Information Technology

Code : GEN201
Lecture Notes
BY

Prof. Dr. MOHAMED ANWAR

 Part 1

Concepts of Information
Technology (IT)
 Contents
1. General concepts
2. Hardware
3. Software
4. Information networks
5. The use of IT in everyday life
6. Health, Safety and Environment
7. Security
8. Copyright and the law
9. Abbreviations and terminology
Grading System
• Attendance10
• Midterm Exam 1 15
• Midterm Exam 2 15
• Reports 10

Class
Work

Final

• 50
4
 Introduction

• ICDL: International Computer Driving Licence

)‫(الرخصة الدولية لقيادة الحاسوب‬

• ECDL: European Computer Driving Licence

)‫(الرخصة األوروبية لقيادة الحاسوب‬
• IT: Information Technology
)‫(تكنولوجيا المعلومات‬
 1. General Concepts
Hardware
• The term hardware refers to the physical
components of your computer such as the system
unit, mouse, keyboard, monitor etc.
Software
• The software is the collection of instructions which makes
the computer work.
• For instance, when you type in words via the keyboard,
the software is responsible for displaying the correct
letters, in the correct place on the screen.
• Software is held either on your computer’s hard disk, CD-
ROM, DVD or on a diskette (floppy disk) and is loaded
(i.e. copied) from the disk into the computers RAM
(Random Access Memory), as and when required.
 1. General Concepts
Information Technology (IT)
• This is a general term which relates to the use of
computers as an aid to creating and maintaining data, i.e.
information.
• IT is related to all aspects of managing and processing
information, especially within a large organization.
• Computers are critical to managing information, and
computer departments within large organizations are often
called IT departments.
• Alternative phrases are IS departments (Information
Services) or MIS departments (Management Information
Services).
• People working with computers within large companies
will often refer to their job, as “working in IT”.
 1.1 Types of Computers
What is a mainframe computer?
• Mainframe computers are the big, powerful,
expensive computers used in the background by
most large organizations.
 1.1 Types of Computers
What is a mainframe computer?
• The power of the mainframe can be distributed
amongst many people accessing the mainframe
via their own PC.
• Organizations such as large insurance companies
would use the mainframe to keep track of their
policyholders and send out renewal notices.
 1.1 Types of Computers
What is a mainframe computer?
 Capacity: Very powerful computers often
connected to many individual PCs over a network.
 Speed: Much faster than PCs used for processing
large amounts of data such as mail-shots, salaries,
tax etc.
 Costs: Very, very expensive, only affordable by
large companies.
 Typical Users: Only used by large companies
including banks, building societies etc.
 1.1 Types of Computers
What is a PC?
• IBM invented the PC (Personal Computer) way
back in 1981.
• All PCs released since then are in many ways
compatible with the original design, though many
extensions have been made.
 1.1 Types of Computers
What is a PC?
• The term PC compatible relates to PCs
manufactured by companies other than IBM which
are compatible with the traditional PC
specification.
• In the early days, most PCs ran an operating
system called DOS (Disk Operating System).
• These days most PCs will be running a version of
Microsoft Windows.
 1.1 Types of Computers
What is a PC?
 Capacity: Large hard disks combined with a large
working memory (RAM).
 Speed: Fast. Normally measured in GHz.
 Costs: Getting cheaper by the day.
 Typical Users: Home users, large and small offer
users. Education, Doctors. In fact just about
everyone needs to know how to operate a PC these
days.
 1.1 Types of Computers
What is a Mac?
• The Apple Mac is a computer, but NOT a PC.
• It uses a different operating system, and requires
special versions of application programs (such as
word-processors or spreadsheets).
• Even the hardware add-ons have to be customized
to some extent to be able to be connected to a Mac.
 1.1 Types of Computers

What is a Mac?
• In the early days the thing which really
distinguished the Mac over the PC was the GUI
(Graphical User Interface), or in plain English
the way you could use the mouse to drive the
computer.
• In the early days of the PC, you really had to be
a bit of an expert to use and maintain your PC.
• Recently the differences between the PC and the
Mac have blurred, with Microsoft buying a
stake in Apple.
 1.1 Types of Computers

What is a networked computer?

• A network allows you to connect two or more
computers together.
• This allows data stored on one PC to be
retrieved by other PCs connected to the network.
• It also allows the sharing of resources.
• Thus instead of each PC requiring its own
printer to be directly connected to it, you can
have a single printer shared amongst many
networked PCs.
 1.1 Types of Computers

What is a networked computer?

• In the early days, to network PCs together was a
complicated task, only to be attempted by
qualified professionals.
• These days most people with a good working
knowledge of Microsoft Windows can install
and configure a Windows based network.
• However to get the best out of your network, in
terms of performance and security, still requires
a qualified, experienced technician.
 1.1 Types of Computers

What is a networked computer?

• Capacity: Large hard disks combined with a
large working memory (RAM).
• Speed: Fast. Normally measured in GHz.
• Costs: A PC only requires an inexpensive card
to be added to it to connect it to a network.
• Typical Users: Due to ease of networking a PC
these days just about anyone can network PCs
together.
 1.1 Types of Computers

What are laptop & palmtop computers?

• Laptop computers, as the name implies, are
small portable computers which can run on
batteries as well as mains power.
• They use special screens, rather than the
traditional bulky VDUs (Visual Display Units),
which allows for longer battery life as well as
portability.
• A newer term, “Notebooks”, simply indicates a
VERY small laptop.
 1.1 Types of Computers

What are laptop & palmtop computers?

• These are especially popular with salespersons
on the move or people giving presentations.
• While they tend to still be more expensive than
an equivalent Desktop computer, they can now
match the power of a Desktop computer.
• Palmtops are even smaller computers which can
literally fit into the palm of your hand.
 1.1 Types of Computers

What are laptop computers?

 Capacity: Large hard disks combined with a large
working memory (RAM) – Often less powerful than for a
PC of equivalent price.
 Speed: Fast. Normally measured in GHz. Often speed
specifications are less than for a PC of equivalent price.
 Costs: Components need to be much more compact, so
there is a price overhead when compared to a PC of
equivalent power.
 Typical Users: Business users, people on the move,
educational users.
 1.1 Types of Computers

What are palmtop computers?

 Capacity: Much smaller storage capacity
compared to a PC.
 Speed: Much less than a PC unless you pay a
lot extra.
 Costs: In relative terms expensive when
compares to a PC.
 Typical Users: Mostly business users.
 1.1 Types of Computers

What is a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)?

• These devices use a special pen, rather than a
keyboard and can be used for storing and
retrieving information.
• Like most computer devices, many can connect
to the Internet. They are extremely compact.
 1.1 Types of Computers

What is a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)?

 Capacity: Much smaller storage capacity
compared to a PC.
 Speed: Much less than a PC unless you pay a
lot extra.
 Costs: In relative terms expensive when
compares to a PC.
 Typical Users: Mostly business users.
4
‫المكونات الداخلية للحاسب‬

‫‪7‬‬
25
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
The System Unit
 The "system unit" is the name given to the main PC
box which houses the various elements which go
together to make up the PC.
 For instance within the system unit is the computer
system's motherboard, which contains all the main
components, such as the CPU.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer

The System Unit

 The system unit also houses items such as the
hard disk, the floppy disk and CD-ROM drives
etc.
 System units come in two basic varieties, the
tower version, as illustrated, or a desktop
version, which is designed to sit on your desk
with your monitor on top of the system unit.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer

The System (Mother) Board

• The system (mother) board is contained within your
system unit and all the vital computer systems plug
directly into the system board.
• The CPU is normally housed on your system board
along with all the other electronic components.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer

The System (Mother) Board

-RAM
-Expansion Slots
-Expansion Cards
-Processor, on which a fan or a heat sink is mounted.
-Battery
-Power supply to convert the 200v ac to 3.3 v dc.
-Clock, which generates series of pulses per second
-Chip Sets
-ROM
-Connectors

24
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer

The System (Mother) Board

• Other items such as the hard disk are attached to
the system board, either directly or via cables.
• These boards are getting smaller and smaller as
the components become more integrated.
• If you open up a modern system you will find
that it is mainly full of air.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
The CPU
• The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is normally an
Intel Pentium (or equivalent) and it is one of the most
important components within your computer.
• It determines how fast your computer will run and is
measured by its MHz or GHz speed.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer

The CPU
• Thus, a 2 GHz Pentium is much faster than say a
1 GHz Pentium CPU.
• It is the CPU which performs all the calculations
within the computer, when running programs
such as word-processors, spreadsheets and
databases.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
Memory (RAM)
• The RAM (Random Access Memory) within your
computer is where the operating system is loaded to
when you switch on your computer and also where your
applications are copied to when you start an application,
such as a word processor or database program.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer

Memory (RAM)
• When you create data, (e.g. letters and pictures),
these are initially created and held in RAM and
then copied to disk when you save the data.
• As a rule of thumb, the more RAM you have
installed in your computer the better.
• These days you will commonly find over 1
Gigabytes of RAM installed.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
ROM-BIOS
• The ROM-BIOS (Read Only Memory - Basic Input
Output System) chip is a special chip held on your
computer's system (mother) board.
• It contains software which is required to make your
computer work with your operating system, for instance
it is responsible for copying your operating system into
RAM when you switch on your computer.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer

Serial Port
• The serial port is a socket located at the back of
your computer which enables you to connect
items to the computer, such as a modem.
• They are commonly labelled as COM1 or COM2.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer

Parallel Port
• The parallel port is a socket located at the back of
your computer which enables you to connect
items to the computer, such as a printer. It is
commonly labelled as LPT1 or LPT2.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
Universal Serial Bus (USB)
• The Universal Serial Bus is a relatively new item within
the PC.
• You will see one or more USB sockets at the back of the
system unit, allowing you to plug in devices designed
for the USB.
• These devices include printers, scanners and digital
cameras.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
What are input devices?
• Input devices allow you to input information to the
computer and include things such as the keyboard and
mouse.
What are output devices?
• Output devices allow you to output information from the
computer and include the printer and the monitor.
What is a peripheral device?
• A peripheral device is any device which you can attach
to your computer.
• Thus, you could attach a scanner or modem to the back
of your system unit.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
The Keyboard
• An Input device. The keyboard allows you to type
information into the computer.
• It has evolved over the years and many people now use a
Microsoft style keyboard, which has additional keys
designed to make Microsoft Windows easier to use.
The Mouse
• An Input device.
• When using an operating system, such as Microsoft
Windows, you use the mouse to select drop down
menus, to point and click on items, to select items and to
drag and drop items from one place to another.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
CD
• Most computers are now supplied with a CD-ROM
(Compact Disc - Read Only Memory) drive.
• CD-ROM discs look exactly like music CDs but contain
computer data instead of music.
• The advantage of a CD-ROM is that it can hold a vast
amount of data (equivalent to the storage capacity of
over 450 floppy disks).
• The other big advantage of CD-ROMs is that they are
interchangeable.
• This means that you can own a range of different CD-
ROMs and choose which one to insert into your CD-
ROM drive.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
DVD Drives
• Short for "Digital Versatile Disk”.
• Similar to CD-ROM drives but allows you to use DVD
disks, which contain vastly more information than a
traditional CD-ROM disk.
• These also transfer the data from the disk to the
computer far faster, allowing you to watch movies on
your computer screen.
• A CD-ROM can store 650 MB of data, while a single-
layer, single-sided DVD can store GB of data.
• The two-layer DVD standard allows a capacity of GB.
• A double-sided DVD increases the storage capacity to
17 GB (or over 25 times the data storage capacity of a
CD-ROM).
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
Floppy disk
• Floppy disks are also known as diskettes.
• They are very slow compared to hard disks or
CD-ROMs, and hold relatively small amounts of
data (1.44 Mbytes).
• Sometimes people will backup (i.e. copy)
important data from their hard disk to floppy
disks.
• However, as diskettes are notoriously unreliable
this is not the best way of backing up valuable
data (but is better than nothing).
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
Zip Disc
• A Zip disk is like a bigger version of the floppy
disk, the main difference being that a single Zip
disk can hold up to 250 Mbytes of data.
• They also offer increased speed compared to the
old floppy disk.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
Hard (Fixed) Disk
• Hard disks are the main, large data storage area within
your computer.
• Hard disks are used to store your operating system, your
application programs (i.e. your word processor, games
etc) and your data.
• They are much faster than CD-ROMs and floppy disks
and can also hold much more data.
• The picture shows the inside of a hard disk (which you
would not normally see).
• Hard disks are installed within the system unit of your
computer.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
Hard (Fixed) Disk
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
The Monitor
• An output device.
• The monitor is the TV type screen on which you view your
programs.
• They are supplied in different sizes, common sizes range
from 15" to 21" screens.
• You should be aware that poor quality or badly maintained
monitors could harm your eyesight.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
Sound cards and speakers
• Many computers are now supplied with sound cards and
speakers which means that when you run 'multi-media'
programs, you can listen to sounds which are played
back via your computer.
• If you have a microphone and suitable software, you can
also record sounds.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
Sound cards and speakers
• You can even purchase special software which
will allow you to talk to your computer and get
the computer to type the words you have spoken
on your screen.
• In time, this type of software may replace the
keyboard.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
Modems
• A modem is a device which is used to attach your
computer to the telephone system.
• The modem converts data into sound which is
sent over the telephone line, the receiving modem
turns the sounds back into data.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
Modems
• If you wish to connect to the Internet, you will
need a modem (or equivalent device).
• Modems used to be large boxes that you had to
plug into the computer, but now modems boxes
have become very small and in many cases the
modem is actually inside the computer.
• If you are using ISDN or broadband then you will
use another device similar to a modem
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
Printers
• Most data is printed once you have created it and
there are a vast number of different printers
available to accomplish this.
• Most common are ink jet and laser printers both
of which can now produce colored output (at a
cost).
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer

Multifunction Printer

• A multifunction printer combines the functions of

a nonimpact printer, scanner, fax machine, and
copier in one unit.
18
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer

Plotter

• A plotter is a printer that uses a pen that moves

over a large revolving sheet of paper.
• It is used in engineering and map making.

19
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
Scanners
• Scanners allow you to scan printed materials into
your computer, which can then be stored within
the computer.
• These pictures can then be altered, resized and
printed as required.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
Recordable CDs
• CD-ROMs are read-only devices, but increasingly people are
purchasing a special type of CD drive unit which allows you to
record data, music or video to your own CDs.
• These devices require the purchase of special CDs to which you
can write, called CD-R (Compact Disc – Recordable).
Tape backup
• A tape backup unit allows for regular backing up of your data.
• These tapes can store a vast amount of data at a low cost.
• DAT (Digital Audio Tape) devices are commonly used for
backups.
• The DAT tapes which are used can backup enormous amounts of
data (i.e. over 4 GBytes per tape).
• The devices are also fast and reliable.
 1.2 Main parts of personal Computer
What is PCMCIA?
• Portables by their very nature are very compact and
require smaller than standard parts such as hard disks
and CD-ROM drives.
• Many portables are supplied with special adaptor sockets
which enable what are called PCMCIA compatible
hardware to be connected to them.
• PCMCIA components tend to be more expensive than
standard computer parts which are designed for more
bulky desktop computers.
 1.3 Computer Performance
Factors affecting performance
1. CPU Clock speed:
• The computer clock speed governs how fast the CPU
will run.
• The higher the clock speed the faster the computer will
work for you.
• The clock speed is given in megahertz (MHz).
• The original IBM PC ran at 4.77 MHz whereas modern
PCs will run at over 4000 MHz, which gives you an
idea of how far things have progressed.
• The higher the MHz speed the faster the computer.
 1.3 Computer Performance
Factors affecting performance
2. RAM size :
• As a rule the more memory you have the faster the PC will
appear to operate.
• Windows also uses the hard disk a lot, so logically the faster the
hard disk can operate then again the faster the PC will appear to
run.
3. Hard disk speed and storage:
• Hard disks are also measured by their speed, defined by the disk
access time, which is measured in milliseconds.
• The smaller this access time the faster the hard disk will store or
retrieve data.
• The data storage capacity of hard disks continues to increase as
new products are released.
• The disk storage capacity is measured in Gigabytes (GBytes).
• 1 GByte is equivalent to 1024 Mbytes.
 1.3 Computer Performance
Factors affecting performance
4. Free Hard Disk Space:
• To get the most out of your Windows based PC, you
not only need a fast hard disk but also a large hard disk
with plenty of "spare space".
• This is due to the fact Windows is constantly moving
data between the hard disk and RAM (Random Access
Memory).
• Microsoft Windows will create many so-called
“temporary files” which it uses for managing your
programs.
• In fact, if you have very little free hard disk space you
may find that Microsoft Windows will not be able to
run your programs at all.
 1.3 Computer Performance
Factors affecting performance
5. De-fragmenting Files:
• If you are running Windows you may find that if you
click on the Start menu, select Programs, and then
select the Accessories / System tools group, there is a
de-fragmentation program.
• Running this periodically may noticeably speed up the
operation of your PC.
• When you use a PC, over a period of time the files get
broken up into separate pieces which are spread all
over the hard disk.
• De-fragmentation means taking all the broken up
pieces and joining them back together again.
 1.3 Computer Performance
Factors affecting performance
6. Multitasking considerations:
• Windows is a multitasking system, which means that it
can run more than one program at a time.
• However the more programs which are running at the
same time, the slower each one will run.
• To some extent this slowing effect depends on what
each program is doing.
• Editing a large, full colour picture for instance can
take up a lot of CPU time.
 2. Hardware
2.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• The CPU is the brains within your computer.
• It performs most of the calculations within the
computer and is responsible for the smooth running of
your operating system (Microsoft Windows) as well as
your application programs, such as word-processors,
spreadsheets and databases.
• There is a small amount of memory associated with
the CPU, which it uses to perform these operations.
• It also accesses and uses the main memory (RAM -
Random Access Memory) within your computer.
 2.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• In many ways, the CPU is the single most important
item within your computer which governs the overall
speed of your computer.
• The CPU's speed is measured in MHz of GHz.
• This relates to the frequency at which the CPU runs
and the higher the MHz (or GHz) rating of your CPU
the faster your computer will run.
• To give you some indication of how PCs have
advanced over the years, the original IBM PC released
in 1981 ran at less than 5 MHz while modern PCs can
run at speeds well in excess of 4000 MHz (4 GHz).
• Note that 1000 MHz is the same a 1 GHz.
 2.2 Memory
 You can store data on your hard disk, while
data which is being processed is stored in RAM
(Random Access Memory).
 Data which is stored on a hard disk can be
permanent, while data in RAM is only
temporary.
 Normally when people talk about memory in
relation to a PC, they are talking about RAM.
 2.2 Memory
What is RAM?
• Random Access Memory (RAM) is the main 'working' memory
used by the computer.
• When the operating system loads from disk when you first
switch on the computer, it is copied into RAM.
• The original IBM PC could only use up to 640 KB of memory
(just over half a megabyte), whereas a modern computer can
effectively house as much RAM as you can afford to buy.
Commonly modern computers are supplied with over 1GB of
RAM.
• As a rough rule, a Microsoft Windows based computer will
operate faster if you install more RAM.
• When adverts refer to a computer having 512 Mbytes of
memory, it is this RAM which they are talking about.
• Data and programs stored in RAM are volatile (i.e. the
information is lost when you switch off the computer).
 2.2 Memory
What is ROM?
 Read Only Memory (ROM) as the name
suggests is a special type of memory chip
which holds software which can be read but not
written to.
 A good example is the ROM-BIOS chip, which
contains read-only software.
 Often network cards and video cards also
contain ROM chips.
 2.2 Memory
What is the ROM-BIOS?
• The 'Read Only Memory Basic Input Output
System' chip is a chip located on the computer's
system (mother) board, which contains software.
• This software performs a variety of tasks.
• When you first switch on the computer the
ROM-BIOS software performs a self-diagnostic
to check that the computer is working OK.
• This software then loads your operating system
from the disk into the RAM.
 2.2 Memory
What is flash BIOS?
• Most modern computers are actually supplied
with a flash BIOS rather than a ROM-BIOS.
• This chip contains exactly the same type of in-
built software, but has the advantage that the
software on the chip can be upgraded.
• This upgrade is achieved by simply running a
small program supplied by the computer
manufacturer.
 2.2 Memory
What is video (graphics) memory?
• The picture which you see on your screen is a
form of data and this data has to be stored
somewhere.
• The on-screen pictures are held in special
memory chips called video memory chips;
these chips are usually located on the video
card.
• A modern computer will be supplied with
several Megabytes of video memory.
 2.2 Memory
Computer memory measurement
• Basic Units of Data Storage:
- It is important to realize that the term digital
computer refers to the fact that ultimately the computer
works in what is called binary.
- Humans work in tens (because we have 10 fingers).
To use the jargon humans work in base 10.
- A digital computer uses the numbers 0 and 1 (or on
and off if you prefer).
- When we talk about computer storage, either the
amount of memory (RAM) or the hard disk capacity
we are talking about numbers which are multiples of 0
or 1.
 2.2 Memory
Computer memory measurement
• Bit: All computers work on a binary numbering
system, i.e. they process data in ones or zeros. This 1
or 0 level of storage is called a bit. Often hardware is
specified as a 32-bit computer, which means that the
hardware can process 32 bits at a time. Software is
also described as 16 bit, 32 bit or 64 bit software.
• Byte: A byte consists of eight bits.
• Kilobyte: A kilobyte (KB) consists of 1024 bytes.
• Megabyte: A megabyte (MB) consists of 1024
kilobytes.
• Gigabyte: A gigabyte (GB) consists of 1024
megabytes.
• Terabyte: A terabyte (TB) consists of 1024 gigabyte
 2.2 Memory
Computer memory measurement
• Files: Data and programs are stored on your disk as files. There
are different types of files, such as the files in which you store
your data, the files which contain your programs and also files
used to store your operating system (such as Microsoft
Windows).
• Directories (folders): Directories or folders are used to group
files with a similar theme together. For example, you could
have a folder called “Accounts” containing all your accounting
related files, or a folder called “Customers” containing
correspondence with your customers. Folders can also contain
sub-folders to further divide files. The uppermost level folder is
often referred to as the “root” folder (or directory). Sometimes
you may see a diagrammatic representation of folders, as
illustrated below.
 2.2 Memory
Computer memory measurement
• Directories (folders):
In this example, we have the root folder at the top. Below this
are three sub-folders called Data, Programs and Games.
• Records: A record is a collection of data held within a file. It
is the sort of storage unit used by a database. For more
information, please see the ICDL module concerned with
databases.
 2.3 Input Devices
The Mouse
• The mouse came into common use on a PC with the
introduction of the Microsoft Windows operating
system.
• Before this, the operating system (DOS) would
normally be controlled via the keyboard.
• These days it is vital to be a competent mouse user.
• There are many different types of mice, a commonly
used model now has a small wheel on it which when
combined with the correct software allows additional
functionality and fine control over the use of your
applications.
 2.3 Input Devices
The Keyboard
• The keyboard is still the commonest way of entering
information into a computer.
• There are a number of different types, including those
specially designed for use with Microsoft Windows.
• The quality of the keyboard is often overlooked when
buying a PC; it should be robust and easy to use.
 2.3 Input Devices
Tracker Balls (‫)كرة التتبع‬
• A tracker ball is an alternative to the traditional mouse
and favored by graphic designers.
• Tracker balls often give much finer control over the
movement of the items on the screen.
• They may take a while to get used to if you are used to
the traditional mouse, but offer a lot in terms of added
flexibility.
 2.3 Input Devices
Scanners
• A scanner allows you to scan printed material and convert it
into a file format which may be used within the PC.
• You can scan pictures and then manipulate these inside the PC
using a graphics application of your choice.
• In addition, you can scan printed text and convert this not just to
a picture of the text but also to, actual text which can be
manipulated and edited as text within your word-processor.
There are a number of specialist programs, generically called
OCR (Optical Character Recognition) programs which are
specifically designed for converting printed text into editable
text within your applications.
 2.3 Input Devices
Touch Pads
• A touch pad is a desktop device and responds to
pressure.
• Used in conjunction with a special pen they can
be used by graphic artists wishing to create
original, digital artwork.
 2.3 Input Devices
Light Pens
• A light pen is used to allow users to point to
areas on a screen and is often used to select
menu choices.
 2.3 Input Devices
Joysticks
• Many games require a joystick for the proper playing of the
game.
• There are many different types, the more sophisticated respond
to movement in 3 axis directions, as well as having a number of
configurable buttons.
• Like most things in life you get what you pay for with joysticks
and it is worth investing in a good, strongly constructed model,
especially bearing in mind that children will hammer these
devices whilst playing games.
 2.3 Input Devices
Voice input for PCs (microphones)
• Early voice recognition systems offered very poor results, due
to the limitations of the software combined with hardware
limitations.
• It takes an awful lot of CPU processing power to convert the
spoken word into text which appears on the screen.
• Things are changing rapidly however and recent systems allow
you to talk to a PC and see text appear on the screen.
• Most of these systems require an initial training period, where
you train the software to respond to your particular voice.
 2.3 Input Devices
Web Cams
• Ever since it was invented, the Web has become
increasingly interactive.
• You can now use a small digital movie camera (a Web
cam) mounted on the PC monitor to allow two-way
communication involving not just text communication
but sound and video communication as well.
• While not yet considered a standard piece of PC kit, it
is only a matter of time.
 2.3 Input Devices
Digital Cameras
• A digital camera can be used in the same way a
traditional camera can, but instead of storing images
on rolls of film which require developing, the images
are stored digitally in memory housed within the
camera.
• These pictures can easily be transferred to your
computer and then manipulated within any graphics
programs which you have installed on your computer.
• Currently they are limited by the quality of the image
recorded and the number of pictures which you may
store within the camera.
 2.4 Output Devices
The VDU (computer monitor or screen)
• The VDU (Visual Display Unit) is the computer
screen used for outputting information in an
understandable format for humans.
• Remember that at the end of the day the
computer works in binary code (a series of
on/off impulses).
 2.4 Output Devices
Flat screen monitors
• Traditional computer monitors are based on the same sort of
technology which is used within a television screen.
• More recently, flat screen computer monitors have become
available.
• These take up a lot less room on a desk and use less energy than
the traditional, more bulky monitors.
• You should be aware that often if you specify a screen of a
certain size, say a 17-inch screen, this is the size measured
diagonally, not horizontally across the screen.
 2.4 Output Devices
Computer presentation projection devices
• These are projection devices which can be attached to your
computer and are useful for displaying presentations to a group
of people.
• They are best used in combination with presentation programs,
such as Microsoft PowerPoint.
• They are used within education and are also very popular for
sales presentations.
• The price of these devices has dropped dramatically recently.
• When purchasing one of these devices the two things to look
out for are the resolution and the brightness of the lamp.
 2.4 Output Devices
Printers
• There are many different types of printers.
• Laser printers, dot matrix printers, inkjet printers,…etc.
• In large organizations, laser printers are most commonly used
because they can print very fast and give a very high quality
output.
• In most organizations, the printers are connected to the
computers via a network.
• This means that each person with a computer does not require
his or her own printer.
• Each computer connected to the network can print using a
particular shared printer.
 2.4 Output Devices
Plotters
• A plotter is an output device similar to a printer, but
normally allows you to print larger images.
• Their use is common in the design and research sector.
Speakers
• Most computers are sold with the capability to add a
pair of speakers to your system unit.
• In fact, in some cases, the monitor may have speakers
built directly into the unit.
• This enhances the value of educational and
presentation products and can now be considered a
standard PC component.
 2.4 Output Devices
Speech synthesizers )‫(المحوالت الصوتية‬
• A recent development is the ability not only to display
text on a monitor but also to read the text to you.
• Thus, you could receive a text email from a colleague
and the system could read that email to you.
• This is of enormous benefit to the visually impaired
when using a computer.
• On the flip side, it is now possible to use a microphone
to talk to the computer and for the computer to directly
convert the spoken word into text which will be
displayed within say your word-processor.
 2.5 Input/Output Devices
 Some devices are both input and output devices.
 A modem can be used for downloading
information from web sites and receiving
emails.
 It can also be used for uploading and sending
emails.
 A touch screen can display a menu system
(output device), and accept input when people
touch the menus displayed on the screen.
 2.6 Storage Devices
Internal hard disks
• Speed: Very fast. The speed of a hard disk is often
quoted as "average access time" speed, measured in
milliseconds. The smaller this number, the faster the
disk is.
• Capacity: Enormous. Measured in Gigabytes. A
Gigabyte is equivalent to 1024 Megabytes.
• Cost: Hard disks costs are falling rapidly and normally
represent the cheapest way of storing data.
 2.6 Storage Devices
External hard disks
• Speed: Normally slower than internal disks, but
more expensive versions offer the same
performance as internal hard disks.
• Capacity: Same as internal disks.
• Cost: More expensive than internal disks.
 2.6 Storage Devices
Zip drives
• You can install a Zip drive into your computer and
then you can insert Zip disks into that drive.
• The great thing about these disks is that you can
remove one disk and replace it with another, in exactly
the same way that you can place different diskettes in
your diskette drive.
• They are great for backing up data and exchanging
data between non-networked computers.
 2.6 Storage Devices
Zip drives
• Speed: Slower than normal hard disks but ideal for
backups.
• Capacity: 100 or 250 Megabytes.
• Cost: You have to consider both the cost of the drive,
plus the cost of each disk which you wish to use in the
drive. Often suppliers will sell the drive plus a pack of
5 disks at a bundled discount price.
 2.6 Storage Devices
Jaz drives
• A Jaz drive is similar in concept to a Zip drive.
• The main difference between them is that a Jaz drive can hold a
lot more data. Also, the disks are not the same as used in a Zip
drive and as a result, you cannot use a Zip disk in a Jaz drive or
a Jaz disk in a Zip drive.
• Speed: Slower than normal hard disks but ideal for backups
• Capacity: Around 2 Gigabytes (2048 Megabytes).
• Cost: You have to consider both the cost of the drive, plus the
cost of each disk which you wish to use in the drive. Often
suppliers will sell the drive plus a pack of 5 disks at a bundled
discount price.
 2.6 Storage Devices
Diskettes (floppy disks)
• Speed: Very slow.
• Capacity: Normally 1.44 Mbytes.
• Cost: Very cheap.
 2.6 Storage Devices
CD Disks
• Speed: Much slower than hard disks. The original CD-ROM
specification is now given a value of 1x speed, and later, faster
CD-ROMs are quoted as a multiple of this value. Thus, a 50x
CD-ROM is 50 times as fast as the original 1x speed CD-ROM
specification.
• Capacity: Around 650 Mbytes.
• Cost: CD drives are becoming very inexpensive. The disks
themselves are so cheap that they are often given away when
they contain samples or demo software (i.e. free versions).
 2.6 Storage Devices
DVD Drives
• Speed: Much faster than CD drives but not as
fast as hard disks.
• Capacity: Up to 17 GBytes.
• Cost: Slightly higher than CD drives.
 2.6 Storage Devices
What is the difference between internal and external
hard disks?
• Internal hard disks are located inside your main
computer unit, while external hard disks are joined to
the main computer unit via a lead which you plug into
the back of your computer unit.
• Some external hard disks will plug into the USB port
(connector) located at the back of your computer.
• Other external hard disks require the installation of a
special card (mobile rack) within your computer which
allows the connection of the external hard disk to the
computer unit.
 2.6 Storage Devices
Why format a disk?
• Originally when you purchased a pack of floppy disks
(diskettes), you had to format them prior to use.
• Today, most floppy disks are supplied pre-formatted.
• Formatting a disk is like putting lines on a blank sheet of paper,
so that you can write on that paper.
• Formatting allows the operating system (i.e. Windows) to read
information stored on the disk and also to store information on
the disk.
• The manufacturer will have formatted your hard disk for you
prior to delivering the PC to you.
• You should be very careful about formatting a disk, as any data
on the disk will be lost after re-formatting.
• You would not normally format a hard disk, this should only be
done by a qualified person.
• You do not even need to know how to format a hard disk!
 3. Software
3.1 Types of Software
What is an Operating System?
• The operating system is a special type of
program which loads automatically when you
start your computer.
• The operating system allows you to use the
advanced features of a modern computer
without having to learn all the details of how
the hardware works.
 3.1 Types of Software
What is an Application Program?
• An application program is the type of program
which you use once the operating system has
been loaded into memory (RAM).
• Examples include word processing programs
(for producing letters, memos etc), spreadsheets
(for doing accounts and working with numbers),
databases (for organizing large amounts of
information), games and graphics programs (for
producing pictures, advertisements, manuals
etc).
 3.1 Types of Software
Why are new versions of software released year after year?
• A cynic might say 'so that the companies which
manufacture software can continue to make money
each year'.
• Another cynic may say ' so that you can pay to have
the unfinished version you bought last year patched up
a little, so there are less bugs in it this year'.
• The software manufactures claim that each new
release has less bugs, greater flexibility and more
features.
• Often if you wish to see the version of software you
are using, you can click on the product’s Help drop
down menu, and then click on the About (or similar)
command.
 3.2 Operating System Software
What is an Operating System?
• There are a number of different types of operating
system in common use.
• The IBM PC (Personal Computer) was introduced way
back in 1981 and was originally supplied with an
operating system called DOS (Disk Operating System).
• This operating system was very basic, and you had to
be a bit of a computer expert just to understand how to
use it. It was NOT user-friendly.
• Later on, Microsoft introduced Windows and this is
the operating system which is most widely used on
PCs today.
 3.2 Operating System Software
What is an Operating System?
• To complicate matters further, there are a number of
different types of Windows.
• The first widely used version of Windows was called
Windows 3.1.
• This was more powerful than DOS and far easier to
use.
• It had a Graphical User Interface (GUI), i.e. you could
'drive' it using a mouse and drop down menus.
• Later, different releases of Windows were introduced.
 3.2 Operating System Software
What is an Operating System?
• The good news is that later versions of Microsoft
Windows look almost identical to each other and are
all much easier to use than Windows 3.1.
• IBM produced an operating system called OS/2 but
this was largely ignored and is only used by a few
companies.
• UNIX and Linux are other examples of operating
systems which may be run on PCs.
• Other types of computers, such as those manufactured
by Apple have a completely different operating system.
 3.3 Applications Software
Word processing
• A word processing program (such as Microsoft
Word) allows you to produce letters, memos,
etc., easily.
• You can easily mail merge a list of names and
addresses to produce mass mailers, individually
addressed to customers or subscribers.
 3.3 Applications Software
Spreadsheets
• A spreadsheet program (such as Microsoft Excel)
allows you to work out a company’s income,
expenditure and then calculate the balance.
• It enables you to make 'what if' type projections of
how the company will fair in the future and to forecast
how changes in prices will affect profits.
 3.3 Applications Software
Databases
• A database program (such as Microsoft Access) allows
you to compile information and then to search this
information to extract just the information you require.
• For instance, if you have a database of all the
equipment housed within an office you can very
simply produce a report listing only the equipment
above a certain value.
 3.3 Applications Software
Presentation
• A presentation program (such as Microsoft
PowerPoint) allows you to produce professional
looking presentations, which can be printed out
directly onto slides for use with an overhead projector.
• Alternatively, you can display your presentations
directly on a computer screen or via a computerised
projector.
 3.3 Applications Software
Accounts / Payroll
• In most large organizations, the accounts are
maintained by a computerized system.
• Due to the repetitive nature of accounts, a computer
system is ideally suited to this task and accuracy is
guaranteed.
Web browsing
• Applications used to view and interact with the World
Wide Web (WWW).
Web authoring
• These applications allow almost anyone to create a
web site, quickly and easily.
3.4 Graphical User Interface (GUI)
What is a Graphical User Interface?
• A Graphical User Interface (GUI) is simply an
additional part of the operating system which displays
windows and drop down menus, and also enables you
to drive your computer using a mouse.
• Examples of operating system which use a GUI
include Windows and IBM's OS/2.
• If you used an old operating system like the original
version of DOS, there was no GUI and the screen
would look like this.
• As you can see there are no menus, no icons and
nothing for the mouse to click on.
• You had to know a special language which you then
typed into the computer to make it do anything!
3.4 Graphical User Interface (GUI)
3.4 Graphical User Interface (GUI)
The advantages of using a GUI (Graphical User
Interface)
• All programs look similar and when you switch from a
program supplied by one manufacturer to a different
program supplied by another manufacturer, you will
find the transition very easy.
• Application programs work in the same way as the
underlying operating system, and also look very
similar, which means that they are easier to learn and
use.
• The GUI also allows programmers to easily write
consistent looking programs.
 3.5 Systems Development
 This is a general term used to describe the way new software is
specified, written by programmers, tested and then delivered to
the user.
What is a systems development cycle?
• Most IT projects work in cycles.
• First, the needs of the computer users must be analysed.
• This task is often performed by a professional called a 'Systems
Analysts' who will ask the users exactly what they would like
the system to do, and then draw up plans on how this can be
implemented on a real, computer based, system.
• The programmer will take the specifications from the Systems
Analyst and then convert the broad brushstrokes into actual
computer programs.
 3.5 Systems Development
What is a systems development cycle?
• Ideally at this point there should be testing and
input from the users so that what is produced by
the programmers is actually what they asked for.
• Finally, there is the implementation process,
during which all users are introduced to the new
systems, which often involves an element of
training.
• Once the users start using the new system, they
will often suggest new improvements and the
whole process is started all over again.
 3.5 Systems Development
What is a systems development cycle?
• These are methodologies for defining a systems
development cycle and often you will see four
key stages, as detailed below.
-Analysis
- Design
- Programming
- Testing
3.5 Systems Development
 4. Information Networks
4.1 LAN and WAN
What is a LAN (Local Area Network)?
• A LAN (Local Area Network) is a system whereby
individual PCs are connected together within a
company or organization.
• For instance if ten people are working together within
an office it makes sense for them all to be connected.
• In this way, the office can have a single printer and all
ten people can print to it.
• In a similar way, other devices such as modems or
scanners can be shared.
• Even more useful is the ability to share information
when connected to a network.
4.1 LAN and WAN
 4.1 LAN and WAN
What is a WAN?
• A WAN (Wide Area Network) as the name implies
allows you to connect to other computers over a wider
area (i.e. the whole world).
What does client/server mean?
• This term relates to the type of network where
resources are kept centrally on the server and used
locally by the client.
• The server tends to be a very powerful PC (or group of
PCs), while each client workstation, which the users
have, is less powerful.
4.1 LAN and WAN
 4.1 LAN and WAN
What is workgroup computing?
• The idea of a workgroup is that groups of people
working together can share their resources with each
other.
• People within the workgroup can share information on
their hard disks as well as sharing printers, modems
and scanners.
• The workgroup is connected via a computer network.
This network can simply consist of a few computers at
a single location physically connected to each other via
a network cable, or it may be a workgroup of
computers connected globally via the Internet.
• The networked nature of computers means that the
physical distance between workgroups members is fast
becoming irrelevant.
 4.1 LAN and WAN
What is workgroup computing?
 Many programs are designed to be used within a
workgroup.
 For instance when using a word-processor you may
use what are called templates.
 Your organization might want to use a standard Fax
header sheet.
 If a template for this header sheet is held on a single
computer but available to all the other computers then
this has the advantage that when you need to make a
change to the Fax header you only have to change one
file, rather than change the files on each computer.
 4.1 LAN and WAN
Advantages of workgroup computing
• As there is no reliance on a central computer, there is
less chance of major disruption if one computer goes
down for a while.
• Provided members of the workgroup have the
authority and access rights, they can share data on a
temporary basis with colleagues, as required, without
the need for a network administrator to get involved.
• In small offices there may be no need for a dedicated
network administrator, and this can result in
considerable cost savings.
 4.1 LAN and WAN
Disadvantages of workgroup computing
• If you share files on your PC with many other
people, this can slow down the running of your
PC.
• The security of the computer network may not
be as good as the traditional client/server
network arrangement.
• You may give total access to the files on your
PC, which may then be damaged or even
deleted, by other members of the workgroup.
 4.2 Intranet and Extranet
What is the difference between the Internet and an
Intranet?
• An Intranet is a smaller, closed version of the Internet,
which can only be accessed by authorized members of
an organization.
• Intranets are becoming an increasingly popular way to
share information within a company or other
organization.
• An Intranet uses Internet technologies to allow users to
access company documents, search databases,
schedule meetings and of course send emails.
• Once a company has installed a comprehensive
Intranet many users need only one piece of software
on their PC, a web browser.
 4.2 Intranet and Extranet
What is the difference between an Intranet and
an Extranet?
• An Extranet is an Intranet which is partially
accessible to authorized outsiders.
• An Intranet is normally only accessible by
members of the same company or organisation;
an extranet also allows outsiders who have been
issued with a password to gain limited access to
information held on a company network.
• Extranets are being used as a way for business
partners to share information.
 4.3 The Internet
What is the Internet?
• A collection of networks started by and for the US
military to enable them to 'survive' a nuclear war.
• Later adopted by the educational system, and now
exploited by the commercial world.
• The Internet is a global network of interconnected
networks.
• The unique thing about the Internet is the sheer
amount of information which you can access from it.
• Whatever your interest, you can search for and find
information on the most obscure topics.
• For research the Internet is an incredibly valuable tool.
 4.3 The Internet
What is the Internet?
• Whether you are gathering information about a rival company
on the other side of the world, or are looking for information
about your family tree, you will find there is plenty of
information available.
• If you publish material on the Web, it can be accessed by
everyone on the Web (providing they can find it.).
• As a marketing tool, this has interesting possibilities.
• It is possible for a small company to sell products and services
worldwide, without the need for a single sales-person.
• These days the problem is often not finding information but
rather dealing with the sheer amount of information which is
available.
• Also, you have no idea how accurate or up to date a lot of the
information you access really is.
 4.3 The Internet
What is the difference between the World Wide Web
(WWW) and the Internet?
• The World Wide Web (WWW) is just a small part of
the Internet as a whole.
• The Internet relates to all the hardware and software
involved, as well as the WWW, it also includes FTP
(File Transfer Protocol), email and newsgroups.
• The WWW is basically the text and pictures which
you can view using your web browser, such as
Microsoft Internet Explorer, or Netscape Navigator.
 4.4 The Telephone Network in Computing
How is the telephone line used in computing?
• If you use a modem to connect to the Internet,
then this connection is made via the telephone
network.
What is PSTN?
• PSTN (or Public Switched Telephone Network)
is the technical name for the public telephone
system.
• It is based on traditional 'copper wire'
technology and can transmit analogue voice
data.
 4.4 The Telephone Network in Computing
What is PSDN?
• PSDN (or Public Switched Data Network) is
simply the technical name for the telephone
system in use today.
What is ISDN?
• Stands for "Integrated Services Digital
Network."
• ISDN dates back to 1984, and allows much
faster transfer rates than when using modems.
• Using ISDN, you can transfer 64 Kbit or 128
Kbit of data per second.
 4.4 The Telephone Network in Computing
What is ADSL?
• Short for 'Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line'.
• A more recent technology which allows more data to
be sent over existing copper telephone lines, but
requires a special ADSL modem.
• ADSL allows data transfer rates of ranging from to 8
Mbps when receiving data (called the downstream rate)
and from 16 to 640 Kbps when sending data (called
the upstream rate).
What is DSL?
• Refers collectively to all types of 'Digital Subscriber
Lines', the two main categories being ADSL and
SDSL.
• DSL technology allows faster data transfer while still
using copper wires (as opposed to optic fibre cables).
 4.4 The Telephone Network in Computing
Digital vs. analogue
• A digital system uses 1 or 0 to transmit data
or to represent data.
• Thus, a digital clock will display whole
seconds, whole minutes and whole hours.
• An analogue system, such as a traditional
clock, does not use multiples of 1 or 0, but
rather uses the full range of numbers,
including fractions.
• In this way, an analogue clock can display
fractions of a second.
 4.4 The Telephone Network in Computing
Modem
• Modem stands for “MODulate / DEModulate”.
• The modem sends information from your computer
across the telephone system.
• The modem at the other end of the phone line,
converts the signal back into a format which can be
used by the receiving computer.
Baud rate
• The baud rate tells you how fast a modem can
send/receive data.
• Most modern modems have a maximum baud rate of
56 Kilobits per second (Kb/sec).
 5. The Use of IT in Everyday Life
• Education
• National Security
• Transport
• Finance
• Government
• Home
• Medicine
• Robotics
• Scientific Research
• Energy
• Retails
140
 5. The Use of IT in Everyday Life
5.1 Computers at Work
Where computers might be more appropriate than
people
• Repetitive tasks: In the past, many repetitive jobs
were performed by low skilled, poorly paid workers.
Now is it more common to use computers instead.
• Easily automated tasks: The phone system is now
largely automatic, while in former times all calls were
made through an operator. Many other examples exist.
How many can you think of?
 5.1 Computers at Work
Where computers might be more appropriate than
people
• Mathematical calculations: A computer is ideally
suited to performing mathematical calculations.
Before computers were widely available accountants
used to work on manual, paper-based spreadsheets.
Within a spreadsheet, a common task would be
adding up a column of figures, and then taking the
total, which is added to other columns of figures. If
you change one number within a column which is
being summed, there can be a knock-on effect on
many other calculations within the spreadsheet. Re-
calculating a spreadsheet could take hours (or days).
On a computer, this re-calculation can take seconds.
 5.1 Computers at Work
Where computers might be more appropriate than
people
• Dangerous situations: Monitoring of polluted or
radioactive environments is suited to computer-
based robots, where the use of a human would
expose that person to unacceptable risks. Unmanned,
computer-controlled machines almost exclusively
carry out serious space exploration. A recent
exploration of Mars involved a computerized ‘car’,
which had to make decisions on its own. It could not
be remotely controlled from earth, as the time taken
for the signal to reach Mars is just too long.
 5.1 Computers at Work
Where people might be more appropriate than
computers
• Computers have their limits.
• When you are unwell and visit your doctor, it is
often a person to whom you want to talk, as there
might well be other factors affecting your health
(maybe personal problems) which you would not
feel happy typing into a computer, but would feel
comfortable describing to your local doctor, whom
you may well have known for years.
• In most of the caring professions, the same is true,
whether it be doctors, nurses or social workers.
• The human touch is important.
 5.1 Computers at Work
Where people might be more appropriate than
computers
• Despite the uptake of e-commerce, (selling on the
Net, banking on the Net and so on), there are many
people (myself included) who still like to have the
option of a real person to whom you can talk, be it
the local bank manager or a real person on the end
of a telephone sales line.
• Does anyone like ringing a large organization and
being greeted with a range of buttons to press, in
order to communicate with a computerized
telephone system?
• Even ordering cinema tickets can now involve a
lengthy phone call, listening to a synthetic voice
describing many films you do not want to see, and
pressing many buttons.
 5.1 Computers at Work
Where people might be more appropriate than computers
• For many years, science fiction has portrayed images of a
thinking, sentient android (Lieutenant Data from Star Trek
for instance).
• In reality this is a long way from present capabilities and
when it comes to anything requiring creative thought, a
human wins every time.
• Computers in their present form would gain little from
studying philosophy for instance.
• They can memorize the facts, but cannot make the creative
leaps which humans can.
• On a more mundane level, when it comes to even a simple
task such as cleaning your home, a human can deal with
mess, clutter and items (such as chairs) which have changed
their position recently.
• Even this simple task is beyond a small computer.
 5.1 Computers at Work
Where people might be more appropriate than
computers
• Computers are very bad at recognizing and
interpreting shapes.
• They can take photographs and record images on
video, but they have no understanding of the
meaning of shapes, and will be easily confused
when presented with two overlapping shapes.
• The human process of pattern recognition, as recent
research had demonstrated, is vastly more
complicated than we used to think.
• For these reasons it is humans, not computers who
will examine tissue smears for signs of abnormality
within hospitals.
 5.1 Computers at Work
Examples of large scale computer applications
in business
• Business administration systems
• Airline booking systems
• Insurance claims processing
• Online banking
 5.1 Computers at Work
Uses of large scale computers applications
within government
• Census
• Vehicle registration
• Revenue collection
• Electronic voting
 5.1 Computers at Work
Uses of computer applications within hospitals
and the health care system
• Patient record systems
• Ambulance control systems
• Diagnostic tools and specialist surgical
equipment
 5.1 Computers at Work
Uses of computer applications in education
• Student registration and timetabling
• Computer Based Training (CBT)
• Using the Internet as a homework resource
• Distance learning systems
 5.1 Computers at Work
What is tele-working?
• Tele-working is a broad term which refers to
people working at home connected to the rest
of the organization via a computer network.
• Communication is via email or the telephone.
• This arrangement has advantages and
disadvantages to both the employer and the
employee.
 5.1 Computers at Work
Some of the advantages of tele-working
• Reduced or zero commuting time
• Greater ability to focus on one task
• Flexible schedules
• Reduced office desk space requirements
 5.1 Computers at Work
Some of the disadvantages of tele-working
• Lack of human contact
• Negative impact on teamwork
• Self-discipline
• Possible Employee Exploitation
 5.2 Electronic World
What is email?
• Email allows you to send a message to
another person almost instantly, anywhere in
the world.
• It requires both computers to be connected to
the Internet.
• As well as sending a text message, files can
be sent as email attachments.
 5.2 Electronic World
What is E-commerce?
• The phrase e-commerce is a buzzword which relates
to buying or selling via the Internet.
• Increasingly you can purchase directly via a Web
site by selecting the goods or services which you
require and entering your credit card details.
• When you send your credit card details these
SHOULD be encrypted by the site operators so that
no one can intercept your details.
• Most sites which accept credit card payment are on
secure services and your Internet browser program
(i.e. Microsoft Internet Explorer or Netscape
Communicator) will normally inform you (via a
popup) when you are entering or leaving a secure
server.
 5.2 Electronic World
What is E-banking?
• The phrase e-banking relates to managing your
money online.
• Instead of having to go to the local branch, or
telephoning them, you can pay your bills online and
move money from one place to another.
• Some online banks have no physical branches at all,
making it a very profitable operation for the bank.
• There are security considerations relating to online
banking, with numerous examples of poor security
coupled with sloppy operations.
 5.2 Electronic World
The process of shopping online
• There are numerous web sites from where you can
purchase online, the most famous of all being
amazon.com as illustrated.
• Most Internet based shopping sites use a virtual
“shopping cart” system.
• As you browse the site you can add any products
you want to purchase to your cart.
• Once you have placed items in the cart you can then
move to the checkout stage.
• At the checkout you enter your name & address,
select the type of delivery you want and enter your
payment details.
6. Health and Safety, Environment
6.1 Ergonomics )‫(البيئة‬
Good working practices
Includes the following:
• Your chair:
Your chair should be fully adjustable, and be able to
be moved up or down. It should have an adjustable
back.
• Your screen:
Your screen should be fully adjustable so that your
eyes are at the same height as the top of the screen.
You may wish to use a filter attached to the screen
to reduce glare. If the screen is badly focused, too
bright or appears to flicker, then get a qualified
technician to take a look at it.
 6.1 Ergonomics
Good working practices
• Your keyboard:
Use a good keyboard and you may also wish to use a
wrist pad to relieve pressure on your wrists.
• Your feet:
You may wish to use a footpad to rest your feet
while using the computer.
• Your mouse:
Use a mouse mat to make the mouse easier to use.
Ensure that you have enough space to comfortably
use the mouse.
• Breaks:
Take frequent breaks when using a computer.
 6.2 Health Issues
• Using a computer incorrectly can damage
your health
• Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI)
• Glare from screens
• Bad posture
6.3 Precautions
• Make sure that cables are safely secured
• Make sure that power points are not
overloaded
 6.4 The Environment
Computers and the environment
• You should have a separate bin for paper which can
be sent for recycling (be sure that sensitive material
is first shredded).
• Printer toner cartridges can be sent for recycling; in
fact some charities now collect spent toner cartridges,
and send them for recycling.
• You may also wish to consider the use of recycled
toners in your printers (but be aware that in some
cases this may invalidate the printer’s guarantee).
• Many monitors and other peripherals will
automatically switch into 'sleep' mode after a period
of inactivity.
• This means that even though the computer is still
switched on, it will consume less power.
 7. Security
7.1 Information Security
 This is a general term which covers all aspects of
computer security.
 It covers protection against viruses and hackers,
password and access control policies as well as
procedures for the regular backing up of your data
(to guard against computer failure)
 A proactive information security policy anticipates
problems and attempts to guard against future
problems, as opposed to discovering a problem and
then trying to deal with the problem 'on the fly'.
 7.1 Information Security
Passwords
• If your computer has a password which prevents
other users from accessing it then do NOT give this
password to anybody else.
• Do not write the password on a card and prop this up
next to the monitor and above all do not attempt to
hide your access passwords on the underside of your
desk (this is the first place most criminals would
look if trying to break into your system).
• Make sure you do not forget your passwords; in
many cases, data cannot be recovered once the
password is lost.
 7.1 Information Security
The Importance of shutting down your computer
• When you are using a Windows based system it is
important to remember that just switching off the
computer or losing power due to a power cut (power
outage) can cause loss of data.
• To protect against this you should save your work
regularly.
• Many programs have a facility which automatically
saves your work; say every 10 minutes (or any time
interval which you specify).
 7.1 Information Security
The Importance of shutting down your computer
• Some operating systems, such as most versions of
Windows have a facility which will automatically
detect that the computer was not properly shut down
the last time it was used.
• If this situation is detected, then a special recovery
program will be run which will attempt to fix any
damage caused by the power cut.
• When using Windows you MUST always use the
shutdown command (located on the Start menu) to
close down the operating system, before switching
off the power.
 7.1 Information Security
What is a UPS?
• A UPS (Un-interruptible Power Supply) is a device
which you can attach to your computer which will
guard against power cuts (or indeed someone tripping
over your power cable and pulling the plug out).
• It contains batteries which will keep your computer
alive long enough for you to use the shutdown
command and turn off the computer in the proper
way.
• This is especially important for PCs on a network
which might provide data for many users on the
network.
 7.1 Information Security
Electrical surge protection
• The voltage which is supplied to your computer via
the power cable can vary from time to time, and
there are occasional power surges.
• Power surge protection devices are readily available
and offer low cost protection again these occasional
power surges.
Things computers like
• Good ventilation
• Clean environment
• Stable, vibration free surface
 7.1 Information Security
Things to avoid
• Dust
• Drinking and eating over the keyboard
• Heat, Cold
• Moisture
• Do not move the system while it is switched on.
• Do not just switch the computer off at the mains.
• Follow the correct shutdown procedure or data could
be lost.
• Do not place objects on top of monitors. This could
block the ventilation holes and cause it to overheat.
• Do not place floppy disks near monitors. Monitors
produce a strong electromagnetic field, which can
damage floppy disks.
 7.1 Information Security
Dealing with security problems
• In any organization there should be clearly defined
policies for the detection of security problems, and
what to do if a problem is noticed.
• Security problems may range from the physical
presence of unauthorized persons in an office,
through to suspicion of attempted unauthorized
electronic entry to your computer networks.
• In all cases you should know whom to contact, and
how to contact the relevant person, so that the matter
can be investigated further.
 7.1 Information Security
Responsibilities for dealing with security
problems
• If you are reporting a security problem, you
should do so without delay, to the relevant
person within your organization.
• If you are responsible for dealing with reports of
security incidents, you should always take
action immediately, and follow the correct
procedure within your organization for
investigating any problems.
 7.1 Information Security
Security rights and obligations
• If you are working for a large organization you have
both rights and obligations to the organization.
• For instance does an employer have the right to
video film and record employees without their
permission?
• Can an employer read all email sent and received by
employees?
• Can an employer monitor what Internet sites an
employee is accessing?
• The employer must make clear the security
obligations of employees, such as keeping network
ID and logon passwords secure and how to report
security incidents.
 7.1 Information Security
Why do you need to back up your computer?
• The most important thing which you store on
your computer is information.
• Often the contents of a hard disk can
represent years of work.
• If the hard disk stops working one day you
could lose all those years of work.
• For this reason it is VITAL that you take
regular backups of the information which is
stored on the computer.
 7.1 Information Security
Why do you need to back up your computer?
• In large organizations this backup procedure is
normally performed automatically by your computer
support team, where the data is normally held on a
centralized, networked computer.
• In smaller organizations, it is often up to the
individual to organize some sort of data backup.
• If nothing else is available, copy your files to a
floppy disk and make sure that these backup disks
are stored away from the computer, ideally off-site.
• If there is a fire and your office burns down, if your
backup disks are stored next to the computer they
too will be incinerated.
 7.2 Computer Viruses
What are computer viruses?
• Viruses are small programs which hide themselves
on your disks (both diskettes and your hard disk).
• Unless you use virus detection software, the first
time that you know that you have a virus is when it
activates.
• Different viruses are activated in different ways.
• For instance, the famous Friday the 13th virus will
activate only when it is both a Friday and the 13th of
the month.
BEWARE: Viruses can destroy all your data.
7.2 Computer Viruses
 7.2 Computer Viruses
How do viruses infect PCs?
• Viruses hide on a disk and when you access the disk (either a
diskette or another hard disk over a network) the virus program
will start and infect your computer.
• The worst thing about a computer virus is that it can spread
from one computer to another, either via use of infected floppy
disk, or over a computer network.
• The Internet allows you to access files from all over the world
and you should never connect to the Internet unless you have a
virus-checking program installed on your computer.
• It is vital to keep your virus monitoring software up to date.
• Many anti-virus programs, such as Norton Anti Virus allow
you to update the program so that the program can check for
recently discovered viruses.
7.2 Computer Viruses
 7.2 Computer Viruses
How to prevent virus damage
• There are a number of third party anti-virus
products available.
• The main thing about your virus checker is that
it should be kept up to date.
• Many companies supply updated disks on a
regular basis or allow you to receive updates
automatically via the Internet.
 7.2 Computer Viruses
To password protect your computer
• You can set a power-on password on your computer.
• The mechanism for setting this will vary from one
computer to another, and is determined by the makers
of the computer, rather than by Windows.
• The advantage of a power-on password is that the
computer will not boot to Windows until you supply
the correct password.
• This means that no one else can play around with your
computer and in the process accidentally infect it with
a virus.
 7.2 Computer Viruses
How do your protect computers from attack?
• The safest way to use a computer is to not connect it
to a Local Area network or the Internet.
• This is called a 'stand-alone' computer, providing that
you do not use floppy disks on that PC which have
been used in other computers, this type of computer is
virtually immune from any form of intrusion.
• Unfortunately it is the ability to connect to other
computers or indeed the Internet, which makes the
modern computer so versatile and so useful.
• Always make sure that all computers require an ID
and password to access them.
 7.2 Computer Viruses
How do your protect computers from attack?
• Make sure that all relevant 'security patches' from
Microsoft have been applied.
• Make sure that the password is long enough, contains
a random mixture of numbers and letters, and that the
passwords are changed on a regular basis.
• There are many examples, where people have used
passwords which relate to something personal, such as
a partner’s first name, the dog’s or cat’s name, etc.
 7.2 Computer Viruses
How do your protect computers from attack?
• For a determined, serious computer hacker, these are
easy to guess.
• If you have a system, where lots of different
passwords are required to access the system, then
security often breaks down and computer users will
sometimes keep a list of these passwords in their disk.
• This defeats the whole object.
• If you forget your network access password, the
network administrator should be able to assign you
with a new one.
 7.2 Computer Viruses
What to do if you discover a virus on your computer
• If you discover a virus on your computer don’t panic.
• If your virus checker alerts you to a virus, then the chances are
that it has caught the virus before the virus could infect your
computer and cause damage.
• For instance you may insert a diskette into your computer and
the virus checker should automatically scan the diskette.
• If the diskette contains a virus, a message will be displayed
telling you that the diskette is infected, and it should
automatically remove the virus.
• The other common method of infection is via emails.
• If you work within a larger company, you should have a
company IT support group which will come and rid your
computer of viruses.
• Be sure that you are familiar with your company’s policy
regarding viruses.
 7.2 Computer Viruses
The limitations of anti virus software
• Anti virus software can only detect viruses (or types
of viruses) which the software knows about.
• As such it is vital that you keep your anti virus
software up to date so that it can detect new viruses
which are constantly appearing.
What is virus disinfecting?
• Running a virus checker on a machine which contains
a virus is known as disinfecting the PC, as the virus
program will detect, and then eliminate the virus.
 7.2 Computer Viruses
Anti-virus Precautions
• You should have an anti-virus program installed on your
computer.
• This should be updated on a regular basis, so that the anti-virus
program is aware of new viruses which are in circulation.
• Even the best anti-virus program will only offer protection
against known viruses or viruses which work in a particular
way.
• New types of viruses are constantly being developed which
may attack your computer in new and novel ways.
• Your anti-virus program may not be able to defend you against
every possibility.
• Be warned, if you are connected to a Local Area Network
(LAN), or to the Internet you are vulnerable.
 7.2 Computer Viruses
Anti-virus Precautions
• Make sure that your virus checker is configured so that as well
as scanning your computer for viruses when you first switch on
your PC, it remains active in the computer’s background
memory, constantly looking for signs of virus attack.
• This is very important when connecting to the Internet.

Take care when opening emails:

• Be very cautious about opening unsolicited emails, especially if
they contain file attachments.
• A good anti-virus program should detect most threats from
virus-infected emails.
 7.2 Computer Viruses
Anti-virus Precautions
Beware of Internet Downloads:
• Any file which you download from the Internet may
in theory contain a virus.
• Be especially careful about downloading program
files (files with a file name extension of .COM
or .EXE).
• Microsoft Word or Excel files can contain macro
viruses.
• Basically trust no one when it comes to downloading
files.
• Do not connect to the Internet unless you have a good
anti-virus program installed on your computer.
 8. Copyright and the Law
8.1 Copyright
Software Copyright Issues
• Most programs which you purchase are copyrighted
and you must not copy them.
• If you do so you may be breaking the law and if
caught, you could find yourself being prosecuted.
• Many people will buy a copy of a game and make a
copy for their friends or other family member.
• This is also normally unlawful.
• Even lending your program disks or CD-ROM to
other people may be breaking the law in most cases.
 8.1 Copyright
Software Copyright Issues
• There are numerous organizations, such as FAST (the
Federation Against Software Theft), which are
dedicated to preventing the illegal copying of software.
• In a business situation, if your manager tells you to
copy software, ALWAYS first make sure that you
have a license which entitles you to copy the software,
because in many countries, you will be personally
liable for damages.
• Most text which you will find on the Internet is
copyrighted.
• Never copy text without authority to do so and always
quote your sources.
 8.1 Copyright
Software Copyright Issues
• There are many sites offering free graphics and clipart.
• Some are genuine and have the authority to offer you
a free download of images.
• Many sites however may not have this authority.
• Popular examples are pictures, sound clips, or movie
clips from Star Trek.
• If you visit the official Star Trek site (www.startrek.
com) you will see that use of images, and even the
name 'Star Trek' is protected and may not be used on
'fan sites'.
• Even downloading sound clips to replace the bleeps
which Microsoft Windows makes is often illegal.
 8.1 Copyright
Software Copyright Issues
• Some sites even allow the 'free' download for
complete films or music tracks.
• If you can download a film for free before it is even
officially available on video/DVD, it is a pretty good
bet that the site is unauthorized.
• Cover yourself. Get written permission to used
downloaded materials and 'if in doubt - don't' is the
safe rule.
• Because CD-ROM writers have become so widely
available, it has become possible to copy entire CD-
ROMs which can contain software, games or data.
• Do not do this. Always be careful of software which
you may find advertised at very cheap prices, it may
be illegally copied.
 8.1 Copyright
What are site licences?
• Many large companies do not go out and buy a
certain amount of 'shrink-wrapped' copies of
each software product which they need, instead
they will buy a site license.
• These site licenses are different in their small
print, but generally mean that the companies
purchasing the license can make a fixed
numbers of copies available to their staff,
normally via a company network.
 8.1 Copyright
Copyright Issues
• Transferring files across a LAN
• Downloading files from the Internet
• Copying diskettes / CD-ROMs / DVD / ZIP
disks
• Freeware
• Shareware
• User Licenses
 8.1 Copyright
How to check a software Product ID
• Normally if you click on the Help drop down menu
within an application, there will be a command such
as About.
• Clicking on this option will often display your
software product identification number.
What is freeware?
• Some software is made freely available.
• Demonstration disks often come under this category.
• In addition, a lot of software is produced by the
educational community and is made freely available.
• Always read any licenses supplied with such software
very carefully before use.
 8.1 Copyright
What is shareware?
• Shareware is software which is freely available and is
designed to let you use the product for free, for a
limited period while you decide if you like it or not.
• After this period, you must legally either remove it, or
pay an amount to the producers of the product.
What about software which you find on the Internet?
• There are some sites on the Internet run by dubious
organizations which might make copies of
commercial software freely available.
• If you download any software from the Internet, make
sure that it is legal.
 8.1 Copyright
What is an end-user licence agreement?
• Normally when you install software these days there
is a step within the installation routine in which you
have to agree to be bound by the end user license
agreement.
• This agreement can be very large and is drawn up to
protect the manufacturers of a product from being
prosecuted due to faulty software.
• It also defines how many copies of the software you
are entitled to.
• I recently printed out a Microsoft end user agreement
and it was over 15 pages long.
 8.2 Data Protection Legislation
Data Protection and Privacy Issues
• If your computer system holds information about individuals,
then you have a moral and legal duty to treat that information
with respect.
• For instance if a police force computer is used by unscrupulous
people to gain unauthorized information about a person’s
private life, that would be a clear breach of trust.
• In the same way doctors, government departments and credit
agencies often hold vast amounts of information about the
general public, which is both sensitive and private.
• In a free society you have the right to ensure that the
information held about you is not abused.
• In many countries, this right is enshrined under data protection
laws.
 8.2 Data Protection Legislation
Data Protection Legislation
• Listed below are the main principles of the UK Data
Protection Act.
• This is meant as an illustration only and should NOT
be used for determining liability or operating
principles.
• You must read the full details of the act if you are
considering legal implementation.
• The information to be contained in personal data shall
be obtained, and personal data shall be processed,
fairly and lawfully.
• Personal data shall be held only for one or more
specified and lawful purposes.
 8.2 Data Protection Legislation
Data Protection Legislation
• Personal data held for any purpose or purposes shall
not be used or disclosed in any manner incompatible
with that purpose or those purposes.
• Personal data held for any purpose or purposes shall
be adequate, relevant and not excessive in relation to
that purpose or those purposes.
• Personal data shall be accurate and, where necessary,
kept up to date.
• Personal data held for any purpose or purposes shall
not be kept for longer than is necessary for that
purpose or those purposes.
 9 Abbreviations & Terminology
ITEM MEANING
• ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
• Bit 1 or 0 level of storage is called a bit
• BPS Bits Per Second
• Byte A measurement of storage capacity
• CBT Computer Based Training
• CD Compact Disk
• CD-R Compact Disk - Recordable
• CD-ROM Compact Disk - Read Only Memory
 9 Abbreviations & Terminology
ITEM MEANING
• CPU Central Processing Unit
• DAT Digital Audio Tape
• DOS Disk Operating System
• DSL Digital Subscriber Lines
• DVD Digital Versatile Disk
• FTP File Transfer Protocol
• GByte Gigabyte.
• GHz Measurement of computer speed.
Gigahertz
• GUI Graphical User Interface
• Hz Hertz ( this is a measurement of frequency)
 9 Abbreviations & Terminology
ITEM MEANING
• IS Information Systems
• ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network
• IT Information Technology
• KByte Kilobyte.
• LAN Local Area Network
• MByte Megabyte.
• MHz Million Hertz
• PC Personal Computer
• PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
 9 Abbreviations & Terminology
ITEM MEANING
• RAM Random Access Memory
• ROM Read Only Memory
• ROM-BIOS Read Only Memory - Basic Input
Output System
• RSI Repetitive Strain Injury
• TByte Terabyte.
• UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
• USB Universal Serial Bus
• VDU Visual Display Unit
• WAN Wide Area Network
• WWW World Wide Web
 Part 2
Numbering Systems
 Introduction to Numbering Systems
• Decimal System
• We are all familiar with the decimal number
system (Base 10). Some other number
systems that we will work with are:

– Binary  Base 2 ‫النظام‬

‫الثنائي‬
– Octal  Base 8 ‫النظام‬
‫الثماني‬
– Hexadecimal  Base 16 ‫النظام السداسي‬
 Characteristics of Numbering Systems
1) The digits are consecutive. ‫االرقام متسلسلة‬
2) The number of digits is equal to the size of the
base. = ‫عدد األرقام‬
‫األساس‬
3) Zero is always the first digit. ‫الصفر هو دائما اول رقم‬
4) The base number is never a digit. ‫األساس ليس ضمن العناصر‬
5) When 1 is added to the largest digit, a sum of zero and a
carry of one results
.‫ونحمل واحد‬ ‫عند اضافة واحد ألكبر رقم نحصل علي صفر‬
6) Numeric values are determined by the implicit positional
values of the digits. ‫تعتمد قيمة العدد على موضع الرقم‬
 Significant Digits
Binary: 11101101

Most significant digit Least significant digit

Hexadecimal: 1D63A7A

Most significant digit Least significant digit

Binary System
 Binary Number System
• Also called the “Base 2 system”
• The binary number system is used to model
the series of electrical signals computers
use to represent information
• 0 represents the no voltage or an off state
• 1 represents the presence of voltage or an
on state
Binary Decimal
 Decimal to Binary Conversion

• The easiest way to convert a decimal number to its

binary equivalent is to use the Division Algorithm
• This method repeatedly divides a decimal number by
2 and records the quotient and remainder
– The remainder digits (a sequence of zeros and ones) form
the binary equivalent in least significant to most
significant digit sequence
 An algorithm for finding the binary
representation of a positive integer

0-213
 Division Algorithm
Convert 67 to its binary equivalent:
6710 = x2
Step 1: 67 / 2 = 33 R 1 Divide 67 by 2. Record quotient in next row

Step 2: 33 / 2 = 16 R 1 Again divide by 2; record quotient in next row

Step 3: 16 / 2 = 8 R 0 Repeat again

Step 4: 8 / 2 = 4 R 0 Repeat again

Step 5: 4 / 2 = 2 R 0 Repeat again

Step 6: 2 / 2 = 1 R 0 Repeat again

Step 7: 1 / 2 = 0 R 1 STOP when quotient equals 0

1 0 0 0 0 1 12
 Binary to Decimal Conversion
• The easiest method for converting a binary
number to its decimal equivalent is to use the
Multiplication Algorithm
• Multiply the binary digits by increasing powers
of two, starting from the right
• Then, to find the decimal number equivalent,
sum those products
 Multiplication Algorithm
Convert (10101101)2 to its decimal equivalent:

Binary 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1

Positional Values x x x x x x x x
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Products 128 + 32 + 8+ 4+ 1

17310
 BINARY TO DECIMAL CONVERTION

• Any binary number can be converted to its decimal equivalent

simply by summing together the weights of the various positions
in the binary number which contain 1.
• Example 1:

convert 110112 to decimal value

Solve: 1 1 0 1 1

24 23 22 21 20 = 16+8+2+1
= 2710
 Example 2 :
Convert 101101012 to decimal value
Solve:
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1

2 7
2 6
2 5
2 4
2 3
22 21 20

= 128 + 32 + 16 + 4 + 1

= 18110

You should noticed the method is find the weights (i.e.,

powers of 2) for each bit position that contains 1, and then to
add them up.
 DECIMAL TO BINARY CONVERTION

Example : convert 2510 to binary

Solve = 2510 = ?2
= 25 12 balance 1 LSB
2
12
= 2 6 balance 0

= 62 3 balance 0

= 32 1 balance 1
= 12 0 balance 1 MSB

... Answer = 110012

Octal System
 Octal Number System
• Also known as the Base 8 System
• Uses digits 0 - 7
• Readily converts to binary
• Groups of three (binary) digits can be used to
represent each octal digit
• Also uses multiplication and division
algorithms for conversion to and from base 10
Octal Decimal
OCTAL TO DECIMAL CONVERTION
• Convert from octal to decimal by multiplying each octal digit by its
positional weight.

Example 1: Convert 1638 to decimal value

Solve = 1 x (8 2 )  6 x (81 )  3 x (80 )
= 1 x 64 + 6 x 8 + 1 x 1
= 11510

Example 2: Convert 3338 to decimal value

Solve = 3 x (8 2 )  3 x (81 )  3 x (80 )
= 3 x 64 + 3 x 8 + 3 x 1
= 21910
DECIMAL TO OCTAL CONVERTION

• Convert from decimal to octal by using the repeated division method

used for decimal to binary conversion.
• Divide the decimal number by 8
• The first remainder is the LSB and the last is the MSB.
Example : convert 35910 to Decimal Value

Solve = 35910 = ?8
= 359 44 balance 7 LSB
8
= 44
8 5 balance 4
= 58 0 balance 5 MSB
... Answer = 5478
Octal Binary
OCTAL TO BINARY CONVERTION
• Convert from octal to binary by converting each octal digit to a
three bit binary equivalent
Octal digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
Equivalent

 Convert from binary to octal by grouping bits in threes starting

with the LSB.
 Each group is then converted to the octal equivalent
 Leading zeros can be added to the left of the MSB to fill out the
last group.
BINARY TO OCTAL CONVERSION
• Can be converted by grouping the binary bit in group of three starting
from LSB
• Octal is a base-8 system and equal to two the power of three, so a
digit in Octal is equal to three digit in binary system.
Hexadecimal System
 Hexadecimal Number System
• Base 16 system
• Uses digits 0-9 &
letters A,B,C,D,E,F
• Groups of four bits
represent each
base 16 digit
Hexadecimal Decimal
 Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion
Convert 83010 to its hexadecimal equivalent:

830 / 16 = 51 R14 = E in Hex

51 / 16 = 3 R3
3 / 16 = 0 R3

33E16
 Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion
Convert 3B4F16 to its decimal equivalent:

Hex Digits
3 B 4 F
x x x x
Positional Values
163 162 161 160
Products 12288 +2816 + 64 +15

15,18310
Hexadecimal Binary
 Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion
• The easiest method for converting binary to
hexadecimal is to use a substitution code
• Each hex number converts to 4 binary digits
Binary Arithmetic
 The binary addition facts

0-238
 Binary Arithmetic
• The individual digits of a binary number are referred to as
bits
– Each bit represents a power of two

01011 = 0 • 24 + 1 • 23 + 0 • 22 + 1 • 21 + 1 • 20 = 11

00010 = 0 • 24 + 0 • 23 + 0 • 22 + 1 • 21 + 0 • 20 = 2

00010 2 Equivalent
Binary
+ 01011 + 11 decimal
addition
01101 13 addition
 Part 3
LOGIC GATES
 Introduction
• Basic Logic Gates
• Truth Tables
• Logical Functions
Truth Tables
Logical Expression
Graphical Form
 Most Difficult Reading Topics
• Logic gates and figuring out how to read them
• Logical Circuit Equivalence
• NAND NOR and XOR truth tables
• Using the rules to create and read the logic
gates using 0's and 1's
• Transistor implementation
• Difference between positive logic and negative
logic
 Logic
• Formal logic is a branch of mathematics that
deals with true and false values instead of
numbers.
• In the mid-19th century, George Bool
developed many Logic ideas.
• Boolean logic deals with equations where the
operators are “AND” or “OR” instead of “add”
and “multiply”.
 Electric Logic
• Logical values can easily be expressed by an
electrical circuit.
• “True” or “1” can be defined as voltage on a
wire while “False” or “0” can be defined as no
voltage. We will use positive logic.
• Analog values can be anything while digital
only has discrete values, 0 or 1.
• Electrical devices called “gates” can implement
the logical.
 Logic Gates and Symbols

Note that gates can have more than 2 inputs

 And Gate
• The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives
a true output (1) only if all its inputs are true.
A dot (·) is used to show the AND operation
i.e. A·B. Note that the dot is sometimes
omitted i.e. AB
 Inputs and Outputs
• The inputs can be considered as logical (true or
false) values.
• You can also think of the inputs as voltage
(true) or ground (false).
• The output of the gate will also be voltage
(true) or ground (false).
 OR Gate
• The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a
true output (1) if one or more of its inputs are
true. A plus (+) is used to show the OR
operation.
 NOT Gate
• The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an
inverted version of the input at its output.
• It is also known as an inverter.
• If the input variable is A, the inverted output is known
as NOT A.
• This is also shown as A', or Ā with a bar over the top
 NAND Gate
• This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND
gate followed by a NOT gate.
• The outputs of all NAND gates are true if any of the
inputs are false.
• The symbol is an AND gate with a small circle on the
output.
• The small circle represents inversion.
 Logical Equivalence
• A NAND gate gives the same results as an
AND gate feeding into a NOT gate.
• Circuits are logically equivalent if they produce
the same truth table output.
 NAND as a NOT
• Below are two ways that a NAND gate can be
configured to produce a NOT gate. They are
logically equivalent.
• It can also be done using NOR logic gates in
the same way.
 NOR Gate
• This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate
followed by a NOT gate.
• The outputs of all NOR gates are false if any of the
inputs are true.
• The symbol is an OR gate with a small circle on the
output. The small circle represents inversion.
 EXOR Gate
• The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will
give a true output if either, but not both, of its
two inputs are true.
• An encircled plus sign ( ) is used to show the
EOR operation.
 EXNOR Gate
• The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate circuit does the opposite to
the EOR gate.
• It will give a false output if either, but not both, of
its two inputs are true.
• The symbol is an EXOR gate with a small circle on
the output.
• The small circle represents inversion.
Logic Gate Symbols
 Truth Table
• Logic gates representation using the Truth table
 Try It
• Draw the circuit diagrams like the ones below
to show how a NOR gate can be made into a
NOT gate.
 NOR Inverter
• Wiring the NOR gate to become an inverter
 Three Input AND Gate
• Here is an example of a three input AND gate.
• Notice that the truth table for the three input
gate is similar to the truth table for the two
input gate.
• It works on the same principle, this time all
three inputs need to be true (1) to get a true
output.
Three Input AND Gate
 Four Input AND Gate
• Here is an example of a four input AND gate.
• • It also works on the same principle, all four
inputs need to be true (1) to get a true output.
• • The same principles apply to 5, 6,..., n input
gates.
Four Input AND Gate
Two Three and Four Input OR Gate
 Connecting Gates
• The output of one logic gate can be used as the
input to another logic gate.
• The output of one gate can be used as the
inputs to several other gates.