International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology

Vol-10, Issue-4; Jul-Aug, 2025

Peer-Reviewed International Journal
Journal Home Page Available: https://ijeab.com/
Journal DOI: 10.22161/ijeab

Review of technological alternatives for wastewater

treatment in Brazilian rural areas
Adriano Luiz Tonetti1, Maria Eduarda Pereira de Almeida2, Luana Mattos de Oliveira
Cruz3, Isabel Campos Salles Figueiredo4
1State University of Campinas, Brazil. Email: [email protected]
2State University of Campinas, Brazil. Email: [email protected]
3State University of Campinas, Brazil. Email: [email protected]
3State University of Campinas, Brazil. Email: [email protected]

Received: 14 Feb 2025; Received in revised form: 20 Jun 2025; Accepted: 23 Jul 2025; Available online: 31 Aug 2025
©2025 The Author(s). Published by Infogain Publication. This is an open-access article under the CC BY license
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Abstract— Brazil and other Latin American countries face significant challenges in providing adequate sanitation to its
rural residents, particularly concerning sewage treatment. The solutions implemented are often based on traditional
knowledge, with cesspits and biodigester septic tanks being widely used, which may prove inadequate in many situations.
These technologies require enhancement, and exploring additional alternatives, such as systems enabling the separation
of toilet water from grey water, is imperative. In this context, the evapotranspiration tank emerges as a viable option due
to its ability to prevent direct contact with influent sewage and its non-production of final effluent. While infiltration
trenches also present a feasible solution, existing sizing recommendations typically overlook the unique demands of
Brazilian rural areas by only considering the combined flow of grey water and toilet effluent. Moreover, the utilization
of traditional septic tanks and anaerobic filters poses challenges, particularly concerning sludge management in isolated
locations. Promising alternatives like vermifiltration and banana tree circles exist, yet their effective implementation
require the establishment of standards for appropriate sizing. Therefore, although technologies are available to alleviate
the sewage treatment deficit in rural regions, it is crucial to advocate for their informed selection among rural households
and to bolster governmental efforts in implementing national legislation and refining standards and guidelines.
Keywords— sanitation, treatment, sewage, decentralized, rural, single family treatment systems.

I. INTRODUCTION In 2022, approximately 69.5% of Brazilians had access to

Rural sanitation in countries with vast territorial dimensions sewage systems, either directly connected or through
is characterized by inherent challenges arising from their individual septic tanks linked to the public sewage network
extensive cultural, social, territorial, economic, and (IBGE, 2023). Conversely, 16.3% of Brazilians relied on
environmental diversity. Varied land use patterns, unequal septic tanks not connected to the public sewage network,
distribution of water sources, traditional population while 14.1% of households, roughly totaling 10.4 million
characteristics and habits, as well as income disparities, people, disposed their wastewater in cesspits, ditches,
contribute to the adoption of specific sanitation practices rivers, lakes, seas, or other forms of drainage. Among rural
(Brazil, 2019). households only, 40.2% utilized septic tanks not connected
to the public sewage system, while 50.5% resorted to other
Brazil exhibits these characteristics, and a recent report
forms of wastewater disposal (IBGE, 2023).
highlighted the significant challenge of rural sanitation
particularly regarding sewage treatment (IBGE, 2019). Another challenge lies in the universalization of individual
Brazilian rural population totals nearly 30 million people, bathrooms in Brazilian households. While 99.4% of urban
which is comparable to the entire population of countries population has access to this amenity, the percentage drops
like Peru, Venezuela or Poland. to 89.7% in rural areas (IBGE, 2023). According to the
Global Health Observatory Data Repository, 1% of the rural
Brazilian population still practices open defecation (WHO,

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Tonetti et al. Review of technological alternatives for wastewater treatment in Brazilian rural areas

2022). In many rural households, sanitation facilities are sustainability, participation, and social control. This plan
rudimentary, damp, malodourous, and lack proper structure. should address not only rural populations but also those
Consequently, due to the fear of the collapse of these living in traditional communities, such as farmers, residents
structures and the consequent falling into pit latrines, of quilombos, indigenous peoples, riverside communities
residents opt for open defecation (Funasa, 2019). Another and population inside conservation units.
contributing factor to open defecation is the lack of access The PNSR envisions that the specific ethnic-cultural, social,
to piped drinking water. People refrain from using toilets economic, and territorial characteristics and singularities of
with water-based sanitation facilities to conserve water for these distinct population segments should underpin the
what they perceive as more "noble" purposes (Roland et al., choice of basic sanitation solutions to be adopted, both
2019). regarding the technology and the management model of the
An important aspect that also intersects with the sanitation solutions (Funasa, 2019).
issue is gender. Women exposed to inadequate sanitation Investments in sanitation infrastructure up to the year 2038
facilities often report discomfort and insecurity, due to the is expected to reach approximately 80.19 billion reais
lack of privacy and fear of being surprised or even (about 17 billion dollars). However, despite the detailed,
assaulted, as well as the difficulty of maintain proper modern, and creative nature of Plansab, the Brazilian
hygiene (Roland et al., 2019). government still lacks commitment to assume such goals
While a large amount of the Brazilian rural households and targets to implement the envisaged actions.
lacked access to sewage network, septic tanks, or Consequently, the absence of sanitation in rural areas
discharged wastewater into ditches, in the soil, or in water persists, with a scarcity of solutions or even the absence of
bodies (IBGE, 2019), what happens with the remaining service provision (Roland et al., 2019).
residences? How do they manage sewage? Before Sewage treatment technologies applied in rural
addressing the questions, we must understand how households
sanitation is organized in Brazilian rural areas. Only by
Porto et al. (2019) highlighted the inequalities that underlie
establishing this foundation it will be able to comprehend
rural sanitation in Brazil. Generally, households with better
the most common solutions adopted for sewage treatment.
financial conditions were found to have better-equipped
Legal aspects solutions, as they were able to afford the acquisition and
In Brazil, the sanitation deficit reflects the lack of maintenance of infrastructure. This situation also occurred
investments and subsidies, as well as the delayed when families received government program benefits.
development of a national sanitation policy, which was only Thus, family income was a determining factor for access to
established in 2007 by the Federal Law 11,445/07 (Brazil, sanitation services, with higher income associated with a
2007), and updated in 2020 by Federal Law 14,026/20 greater probability of rural households having solutions
(Brazil, 2020). This legislation stipulates that the considered more adequate (Porto et al., 2019).
government is legally the responsible for sanitation services It was also found that in areas with lower population
and also outlines the obligations of the involved parties, density, where households are dispersed, the adoption of
presenting a systematic approach to management, focusing single-family solutions is common. Multiple-family
on planning, regulation, supervision, and service provision. systems were implemented in areas with higher
It allows for various arrangements to fulfillment these concentrations of residences and were generally observed in
activities. Through the instruments provided in this law peri-urban areas (Funasa, 2019).
(National Plan of Basic Sanitation – Plansab) it was possible
The most used individual solution for sewage treatment in
to highlight the deficit related to basic sanitation services
all Brazilian regions is the cesspit (Figure 1), a simple and
throughout the country, especially in rural areas (Brazil,
cost-effective alternative that is part of the popular
2013, Brazil, 2019).
knowledge of rural communities throughout the country
Plansab played a crucial role in bringing rural sanitation to (Figueiredo et al., 2019a; Porto et al., 2019). It is usually
the forefront by recommending the creation of a National constructed as an unlined hole dug near the bathroom,
Rural Sanitation Plan (PNSR) for Brazil. PNSR emphasizes effectively functioning as both a septic tank and a soakaway
the importance of considering the specificities of different pit (Funasa, 2015). Figueiredo et al. (2019a) identified that
rural territories and their populations (Funasa, 2019). It was the average diameter and depth of cesspits are 1.3 m and 4.6
elaborated with the purpose of universalizing access to basic m, respectively.
sanitation in rural areas through the promotion and
Its use is quite prevalent in Brazil, with this type of disposal
implementation of actions that ensure equity,
being adopted in 53% of households (Landau & Moura,
comprehensiveness, intersectoral, coordination, service

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Tonetti et al. Review of technological alternatives for wastewater treatment in Brazilian rural areas

2016). In rural areas, the scenario is not much different from Evapotranspiration tank
the national average: out of all residences served by sewage An alternative technology to cesspits for treating sewage
systems, approximately 48.6% dispose of sewage in from toilets, widely disseminated in Brazil and developing
cesspits (Brazil, 2019). When comparing these data with countries, is the Evapotranspiration Tank (TEvap) (Figure
studies conducted in two municipalities in the state of São 2). The design of the TEvap was initially developed by John
Paulo, even higher rates were observed, ranging between Watson (Vieira, 2010), who proposed an evapotranspiration
60% and 81%, with the highest being in the rural area of system for toilet and/or greywater that eliminated the need
Campinas, one of the wealthiest cities in this state and in the for a septic tank and infiltration trench. This system became
country (Figueiredo, 2019; Suprema, 2013). internationally known by Watson-Wick and was introduced
However, despite the popularity and good acceptance by in Brazil in 2000 by Scott Pitman (Pamplona and Venturi,
users of this type of sewage disposal, it is important to 2004), and a few years later it was modified by Jorge
highlight that cesspits are generally built without any type Timmerman (Galbiati, 2009). However, it was the journal
of project or technical support, relying solely on the article by Pamplona and Venturi (2004) that was
traditional knowledge of families (Alves Filho & Ribeiro, responsible for first disseminating the technology in the
2014; Figueiredo et al., 2019a; Larsen, 2010; Porto, 2016). field of permaculture (Campos, 2018).
In many communities, there are so-called 'cesspit builders' The TEvap consists of a waterproofed tank filled with
(fosseiros) who possess this traditional knowledge and different filtering materials arranged in layers. On its
experience for cleaning and constructing the pits. surface, species of plants with high evapotranspiration
Also, because of this and the heterogeneity of the terrain in capacity are planted. Banana trees and taioba (Xanthosoma
the country, this technology presents variable sagittifolium) are usually the plants used, but papaya
characteristics in each region of the national territory, such (Carica papaya) and yam (Dioscorea spp) are also observed.
as: the pi lining, the type of lid, pit dimensions, distance In addition to these, there are ornamental plants such as
from the residence and water collection points, and the types calla lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), busy lizzie (Impatiens
of sewage disposed inside (Figueiredo et al., 2019a). walleriana), white ginger lily (Hedychium coronarium),
Despite that, Tonetti et al. (2018) assert, in agreement with heliconia (Heliconia farinosa), pampas grass (Zizanopsis
WHO/UNICEF (2017) and Funasa (2015), that the cesspit bonariensis), and canna lily (Canna sp).
is a technology capable of providing environmental safety The advantage of this technique is the low production of
and public health, as it prevents direct contact of people sludge and the absence of final effluent. This makes the
with sewage. However, it is important to conduct research system safer, as there is no possibility of direct contact
to establish criteria for its sizing, construction, and between the residual water and users. Additionally, since
operation, considering aspects such as appropriate distances the system is built within a waterproofed box, there is no
from the water table and other pits, wells, or river sources, possibility of effluent infiltration and subsequent
as well as defining the number of pits implemented per area, contamination of the soil or aquifer by pathogens and
soil characteristics, sludge management methods, and nutrients.
criteria for alternating or restoring clogged pits (Figueiredo Despite being a technique known for over 20 years in
et al., 2019a). These authors suggest that if the cesspit poses Brazil, scientific data published in the literature are still
no risk to public health and the environment by being scarce (Figueiredo, 2019; Paulo, 2019). In one of the few
properly sealed; maintaining a distance from other pits and studies conducted over a significant period, social and
water collection wells, having a distance from its bottom to efficiency aspects of applying this technology in a rural
the water table that does not harm the groundwater aquifer, community located in the municipality of Campinas (São
it could be called as “absorbent pit”. Paulo, Brazil) were addressed (Figueiredo et al., 2019b).
Many authors have found that to extend the lifecycle of The TEvap registered a removal efficiency above 90% for
cesspits most rural residents direct only toilet water (also organic matter in terms of chemical oxygen demand (COD)
known as black water) to this system (Figueiredo et al., and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), as well as for total
2019a; Roland et al., 2019). This creates conditions for suspended solids. These results were quite similar to those
another characteristic aspect of rural communities in Brazil: found by Paulo (2013), who monitored a system built in
the separation of greywater from showers, bathroom sinks, another rural area near the municipality of Campo Grande
kitchen sinks, laundry, and household cleaning from the (Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil).
water generated in the toilet. The system in Campinas (Figueiredo, 2019) was installed in
a residence where the cesspit had problems with collapsing
and rapid filling due to the shallow depth of the water table.

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Tonetti et al. Review of technological alternatives for wastewater treatment in Brazilian rural areas

This technological alternative was very well-received by the gloves and closed-toe shoes. Additionally, it is crucial to
residents and ended up being disseminated throughout the ensure that areas where the effluent is superficially applied
community. Its positive aspects were emphasized, with the are inaccessible to domestic animals, thus minimizing
main ones being ease of construction, shallow depth of the contamination risks. However, in practice, these
trench, and the possibility of food production (bananas and recommendations are often not followed by residents,
other fruits). making it more difficult to ensure health security
Biodigester septic tank (Figueiredo et al., 2019c).

Another technology that has gained traction in Brazil and Another concerning aspect is the frequent replacement of
Latin America is the so-called biodigester septic tank (BST) properly functioning absorbent pits with biodigester septic
(Figure 3). Over 11,000 units have been installed tanks (BST). In essence, a properly sealed absorbent pit that
throughout Brazil, catering to approximately 57,000 people presents no threat to public health or the environment due
across different regions (Silva et al., 2017; Silva, 2018). In to its adherence to safety measures such as maintaining
2017, this technology was incorporated into the Brazilian distance from other pits and water wells, as well as
National Rural Housing Program with the aim of serving maintaining a safe distance between its bottom and the
around 35,000 households. water table, is decommissioned. Instead, a biodigester
septic tank is installed, which brings wastewater to the
This system is utilized in households with up to five
surface along with all the associated risks of using effluent
residents (Novaes et al., 2002; Galindo et al., 2010) and
for irrigation near residential areas.
consists of three tanks with a capacity of 1,000 L each
(Figure 3) connected in series. In the first two tanks, A study conducted by Miyazaki et al. (2024) concluded that
anaerobic digestion of sewage from the toilet occurs, while the use of this system poses risks to human health. It was
the last tank is responsible for storing the final effluent, determined that the recycling of effluent from BSTs in
which is called biofertilizer (Novaes et al., 2002; Galindo et agriculture could entail significant and unacceptable
al., 2010). The simplicity of installation, operation, and the hazards. According to the authors, given the widespread
generation of biofertilizer are the main attractions generally adoption of this system across Brazil and other parts of
attributed to BST, which strongly contributes to the Latin America due to its straightforward construction, its
dissemination of the technology. The required maintenance usage should only be allowed if additional control measures
consists solely of monthly addition of fresh cow manure and treatment barriers are implemented. These may include
mixed with water in a 1:1 ratio to enhance microbial activity refraining from adding fresh cattle feces and restricting the
and process efficiency, as well as to prevent the emission of use of effluent for agricultural purposes solely to subsurface
bad odors (Novaes et al., 2002; Galindo et al., 2010). irrigation (Figure 3). Hence, there is a pressing need to
pursue modifications in its design and construction. One
However, some authors such as Barboni and Rochetto
potential solution could involve disposing of the effluent in
(2014), Oliveira (2018), and Figueiredo et al. (2019c) have
infiltration trenches surrounded by fruit trees. These trees
questioned the necessity and role of cow manure in the
would absorb the infiltrated effluent, thus preventing
treatment efficiency. Figueiredo et al. (2019c) found that in
animals from coming into contact with the moist soil and
a set of physical and chemical parameters (BOD, COD, P,
residents from exposure to wastewater.
TSS, turbidity, and pH) monitored in the BST during a
period of 8 months, no significant interference of the Grey water generation and disposal
addition of cow manure was observed on the quality of the Greywater refers to all sewage generated in a residence,
final effluent. According to the authors, this demonstrates excluding that from toilets. This typically includes water
that the use of this resource is unnecessary. used in kitchen and bathroom sinks, dishwashers, showers,
Furthermore, it is crucial to emphasize that the practice of and laundry machines (Li et al., 2009). It is estimated that
irrigation with treated effluent raises significant concerns in developing countries, the generation of gray water
from both sanitary and environmental perspectives. As accounts for 50% to 80% of water consumption (Al-Gheethi
noted by Figueiredo et al. (2019c), the concentration of E. et al., 2019). As commonly practiced, especially in rural
coli in the final effluent remains alarmingly high, ranging areas of Brazil, toilet water is directed to a cesspit, while
between 8.9x10³ and 3.1x104 MPN 100mL-1, thereby greywater is disposed onto the ground surface, where it
posing a potential risk for the spread of waterborne diseases. flows until it either infiltrates the soil or reaches a water
Therefore, exercising caution in its application as a body.
biofertilizer is imperative. Figueiredo et al. (2019d) observed that in addition to being
During the management and application of biofertilizer, it separated, greywater underwent different treatment
is essential to use personal protective equipment such as compared to the rest of the domestic wastewater. It was

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Tonetti et al. Review of technological alternatives for wastewater treatment in Brazilian rural areas

often subjected to what could be termed as 'intuitive' urinating in the shower might also contribute to the presence
treatment, being applied directly to the soil (45%), or in of some types of bacteria. Washing diapers and underwear
proximity to plants such as taioba and fruit trees (32%), can also be a source of microbial generation (Morel &
especially banana trees. These findings are aligned with Diener, 2006). However, lower concentrations were
those reported in PNSR (Brasil, 2019), which found that in observed in water samples from laundry washing. One
only 12% of cases, greywater was directed to absorptive pits explanation for this behavior could be the greater dilution
or septic tanks, and in 11% of the evaluated situations, it and use of cleaning products (disinfectants, bleach, and
was disposed of directly into water bodies. soaps), which would contribute to reducing or eliminating
Porto (2016) observed that communities in the Brazilian the presence of microorganisms (Morel and Diener, 2006).
states of Santa Catarina, Paraná, and Minas Gerais, there is The study by Newcomer et al. (2017) conducted in rural
a prevalent practice of directly disposing of greywater from households in Malawi also observed lower concentrations
the kitchens and laundry onto the ground. A study of bacteria in samples from laundry and handwashing water.
conducted in 171 rural households in Quixadá (Ceará, Nevertheless, it is important to emphasize that Figueiredo
Brazil) indicated that in at least 96.5% of the homes, et al. (2019d) found that all evaluated samples reached
greywater was disposed of in areas near to the residences Escherichia coli values only slightly lower than those
(Mello et al., 1998). Another investigation carried out in typically found in raw sewage or in rivers with a high degree
rural settlements in the state of Ceará showed that 98% of of contamination. WHO (2016) recommends that the
the water generated in the kitchen and shower was disposed maximum number of Escherichia coli in water used for crop
of on the ground, as along with 99% of that from the sink or irrigation where the farmer has significant contact with the
washing machine (Pinheiro, 2011). In Itaiçaba (Ceará, irrigated soil is 1.0x104 MPN 100 mL-1. Thus, regardless
Brazil), 15 out of 16 evaluated households discharged of the origin of greywater, this threshold value would still
greywater onto the ground without plant reuse. Meanwhile, be exceeded for all the samples in Figueiredo et al. (2019d).
in Prainha do Canto Verde (Ceará, Brazil), nearly 60% of Hence, caution is necessary regarding its direct use in any
the assessed households discharged gray water onto the agricultural activity, especially when considering that the
ground without plant reuse, while 30% irrigated crops with application would occur in the surrounding area of the
gray water (Botto et al., 2005). residence. This characteristic would facilitate the contact of
Greywater separation is considered a crucial step towards children and animals with greywater, increasing the risk of
ecological effluent treatment as it allows for greater pathogen contamination if the application is superficial.
simplification and a more sustainable approach (Funasa, Furthermore, Hardie et al. (2021) demonstrated that liquid
2015). Therefore, the National Program for Rural Sanitation and powder detergents can lead to the loss of humus and
(PNSR) encourages this practice as a strategic guideline for reduction in soil hydraulic conductivity. The authors state
the development of sanitation in rural areas of Brazil that powder detergents are more aggressive to the soil than
(Brazil, 2019). However, despite these efforts, Brazil still liquid ones, not recommending the direct application of
faces significant challenges in ensuring proper management gray water from laundry if the washing cycle has been
and disposal of this resource. Nevertheless, the safe use of conducted using this type of detergent, even if at the
greywater for crop irrigation holds substantial proportions recommended on the product packaging.
environmental sustainability benefits, as it provides a new
However, in Brazil, this finding should be further evaluated,
purpose to both water and nutrients.
as the country experiences very intense rainy seasons. Thus,
Despite greywater having a lower potential for pathogen during the rainy period, does the intense influx of water into
contamination compared to water from toilets, there is still the soil end up diluting and leaching these compounds
a risk of waterborne diseases transmission. Figueiredo et al. present in detergents and powder soaps? There is also the
(2019d) found high concentrations of total coliforms and fact that in Brazilian rural communities, there is still more
Escherichia coli (greater than 105 NMP100mL-1) in water common the use of bar soaps for laundry washing, which
samples from showers and kitchen sinks in households are less environmentally harmful.
located in a rural area of Brazil. High levels of Escherichia
Another point to consider is that rural landowners would not
coli were also reported by Friedler (2004), particularly in
use complex systems to pump gray water to distant
shower water.
locations from the residence, only to then carry out
The microbial population in this type of effluent includes superficial application on the soil. The adopted practices
bacteria from the nose, the anus, and the mouth, as well as would be the simplest and most economical possible,
those from washing vegetables and raw meats, and from the requiring minimal maintenance.
hand hygiene after using the bathroom. The habit of

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Tonetti et al. Review of technological alternatives for wastewater treatment in Brazilian rural areas

Thus, it is evident that the separation of greywater is a 2013; Marinho et al., 2014; Gabrielli et al., 2015). This
common practice in Brazilian rural communities, however would engender satisfaction among users of the technology,
treatment and reuse still pose a challenge as they are often who could feel more actively engaged with the treatment
carried out in an unplanned manner by residents themselves. system.
Therefore, what would be the best disposal method for this Consequently, water and nutrients would be utilized by the
segregated wastewater? One that allows for the use of water plants, while the soil and roots would function as a sanitary
and nutrients while ensuring safety for public health and the barrier, preventing pathogens from reaching the edible parts
environment? (Leonel et al., 2016; Leonel et al., 2021; Leonel et al., 2022).
Technologies for greywater treatment Additionally, the soil would also facilitate the degradation
Studies concerning the treatment and disposal of gray water, of these pathogens through physical, chemical, and
as found in the scientific literature, typically focus on reuse biological processes, the latter driven by natural predators.
in urban areas. Many of these publications are based on Thus, effective defense barriers between humans and
studies conducted in developed countries in North America pathogens, which would be the plants and the soil. Below
and Europe (Al-Gheethi et al., 2019; Morel and Diener, are some suggested technologies that could align with these
2006). In such contexts, greywater undergoes some form of expectations.
treatment and is repurposed for activities like flushing Infiltration trench
toilets, vehicle washing, or floor cleaning. These practices The infiltration trench is widely used in the USA and
require costly treatment, disinfection, storage, and pumping Europe but remains less prevalent in Brazil, Latin America,
of the liquid to facilitate the use of the treated effluent. and other developing countries. This technology involves
Notably, there is a dearth of studies evaluating and the infiltration of wastewater into the soil, for treatment and
addressing solutions suitable for the reality of rural final disposal (Figure 4).
households in developing countries.
The Brazilian standard NBR 13969 (ABNT, 1997)
In these cases, a fundamental aspect of managing greywater recommends its construction exclusively for the post-
would be to prevent its flow over the bare soil surface. This treatment of effluent from septic tanks. However, this
would avoid contact with people, animals, and vectors, standard is considerably outdated and disconnected from
mitigating disease transmission by creating physical the reality of rural territories, as it does not account for the
barriers between users and the effluent. Such action would separation of wastewater generated in a residence, only
also prevent the pooling of greywater and the consequent providing design criteria for situations in which all sewage
generation of unpleasant odors, as well as hinder the flows are combined.
procreation of larvae (Figueiredo et al., 2018). This sanitary
However, the implementation of the infiltration trench for
barrier would bring immediate benefits to public health,
the treatment and final disposal of raw greywater would be
especially considering the spread of dengue (a disease
highly beneficial and feasible for rural areas in Brazil. Since
transmitted by mosquitoes that depend on stagnant water for
the system facilitates the final disposal of wastewater
their life cycle) in Brazil and other tropical countries.
through its infiltration into the soil, there is no generation of
Common practices within communities (Tonetti et al., effluent or its exposure in the surface, minimizing human
2018) proffer several recommendations for treating contact and transmission of waterborne diseases.
greywater. However, it is important to propose technologies
It is essential to ensure that the infiltration trench is not
aiming to avoid the most common solution in rural areas:
located in saturated soils with a shallow water table, to
the unplanned deposition in the soil. Regardless of the
prevent or hinder the contamination of the groundwater. On
chosen technology, it is crucial that greywater from kitchen
this matter, the standard NBR 13969 (ABNT, 1997)
sinks should pass through a grease trap. This pre-treatment
stipulates that the bottom of the trench should maintain
step aims to retain fats, oils, and greases, thus preventing
distance from the water table of at least 1.5 meters as a
rapid clogging and soil blockage (Figueiredo et al., 2018).
precaution against groundwater contamination. However, it
A pathway towards sustainable greywater treatment entails does not cite any literature source to support the adoption of
adopting technologies that facilitate its subsurface this minimum value.
infiltration near the residence. However, how can we make
One positive aspect of the infiltration trench is its
this beneficial practice more appealing to rural residents?
straightforward construction, as it does not require deep
One approach could involve permitting certain fruit-bearing
excavation. However, its main objective is still the final
plants access to the raw greywater. The daily availability of
disposal of the effluent, without provision for wastewater
water and nutrients would bolster the growth of these plants,
reuse, even via plant roots. The Brazilian standard (ABNT,
potentially leading to increased fruit yield (Marinho et al.,

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Tonetti et al. Review of technological alternatives for wastewater treatment in Brazilian rural areas

1997) allows the cultivation of grass above the system, but papaya trees, and taioba plants can be cultivated, enhancing
there is no mention of planting edible crops. evapotranspiration and nutrient absorption (Funasa, 2015;
The utilization of water and nutrients present in greywater Martinetti, 2015). Sewage must be conveyed through a
could serve as a significant incentive for the installation this pipeline that should reach into the straw, ensuring that the
treatment system in rural areas of Brazil, given the country's greywater remains submerged and shielded.
experiences with climate change induced by global One of the main advantages of the banana tree circle is its
warming. Not only the semi-arid regions of the Northeast affordability and straightforward construction, with
have been experiencing the traditional long periods of maintenance primarily involving the replacement of
drought, but also the southeastern and southern areas have branches and grass clipping/straw, along with fruit
been affected by drier climates. Consequently, many harvesting and managing surrounding vegetation growth.
locations have witnessed water well depletion and a Therefore, it has great potential to be adopted by rural
deepening of the water table. residents in Brazil, providing an alternative to the
The use of greywater through infiltration trenches could be conventional unregulated disposal of greywater on the soil
an important alternative to supplying water for edible crops surface. Another important aspect is that this system enables
planted near rural residences. However, how could we plants to utilize water and nutrients, with any surplus being
propose changes in its construction design to facilitate plant infiltrated into the soil. Moreover, the banana tree circle
access to water and nutrients while maintaining a system prevents greywater from being exposed on the soil, thereby
that does not pose risks to public health or the environment? reducing the risk of waterborne disease transmission. It is
important to note that traditional knowledge about locating
An alternative infiltration trench should permit the use of
banana trees and other water-loving plants near greywater
greywater near the residence while ensuring sanitary
outlets is widely spread among Brazilian farmers
conditions and minimizing environmental impacts.
(Figueiredo et. al., 2019 d), which makes the technology
Adhering to this principle, certain fruit-bearing plants such
even more suitable for local conditions.
as banana trees and papaya trees could be planted near the
infiltration trench but maintaining a minimum distance of Technologies treating sewage without source separation
3.0 meters. However, it is advisable to avoid planting The NBR 7229 (ABNT, 1993) and NBR 13969 (ABNT,
species with aggressive root growth that could compromise 1997) standards outline appropriate technologies for
the piping of the greywater distribution system. It is decentralized sanitation. However, these standards do not
imperative to note that agricultural crops whose produce provide water source-separation, rather, they endorse the
directly contacts the effluent, such as potatoes, carrots, consolidation of all sewage from a residence into a single
cassava, beets, onions, garlic, etc. are not recommended. flow, which then must be directed to a conventional septic
Banana tree circle tank followed by post-treatment.

Another system for treating greywater that has gained The post-treatment of the septic tank effluent can be
popularity in Brazil is the use of the banana tree circle. This accomplished through various methods, including
technology entails excavating the soil in a bowl-shaped anaerobic filters, aerobic filters, filtration trenches, sand
configuration, measuring approximately 2.0 meters in filters, soakways, among others (De Oliveira Cruz et al.,
diameter and 0.80 meters in depth (Figure 5). Subsequently, 2013; De Oliveira Cruz et al., 2018). The most prevalent
this depression is filled with organic matter that design combines the septic tank with the anaerobic filter,
decomposes slowly. Next, this hole is filled with organic which has received attention from numerous Brazilian
matter such as small branches and then straw on the top or universities. Several studies propose simplifications of
mulch. The straw comprises dry grass, banana leaves, and septic tanks, aiming to streamline their construction
tree pruning, with the aim of establishing a well-aerated and (Tonetti et al., 2021; De Oliveira Cruz et al., 2019; Silva et
expansive environment to accommodate greywater al., 2015; Tonon et al., 2015; De Oliveira Cruz et al., 2013;
(Figueiredo et al., 2018). Vieira (2006) contends that a Tonetti et al., 2012). Additionally, there is a proposal for
volume of 1 m3 is sufficient for treating greywater produced utilizing prefabricated polyethylene water tanks, readily
by a family of three to five people and Mudadu et al (2024) available in all construction material stores nationwide
propose sizing the banana tree circle based on hydraulic (Almeida et al., 2021). The adoption of such products holds
load, soil percolation and evapotranspiration rate. the potential to reduce construction time and costs,
facilitating their use in remote regions such as oceanic
All the excavated soil from the depression is piled around
islands and riverside communities in the Amazon.
its perimeter, where plants with high water demand, organic
Similarly, alternative construction methods for anaerobic
matter, and nutrient requirements, such as banana trees, are
filters have been explored, focusing on replacing traditional
planted (Funasa, 2018). Alongside banana trees, lilies,

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Tonetti et al. Review of technological alternatives for wastewater treatment in Brazilian rural areas

filling materials (stones and plastic) with more accessible Vermifilters, essentially aerobic biological filters,
alternatives like bamboo and green coconut husks (De incorporate a layer of organic substrate with detritivorous
Oliveira Cruz et al., 2019; De Oliveira Cruz et al., 2013). In earthworms, commonly used in vermicomposting processes
Brazil, green coconut husks have become a problem (Figure 6). These earthworms facilitate natural aeration and
because after the water is consumed, the husk becomes a granulation of clay particles, as well as breakdown of
waste, which is disposed of in landfills or thrown into the sediments and sand. Consequently, the specific surface area
sea. Thus, using this material as filling for anaerobic filters of the filtering medium increases, enhancing the capacity to
would serve the purpose of waste disposal while reducing retain both organic and inorganic compounds (Sinha et al.,
the system’s construction cost. 2008).
Despite that, the popularization of septic tanks and The suspended solids present in the influent are captured at
anaerobic filters in rural areas would require the the vermifilter's surface, initially decomposed by the
management of sludge produced in both reactors. If the earthworms and subsequently processed by the
system is installed near urban centers, its removal, microorganisms throughout the biofilter layers (Sinha et al.
transportation, and treatment could be considered by 2008). Natural aeration of the filtering medium minimizes
sanitation companies operating large sewage treatment the release of unpleasant odors. Furthermore, earthworms
plants. On the other hand, there is still a significant gap construct channels that enhances aeration and inhibits the
regarding the management of sludge generated in isolated microorganisms action (Sinha et al. 2008). Regarding
locations and small districts. In such cases, on-site performance, various studies have reported organic matter
management may lead to improper removal of residue from removal exceeding 90% in terms of BOD (Soto and Tohá,
inside the reactors, resulting in malfunction. Therefore, it is 1998; Taylor et al. 2003; Sinha et al. 2008; Li et al. 2009;
imperative for government agencies and universities to Nie et al. 2014; Kumar et al. 2014; Arora et al. 2014;
expand studies on this topic, seeking viable alternatives to Lourenço and Nunes, 2017).
address the issue of sludge management in Brazilian rural In studies focusing on rural communities sanitation
communities. conducted at a Brazilian university, vermifilters combined
Moreover, it is essential to consider Brazilian with septic tanks exhibited an overall organic matter
environmental resolution Conama 498 (Conama, 2020), removal of 81% in terms of COD and 86% in terms of BOD,
which prohibits the use of sludge from individual treatment demonstrating its feasibility (Madrid et al., 2019). This
systems, collected by vehicles, before its treatment by a setup involved a substrate layer containing a mixture of
sludge management unit licensed by the competent dried brachiaria grass (a type of grass commonly known as
environmental agency in the soil. In other words, the sludge Brachiaria) and soil, into which Eisenia andrei earthworms
removed from a septic tank installed on a rural property were introduced (Madrid et al., 2019). Brachiaria is a plant
cannot be managed by the homeowner. that has spread throughout Brazil, requiring frequent cutting
While the combination of a septic tank with an anaerobic and management of the generated residues. Therefore, its
filter facilitates wastewater treatment, it generates an use in vermifilters would be of interest to rural area
effluent that requires proper disposal. This can involve residents.
discharge into a water body or the soil. Direct discharging Comparatively, Nie et al. (2014) studied a full-scale
into a water body would require a sufficient flow rate to vermifiltration system consisting of an anaerobic filter with
ensure adequate dilution and compliance with Brazilian gravel as support material followed by two vermifilters. The
regulation Conama 357 (Conama, 2005). However, rural reactors were employed for the treatment of sanitary sewage
residents often avoid constructing their homes near large from family residences in a rural village in the city of
water bodies due to flooding concerns, preferring to build Yixing (Jiangsu/ China). The authors reported an overall
near small streams, marshes, or springs, which complicates removal of over 90% of organic matter in terms of COD
direct discharge of effluent. Alternatively, installing long throughout the entire analyzed period.
pipelines to discharge points into rivers with higher flow In seeking greater simplification of the system to enhance
rates would significantly increase project costs. the feasibility of employing this technology in rural
Other new technology communities, Brazilian researchers examined a vermifilter
Vermifiltration emerges as another viable technology for configuration with a substrate layer composed of sawdust
treating greywater and combining all household for the direct treatment of raw sanitary effluent (Madrid et
wastewaters, presenting an attractive option for al., 2019). In other words, they evaluated whether the
decentralized systems in rural areas due to its simplicity in removal of pre-treatment by a septic tank or anaerobic filter
operation and implementation (Tonetti et al., 2018). caused any issues for the vermifilters. The results obtained

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Tonetti et al. Review of technological alternatives for wastewater treatment in Brazilian rural areas

for the removal efficiency of organic matter in terms of involves the separation of greywater from toilet waste. This
BOD and COD remained similar to those achieved with the distinction opens the door to new technologies, such as the
presence of pre-treatment and were consistent with those evapotranspiration tank, which exclusively treats water
reported by other authors (Soto; Tohá, 1998; Xing et al., originating from the toilet and does not allow effluent
2010; Liu et al., 2013; Nie et al., 2014). infiltration, thus preventing soil or aquifer contamination by
pathogens and nutrients. Infiltration trenches are also
Another important characteristic of the technology is the promising and feasible options, but the establishment of
generation of vermicompost rich in nutrients on the surface standards mandating the separation of household
of the reactor. However, there is still a need for further study wastewater is necessary for their correct dimensioning and
regarding its potential use as a biofertilizer. It's worth noting widespread adoption. One potential solution for treating
that there is a significant presence of pathogens retained by greywater is the implementation of banana tree circle,
the bed in this surface layer. which facilitates plant utilization of water and nutrients by
plants while the excess is infiltrated into the soil. The use of
There is also the potential for effluent reuse for non-potable a septic tank followed by an anaerobic filter can also be
purposes, such as irrigation, floor washing, and toilet considered in rural areas when all wastewater generated in
flushing (Xing et al. 2005; Sinha et al. 2008; Liu et al. a household is combined. However, a significant challenge
2009). However, this should be discouraged in rural in promoting their adoption lies in effectively managing the
communities or household units. The practice of reuse sludge produced by both reactors.
requires attention and constant supervision which is usually Therefore, while there are technologies available to address
incompatible with the dispersion of residences in rural the deficit in wastewater treatment in rural areas, it is
Brazilian areas. Therefore, we should aim for effluent imperative to ensure their proper adoption among the
infiltration through infiltration trenches or its use through population and to bolster state intervention in implementing
alternative infiltration trenches, which were presented in national plans and revising standards and guidelines..
this article.
It is worth noting that, concerning the various aspects that
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
constitute a vermifilter, there are still no (Brazilian or
international) standards for sizing or recommendations for The authors would like to thank CNPq (process
materials that can be used in the filtering bed. In the 308496/2021-3) and CAPES (process 88887.856539/2023-
scientific literature, various compositions have been 00) for the master's and doctoral scholarships received and
studied, although there is still no consensual guideline. Fapesp (Process 2017/07490-4) for the Research Grant.
Therefore, the use of this technology should be carefully
evaluated before seeking its dissemination for the treatment REFERENCES
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