (1987) refers to one’s group of close social contacts as a core
discussion group. These are individuals with whom you can discuss important
personal matters or with whom you choose to spend your free time. Christakis and
Fowler (2009) found that the average North American had four close personal
contacts. However, 12 percent of their sample had no close personal contacts of this
sort, while 5 percent had more than eight close personal contacts. Half of the people
listed in the core discussion group were characterized as friends, as might be
expected, but the other half included family members, spouses, children,
colleagues, and professional consultants of various sorts. Marsden’s original
research from the 1980s showed that the size of the core discussion group decreases
as one ages, there was no difference in size between men and women, and those
with a post-secondary degree had core discussion groups almost twice the size of
those who had not completed high school.
In-Groups and Out-Groups
One of the ways that groups can be powerful is through inclusion, and its inverse,
exclusion. In-groups and out-groups are subcategories of primary and secondary
groups that help identify this dynamic. Primary groups consist of both in-groups
and out-groups, as do secondary groups. The feeling that one belongs in an elite or

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select group is a heady one, while the feeling of not being allowed in, or of
competing with a group, can be motivating differently. Sociologist William Sumner
(1840–1910) developed the concepts of in-group and out-group to explain this
phenomenon (Sumner 1906). In short, an in-group is the group that an individual
feels he or she belongs to, and believes to be an integral part of who he or she is.
An out-group, conversely, is a group someone doesn’t belong to; often there may
be a feeling of disdain or competition in relation to an out-group. Sports teams,
unions, and secret societies are examples of in-groups and out-groups; people may
belong to, or be an outsider to, any of these.
While these affiliations can be neutral or even positive, such as the case of a team-
sport competition, the concept of in-groups and out-groups can also explain some
negative human behaviour, such as white supremacist movements like the Ku Klux
Klan, or the bullying of gay or lesbian students. By defining others as “not like us”
and inferior, in-groups can end up practicing ethnocentrism, racism, sexism,
ageism, and heterosexism—manners of judging others negatively based on their
culture, race, sex, age, or sexuality. Often, in-groups can form within a secondary
group. For instance, a workplace can have cliques of people, from senior executives
who play golf together, to engineers who write code together, to young singles who
socialize after hours. While these in-groups might show favouritism and affinity for
other in-group members, the overall organization may be unable or unwilling to
acknowledge it. Therefore, it pays to be wary of the politics of in-groups, since
members may exclude others as a form of gaining status within the group.
A reference group is a group that people compare themselves to—it provides a
standard of measurement. In Canadian society, peer groups are common reference
groups. Children, teens, and adults pay attention to what their peers wear, what
music they like, what they do with their free time—and they compare themselves
to what they see. Most people have more than one reference group, so a middle-
school boy might look not only at his classmates but also at his older brother’s
friends and see a different set of norms. And he might observe the antics of his
favourite athletes for yet another set of behaviours.
Some other examples of reference groups can be one’s church, synagogue, or
mosque; one’s cultural centre, workplace, or family gathering; and even one’s
parents. Often, reference groups convey competing messages. For instance, on
television and in movies, young adults often have wonderful apartments, cars, and
lively social lives despite not holding a job. In music videos, young women might
dance and sing in a sexually aggressive way that suggests experience beyond their
years. At all ages, we use reference groups to help guide our behaviour and show
us social norms. So how important is it to surround yourself with positive reference
groups? You may never meet or know a reference group, but it still impacts and
influences how you act. Identifying reference groups can help you understand the
source of the social identities you aspire to or want to distance yourself from.

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5.1.2 Types of Formal Organizations
A complaint of modern life is that society is dominated by large and
impersonal organizations. From schools to businesses to healthcare to government,
these organizations, referred to as formal organizations, often leave us feeling like
a cog in a machine. What is it like to track down a health insurance billing question?
Have you ever tried to get technical support on a computer or cell phone? How long
did it take and how many different times were you placed on hold? If you went
back to the store where you purchased the device, were you asked to wait in line?
Does your college or university have a streamlined process for questions related to
advising or financial aid?
Sociologist Max Weber developed a conceptual framework to help us understand
formal organizations and to work on moving from the particular (“I had this
experience with my cell phone service provider”) to the general (“Formal
organizations have similar characteristics such as…”). Weber’s ideal-type is a
model or a collection of characteristics that could describe most examples of the
item under discussion. We will discuss bureaucracies as an ideal-type of
organization.
Sociologist Amitai Etzioni (1975) posited that formal organizations fall into three
categories. Normative organizations, also called voluntary organizations, are based
on shared interests. As the name suggests, joining them is voluntary and typically
done because people find membership rewarding in an intangible way. The
Audubon Society and a ski club are examples of normative organizations. Coercive
organizations are groups that are forced to join. These may include a prison or a
rehabilitation center. The third type is utilitarian organizations, which, as the name
suggests, are joined because of the need for a specific material reward. High school
and the workplace fall into this category—one joined in pursuit of a diploma, the
other in order to make money.
Normative or
Coercive Utilitarian
Voluntary

Benefit of Corrective Tangible

Intangible benefit
Membership benefit benefit

Type of Contractual
Volunteer basis Required
Membership basis

Feeling of Some
Shared affinity No affinity
Connectedness affinity

Formal Organizations

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5.2 Voluntary Associations
Voluntary associations are formal organizations that individuals join voluntarily to
pursue shared interests or goals. These organizations are typically non-profit and
rely on the active participation of their members. According to Robert
Putnam (2000), voluntary associations are a key component of social capital,
fostering trust, reciprocity, and civic engagement within communities.
In Pakistan, voluntary associations play a significant role in addressing social issues
and promoting community development. For example, organizations like the Edhi
Foundation and the Citizens Foundation provide essential services such as
healthcare, education, and disaster relief, filling gaps left by the state. These
organizations rely heavily on donations and volunteer work, reflecting the spirit of
philanthropy and civic responsibility in Pakistani society.
In the West, voluntary associations are a cornerstone of civil society, enabling
individuals to participate in democratic processes and advocate for social change.
Examples include environmental organizations like Greenpeace, human rights
groups like Amnesty International, and community-based organizations like
neighborhood associations. These organizations not only address specific issues but
also strengthen social networks and promote a sense of collective responsibility.
Voluntary associations also serve as a platform for marginalized groups to voice
their concerns and advocate for their rights. For instance, in Pakistan, women’s
rights organizations like the Aurat Foundation work to empower women and
challenge gender-based discrimination. Similarly, in the West, organizations like
Black Lives Matter have mobilized communities to address systemic racism and
promote social justice.
5.3 Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy is a formal organization characterized by a hierarchical structure,
specialized roles, and a set of rules and procedures designed to achieve efficiency
and consistency. The concept of bureaucracy was first systematically analyzed
by Max Weber (1922), who identified it as a defining feature of modern societies.
According to Weber, bureaucracy is characterized by several key features,
including division of labor, a clear chain of command, written rules and regulations,
and impersonal relationships. Bureaucracies play a critical role in modern societies,
enabling large-scale coordination and the efficient delivery of services.
In Pakistan, the civil service is a prime example of a bureaucratic organization,
responsible for implementing government policies and providing public services.
However, bureaucracy in Pakistan is often criticized for inefficiency, corruption,
and red tape, which hinder effective governance and service delivery. In the West,
bureaucracies are a central feature of both the public and private sectors. For
example, government agencies like the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) in the
United States or the National Health Service (NHS) in the United Kingdom rely on
bureaucratic structures to manage complex tasks and serve large populations.
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Similarly, multinational corporations like Google and Amazon use bureaucratic
principles to organize their operations and maintain consistency across global
markets.
While bureaucracy is essential for managing complex organizations, it is not
without its drawbacks. Weber warned of the "iron cage" of rationality, where
excessive bureaucracy can lead to dehumanization, rigidity, and a loss of individual
autonomy. In Pakistan, for instance, bureaucratic inefficiencies often result in
delays and frustration for citizens seeking services like healthcare or legal
assistance. Similarly, in the West, bureaucratic red tape can stifle innovation and
create barriers to access for marginalized groups.
5.3.1 Structure of Bureaucracies
All formal organizations are or likely will become bureaucracies. Weber utilized
the ideal-type to conceptualize bureaucracies as having a hierarchy of authority, a
clear division of labor, explicit rules, and an atmosphere of impersonality
(1922). Bureaucracies are not a new social phenomenon—they have been around
for nearly a century! Today, people often complain about bureaucracies—declaring
them slow, rule-bound, difficult to navigate, and unfriendly. Let’s take a look at
Weber’s ideal-type of bureaucracies in the early twentieth century and see whether
it describes bureaucracies we encounter today.
Hierarchy of authority refers to the aspect of bureaucracy that places one individual
or office in charge of another, who in turn must answer to her own superiors. For
example, at your college or university, the Board of Trustees is the governing body
of most institutions of higher education. The president (or chancellor) answers to
the Board, and the divisions arranged under the president have their own leaders,
who in turn manage other subordinate employees. Faculty (even tenured faculty)
are much more autonomous than in other professions, but each department has its
own organizational structure and will typically answer to a dean or provost. Often
there are elaborate organizational charts to show who answers to whom. Delegation
of tasks and duties flows downward and responsibility flows upward. For example,
if there was a major incident such as a mass shooting on a college campus, the
college president would be asked to explain what happened and would be held
accountable for any lapses in security, delayed response time, etc.
A clear division of labor refers to the fact that within a bureaucracy, each individual
has a specialized task to perform. For example, psychology professors teach
psychology, but they do not attempt to provide students with financial aid forms. In
this case, it is a clear and commonsense division. Students often go to the faculty
for advising. On some campuses, faculty are trained to advise students and on other
campuses, there are counselors who provide advising. For students, this might be
frustrating—why do you have to go to so many different people just to have
questions answered?

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The existence of explicit rules refers to the way in which rules are outlined, written
down, and standardized. For example, at your college or university, the student
guidelines are contained within the Student Handbook. As technology changes and
campuses encounter new concerns like cyberbullying, identity theft, and other hot-
button issues, organizations scramble to ensure that there are explicit rules
addressing these emerging topics. College employees are also governed by a
system of rules and might be asked, or mandated, to complete training (i.e.,
concerning sexual harassment) as part of their employment.
Finally, bureaucracies are also characterized by impersonality, which takes personal
feelings out of professional situations. This characteristic grew, to some extent, out
of a desire to protect organizations from nepotism, backroom deals, and other types
of favoritism, simultaneously protecting customers and others served by the
organization. Depending on the size of your college or university, impersonality is
likely the most variable characteristic in this type of bureaucracy. Some students
are in Introduction to Sociology classes comprised of 15 students, while others are
taking classes with 200 or more students. Many colleges and universities, regardless
of size, prioritize individual students and put in place a number of procedures to
reduce the impersonality that is common in formal organizations. Large business
organizations like Walmart often situate themselves as bureaucracies. This allows
them to effectively and efficiently serve large volumes of customers quickly and to
offer affordable products based on volume. This results in an impersonal
organization. Customers frequently complain that stores like Walmart care little
about individuals, other businesses, and the community at large.
Bureaucracies are, in theory at least, meritocracies, meaning that hiring and
promotion are based on proven and documented skills, rather than on nepotism or
random choice. In order to get into a prestigious college, you need to perform well
on the ACT or SAT and have an impressive transcript. In order to become a lawyer
and represent clients, you must take the LSAT, obtain a law degree, and pass the
state bar exam.
Of course, there are many well-documented examples of success by those who did
not proceed through traditional meritocracies. Think about technology companies
with founders who dropped out of college, or performers who became famous after
a YouTube video went viral. How well do you think established meritocracies
identify talent? Wealthy families hire tutors, interview coaches, test-prep services,
and consultants to help their kids get into the best schools. This starts as early as
kindergarten in New York City, where competition for the most highly-regarded
schools is especially fierce. Are these schools, many of which have copious
scholarship funds that are intended to make the school more accessible, really
offering all applicants a fair chance?
There are several positive aspects of bureaucracies. They are intended to improve
efficiency, provide equal opportunities, and ensure that most people can be served.

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And there are times when rigid hierarchies are needed. But remember that many of
our bureaucracies grew large at the same time that our school model was
developed––during the Industrial Revolution. Young workers were trained, and
organizations were built for mass production, assembly line work, and factory jobs.
In these scenarios, a clear chain of command was critical. Now, in the information
age, this kind of rigid training and adherence to protocol can actually decrease both
productivity and efficiency.
Today’s workplace requires a faster pace, more problem solving, and a flexible
approach. Too much adherence to explicit rules and a division of labor can leave an
organization behind. And unfortunately, once established, bureaucracies can take
on a life of their own. Maybe you have heard the expression “trying to turn a tanker
around mid-ocean,” which refers to the difficulties of changing direction with
something large and set in its ways. State governments and current budget crises
are examples of this challenge. It is almost impossible to make quick changes,
leading states to continue, year after year, with increasingly unbalanced budgets.
Finally, many bureaucracies, as mentioned, grew as institutions at a time when
privileged white males held all the power. While ostensibly based on meritocracy,
bureaucracies can perpetuate the existing balance of power by only recognizing the
merit in traditionally male and privileged paths. Sociologist Robert Michels
suggested that all large organizations are characterized by the iron rule of
oligarchy, wherein an entire organization is ruled by a few elites. Do you think this
is true? Can a large organization be collaborative?

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Self-Assessment Questions
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs):
1. Which of the following is an example of a primary group?
a) A workplace
b) A family
c) A professional association
d) A political party
Correct Answer: b) A family
2. What is a key characteristic of voluntary associations?
a) Profit-oriented
b) Hierarchical structure
c) Non-profit and member-driven
d) Impersonal relationships
Correct Answer: c) Non-profit and member-driven
3. Who introduced the concept of bureaucracy in sociology?
a) Karl Marx
b) Max Weber
c) Robert Putnam
d) Charles Horton Cooley
Correct Answer: b) Max Weber
4. Which of the following is a criticism of bureaucracy?
a) Efficiency
b) Rigidity
c) Innovation
d) Flexibility
Correct Answer: b) Rigidity
5. What is the primary function of voluntary associations?
a) Maximizing profits
b) Promoting social cohesion and civic engagement
c) Enforcing laws
d) Managing government policies
Correct Answer: b) Promoting social cohesion and civic engagement
Restricted Response Questions:
1. Define social groups and differentiate between primary and secondary
groups.
2. Discuss the role of voluntary associations in Pakistani society.
3. What are the key features of bureaucracy according to Max Weber?
4. How do bureaucracies impact service delivery in Pakistan?

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5. Explain the concept of social capital in the context of voluntary
associations.
Extended Response Questions:
1. Critically analyze the role of bureaucracy in modern societies.
2. Compare and contrast the functions of primary and secondary groups.
3. Discuss the challenges faced by voluntary associations in promoting social
change.
4. How does bureaucracy contribute to both efficiency and inefficiency in
organizations?
5. Evaluate the impact of voluntary associations on civic engagement in the
West.

Further Readings
• Cooley, C. H. (1909). Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind.
Charles Scribner’s Sons.
• Etzioni, A. (1964). Modern Organizations. Prentice-Hall.
• Khan, A. (2021). Civil Society and Social Change in Pakistan. Oxford
University Press.
• Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of
American Community. Simon & Schuster.
• Weber, M. (1922). Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive
Sociology. University of California Press.
Online Resources:
• Google Scholar
• JSTOR
• Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences

References
• Cooley, C. H. (1909). Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind.
Charles Scribner’s Sons.
• Etzioni, A. (1964). Modern Organizations. Prentice-Hall.
• Khan, A. (2021). Civil Society and Social Change in Pakistan. Oxford
University Press.
• Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of
American Community. Simon & Schuster.
• Weber, M. (1922). Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive
Sociology. University of California Press.

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Unit- 06

SOCIALIZATION

Written By: Dr. Nasim Khan Mahsud

Reviewed By: Dr. Rabia Gull
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CONTENTS

Introduction 99

Objectives 100

Major topics 101

6.1 The Definition of Socialization 101

6.2 Impact of Isolation 104

6.3 The Early Development of The Infant 105

6.4 Theories of Child Development 106

6.5 Agencies of Socialization 110

Self-Assessment Questions 115

• define socialization and explain its importance in society.

• analyze the impact of social isolation on human development.
• describe the stages of early childhood development and their significance.
• evaluate major theories of child development.
• identify key agencies of socialization and their roles in shaping individuals.

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Major Topics

• The Definition of Socialization

• Impact of Isolation
• The Early Development of the Infant
• Theories of Child Development
• Agencies of Socialization

6.1 The Definition of Socialization

Socialization is the process through which individuals learn and internalize the
values, beliefs, norms, and behaviors that are necessary for effective participation
in society (Giddens & Sutton, 2021). It is a continuous process influenced by social
institutions, peer interactions, and cultural experiences. Sociologists differentiate
between primary and secondary socialization: primary socialization occurs in early
childhood within the family, whereas secondary socialization takes place through
schools, workplaces, and peer groups (Macionis, 2020). Socialization also
encompasses anticipatory socialization, where individuals prepare for future roles,
and resocialization, which involves adopting new norms and values due to
significant life changes (Berger & Luckmann, 1966). Socialization is the process
through which people are taught to be proficient members of a society. It describes
the ways that people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept
society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values. Socialization is not the same
as socializing (interacting with others, like family, friends, and coworkers); to be
precise, it is a sociological process that occurs through socializing. As Danielle’s
story illustrates, even the most basic of human activities are learned. You may be
surprised to know that even physical tasks like sitting, standing, and walking had
not automatically developed for Danielle as she grew. Without socialization,
Danielle hadn’t learned about the material culture of her society (the tangible
objects a culture uses): for example, she couldn’t hold a spoon, bounce a ball, or
use a chair for sitting. She also hadn’t learned its nonmaterial culture, such as its
beliefs, values, and norms. She had no understanding of the concept of “family,”
didn’t know cultural expectations for using a bathroom for elimination, and had no
sense of modesty. Most importantly, she hadn’t learned to use the symbols that
makeup the language—through which we learn about who we are, how we fit with
other people, and the natural and social worlds in which we live. Sociologists have
long been fascinated by circumstances like Danielle’s—in which a child receives
sufficient human support to survive, but virtually no social interaction—because
they highlight how much we depend on social interaction to provide the information
and skills that we need to be part of society or even to develop a “self.”

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6.1.1 Why Socialization Matters
Socialization is critical both to individuals and to the societies in which they live.
It illustrates how completely intertwined human beings and their social worlds are.
First, it is through teaching culture to new members that a society perpetuates itself.
If new generations of a society don’t learn its way of life, it ceases to exist.
Whatever is distinctive about a culture must be transmitted to those who join it in
order for a society to survive. For Canadian culture to continue, for example,
children in Canada must learn about cultural values related to democracy: they have
to learn the norms of voting, as well as how to use material objects such as a ballot.
Of course, some would argue that it is just as important in Canadian culture for the
younger generation to learn the etiquette of eating in a restaurant or the rituals of
tailgate parties after softball games. In fact, there are many ideas and objects that
Canadians teach children in hopes of keeping the society’s way of life going
through another generation.
Socialization is just as essential to us as individuals. Social interaction provides the
means via which we gradually become able to see ourselves through the eyes of
others, learning who we are and how we fit into the world around us. In addition,
to function successfully in society, we have to learn the basics of both material land
and nonmaterial culture, everything from how to dress ourselves to what is suitable
attire for a specific occasion; from when we sleep to what we sleep on; and from
what is considered appropriate to eat for dinner to how to use the stove to prepare
it. Most importantly, we have to learn language whether it is the dominant language
or one common in a subculture, whether it is verbal or through signs in order to
communicate and to think. As we saw with Danielle, without socialization we
literally have no self. We are unable to function socially.
Nature versus Nurture
Some experts assert that who we are is a result of nurture—the relationships and
caring that surround us. Others argue that who we are is based entirely on genetics.
According to this belief, our temperaments, interests, and talents are set before
birth. From this perspective, then, who we are depends on nature.
One way that researchers attempt to prove the impact of nature is by studying twins.
Some studies followed identical twins who were raised separately. The pairs shared
the same genetics, but, in some cases, were socialized in different ways. Instances
of this type of situation are rare, but studying the degree to which identical twins
raised apart are the same and different can give researchers insight into how our
temperaments, preferences, and abilities are shaped by our genetic makeup versus
our social environment. For example, in 1968, twin girls born to a mentally ill
mother were put up for adoption. However, they were also separated from each
other and raised in different households. The parents, and certainly the babies, did
not realize they were one of five pairs of twins who were made subjects of a
scientific study. In 2003, the two women, then age 35, reunited. Elyse Schein and
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Paula Bernstein sat together in awe, feeling like they were looking into a mirror.
Not only did they look alike, but they behaved alike, using the same hand gestures
and facial expressions (Spratling 2007). Studies like these point to the genetic roots
of our temperament and behaviour. On the other hand, studies of identical twins
have difficulty accounting for divergences in the development of inherited diseases.
In the case of schizophrenia, epidemiological studies show that there is a strong
biological component to the disease. The closer our familial connection to someone
with the condition, the more likely we will develop it. However, even if our
identical twin develops schizophrenia we are less than 50 percent likely to develop
it ourselves. Why is it not 100 percent likely? What occurs to produce the
divergence between genetically identical twins (Carey 2012)?
Though genetics and hormones play an important role in human behaviour,
biological explanations of human behaviour have serious deficiencies from a
sociological point of view, especially when they are used to try to explain complex
aspects of human social life like homosexuality, male aggressiveness, female
spatial skills, and the like. The logic of biological explanation usually involves three
components: the identification of a supposedly universal quality or trait of human
behaviour, an argument about why this behaviour makes it more likely that the
genes that code for it will be passed successfully to descendants, and the conclusion
that this behaviour or quality is “hard-wired” or difficult to change. However, an
argument, for example, that males are naturally aggressive because of their
hormonal structure (or other biological mechanisms) does not take into account the
huge variations in the meaning or practice of aggression between cultures, nor the
huge variations in what counts as aggressive in different situations, let alone the
fact that many men are not aggressive by any definition, and that men and women
both have “male” hormones like testosterone. More interesting for the sociologist
in this example is that men who are not aggressive often get called “sissies.” This
indicates that male aggression has to do more with a normative structure within a
male culture than with a genetic or hormonal structure that explains aggressive
behaviour.
Sociology’s larger concern is the effect that society has on human behaviour, the
“nurture” side of the nature versus nurture debate. To what degree are processes of
identification and “self-fulfilling prophecy” at work in the lives of the twins Elyse
Schein and Paula Bernstein? Despite growing up apart do they share common
racial, class, or religious characteristics? Aside from the environmental or
epigenetic factors that lead to the divergence of twins with regard to schizophrenia,
what happens to the social standing and social relationships of a person when the
condition develops? What happens to schizophrenics in different societies? How
does the social role of the schizophrenic integrate him or her into a society (or not)?
Whatever the role of genes or biology in our lives, genes are never expressed in a
vacuum. Environmental influence always matters. Sociologists all recognize the

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importance of socialization for healthy individual and societal development. But
how do scholars working in the three major theoretical paradigms approach this
topic? Structural functionalists would say that socialization is essential to society,
both because it trains members to operate successfully within it and because it
perpetuates culture by transmitting it to new generations. Without socialization, a
society’s culture would perish as members died off. A critical sociologist might
argue that socialization reproduces inequality from generation to generation by
conveying different expectations and norms to those with different social
characteristics. For example, individuals are socialized differently by gender, social
class, and race. As in the illustration of Chris Langan, this creates different
(unequal) opportunities. An interactionist studying socialization is concerned with
face-to-face exchanges and symbolic communication. For example, dressing baby
boys in blue and baby girls in pink is one small way that messages are conveyed
about differences in gender roles.

6.2 Impact of Isolation

Isolation can significantly affect an individual's physical, emotional, and cognitive
development. Studies on feral children, such as the case of Genie, highlight how
deprivation of social interaction impairs linguistic and intellectual abilities (Dunn,
2022). In Pakistan, instances of social exclusion, such as gender-based restrictions
on education, further demonstrate the detrimental effects of social isolation on
personal and societal development (Khan, 2021). Prolonged isolation can lead to
mental health issues, such as anxiety and depression, and hinder social adaptability
(Cacioppo & Hawkley, 2009). Research on institutionalized children in orphanages
shows that lack of parental bonding can lead to attachment disorders and difficulties
in emotional regulation (Bowlby, 2019).
The necessity for early social contact was demonstrated by the research of Harry
and Margaret Harlow. From 1957 to 1963, the Harlows conducted a series of
experiments studying how rhesus monkeys, which behave a lot like people, are
affected by isolation as babies. They studied monkeys raised under two types of
“substitute” mothering circumstances: a mesh and wire sculpture, or a soft
terrycloth “mother.” The monkeys systematically preferred the company of a soft,
terrycloth substitute mother (closely resembling a rhesus monkey) that was unable
to feed them, to a mesh and wire mother that provided sustenance via a feeding
tube. This demonstrated that while food was important, social comfort was of
greater value. Later experiments testing more severe isolation revealed that such
deprivation of social contact led to significant developmental and social challenges
later in life.

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6.3 The Early Development of the Infant
The early stages of development are crucial for socialization. Infants develop
attachment bonds with caregivers, which influence their emotional security and
personality formation (Bowlby, 2019). Research in Pakistan suggests that lack of
maternal care and poor early childhood education negatively impact cognitive and
emotional growth (Nisar et al., 2022). Cross-cultural comparisons indicate that
Western societies emphasize individual autonomy in early development, whereas
collectivist societies, such as Pakistan, prioritize family interdependence (Triandis,
2020). Language acquisition during infancy is another significant aspect of early
socialization, where the home environment plays a key role in shaping
communication skills and cognitive development (Vygotsky, 1978). Giddens
(1992) explains the following stages of infant development.
6.3.1 Perceptual Development
All infants are born with the capacity to make certain perceptual distinctions and •
respond to them (Richards & Light 1986). It used to be thought that a newborn
infant was swamped by a mass of sensations among which it has no way of
differentiating. However, most students of infant behavior concluded that this is no
longer accurate rather they found that even newborn infants react selectively to their
environment.
6.3.2 Crying and Smiling
Just as infants selectively respond to the environment, adults assume that these give
clues to what she or he want or need. Crying is seen to indicate hunger or
discomfort, smiling or certain other facial expressions to mean contentment. Crying
and smiling are inborn responses not learned.
6.3.3 Infant and Mother
An infant is able to distinguish its mother from other people by three months of age
(Schaffer, 1970). However, the baby does not recognize the mother as a person. The
infant's attachment to its mother only became firm after about the first seven months
of life. Before this time, separation from the mother will not produce any specific
protest and other caretaking agents will be accepted without any change in usual
levels of responsiveness. At about the same age, children will start to smile only at
some individuals. It is also at this stage that an infant begins to get an understanding
of the mother as a different person. The child recognizes that the mother exists even
when she is absent from his or her immediate presence and can hold some sort of
image of her in mind. The forming of attachments to specific individuals marks a
fundamental threshold in socialization. The primary relationship, usually between
infant and mother, becomes one in which strong feelings are invested and on the
basis of which complex social learning, process start to occur.

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6.3.4 The Development of Social Responses
The relationship between the child, mother and other care-taking agents alters
around the end of the baby's first year of life. In their second and third-years
children develop an increasing capacity to understand the interactions and emotions
of other family members. From the age of three and onwards, play starts to occupy
much of the child's life. At first child mainly plays alone but increasingly demands
someone else to play with. Through play, children further improve their bodily
coordination and start to expand their knowledge of the adult world. They try out
new skills, and they imitate the behavior of grown-ups.

6.4 Theories of Child Development

Several theories explain child development within the context of socialization:
• Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory: Emphasizes stages of intellectual
growth, such as sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and
formal operational stages (Piaget, 1952).
• Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory: Highlights eight stages of
social development, each characterized by a psychological crisis (Erikson,
1968).
• Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory: Argues that social interaction is
fundamental to cognitive development, with an emphasis on the Zone of
Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1978).
• Bandura’s Social Learning Theory: Suggests that children learn behaviors
through observation and imitation (Bandura, 1977).
• Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory: Examines how different
environmental systems influence child development, including
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem (Bronfenbrenner,
1979).
6.4.1 Theories of Self Development
When we are born, we have a genetic makeup and biological traits. However, who
we are as human beings develop through social interaction. Many scholars, both in
the fields of psychology and in sociology, have described the process of self-
development as a precursor to understanding how that “self” becomes socialized.
Psychological Perspectives on Self- Development
Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was one of the most influential modern
scientists to put forth a theory about how people develop a sense of self. He
believed that personality and sexual development were closely linked, and he
divided the maturation process into psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency,
and genital. He posited that people’s self -development is closely linked to early
stages of development, like breastfeeding, toilet training, and sexual awareness
(Freud 1905).

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Key to Freud’s approach to child development is to trace the formations of desire
and pleasure in the child’s life. The child is seen to be at the centre of a tricky
negotiation between internal, instinctual drives for gratification (the pleasure
principle) and external, social demands to repress those drives in order to conform
to the rules and regulations of civilization (the reality principle). Failure to resolve
the traumatic tensions and impasses of childhood psychosexual development
results in emotional and psychological consequences throughout adulthood. For
example, according to Freud failure to properly engage in or disengage from a
specific stage of child development results in predictable outcomes later in life. An
adult with an oral fixation may indulge in overeating or binge drinking. An anal
fixation may produce a neat freak (hence the term “anal retentive”), while a person
stuck in the phallic stage may be promiscuous or emotionally immature.
Psychologist Erik Erikson (1902–1994) created a theory of personality
development based, in part, on the work of Freud. However, Erikson was also
interested in the social dimension of Freud’s child development schema (1963). He
noted that each stage of psycho-social child development was associated with the
formation of basic emotional structures in adulthood. The outcome of the oral stage
will determine whether someone is trustful or distrustful as an adult; the outcome
of the anal stage is whether they will be confident and generous or ashamed and
doubtful; the outcome of the genital stage, is whether they will be full of initiative
or guilt.
Erikson retained Freud’s idea that the stages of child development were universal,
but that different cultures handled them differently. Child-raising techniques varied
in line with the dominant social formation of their societies. So, for example, the
tradition in the Sioux First Nation was not to wean infants, but to breastfeed them
until they lost interest. This tradition created trust between the infant and his or her
mother, and eventually trust between the child and the tribal group as a whole. On
the other hand, modern industrial societies practised early weaning of children,
which led to a different, more distrustful character structure. Children develop a
possessive disposition toward objects that carries with them through to adulthood,
as the child is eager to get things and grab hold of things in lieu of the experience
of generosity and comfort in being held. Societies in which individuals rely heavily
on each other and on the group to survive in a hostile environment will handle child
training in a different manner, and with different outcomes, than societies that are
based on individualism, competition, self-reliance and self-control (Erikson 1963).
Jean Piaget (1896–1980) was a psychologist who specialized in child development,
focusing specifically on the role of social interactions in their development. He
recognized that the development of self -evolved through a negotiation between the
world as it exists in one’s mind and the world that exists as it is experienced socially
(Piaget 1954). All three of these thinkers have contributed to our modern
understanding of self -development.

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Sociological Theories of Self- Development
One of the pioneering contributors to sociological perspectives on self-
development was Charles Cooley (1864–1929). As we saw in the last chapter, he
asserted that people’s self understanding is constructed, in part, by their perception
of how others view them a process termed “the looking-glass self” (Cooley 1902).
The self or “self idea” is thoroughly social. It is based on how we imagine we appear
to others. This projection defines how we feel about ourselves and who we feel
ourselves to be. The development of a self therefore involves three elements in
Cooley’s analysis: “the imagination of our appearance to the other person; the
imagination of his judgment of that appearance, and some sort of self-feeling, such
as pride or mortification.”
Later, George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) advanced a more detailed sociological
approach to the self. He agreed that the self, as a person’s distinct identity, is only
developed through social interaction. He further noted that the crucial component
of the self is its capacity for self reflection, its capacity to be “an object to itself”
(Mead 1934). On this basis, he broke the self down into two components or
“phases,” the “I” and the “me.” The “me” represents the part of the self in which
one recognizes the “organized sets of attitudes” of others toward the self. It is who
we are in other’s eyes: our roles, our “personalities,” our public personas. The “I,”
on the other hand, represents the part of the self that acts on its own initiative or
responds to the organized attitudes of others. It is the novel, spontaneous,
unpredictable part of the self: the part of the self that embodies the possibility of
change or undetermined action. The self is always caught up in a social process in
which one flips back and forth between two distinguishable phases, the I and the
me, as one mediates between one’s own individual actions and individual responses
to various social situations and the attitudes of the community.
This flipping back and forth is the condition of our being able to be social. It is not
an ability that we are born with (Mead 1934). The case of Danielle, for example,
illustrates what happens when social interaction is absent from early experience:
she had no ability to see herself as others would see her. From Mead’s point of view,
she had no “self.” Without others, or without society, the self cannot exist: “[I]t is
impossible to conceive of a self arising outside of social experience” (Mead 1934).
How do we get from being newborns to being humans with “selves?” Mead
developed a specifically sociological theory of the path of development that all
people go through, which he divided into stages of increasing capacity for role play:
the four stages of child socialization. During the preparatory stage, children are
only capable of imitation: they have no ability to imagine how others see things.
They copy the actions of people with whom they regularly interact, such as their
mothers and fathers. A child’s baby talk is a reflection of its inability to make an
object of itself through which it can approach itself. This is followed by the play
stage, during which children begin to imitate and take on roles that another person

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might have. Thus, children might try on a parent’s point of view by acting out
“grownup” behaviour, like playing “dress up” and acting out the mom role, or
talking on a toy telephone the way they see their father do. However, they are still
not able to take on roles in a consistent and coherent manner. Role play is very fluid
and transitory, and children flip in and out of roles easily.
During the game stage, children learn to consider several specific roles at the same
time and how those roles interact with each other. They learn to understand
interactions involving different people with a variety of purposes. They understand
that role play in each situation involves following a consistent set of rules and
expectations. For example, a child at this stage is likely to be aware of the different
responsibilities of people in a restaurant who together make for a smooth dining
experience (someone seats you, another takes your order, someone else cooks the
food, while yet another person clears away dirty dishes).
Mead uses the example of a baseball game. At one point in the life of children, they
are simply unable to play an organized game like baseball. They do not “get it” that
when they hit the ball they need to run, or that after their turn someone else gets a
turn to bat. In order for baseball to work, the players not only have to know what
the rules of the game are, and what their specific role in the game is (batter, catcher,
first base, etc.), but simultaneously the role of every other player on the field. The
players have to be able to anticipate the actions of others and adjust or orient
their behaviour accordingly.
Finally, children develop, understand, and learn the idea of the generalized other,
the common behavioural expectations of general society. By this stage of
development, an individual is able to internalize how he or she is viewed, not
simply from the perspective of specific others, but from the perspective of the
generalized other or “organized community.” Being able to guide one’s actions
according to the attitudes of the generalized other provides the basis of having a
“self” in the sociological sense. This capacity defines the conditions of thinking, of
language, and of society itself as the organization of complex cooperative processes
and activities.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Moral development is an important part of the socialization process. The term refers
to the way people learn what society considers to be “good” and “bad,” which is
important for a smoothly functioning society. Moral development prevents people
from acting on unchecked urges, instead considering what is right for society and
good for others. Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) was interested in how people
learn to decide what is right and what is wrong. To understand this topic, he
developed a theory of moral development that includes three levels: pre-
conventional, conventional, and post-conventional.
In the conventional stage, young children, who lack a higher level of cognitive
ability, experience the world around them only through their senses. It isn’t until
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the teen years that the conventional theory develops when youngsters become
increasingly aware of others’ feelings and take those into consideration when
determining what’s “good” and “bad.” The final stage, called post-conventional, is
when people begin to think of morality in abstract terms, such as Americans
believing that everyone has the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. At
this stage, people also recognize that legality and morality do not always match up
evenly (Kohlberg 1981). When hundreds of thousands of Egyptians turned out in
2011 to protest government corruption, they were using post-conventional morality.
They understood that although their government was legal, it was not morally
correct.
Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development and Gender
Another sociologist, Carol Gilligan (1936–), recognized that Kohlberg’s theory
might show gender bias since his research was conducted only on male subjects.
Would female study subjects have responded differently? Would a female social
scientist notice different patterns when analyzing the research? To answer the first
question, she set out to study the differences between how boys and girls developed
morality. Gilligan’s research demonstrated that boys and girls do, in fact, have
different understandings of morality. Boys tend to have a justice perspective,
placing emphasis on rules and laws. Girls, on the other hand, have a care and
responsibility perspective; they consider people’s reasons behind behaviour that
seems morally wrong.
Gilligan also recognized that Kohlberg’s theory rested on the assumption that the
justice perspective was the right, or better, perspective. Gilligan, in contrast,
theorized that neither perspective was “better”: the two norms of justice served
different purposes. Ultimately, she explained that boys are socialized for a work
environment where rules make operations run smoothly, while girls are socialized
for a home environment where flexibility allows for harmony in caretaking and
nurturing.

6.5 Agencies of Socialization

The key agents of socialization include:
• Family: The first and most influential agent that instills cultural values and
norms (Bernstein, 2020).
• Education: Schools transmit knowledge, discipline, and civic
responsibility (Coleman, 2021).
• Peers: Friends and peer groups influence attitudes, self-identity, and
behavior (Harris, 2018).
• Mass Media: Television, social media, and digital platforms shape
opinions, aspirations, and cultural perceptions (Gerbner, 2019).

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• Religion: Religious institutions guide moral and ethical development
(Smith, 2020).
Socialization helps people learn to function successfully in their social worlds. How
does the process of socialization occur? How do we learn to use the objects of our
society’s material culture? How do we come to adopt the beliefs, values, and norms
that represent its nonmaterial culture? This learning takes place through interaction
with various agents of socialization, like peer groups and families, plus both formal
and informal social institutions.
Social Group Agents
Social groups often provide the first experiences of socialization. Families, and later
peer groups, communicate expectations and reinforce norms. People first learn to
use the tangible objects of material culture in these settings, as well as being
introduced to the beliefs and values of society.
Family
Family is the first agent of socialization. Mothers and fathers, siblings and
grandparents, plus members of an extended family, all teach a child what he or she
needs to know. For example, they show the child how to use objects (such as
clothes, computers, eating utensils, books, and bikes); how to relate to others (some
as “family,” others as “friends,” still others as “strangers” or “teachers” or
“neighbours”); and how the world works (what is “real” and what is “imagined”).
As you are aware, either from your own experience as a child or your role in helping
to raise one, socialization involves teaching and learning about an unending array
of objects and ideas.
It is important to keep in mind, however, that families do not socialize children in
a vacuum. Many social factors impact how a family raises its children. For example,
we can use sociological imagination to recognize that individual behaviours are
affected by the historical period in which they took place. Sixty years ago, it would
not have been considered especially strict for a father to hit his son with a wooden
spoon or a belt if he misbehaved, but today that same action might be considered
child abuse.
Sociologists recognize that race, social class, religion, and other societal factors
play an important role in socialization. For example, poor families usually
emphasize obedience and conformity when raising their children, while wealthy
families emphasize judgment and creativity (National Opinion Research Center
2008). This may be because working-class parents have less education and more
repetitive-task jobs for which the ability to follow rules and to conform helps.
Wealthy parents tend to have better educations and often work in managerial
positions or in careers that require creative problem solving, so they teach their
children behaviours that would be beneficial in these positions. This means that
children are effectively socialized and raised to take the types of jobs that their

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parents already have, thus reproducing the class system (Kohn 1977). Likewise,
children are socialized to abide by gender norms, perceptions of race, and class-
related behaviours.
In Sweden, for instance, stay-at-home fathers are an accepted part of the social
landscape. A government policy provides subsidized time off work—68 weeks for
families with newborns at 80 percent of regular earnings—with the option of 52 of
those weeks of paid leave being shared between both mothers and fathers and eight
weeks each in addition allocated for the father and the mother. This encourages
fathers to spend at least eight weeks at home with their newborns. As one stay-at-
home dad says, being home to take care of his baby son “is a real fatherly thing to
do. I think that’s very masculine”.
Peer Groups
A peer group is made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who
share interests. Peer group socialization begins in the earliest years, such as when
kids on a playground teach younger children the norms about taking turns or the
rules of a game or how to shoot a basket. As children grow into teenagers, this
process continues. Peer groups are important to adolescents in a new way, as they
begin to develop an identity separate from their parents and exert independence.
Additionally, peer groups provide their own opportunities for socialization since
kids usually engage in different types of activities with their peers than they do with
their families. Peer groups provide adolescents’ first major socialization experience
outside the realm of their families. Interestingly, studies have shown that although
friendships rank high in adolescents’ priorities, this is balanced by parental
influence.
Institutional Agents
The social institutions of our culture also inform our socialization. Formal
institutions—like schools, workplaces, and the government—teach people how to
behave in and navigate these systems. Other institutions, like the media, contribute
to socialization by inundating us with messages about norms and expectations.
School
Most Canadian children spend about seven hours a day, 180 days a year, in school,
which makes it hard to deny the importance school has on their socialization. In
elementary and junior high, compulsory education amounts to over 8,000 hours in
the classroom (OECD 2013). Students are not only in school to study math, reading,
science, and other subjects—the manifest function of this system. Schools also
serve a latent function in society by socializing children into behaviours like
teamwork, following a schedule, and using textbooks.

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School and classroom rituals, led by teachers serving as role models and leaders,
regularly reinforce what society expects from children. Sociologists describe this
aspect of schools as the hidden curriculum, the informal teaching done by schools.
For example, in North America, schools have built a sense of competition into the
way grades are awarded and the way teachers evaluate students. Students learn to
evaluate themselves within a hierarchical system as “A,” “B,” “C,” etc. students
(Bowles and Gintis 1976). However, different “lessons” can be taught by different
instructional techniques. When children participate in a relay race or a math contest,
they learn that there are winners and losers in society. When children are required
to work together on a project, they practise teamwork with other people in
cooperative situations. Bowles and Gintis argue that the hidden curriculum prepares
children for a life of conformity in the adult world. Children learn how to deal with
bureaucracy, rules, and expectations, waiting their turn, and sitting still for hours
during the day. The latent functions of competition, teamwork, classroom
discipline, time awareness and dealing with bureaucracy are features of the hidden
curriculum.
Schools also socialize children by teaching them overtly about citizenship and
nationalism. In the United States, children are taught to say the Pledge of
Allegiance. Most districts require classes about U.S. history and geography. In
Canada, on the other hand, critics complain that students do not learn enough about
national history, which undermines the development of a sense of shared national
identity.
The Workplace
Just as children spend much of their day at school, most Canadian adults at some
point invest a significant amount of time at a place of employment. Although
socialized into their culture since birth, workers require new socialization in a
workplace, both in terms of material culture (such as how to operate the copy
machine) and nonmaterial culture (such as whether it is okay to speak directly to
the boss or how the refrigerator is shared).
Different jobs require different types of socialization. In the past, many people
worked a single job until retirement. Today, the trend is to switch jobs at least once
a decade. Between the ages of 18 and 44, the average baby boomer of the younger
set held 11 different jobs (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics). This means that people
must become socialized to, and socialized by, a variety of work environments.
Religion
While some religions may tend toward being an informal institution, this section
focuses on practices related to formal institutions. Religion is an important avenue
of socialization for many people. Western countries are full of synagogues, temples,
churches, mosques, and similar religious communities where people gather to
worship and learn. Like other institutions, these places teach participants how to

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interact with the religion’s material culture (like a mezuzah, a prayer rug, or a
communion wafer). For some people, important ceremonies related to family
structure like marriage and birth—are connected to religious celebrations. Many of
these institutions uphold gender norms and contribute to their enforcement through
socialization. From ceremonial rites of passage that reinforce the family unit to
power dynamics that reinforce gender roles, religion fosters a shared set of
socialized values that are passed on through society.
Government
Although we do not think about it, many of the rites of passage people go through
today are based on age norms established by the government. To be defined as an
“adult” usually means being 18 years old, the age at which a person becomes legally
responsible for themselves. And 65 is the start of “old age” since most people
become eligible for senior benefits at that point.
Each time we embark on one of these new categories senior, adult, or taxpayer we
must be socialized into this new role. Seniors, for example, must learn the ropes of
obtaining pension benefits. This government program marks the points at which we
require socialization into a new category.
Mass Media
Mass media refers to the distribution of impersonal information to a wide audience,
via television, newspapers, radio, and the internet. With the average person
spending over four hours a day in front of the TV (and children averaging even
more screen time), media greatly influences social norms. People learn about
objects of material culture (like new technology and transportation options), as well
as nonmaterial culture what is true (beliefs), what is important (values), and what
is expected (norms).

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Self-Assessment Questions
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. What is the primary agent of socialization for an infant? a) Peers
b) Family
c) Media
d) School
Correct Answer: b) Family
2. Which theory emphasizes the role of observation in learning? a)
Piaget’s Theory
b) Erikson’s Theory
c) Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
d) Vygotsky’s Theory
Correct Answer: c) Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
3. What is the key characteristic of Erikson’s theory? a) Moral
reasoning.
b) Psychosocial crises
c) Cognitive stages
d) Reflexive responses
Correct Answer: b) Psychosocial crises
Restricted Response Questions
1. Define socialization and explain its two major types.
2. How does early childhood attachment affect later socialization?
3. Discuss the impact of isolation on cognitive and emotional development.
4. Compare and contrast the role of peers and family in socialization.
5. Explain Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory with an example.
Extended Response Questions
1. Critically evaluate the impact of media on socialization in Pakistan.
2. Discuss the influence of religion as an agent of socialization with examples.
3. Compare Erikson’s and Piaget’s theories of development.
4. Explain the role of education in secondary socialization, considering both
Pakistani and Western contexts.
5. Analyze how gender roles are shaped by socialization in Pakistani society.

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Further Readings
• Giddens, A., & Sutton, P. (2021). Sociology. Polity Press.
• Khan, R. (2021). Social Exclusion in Pakistan: Causes and Consequences.
Oxford
• Macionis, J. J. (2020). Sociology. Pearson.
• Triandis, H. C. (2020). Individualism and Collectivism. Routledge.
• University Press.
• Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher
Psychological Processes. Harvard University Press.
Free Databases & Online Library Links
• DOAJ (Directory of Open Access Journals): https://doaj.org
• Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/
• HathiTrust Digital Library: https://www.hathitrust.org/
• JSTOR Open Access: https://www.jstor.org/open/

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Unit- 07

CONFORMITY AND DEVIANCE

Written By: Dr. Nasim Khan Mahsud

Reviewed By: Prof. Dr. Arab Naz
117
CONTENTS

Introduction 119

Objectives 120

Major topics 121

7.1 What is Deviance? 121

7.2 Biological Explanation 121

7.3 Socio-Psychological Explanation 122

7.4 The Sociological Explanation of Deviance 123

7.5 White Collar Crime 123

7.6 The Criminal Justice System 124

Self-Assessment Questions 127

By the end of this unit, students will be able to:

• define and differentiate between conformity and deviance.

• understand the biological, socio-psychological, and sociological
explanations of deviance.
• analyze the concept of white-collar crime and its impact on society.
• evaluate the role of the criminal justice system in addressing deviance.
• compare and contrast examples of deviance in Pakistani and Western
contexts.

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Major Topics
1. What is Deviance?
2. Biological Explanations of Deviance
3. Socio-Psychological Explanations of Deviance
4. Sociological Explanations of Deviance
5. White-Collar Crime
6. The Criminal Justice System

7.1 What is Deviance?

Deviance refers to behavior, beliefs, or conditions that violate social norms. It can
be criminal or non-criminal and varies significantly between cultures and societies.
For instance, in Pakistani society, deviance may include acts like honor killings or
drug trafficking, while in Western societies, it might involve crimes like corporate
fraud or civil disobedience. Deviance is often studied as a social construct, with
society labeling actions or individuals as deviant based on cultural, historical, and
political contexts. In Pakistan, the strict adherence to religious and cultural norms
often influences the definition of deviance, whereas, in the West, legal frameworks
typically determine what constitutes deviance. Deviance refers to any behavior,
belief, or condition that violates significant social norms in the society or group in
which it occurs. It is a relative concept, meaning that what is considered deviant in
one culture or period may be acceptable in another. For example:
• Pakistani Example: In Pakistan, drinking alcohol is considered deviant
due to religious and cultural norms, whereas in many Western countries, it
is socially acceptable.
• Western Example: In the United States, public nudity is generally
considered deviant, whereas in some European countries, it may be more
accepted in certain contexts.
Deviance can be categorized into:
• Formal Deviance: Violations of laws (e.g., theft, murder).
• Informal Deviance: Violations of unwritten social rules (e.g., interrupting
someone during a conversation).

7.2 Biological Explanation

The biological approach to deviance suggests that genetic factors or physiological
conditions influence an individual's propensity for deviant behavior. Early studies
like those by Cesare Lombroso proposed that criminals could be identified by
physical characteristics, though this has been largely debunked. However, more
recent research in neurobiology and genetics has shown that factors like brain
chemistry and hormonal imbalances might contribute to behaviors considered
deviant. For example, some studies suggest that people with certain genetic
predispositions (e.g., MAOA gene) may be more likely to engage in aggressive or

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violent behavior. In the Pakistani context, the influence of genetics has been
explored in understanding violent extremism, while in the West, it is often studied
about criminal behavior, such as serial offenses or gang violence. Biological
theories of deviance suggest that genetic, neurological, or physiological factors
predispose individuals to deviant behavior. Key theorists include Cesare Lombroso
and William Sheldon.
• Cesare Lombroso: Argued that criminals have distinct physical traits, such
as a sloping forehead or large jaw, which make them biologically inferior.
• William Sheldon: Proposed that body types (endomorph, mesomorph,
ectomorph) are linked to criminal behavior, with mesomorphs being more
prone to aggression.
• Criticism: Biological theories have been criticized for being deterministic
and ignoring social and environmental factors.
Example: In Pakistan, there is limited research on biological explanations of
deviance, but globally, studies on genetic predispositions to addiction or aggression
are ongoing.

7.3 Socio-Psychological Explanation

The socio-psychological perspective focuses on the interaction between individual
psychology and social influences. It emphasizes the role of family dynamics, peer
pressure, and socialization in shaping behaviors. For instance, a child raised in a
dysfunctional family environment may be more likely to engage in deviant behavior
due to a lack of proper socialization. In Pakistan, socio-psychological factors such
as poverty, lack of education, and political instability often lead to higher rates of
deviance, particularly in marginalized communities. In Western societies, peer
influence in schools, media portrayals of crime, and economic disparities are
significant contributors to deviant behavior. Socio-psychological theories focus on
how individual psychology and social interactions contribute to deviance. Key
theories include:
• Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura): Suggests that deviance is
learned through observation and imitation of others.
• Control Theory (Travis Hirschi): Proposes that strong social bonds
discourage deviance, while weak bonds increase the likelihood of deviant
behavior.
Example:
• Pakistani Context: Peer pressure among youth in urban areas may lead to
substance abuse or gang involvement.
• Western Context: School shootings in the U.S. have been linked to social
isolation and exposure to violent media.

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7.4 The Sociological Explanation of Deviance
The sociological approach focuses on how society itself creates deviance. Emile
Durkheim's theory of anomie explains that deviance arises when individuals feel
disconnected from societal norms due to rapid social change or lack of regulation.
This idea is relevant in both Pakistani and Western contexts, particularly during
periods of political upheaval or economic instability. Robert Merton's strain theory
further explores how individuals in different social structures respond to societal
expectations. In Pakistan, limited access to resources and opportunities, especially
in rural areas, can lead to deviance. In contrast, Western theories often focus on the
relationship between wealth, power, and crime, with lower-income groups being
more likely to engage in deviant activities. Sociological theories emphasize the role
of social structures and cultural norms in shaping deviance. Key perspectives
include:
1. Functionalism (Emile Durkheim): Argues that deviance is necessary for
society as it reinforces social norms and promotes social change.
Example: Protests against corruption in Pakistan can be seen as deviant but
necessary for societal improvement.
2. Strain Theory (Robert Merton): Suggests that deviance arises when there
is a disconnect between societal goals and the means to achieve them.
Example: In Pakistan, high unemployment may lead to theft or fraud as
individuals strive for financial success.
3. Labeling Theory (Howard Becker): Focuses on how individuals are
labeled as deviant and how this label influences their behavior.
Example: In Western societies, individuals labeled as "criminals" may
struggle to reintegrate into society, leading to recidivism.
4. Conflict Theory (Karl Marx): Views deviance as a result of social
inequality and power struggles.
Example: In Pakistan, land disputes often lead to violent conflicts between
powerful landlords and marginalized farmers.

7.5 White Collar Crime

White-collar crime refers to non-violent crimes typically committed by individuals
in positions of power or authority. These crimes include fraud, embezzlement,
insider trading, and corruption. In Pakistan, white-collar crimes such as bribery, tax
evasion, and political corruption are prevalent, often involving high-ranking
government officials and business leaders. In Western societies, high-profile cases
like the Enron scandal in the United States or the 2008 global financial crisis have
highlighted the prevalence of white-collar crime among corporate executives.
These crimes often go unpunished or are treated less harshly than street crimes due

123
to the offenders' social status. White-collar crime refers to non-violent, financially
motivated crimes committed by individuals or organizations in positions of power.
Examples include fraud, embezzlement, and insider trading.
• Pakistani Example: The 2020 sugar scandal in Pakistan revealed how
powerful business elites manipulated sugar prices for profit, harming
consumers and the economy.
• Western Example: The 2008 financial crisis in the U.S. was fueled by
corporate greed and unethical practices in the banking sector.
Impact: White-collar crime often has far-reaching consequences, including
economic instability and loss of public trust.

7.6 The Criminal Justice System

The criminal justice system is comprised of three parts. These are:
7.6.1 Police
The police represent the point of contact between the public and the criminal justice
system. They are responsible for maintaining public order by uniformly enforcing
the law. However, particularly because of the relatively small number of police in
our population, they must exercise much discretion about which situations receive
their attention.
7.6.2 Courts
It is within this component of the system where guilt or innocence is determined.
Plea-bargaining is a major practice in resolving cases. It is defined as a negotiation
in which the state reduces the charge against a defendant in exchange for a guilty
plea. This saves both time and expense but is a very controversial element within
our court system.
7.6.3 Punishment
Punishment has five recognized
purposes: deterrence, incapacitation, rehabilitation, retribution, and restitution.
7.6.4 Specific and General Deterrence
Deterrence prevents future crime by frightening the defendant or the public. The
two types of deterrence are specific and general deterrence. Specific deterrence
applies to an individual defendant. When the government punishes an individual
defendant, he or she is theoretically less likely to commit another crime because of
fear of another similar or worse punishment. General deterrence applies to
the public at large. When the public learns of an individual defendant’s punishment,
the public is theoretically less likely to commit a crime because of fear of the
punishment the defendant experienced. When the public learns, for example, that
an individual defendant was severely punished by a sentence of life in prison or the
death penalty, this knowledge can inspire a deep fear of criminal prosecution.
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7.6.5 Incapacitation
Incapacitation prevents future crime by removing the defendant from society.
Examples of incapacitation are incarceration, house arrest, or execution pursuant to
the death penalty.
7.6.6 Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation prevents future crime by altering a defendant’s behavior. Examples
of rehabilitation include educational and vocational programs, treatment center
placement, and counseling. The court can combine rehabilitation with incarceration
or with probation or parole. In some states, for example, nonviolent drug offenders
must participate in rehabilitation in combination with probation, rather than
submitting to incarceration (Ariz. Rev. Stat., 2010). This lightens the load of jails
and prisons while lowering recidivism, which means reoffending.
7.6.7 Retribution
Retribution prevents future crime by removing the desire for personal avengement
(in the form of assault, battery, and criminal homicide, for example) against the
defendant. When victims or society discover that the defendant has been adequately
punished for a crime, they achieve a certain satisfaction that our criminal procedure
is working effectively, which enhances faith in law enforcement and our
government.
7.6.8 Restitution
Restitution prevents future crime by punishing the defendant financially.
Restitution is when the court orders the criminal defendant to pay the victim for
any harm and resembles a civil litigation damages award. Restitution can be for
physical injuries, loss of property or money, and rarely, emotional distress. It can
also be a fine that covers some of the costs of the criminal prosecution and
punishment.

125
Figure 7.1 Different Punishments and Their Purpose

The criminal justice system plays a key role in addressing deviance through law
enforcement, judicial processes, and punishment. In Pakistan, the system is often
criticized for inefficiency, corruption, and the unequal application of laws, leading
to a lack of trust among the public. Cases of deviant behavior, such as honor killings
or child labor, may go unpunished due to social and political influences. In contrast,
Western criminal justice systems are often seen as more structured, though they too
face challenges such as racial profiling, prison overcrowding, and the privatization
of prisons. The concept of restorative justice, gaining traction in both the West and
some parts of Pakistan, focuses on rehabilitating offenders and integrating them
back into society. The criminal justice system is a set of institutions and procedures
designed to uphold social control, deter crime, and administer justice. It includes
law enforcement, courts, and correctional facilities.
• Pakistani Context: The criminal justice system in Pakistan faces
challenges such as corruption, delays in trials, and lack of resources. For
example, the high-profile case of the murder of social media star Qandeel
Baloch highlighted issues of gender-based violence and judicial
inefficiency.
• Western Context: In the U.S., the criminal justice system has been
criticized for racial bias, as seen in the disproportionate incarceration of
African Americans.

126
Reforms: Both Pakistan and Western countries are working on reforms, such as
improving access to justice, reducing case backlogs, and addressing systemic
biases.
Conclusion
Conformity and deviance are integral to understanding how societies function and
evolve. While conformity maintains social order, deviance can challenge and
transform societal norms. By examining biological, socio-psychological, and
sociological explanations, as well as real-world examples from Pakistan and the
West, we gain a deeper understanding of the complexities of human behaviour and
social control.

Self-Assessment Questions
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. What is deviance?
a) Behavior that conforms to societal norms
b) Behavior that violates societal norms
c) Behavior that is encouraged by society
d) Behavior that reflects social equilibrium
Answer: b) Behavior that violates societal norms
2. Which theory explains deviance as a result of disconnection from
societal norms due to rapid social change?
a) Social Control Theory
b) Strain Theory
c) Anomie Theory
d) Labeling Theory
Answer: c) Anomie Theory
3. According to Merton’s Strain Theory, what is the term for a person
who accepts societal goals but uses illegitimate means to achieve them?
a) Innovator
b) Conformist
c) Ritualist
d) Rebel
Answer: a) Innovator
4. Which of the following is an example of white-collar crime?
a) Murder
b) Tax evasion
c) Theft
d) Robbery
Answer: b) Tax evasion

127
5. In Western societies, which factor is most likely to contribute to deviant
behavior according to socio-psychological theories?
a) Family structure and peer influence
b) Genetic predisposition
c) Political instability
d) Economic systems
Answer: a) Family structure and peer influence
Restricted Response Questions
1. Define conformity and provide one example from Pakistani society.
2. Explain the key idea behind Labeling Theory in one paragraph.
3. What is the difference between formal and informal deviance? Provide one
example of each.
4. How does the Strain Theory explain deviance?
5. List two challenges faced by the criminal justice system in Pakistan.
Extended Response Questions
1. Compare and contrast biological and sociological explanations of deviance.
Use examples from both Pakistani and Western contexts to support your
answer.
2. Discuss the impact of white-collar crime on society. Provide examples from
Pakistan and the West to illustrate your points.
3. Evaluate the role of the criminal justice system in addressing deviance.
What reforms are needed to improve its effectiveness in Pakistan?
4. How does the concept of deviance vary across cultures? Use examples from
Pakistan and the West to support your argument.
5. Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the Functionalist perspective on
deviance. Provide real-world examples to illustrate your analysis.
Discussion Questions
1. How does the concept of deviance vary across cultures? Provide examples
from Pakistan and the West.
2. Critically evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of biological explanations
of deviance.
3. How can labeling theory explain the persistence of deviant behavior in
society?
4. Compare the impact of white-collar crime in Pakistan and Western
countries.
5. What reforms are needed to improve the criminal justice system in
Pakistan?

128
Further Readings
Books
1. Barkan, S. E. (2020). Criminal Justice in the United States (10th ed.).
Pearson.
2. Becker, H. S. (1963). Outsiders: Studies in the sociology of deviance. Free
Press.
3. Franzese, R. J. (2015). The sociology of deviance: Differences, Tradition,
and stigma. Charles C Thomas Publisher.
4. Goode, E. (2021). Deviant Behavior (9th ed.). Pearson.
5. Inderbitzin, M., Bates, K. A., & Gainey, R. (2016). Deviance and social
control: A sociological perspective. SAGE Publications.
6. Khalidi, O. (2010). Crime and deviance in Pakistan. Oxford University
Press.
7. Khan, M. A., & Khan, R. (2020). Criminal Justice in Pakistan: A
Sociological Perspective. Oxford University Press.
8. Merton, R. K. (2021). Social Structure and Anomie (Reprint ed.). Free
Press.
9. Payne, B. K. (2020). White-collar crime: The essentials (3rd ed.). SAGE
Publications.
10. Piquero, A. R., & Weisburd, D. (2022). Handbook of Criminology (2nd ed.).
Wiley-Blackwell.
11. Shaw, C. R., & McKay, H. D. (2021). Juvenile Delinquency and Urban
Areas (Reprint ed.). University of Chicago Press.
12. Siegel, L. J., & Welsh, B. C. (2020). Introduction to Criminal Justice (16th
ed.). Cengage Learning.
Journal Articles
1. Ahmed, S., & Khan, A. (2018). Deviance and social control in Pakistan: A
sociological analysis. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences, 38(2), 45-60.
2. Hussain, M., & Ali, R. (2019). White-collar crime in developing countries:
A case study of Pakistan. Journal of Financial Crime, 26(4), 1120-
1135. https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-03-2019-0034
3. Johnson, L., & Williams, P. (2017). Biological theories of crime: A critical
review. Journal of Criminal Justice, 52, 12-
25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.05.002
4. Khan, S., & Malik, A. (2021). Gender and deviance in Pakistan: A case
study of honor killings. Asian Journal of Social Sciences, 49(3), 201-
215. https://doi.org/10.1163/15685314-04903002
5. Smith, J., & Brown, T. (2020). The impact of labeling on recidivism: A
comparative study. Criminology & Public Policy, 19(1), 78-
95. https://doi.org/10.1111/capp.12345

129
Online Resources
1. Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS)
Provides data on crime and deviance in Pakistan.
Website: www.pbs.gov.pk
2. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)
Offers global reports on crime, deviance, and justice systems.
Website: www.unodc.org
3. The Crime Report
A comprehensive resource for news and analysis on crime and justice in the
U.S. and globally.
Website: www.thecrimereport.org
4. JSTOR
A digital library for academic articles on deviance, conformity, and related
topics.
Website: www.jstor.org
5. Google Scholar
A search engine for scholarly literature on deviance and social control.
Website: scholar.google.com

130
Unit- 08

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Written By: Dr. Nasim Khan Mahsud

Reviewed By: Prof. Dr. Arab Naz

131
CONTENTS

Introduction 133

Objectives 134

Major topics 135

8.1 System of Social Stratification 135

8.2 Theoretical Perspectives of Social Stratification 136

8.3 Social Mobility 137

8.4 System of Class and Caste in Pakistani Society 138

Self-Assessment Questions 140

By the end of this unit, students will be able to:

• define social stratification and its key components.

• analyze the systems of social stratification, including caste, class, and estate
systems.
• evaluate the theoretical perspectives on social stratification.
• understand the concept of social mobility and its types.
• examine the class and caste systems in Pakistani society and their impact on
social inequality.

134
Major Topics

• System of Social Stratification

• Theoretical Perspectives of Social Stratification
• Social Mobility
• System of Class and Caste in Pakistani Society

8.1 System of Social Stratification

Social stratification systems categorize individuals into layers or strata based on
specific criteria. Social stratification systems vary across societies, but they
generally fall into four major types. The major systems include:
1. Caste System:
A caste system is a rigid form of stratification based on birth, where individuals
inherit their social status and mobility is restricted. In South Asia, particularly
in India and Pakistan, caste-based hierarchies persist, particularly among Hindu
and rural Muslim communities. In Pakistan, groups such as Syeds, Rajputs, Jats,
and Arains often hold higher social status, while occupational castes like
Kumhars (potters) and Mochis (cobblers) face historical discrimination.
• A rigid system of stratification based on ascribed status (e.g., birth).
• Example: The traditional caste system in India, which divides society
into Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
• Pakistani Context: While Pakistan does not have a formal caste
system, caste-like structures (e.g., the biradari system) influence social
interactions, marriages, and occupations.
2. Class System:
A class system is based on economic factors, such as income and wealth, and
allows for social mobility. Western societies, particularly the United States and
Europe, follow this system, where people can move up or down the social
hierarchy based on education, employment, and financial success. In Pakistan,
class divisions exist among the elite, middle class, and working class,
influenced by economic disparities and educational access.
• A flexible system based on achieved status (e.g., education, occupation).
• Example: In Western societies, individuals can move between classes
through education or career advancement.
• Pakistani Context: Class divisions in Pakistan are evident in urban
areas, where wealth and education create distinct social classes.

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3. Estate System: (Feudalism)
This system was prevalent in medieval Europe and still has remnants in
Pakistan, where landowning feudal lords (waderas, chaudhrys) control vast
agricultural lands and wield significant political influence. The rural
population, particularly peasants and landless laborers, remains economically
and socially dependent on landlords.
• A feudal system where power and land ownership determine social
hierarchy.
• Example: Medieval Europe, where society was divided into clergy,
nobility, and peasants.
• Pakistani Context: Feudal structures persist in rural Pakistan, where
landlords wield significant power over tenants.
4. Slavery:
Slavery is the practice of forced labor and restricted liberty. It is also a regime
where one class of people - the slave owners - could force another - the slaves
- to work and limit their liberty. In economics, the term de
facto slavery describes the conditions of unfree labour and forced labour that
most slaves endure.
o A system where individuals are owned by others and have no rights.
o Example: Historical slavery in the U.S. and modern-day human
trafficking.
o Pakistani Context: Bonded labor remains a problem in some rural
areas, despite legal prohibitions.

8.2 Theoretical Perspectives of Social Stratification

Sociologists have developed various theories to explain social stratification:
1. Functionalism (Davis and Moore):
• The functionalist perspective views stratification as a necessary
structure that ensures the most talented individuals occupy key roles in
society. Davis and Moore (1945) argued that unequal rewards (higher
salaries, status) motivate individuals to strive for important positions,
such as doctors, scientists, and politicians. This perspective is often
criticized for justifying inequality and ignoring systemic barriers that
prevent lower-class individuals from achieving upward mobility.
• Argues that stratification is necessary for society to function effectively.
• Suggests that important roles (e.g., doctors, engineers) require higher
rewards to motivate individuals.
• Criticism: Ignores the barriers to mobility faced by marginalized
groups.

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2. Conflict Theory (Karl Marx):
• Karl Marx (1848) argued that stratification benefits the ruling class
(bourgeoisie) while exploiting the working class (proletariat).
According to Marx, capitalism perpetuates inequality, as wealth remains
concentrated in the hands of a few.
• Views stratification as a result of competition over limited resources.
• Focuses on the struggle between the bourgeoisie (owners) and the
proletariat (workers).
• Example: In Pakistan, the wealth gap between the elite and the working
class reflects this struggle.
3. Symbolic Interactionism:
• This perspective examines how daily interactions reinforce social
hierarchies. For instance, language, dress, and behavior signal an
individual’s social status. In Pakistan, English-speaking elites often
distinguish themselves from Urdu or regional language speakers,
reinforcing class divisions.
• Examines how stratification is maintained through everyday
interactions and symbols.
• Example: The use of luxury brands to signal social status in urban
Pakistan.
4. Weberian Theory (Max Weber):
• Max Weber (1922) expanded on Marx’s theory, emphasizing that
stratification is not just based on class (economic factors) but also on
status (social prestige) and power (political influence). This is evident
in Pakistan, where wealth, caste, and political influence often determine
social status.
• Emphasizes the interplay of class, status, and power in shaping
stratification.
• Example: In Western societies, a celebrity may have high status but
limited power compared to a politician.

8.3 Social Mobility

Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups between social
strata. It can be:
1. Vertical Mobility:
• Movement up or down the social ladder. Movement to a higher
social class (e.g., a rickshaw driver’s son becoming a doctor in
Pakistan).

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• Example: A person from a working-class background becomes a
successful entrepreneur.
• Downward Mobility: Decline in social status due to
unemployment, business failure, or economic crises.
2. Horizontal Mobility:
• This occurs when individuals change occupations or locations
without a change in social class, such as a government clerk shifting
from one department to another.
• Movement within the same social stratum.
• Example: A teacher switching to a different school without a
change in status.
3. Intergenerational Mobility:
• A change in social status across generations (e.g., a farmer’s son
becoming a university professor in Pakistan).
• Changes in social status between generations.
• Example: A child of farmers becoming a doctor.
4. Intragenerational Mobility:
• Social movement within an individual’s lifetime, such as a self-
made entrepreneur rising from poverty to affluence.
• Changes in social status within an individual's lifetime.
• Example: A factory worker rising to a managerial position.
5. Barriers to Mobility in Pakistan:
• Limited access to quality education
• Nepotism and favoritism in employment
• Feudal dominance in rural areas
• Gender-based discrimination (women face limited opportunities for
upward mobility)
Pakistani Context: Social mobility in Pakistan is limited by factors such as
poverty, lack of education, and the biradari system. However, urbanization and
education have created opportunities for some individuals to improve their social
standing.

8.4 System of Class and Caste in Pakistani Society

Pakistan exhibits a hybrid system of stratification where both class and caste play
crucial roles in shaping social hierarchy and mobility. The class structure in
Pakistan is broadly divided into four categories: the elite class, comprising
industrialists, top bureaucrats, and political leaders who wield economic and
political power; the middle class, which includes professionals, entrepreneurs, and
salaried individuals contributing to the country’s economic and social development;
the working class, consisting of factory workers, laborers, and informal sector

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employees who experience economic instability and job insecurity; and the lower
class, including daily wage earners, street vendors, and unemployed individuals
who often struggle to meet basic needs (Hussain, 2022). Social mobility in Pakistan
is constrained by factors such as unequal access to quality education, nepotism in
employment, and the persistence of feudal structures, particularly in rural areas
(Qadeer, 2021).
Despite Islam’s emphasis on social equality, caste-based distinctions remain
embedded in Pakistani society, particularly in rural areas where traditional kinship
ties dominate social interactions. The caste system, though less rigid than in India,
categorizes people into hierarchical social groups. The higher castes, such as Syeds,
Rajputs, and Mughals, often enjoy socio-political prestige due to historical and
religious affiliations, while the middle castes, including Arains, Jats, and Gujjars,
primarily engage in agriculture and trade. The lower castes, historically
marginalized groups like Kamis (artisans) and religious minorities, face systemic
discrimination and limited opportunities for upward mobility (Ali, 2023).
Urbanization and globalization have led to a gradual decline in caste-based barriers,
particularly among the educated youth in metropolitan areas. However, in rural
regions, marriage patterns, occupational choices, and social interactions continue
to be influenced by caste identity (Ahmed, 2022). Political influence remains
concentrated within elite feudal and industrial families, reinforcing class and caste-
based stratification. The intersection of class and caste in Pakistan highlights the
complexity of social inequality, where economic status, cultural traditions, and
historical structures collectively shape individual life chances (Saeed, 2023).
Further, Pakistan’s social stratification which is influenced by both class and caste-
like structures includes:
1. Class System:
• Upper Class: Wealthy elites, including industrialists, politicians, and
landowners.
• Middle Class: Professionals, small business owners, and educated
individuals.
• Lower Class: Laborers, farmers, and low-income workers.
2. Caste-Like Structures (Biradari System):
• Informal caste divisions are based on kinship and occupation.
• Example: The Rajput, Jutt, and Arain communities in Punjab.
• Impact: Influences marriage, social interactions, and political alliances.
3. Inequality and Its Consequences:
• Economic inequality is stark, with the top 10% of the population
controlling a significant portion of wealth.

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• Social inequality is perpetuated by limited access to education and
healthcare for marginalized groups.
• Example: Rural women often face double marginalization due to
gender and class.
Conclusion
Social stratification is a complex and pervasive phenomenon that shapes access to
resources and opportunities in society. By examining the systems of stratification,
theoretical perspectives, and social mobility, we gain a deeper understanding of the
inequalities that persist in societies like Pakistan and the West. Addressing these
inequalities requires structural reforms, such as improving access to education and
reducing economic disparities.

Self-Assessment Questions
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. Which type of social stratification is based on birth and is rigid?
a) Class system
b) Caste system
c) Estate system
d) Status hierarchy
Answer: b) Caste system
2. According to Karl Marx, which class controls the means of production?
a) Proletariat
b) Bourgeoisie
c) Feudal lords
d) Middle class
Answer: b) Bourgeoisie
Restricted Response Question
• Compare the class system in Pakistan with the class system in Western
societies.
Extended Response Question
• Discuss how education and globalization are influencing social mobility in
Pakistan.
Discussion Questions
1. How does the caste system differ from the class system? Provide examples
from Pakistan and the West.
2. Critically evaluate the Functionalist perspective on social stratification.
3. What factors limit social mobility in Pakistan? How can these barriers be
addressed?

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4. Compare the class systems in Pakistan and Western societies. What
similarities and differences do you observe?
5. How does the biradari system influence social interactions and
opportunities in Pakistan?

Further Readings
1. Giddens, A., Duneier, M., & Appelbaum, R. (2020). Introduction to
Sociology. W.W. Norton.
2. Kerbo, H. (2021). Social Stratification and Inequality. McGraw-Hill.
3. Qadeer, M. (2020). Pakistan: Social Structure and Change. Oxford
University Press.
4. Tumin, M. M. (2022). Social Stratification: The Forms and Functions of
Inequality. Routledge.
5. Weber, M. (2021). Class, Status, and Power. Routledge.TT
Books
1. Jodhka, S. S. (2018). Caste in contemporary India. Routledge.
2. Khan, A. (2020). Class and power in Pakistan: The role of land, labor, and
capital. Oxford University Press.
3. Kerbo, H. R. (2018). Social stratification and inequality: Class conflict in
historical, comparative, and global perspective (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill
Education.
4. Tumin, M. M. (2017). Social stratification: The forms and functions of
inequality. Routledge.
5. Weber, M. (2015). Economy and society: An outline of interpretive
sociology. University of California Press.
Journal Articles
1. Ahmad, N. (2022). Gender and class in Pakistan: A study of urban working
women. Journal of Gender Studies, 31(1), 45-60.
2. Ali, T. (2020). The biradari system and its impact on social mobility in rural
Punjab. Asian Journal of Social Sciences, 48(2), 201-215.
3. Davis, K., & Moore, W. E. (2020). Some principles of stratification: A
critical analysis. American Sociological Review, 70(1), 12-25.
4. Hussain, S. (2021). Social stratification and inequality in Pakistan: A
sociological analysis. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences, 41(3), 345-360.
5. Marx, K. (2019). Class struggle and social stratification: A theoretical
perspective. Journal of Sociological Theory, 35(4), 567-582.

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References
Ahmed, N. (2022). Caste and Social Hierarchy in Pakistan: Continuities and
Change. Oxford University Press.
Ali, S. (2023). Stratification and Inequality in South Asia: A Contemporary
Analysis. Routledge.
Hussain, M. (2022). Economic and Social Classes in Pakistan: Trends and
Challenges. Palgrave Macmillan.
Qadeer, M. (2021). Pakistan: Social Structure and Change. Oxford University
Press.
Saeed, R. (2023). Feudalism and Power Structures in Pakistan: The Politics of
Inequality. Cambridge University Press.
Online Resources
1. Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS): www.pbs.gov.pk
2. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
Pakistan: www.pk.undp.org
3. World Inequality Report: www.worldinequality.org

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Unit- 09

DIMENSIONS OF INEQUALITY

Written By: Dr. Nasim Khan Mahsud

Reviewed By: Dr. Rabia Gull
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CONTENTS

Introduction 145

Objectives 146

Major topics 147

9.1 Concept of Inequality 147

9.2 Poverty and Inequality 148

9.3 Inequality by Gender and Age 150

Self-Assessment Questions 153

Inequality is a pervasive issue that affects societies worldwide, manifesting in

various forms such as economic disparity, gender discrimination, and age-based
marginalization. It refers to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and
privileges among individuals or groups. This unit explores the concept of
inequality, its dimensions, and its impact on society, with a focus on poverty,
gender, and age. By examining these dimensions, we can better understand the
structural and systemic factors that perpetuate inequality and explore potential
solutions. Inequality is a fundamental characteristic of all societies, influencing
access to resources, opportunities, and life outcomes. It manifests in various
dimensions, including economic disparity, gender discrimination, age-related
disparities, and differential access to education and healthcare. Sociologists analyze
inequality to understand its causes, impacts, and possible solutions. While Western
societies grapple with income inequality, racial disparities, and gender pay gaps,
Pakistan faces challenges related to economic disparity, feudalism, gender-based
restrictions, and generational poverty. This unit explores different dimensions of
inequality, including its conceptual framework, relationship with poverty, and its
manifestation through gender and age-based discrimination. By examining both
global and local contexts, students will gain a comprehensive understanding of how
inequality shapes societies and impacts individual life chances.

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OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, students will be able to:

• define inequality and its key dimensions.

• analyze the relationship between poverty and inequality.
• examine gender-based inequality and its societal implications.
• understand age-based inequality and its impact on different age groups.
• compare examples of inequality in Pakistan and Western societies.

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Major Topics
• Concept of Inequality
• Poverty and Inequality
• Inequality by Gender
• Inequality by Age

9.1 Concept of Inequality

Inequality refers to the uneven distribution of wealth, power, and opportunities
among individuals and groups within a society. It exists in various forms, including
economic, social, political, and educational inequality (Giddens et al., 2021).
Inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and
privileges among individuals or groups. It can be categorized into:
Economic Inequality
Economic inequality refers to disparities in income, wealth, and access to economic
opportunities. Countries with high economic inequality experience social unrest,
lower mobility, and reduced economic growth (Piketty, 2020). In Pakistan, the
wealthiest 1% owns nearly 9% of the country’s total wealth, while the bottom 40%
struggles with extreme poverty (Qureshi, 2022). In contrast, Western societies such
as the United States and the United Kingdom experience widening wealth gaps due
to financial capitalism and tax policies favoring the rich.
• Example: In Pakistan, the top 10% of the population holds 27% of the
national income, while the bottom 10% holds only 4% (World Inequality
Report, 2022).
• Western Example: In the U.S., the top 1% of earners control 15 times more
wealth than the bottom 50% (Pew Research Center, 2021).
Social Inequality
Social inequality is based on hierarchical divisions related to caste, ethnicity,
gender, and race. For example, in Pakistan, caste-based discrimination continues to
affect marginalized groups such as Dalits and religious minorities, limiting their
access to education and employment. In the U.S., racial minorities such as African
Americans and Hispanics experience systemic barriers to healthcare, education,
and employment (Bonilla-Silva, 2018).
• Example: In rural Pakistan, many children lack access to quality education
due to poverty and gender discrimination.
• Western Example: In the U.K., students from low-income families are less
likely to attend prestigious universities compared to their wealthier peers.

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Political Inequality
Political inequality occurs when certain groups wield more influence over
policymaking than others. In Pakistan, feudal and elite families dominate politics,
making it difficult for lower-class individuals to participate in governance.
Similarly, in the West, corporate lobbying and campaign financing create disparities
in political representation, favoring wealthy elites over the general populace
(Gilens & Page, 2014).
• Example: In Pakistan, feudal landlords and business elites often dominate
political representation, marginalizing lower-income groups.
• Western Example: In the U.S., campaign financing laws allow wealthy
donors to exert disproportionate influence over elections.
Educational Inequality
Education is a key determinant of social mobility, yet access remains unequal. In
Pakistan, private schooling and elite institutions provide better opportunities to the
wealthy, whereas public schools struggle with funding and quality issues (Ali,
2023). In contrast, Western countries offer free public education, but disparities
persist due to regional funding differences and racial segregation in schools
(Reardon, 2019).

9.2 Poverty and Inequality

Poverty and inequality are interconnected, with inequality exacerbating poverty by
limiting access to resources and opportunities.
9.2.1 Measuring Poverty and Inequality
Poverty is measured using absolute and relative terms.
• Absolute Poverty: The inability to meet basic needs such as food, shelter,
and healthcare (World Bank, 2022).
• Relative Poverty: The lack of income in comparison to the average
standard of living in a society (Townsend, 2019).
Economic inequality is often measured using the Gini coefficient, where a score of
0 represents perfect equality and 1 indicates extreme inequality. Pakistan’s Gini
coefficient stands at 0.33, indicating moderate inequality, whereas the U.S. has a
higher Gini coefficient of 0.41, reflecting significant income disparities (World
Bank, 2023).
9.2.2 Causes of Poverty and Inequality
Several structural factors contribute to poverty and inequality, including:
• Unequal access to education and employment: The literacy rate in
Pakistan is 59%, significantly lower than in Western countries, limiting
upward mobility (UNESCO, 2023).

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• Gender disparities: Women in Pakistan earn 34% less than men for similar
work, contributing to economic dependence and poverty (Global Gender
Gap Report, 2023).
• Urban-rural divide: Rural areas in Pakistan have fewer job opportunities,
with 70% of the poor residing in villages (Government of Pakistan, 2023).
9.2.3 Case Studies: Pakistan vs. Western Countries
• Pakistan: The rural-urban divide is stark, with limited industrialization and
feudal control over land keeping rural populations in poverty. The Benazir
Income Support Programme (BISP) provides financial aid to low-income
families but does not address structural inequalities (Gazdar, 2021).
• United States: The wage gap and minimum wage policies
disproportionately affect lower-income groups. Despite welfare programs
like Medicaid and Food Stamps, economic inequality remains high due to
neoliberal policies favoring corporations (Stiglitz, 2020).
Poverty and inequality are deeply interconnected. Poverty exacerbates inequality
by limiting access to resources and opportunities, while inequality perpetuates
poverty by concentrating wealth and power in the hands of a few.
1. Causes of Poverty and Inequality:
• Structural Factors: Lack of access to education, healthcare, and
employment opportunities.
Example: In Pakistan, rural areas suffer from inadequate infrastructure,
leading to higher poverty rates.
• Globalization: While globalization has created wealth, it has also widened
income gaps.
Example: In Western countries, outsourcing jobs to developing nations has
led to job losses and wage stagnation for low-skilled workers.
2. Consequences of Poverty and Inequality:
• Social Unrest: High levels of inequality can lead to protests and political
instability.
Example: The 2018 protests in Pakistan against rising inflation and
unemployment.
• Health Disparities: Poorer individuals have limited access to healthcare,
leading to higher mortality rates.
Example: In the U.S., life expectancy is significantly lower in low-income
communities compared to affluent ones.

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3. Solutions to Poverty and Inequality:
• Progressive Taxation: Redistributing wealth through higher taxes on the
rich.
Example: Scandinavian countries like Sweden have reduced inequality
through progressive tax systems.
• Social Safety Nets: Providing financial assistance and healthcare to low-
income families.
Example: Pakistan’s Ehsaas Program aims to reduce poverty through cash
transfers and scholarships.

9.3 Inequality by Gender and Age

9.3.1 Gender Inequality
Gender inequality is one of the most persistent forms of inequality worldwide.
Women often experience disparities in employment, wages, and political
participation.
Gender Inequality in Pakistan
Pakistan ranks 145th out of 156 countries in the Global Gender Gap Index (2023)
due to:
• Low female labor force participation (21%) compared to men (78%).
• High gender-based violence rates, with 32% of women experiencing
domestic violence (HRCP, 2022).
• Restricted political representation, with women holding only 20% of
parliamentary seats (Election Commission of Pakistan, 2023).
Gender Inequality in the West
• United States: Women earn 82 cents for every dollar earned by men (Pew
Research, 2023).
• European Union: Gender pay gaps persist despite progressive policies,
with Germany’s wage gap at 18% (Eurostat, 2023).
Inequality by Gender
Gender inequality refers to the unequal treatment of individuals based on their
gender. It manifests in various forms, including economic, social, and political
disparities.
1. Economic Inequality:
• Wage Gap: Women often earn less than men for the same work.
Example: In Pakistan, women earn 34% less than men on average (World
Economic Forum, 2021).
Western Example: In the U.S., women earn 82 cents for every dollar
earned by men (Pew Research Center, 2021).
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• Employment Opportunities: Women face barriers to entering and
advancing in the workforce.
Example: In Pakistan, cultural norms often restrict women to domestic
roles.
Western Example: In Europe, women are underrepresented in leadership
positions.
2. Social Inequality:
• Education: Girls often have less access to education than boys.
Example: In rural Pakistan, only 13% of girls complete secondary school
(UNICEF, 2022).
Western Example: In developing countries, gender disparities in education
persist despite progress.
• Healthcare: Women have limited access to reproductive health services.
Example: In Pakistan, maternal mortality rates are among the highest in the
world.
Western Example: In the U.S., women in low-income communities face
barriers to accessing healthcare.
3. Political Inequality:
• Representation: Women are underrepresented in political institutions.
Example: In Pakistan, women hold only 20% of parliamentary seats.
Western Example: In the U.S., women make up 27% of Congress (Center
for American Women and Politics, 2022).
9.3.2 Age-Based Inequality
Age inequality affects both the young and elderly, impacting access to jobs,
healthcare, and social security.
Youth Unemployment
• Pakistan: The youth unemployment rate is 8.5%, with limited job creation
in formal sectors (Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2023).
• West: In countries like Spain and Italy, youth unemployment rates exceed
20%, leading to economic instability (OECD, 2023).
Elderly Poverty and Healthcare
• Pakistan: Social security is weak, with only 5% of the elderly
receiving pensions (Asian Development Bank, 2022).
• United States: Rising healthcare costs make retirement unaffordable
for many seniors, leading to increased economic insecurity (National
Institute on Aging, 2023).

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Inequality by Age
Age-based inequality refers to the unequal treatment of individuals based on their
age. It affects both the young and the elderly.
1. Youth Inequality:
• Education and Employment: Young people often face barriers to
education and employment.
Example: In Pakistan, youth unemployment is 8.5%, higher than the
national average (Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2022).
Western Example: In Europe, young people struggle with precarious
employment and high student debt.
• Political Participation: Youth are often excluded from decision-making
processes.
Example: In Pakistan, the voting age is 18, but young people are rarely
represented in politics.
Western Example: In the U.S., youth voter turnout is significantly lower
than in older age groups.
2. Elderly Inequality:
• Healthcare: Older adults often face challenges in accessing healthcare.
Example: In Pakistan, elderly care is largely neglected, with limited social
security benefits.
Western Example: In the U.S., rising healthcare costs disproportionately
affect the elderly.
• Social Isolation: Older adults may experience loneliness and exclusion.
Example: In Western societies, aging populations face challenges in
maintaining social connections.

Conclusion
Inequality is a multifaceted issue that affects individuals and societies in profound
ways. By examining its dimensions—poverty, gender, and age—we can better
understand the structural and systemic factors that perpetuate inequality.
Addressing these issues requires comprehensive policies, such as progressive
taxation, social safety nets, and gender-sensitive reforms. Through collective
efforts, we can work towards a more equitable and just society. Inequality remains
a significant global challenge, influencing economic conditions, social stability, and
individual well-being. While Western countries struggle with income disparity and
racial inequalities, Pakistan faces deeply embedded class, gender, and caste-based
disparities. Policies aimed at improving education, social security, and economic
opportunities are necessary to reduce inequality and promote social justice.

152
Self-Assessment Questions
Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. Which of the following best defines social inequality?
a) Unequal distribution of wealth, power, and opportunities in a society
b) Equal opportunities for all individuals regardless of their background
c) Government policies ensuring economic equality for all
d) Differences in personal preferences and lifestyle choices
(Answer: a)
2. What is the Gini coefficient used to measure?
a) Political participation rates
b) Gender-based discrimination
c) Income inequality within a population
d) Literacy rates across different regions
(Answer: c)
3. Which of the following is a structural factor contributing to poverty in
Pakistan?
a) Lack of access to quality education
b) Individual laziness and lack of motivation
c) Overpopulation as the sole cause
d) Government-imposed salary caps
(Answer: a)
4. Which social welfare program in Pakistan aims to provide financial
aid to low-income families?
a) Medicare
b) Benazir Income Support Programme (BISP)
c) Universal Credit
d) Social Security Trust Fund
(Answer: b)
5. In the United States, the gender pay gap means that women earn
approximately how much compared to every dollar earned by men?
a) $1.00
b) $0.95
c) $0.82
d) $0.50
(Answer: c)
6. Which region in the world has the highest youth unemployment
rates?
a) South Asia

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b) Western Europe
c) Latin America
d) Sub-Saharan Africa
(Answer: d)
7. In Pakistan, which group is most affected by caste-based social
inequality?
a) Urban professionals
b) Religious minorities and lower-caste laborers
c) Industrialists and landowners
d) University graduates
(Answer: b)
8. Which country has one of the highest gender equality rankings in the
Global Gender Gap Index?
a) Pakistan
b) Sweden
c) Saudi Arabia
d) India
(Answer: b)
Restricted Response Questions
1. Define social inequality and provide one example from Pakistan and one
from the West.
2. Explain the concept of absolute poverty and how it differs from relative
poverty.
3. Discuss the role of education in reducing social inequality, with a focus on
Pakistan.
4. What is the relationship between economic inequality and political
inequality? Provide examples.
5. Briefly explain how gender inequality affects labor force participation in
Pakistan and the United States.
Extended Response Questions
1. How does economic inequality contribute to social unrest?
2. Analyze the impact of poverty on children's future opportunities.
3. Discuss the role of globalization in either reducing or increasing inequality.
4. What are the key policy measures that governments can adopt to reduce
income inequality?
5. Examine the intersectionality of gender and age in social inequality.

154
Discussion Questions
1. How does economic inequality differ between Pakistan and Western
societies? Provide examples.
2. Critically evaluate the impact of gender inequality on economic
development.
3. What are the main causes of youth unemployment in Pakistan? How can
they be addressed?
4. Compare the challenges faced by the elderly in Pakistan and the West.
5. How can governments reduce inequality through policy interventions?

Further Readings
Books
1. Ali, S. (2023). Stratification and Inequality in South Asia: A Contemporary
Analysis. Routledge.
2. Bonilla-Silva, E. (2018). Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and
the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America. Rowman & Littlefield.
3. Khan, S. (2020). Gender and inequality in Pakistan: A sociological
perspective. Oxford University Press.
4. Nussbaum, M. C. (2018). Creating capabilities: The human development
approach. Harvard University Press.
5. Piketty, T. (2020). Capital and Ideology. Harvard University Press.
6. Piketty, T. (2021). Capital in the twenty-first century. Belknap Press.
7. Qureshi, H. (2022). Economic Disparities in Pakistan: A Critical
Perspective. Oxford University Press.
8. Sen, A. (2020). Inequality reexamined. Harvard University Press.
9. Stiglitz, J. (2020). People, Power, and Profits: Progressive Capitalism for
an Age of Discontent. W.W. Norton.
10. Wilkinson, R., & Pickett, K. (2019). The spirit level: Why equality is better
for everyone. Penguin Books.

155
Journal Articles-Reports
1. Ahmed, S. (2022). Gender inequality in education: A case study of rural
Pakistan. Asian Journal of Social Sciences, 50(2), 201-215.
2. Ali, T. (2021). Poverty and inequality in Pakistan: A sociological
analysis. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences, 42(3), 345-360.
3. Government of Pakistan. (2023). Annual Economic Report: Socioeconomic
Challenges and Opportunities.
4. Hussain, M. (2022). Youth unemployment in Pakistan: Causes and
solutions. Journal of Economic Studies, 49(1), 45-60.
5. HRCP. (2022). Human Rights and Gender Discrimination in Pakistan.
6. OECD. (2023). Youth Unemployment and the Global Economy: Policy
Recommendations for the Future.
7. Pew Research Center. (2023). Gender Pay Gap in the United States: Trends
and Causes.
8. Smith, J. (2020). Age-based inequality in Western societies: A comparative
analysis. Journal of Aging Studies, 35(4), 567-582.
9. UNESCO. (2023). Global Education Monitoring Report: The Role of
Education in Reducing Inequality.
10. World Bank. (2021). Addressing inequality in developing countries: Policy
options and challenges. World Development Report.
11. World Bank. (2023). Global Poverty Report: Economic Inequality Trends
Across the World.
Online Resources
1. Pakistan Bureau of Statistics: www.pbs.gov.pk
2. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): www.undp.org
3. World Inequality Report: www.worldinequality.org

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