UNIT II NETWORK REDUCTION AND THEOREMS FOR DC AND AC IRCUITS 6+6

Network reduction: voltage and current division, source transformation – star delta conversion.
Thevenins and Norton Theorems – Superposition Theorem – Maximum power transfer theorem –
Reciprocity Theorem – Millman's theorem.

2.1 VOLTAGE DIVITION

A circuit with series resistances act as a voltage divider
Same current flows through each resistor. By ohm’s law the voltage across each resistor proportional
to resistance.
By this, different voltages can be obtained from a single source.
Consider the below circuit shown in fig. 1

Fig. 1 Voltage divition

The current in the circuit is given by,
VS
I
R1  R2  ............  Rn
RT  R1  R2  ............  Rn
The voltage across any resistor is given by,
VR1  IR1 , VR 2  IR2 , VR3  IR3 ,VRn  IRn
Or
VS V V V
VR1  R1 , VR 2  S R2 , VR 3  S R3 ,VRn  S Rn
RT RT RT RT
So, Voltage across any resistor, when number of resistor are connected in series is given by,(source
voltage divided by total resistance) multiplied by that resistor value,
VS
VRn  Rn
RT
Where,
Vn  voltage across n th resistor
VS  Source voltage
Rn  n th resistor
RT  Total resistance
Problem 1: Determine the voltage across the 10Ω resistor in below shown in fig. 2

Fig. 2
Solution:
Voltage across 10Ω resistor by Voltage Division,
VS
V10  X 10
RT
VS  50V
RT  5  10  15
50
V10  X 10
15
100
 V
3
V10  33.3V

Problem 2: Determine the Voltage across the A&B in the circuit given circuit shown in fig. 3

Fig. 3
Solution:
Voltage across A&B is the sum of Voltage across 5Ω and 4Ω resistor. Therefore
b/w A&B two resistors exit.
VAB  V5  V4
V
V5  s X5
RT
V
V4  s X 4
RT
VS  100V, R T  1  5  4  10
 100
V5  X5
10
 50V
100
V4  X4
10
 40V
VAB  50  40  90V

2.2 CURRENT DIVISION

A circuit with parallel resistances act as a current divider.
Total current entering into the parallel branches is divided into branch currents.
Branch having higher resistance allows lesser current & the branch with lower resistance allows more
current
Consider the below circuit, shown in fig. 4

Fig. 4 Current division

The current passing through each resistor is given by,
VS V
I1  , I2  S
R1 R2
If
RT  is the total resis tan ce which is given by
R1 R2
RT 
R1  R2

VS V ( R  R2 )
Total current I T   S 1
R1 R2 R1 R2
R1  R2

I 1 R1 ( R1  R2 )
For VS  I 1 R1 , I T 
R1 R2

R2
I1  I T X
R1  R2
 I 2 R2 ( R1  R2 )
For VS  I 2 R2 , I T 
R1 R2

R1
I 2  IT X
R1  R2
Opposite R
So generally , branch current  Total current X
Total R
Problem 3: Determine the current through each resistor in the circuit shown in fig. 5
12A
I1 I2 I3
VS 4Ω 4Ω 4Ω

Fig. 5
Solution:
Here 3 resistances are in parallel. To apply current division convert the circuit into 2 parallel resistance
circuits. So find equivalent to R2 R3,
R2 R3 4  4 16
Req     2
R2  R3 4  4 8
IT =12A A
I1 IT1
VS 4Ω 2Ω

Apply current division,

Req
I1  I T 
Req  R1

2 2
I 1  12   12 
24 6
I1  4 A
Apply KVL @ A I T  I1  I T 1 ,
I T 1  I T  I1  12  4
I T1  8 A
I T 1 Current flows through R2 & R3 , R2 & R3 are in parallel apply current division,
 R3
I 2  IT1 
R2  R3
4 4
I2  8  8
44 8
I2  4A

R2
I 3  IT1 
R2  R3
4 4
I3  8  8
44 8
I3  4A
Problem 4: In the circuit shown in fig. 6 Find, (a) the total current drawn from the battery. (b) Voltage
across 2Ω resistor & (c) current passing through the 5Ω resistor.

I1 I2
IT 2Ω
1Ω
10V
7Ω 5Ω

Fig. 6
In the circuit 7 and 5 are in parallel
7  5 35
Req    2.916
7  5 12

IT 2Ω
1Ω
10V
2.916Ω

Req  1  2  2.916  5.916

10 10
IT    1.69 A
RT 5.916
Total current from the battery current through 2Ω is IT. So Voltage across 2Ω resistor is
V2  2  I T  2  1.69
V2  3.380V
Current through 5 resistor, is found by current division rule. Therefore 5 & 7 are in parallel.
The total current through 5 & 7 is 1.69A. Then, current through 5 resistor I 2 is,
7 7
I 2  IT   1.69   0.985 A
75 12
I 2  0.985 A
2.3 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
A Source transformation is the process of replacing a Voltage source VS in series with a resistor R by a

current source I S in parallel with a resistor R or vice versa.

a a
R

+ Ig R
VS
-

b b

Fig. 7 Source transformation

The two circuits in fig. 7 a &b are equivalent provided they have the same Voltage-current relation @
terminals a-b.
If the sources are turned off, the equivalent resistance @ terminals a-b in both circuits is R.
VS
When terminals a-b is short circuited the short circuited current flowing from. a to b is I SC  in the
R
circuit in fig a.& iSC  I S from the fig b.

VS
Thus  iSC in order for the two circuits to be equivalent.
R
A source transformation does not affect the remaining part of the circuit.
Source transformation is a powerful tool that allows circuit manipulators to each circuit analysis.
The following points should to keep in mind when dealing with source transformation.
1) Note from fig (a) & (b) that the arrow of the current source is directed towards the positive terminal
of the Voltage source.
2) Source transformation is not possible when R=0. When is the case with an ideal; Voltage source.
However for a practical, non ideal Voltage source R 0. Similarly an ideal current source with R=∞
cannot be replaced by a finite Voltage source.

Problem 5: Use source transformation to find V0 in the below fig. 8

2Ω + 3Ω
+ 12V
4Ω 3A 8Ω
V0 -

Fig. 8
Transform the 3A current source into voltage source,
VS  3  4  12V

4Ω 2Ω 3Ω
- + 12V
12V 8Ω I2
+ I1 -

M1 M2

To find Voltage across 8 . Apply KVL to M 1 & M 2 .

KVL to M 1 ,
12  4 I 1  2 I 1  8( I 1  I 2 )
 6 I 1  8I 1  8I 2
12  14 I 1  8I 2  (1)

KVL to M 2 ,
12  3I 2  2 I 1  8( I 2  I 1 )
 3I 2  8 I 2  8 I 1
12  8I 1  11I 2  (2)

(1)  11  154 I 1  88I 2  132

(2)  8  64 I 1  88I 2  132

90 I 1  264
I 1  2.93 A

Apply I 1 in (2) 
12  8  2.93  11I 2
12  23.46  11I 2
35.46
I2   3.22 A
11
In 8Ω resistor I 2 & I 1 are flowing opposite direction I 2  I 1 . So current through 8Ω resistor is
I 2  I1  3.22  2.93  0.29 A
So voltage across 8Ω resistor is,
V8  8  0.29  2.35V
2.4 STAR-DELTA CONVERSION
Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are neither in parallel nor in series. These
types of networks occur by themselves or as part of larger network. To simplify this type of circuit’s
star-delta conversion is used shown in fig. 9
A 1 A 1
Ra Rca
Rab

Rb Rc C
B
C 2
B 2
Rbc
3 3
Star Delta

Fig. 9 Star – Delta Conversion

2.4.1 DELTA-STAR TRANSFORMATION
The above a & b circuits are equal if resistance from the terminals AB, BC&CA are equal.
Consider the star connected circuit in fig. 9. The resistance from the terminal AB, BC&CA are
R AB  R a  R b
R BC  R b  R c (1)
R CA  R c  R a

Similarly in the delta connected network in fig. 9, the terminals AB, BC&CA respectively are,
R ab R bc  R ca 
R AB    R ab ParallelR bc  R ca  
R ab  R bc  R ca
R R  R ca 
R BC    R bc ParallelR ab  R ca   bc ab (2)
R ab  R bc  R ca
R R  R bc 
R CA    R ca ParallelR ab  R bc   ca ab
R ab  R bc  R ca

Now equating the resistances of star & delta circuits,

R ab (R bc  R ca )
Ra  Rb  (3)
R ab  R bc  R cs

R bc R ab  R ca 
Rb  Rc  (4)
R ab  R bc  R ca

R ca R ab  R bc 
Rc  Ra  (5)
R ab  R bc  R ca

(4)-(3)
 R bc R ab  R ca  R ab (R bc  R ca )
Rb  Rc  Ra  Rb  
R ab  R bc  R ca R ab  R bc  R cs
R bc R ab  R bc R ca  R bc R ab  R ab R ca
Rc  Ra 
R ab  R bc  R ca

R bc R ca  R ab R ca
Rc  Ra  (6)
R ab  R bc  R ca

(6) + (5)
R bc R ca  R ab R ca R ca R ab  R ca R bc
Rc  Ra  Rc  Ra  
R ab  R bc  R ca R ab  R bc  R ca
2R bc R ca 
2R c 
R ab  R bc  R ca

R bc R ca
Rc 
R ab  R bc  R ca

Similarly
R ab R ac
Ra 
R ab  R bc  R ca

R bc R ab
Rb 
R ab  R bc  R ca

In general,
The star equivalent resistance @ one terminal
Theproduct of resis tan ces connectedto theter min al in delta network

Sum of theresi tan ces in delta network

2.4.2 STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION

If multiply R a & R b , R b & R c , R c & R a , & add three we get,
2
R ab R ac R bc  R 2bc R ca R ab  R ac
2
R bc R ab
R a R b  R b , R c  R cR a  (7)
R ab  R bc  R ca 2
Divide the L.H.S by Ra,
R a R b  R b , R c  R c R a R ab
2
R ac R bc  R 2bc R ca R ab  R ac
2
R bc R ab R ab  R bc  R ca
 
Ra R ab  R bc  R ca  2
R ab R ac

R ab R ac R bc R ab  R bc  R ac 

R ab  R bc  R ca  R ab R ac

R a R b  R bR c  R cR a
 R bc
Ra

Similarly,
R a R b  R bR c  R cR a
 R ca
Rb
(8)
R a R b  R bR c  R cR a
 R ab
Rc

Generally,
The delta equivalent resistance connected b/w Two terminals
Sum of product of all possible pairsof star resis tan ce

Theoppositeresi tan ce of star circuit

Problem 6: A star connected network fig. 10, consist of 3 resistances 3Ω, 6Ω, & 10Ω, convert the star
connected network to equivalent delta connected network.
A 1
Ra=3Ω

Rb=6Ω C Rc=10Ω

B 2

3
Star

Fig. 10
R aR b  R bR c  R cR a
R ab 
Rc


3  6  6  10  10  3
10
R ab  10.8

R aR b  R bR c  R cR a
R bc 
Ra 1

3  6  6  10  10  3 Rca=18Ω
3 Rab=10.8Ω
R bc  36

R aR b  R bR c  R cR a
R ca  2
Rb Rbc=36Ω

3  6  6  10  10  3 3
6 Delta
R ca  18
2.5 Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin’s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several voltages and resistances can be
replaced by just one single voltage in series with a single resistance connected across the load“.
In other words, it is possible to simplify any electrical circuit, no matter how complex, to
an equivalent two-terminal circuit with just a single constant voltage source in series with a resistance
(or impedance) connected to a load as shown in fig. 11.

Fig. 11 Thevenin’s Theorem

The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Thevenin’s Theorem is as follows:
1. Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned.
2. Find RS by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the current sources.
3. Find VS by the usual circuit analysis methods.
4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor RL.
Problem 7:

Firstly, to analyse the circuit we have to remove the centre 40Ω load resistor connected across
the terminals A-B, and remove any internal resistance associated with the voltage source(s).
This is done by shorting out all the voltage sources connected to the circuit, that is v = 0, or
open circuit any connected current sources making i = 0.
The value of the equivalent resistance, Rs is found by calculating the total resistance looking
back from the terminals A and B with all the voltage sources shorted. We then get the following
circuit.
Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs):
10Ω Resistor in parallel with the 20Ω Resistor
R 1  R 2 20  10
RT    6.67
R 1  R 2 20  10

The voltage Vs is defined as the total voltage across the terminals A and B when there is an open
circuit between them. That is without the load resistor RL connected.
Find the Equivalent Voltage (Vs):

We now need to reconnect the two voltages back into the circuit, and as VS = VAB the current flowing
around the loop is calculated as:
V 20V  10V
I   0.33amps
R 20  10
This current of 0.33 amperes (330mA) is common to both resistors so the voltage drop across
the 20Ω resistor or the 10Ω resistor can be calculated as:
VAB = 20 – (20Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts.
or
VAB = 10 + (10Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts, the same.

Then the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit would consist or a series resistance of 6.67Ω’sand a
voltage source of 13.33v. With the 40Ω resistor connected back into the circuit we get:

and from this the current flowing around the circuit is given as:
V 13.33V
I   0.286amps
R 6.67  40
2.6 Nortons Theorem
Nortons Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several energy sources and resistances can
be replaced by a single Constant Current generator in parallel with a Single Resistor“.
As far as the load resistance, RL is concerned this single resistance, RS is the value of the
resistance looking back into the network with all the current sources open circuited and IS is the short
circuit current at the output terminals as shown in fig. 12.
Nortons equivalent circuit.

Fig. 12 Norton’s Theorem

The value of this “constant current” is one which would flow if the two output terminals where
shorted together while the source resistance would be measured looking back into the terminals, (the
same as Thevenin).
The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Nortons Theorem is as follows:
1. Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned.
2. Find RS by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the current sources.
3. Find IS by placing a shorting link on the output terminals A and B.
4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor RL.
Problem 8:

To find the Nortons equivalent of the above circuit we firstly have to remove the
centre 40Ω load resistor and short out the terminals A and B to give us the following circuit.
 When the terminals A and B are shorted together the two resistors are connected in parallel
across their two respective voltage sources and the currents flowing through each resistor as well as the
total short circuit current can now be calculated as:
with A-B Shorted Out
10V
I1   1A,
10
20V
I2   1A
20
 I shortcircuit  I1  I 2  2A

If we short-out the two voltage sources and open circuit terminals A and B, the two resistors
are now effectively connected together in parallel.
The value of the internal resistor Rs is found by calculating the total resistance at the
terminals A and B giving us the following circuit.

Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs):

10Ω Resistor in parallel with the 20Ω Resistor
R 1  R 2 20  10
RT    6.67
R 1  R 2 20  10

Having found both the short circuit current, Is and equivalent internal resistance, Rs this then gives us
the following Nortons equivalent circuit.
Nortons equivalent circuit:
we now have to solve with the original 40Ω load resistor connected across terminals A and B as shown
below.

Again, the two resistors are connected in parallel across the terminals A and B which gives us a total
resistance of:
R 1  R 2 6.67  40
RT    5.72
R 1  R 2 6.67  40

The voltage across the terminals A and B with the load resistor connected is given as:
VAB  I  R  2  5.72  11.44V

Then the current flowing in the 40Ω load resistor can be found as:
V 11.44
I   0.286A
R 40

2.7 SUPER POSITION THEOREM

In circuit theory, super position theorem states that “In a linear network, the Voltage across or
current through an element is the algebraic sum of the Voltages across or currents through that element
due to each independent source acting alone”.
Steps to apply superposition principle:
Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find Voltage or current due to that active source
(Short circuit to Voltage source
Open circuit to Current source).
Find Algebraic sum of Voltages or currents due to the Independent source.
Problem 9:
Using the superposition theorem, determine the voltage drop and current across the resistor 3.3K as
shown in figure 13.

Fig. 13
Solution
Step 1: Remove the 8V power supply from the original circuit, such that the new circuit becomes as
the following and then measure voltage across resistor.

Here 3.3K and 2K are in parallel, therefore resultant resistance will be 1.245K.
Using voltage divider rule voltage across 1.245K will be
1.245
V1   5  1.047V
1.245  4.7
Step 2: Remove the 5V power supply from the original circuit such that the new circuit becomes as the
following and then measure voltage across resistor.

Here 3.3K and 4.7K are in parallel, therefore resultant resistance will be 1.938K.
Using voltage divider rule voltage across 1.938K will be
1.938
V2   8  3.9377V
1.938  2
Therefore voltage drop across 3.3K resistor is
V1  V2  1.047  3.9377
 4.9847V
2.8 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
The maximum power theorem states that “Maximum power is delivered from a source to a load when
the load resistance is equal to the source resistance (Thevenin’s equivalent resistance) as viewed when
the load terminal with load is removed”
Steps to find maximum power:
The maximum power delivered is determined Thevenin’s equal,
The R Th is taken to be equal to R L equivalent circuit,
Therefore,
VTh
IL 
R Th  R L
V
 Th
2R L

Power delivered = I 2L R L
Problem 10: In the circuit shown in fig. 14 Determine the value of R L when the load resistance draws
maximum power. Also find the value of maximum power.

25Ω

I
50V RL

Fig. 14
Solution:
The source delivers the maximum power when R L is equal to the source resistance. So source
resistance is equal to R L .
R L  25
V
I L  Th
2R L
VTh  50V
50 50
IL    1A
2  25 50
Maximum power delivered
PMax  I 2L R L
 12  25
PMax  25Watts
2.9 Reciprocity Theorem
Reciprocity Theorem states that – In any branch of a network or circuit, the current due to a single
source of voltage (V) in the network is equal to the current through that branch in which the source
was originally placed when the source is again put in the branch in which the current was originally
obtained. This theorem is used in the bilateral linear network which consists bilateral components.
Explanation of Reciprocity Theorem
The location of the voltage source and the current source may be interchanged without a change in
current. However, the polarity of the voltage source should be identical with the direction of the branch
current in each position.
The Reciprocity Theorem is explained with the help of the circuit diagram shown in fig. 15

Fig. 15 Reciprocity theorem

The various resistances R1, R2, R3 is connected in the circuit diagram above with a voltage source (V)
and a current source (I). It is clear from the figure above that the voltage source and current sources are
interchanged for solving the network with the help of Reciprocity Theorem.
The limitation of this theorem is that it is applicable only to single source networks and not in the
multi-source network. The network where reciprocity theorem is applied should be linear and consist
of resistors, inductors, capacitors and coupled circuits. The circuit should not have any time-varying
elements.

Steps for Solving a Network Utilizing Reciprocity Theorem

Step 1 – Firstly, select the branches between which reciprocity has to be established.
Step 2 – The current in the branch is obtained using any conventional network analysis method.
Step 3 – The voltage source is interchanged between the branch which is selected.
Step 4 – The current in the branch where the voltage source was existing earlier is calculated.
Step 5 – Now, it is seen that the current obtained in the previous connection, i.e., in step 2 and the
current which is calculated when the source is interchanged, i.e., in step 4 are identical to each other.
Problem 11: Verify reciprocity theorem in the circuit shown in fig. 16
3Ω
A C

V
10A 2Ω 8Ω

B
D

Fig. 16
Solution:
Here Excitation is 10 A responses is voltage across 8Ω resistance.
To find voltage across 8Ω resistance & find current through 8Ω resistor.

I 3Ω
C
A
I1 I2
V
10A 2Ω 8Ω

B
D
V8  8  I 2

To find I 2 use current division,

2
I2  Ia 
82
10  2 20
I2    2A
8  2 10
V8  8  2  16V

I a 10
Excitation to response ratio  
Vb 16

To prove reciprocity theorem connect current source in response circuit, the circuit becomes,
3Ω
A C
I2 I1
Va 2Ω 8Ω
10A=Ib

B
D Va  V2 ,
In this AB terminal OC. So no current flows through 3Ω therefore
V2  2  I 2

To find V2 use current division,

8 10  8
I2  Ib    8A
82 10
Va  V2  2  8  16V
 I b 10
Excitation to response ratio, 
Va 16

Ia I 10
Now,  b 
Vb Va 16

Hence reciprocity theorem proved.