LilyPond

The music typesetter

Notation Reference

The LilyPond development team

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This manual provides a reference for all notation that can be produced with LilyPond version
2.25.27. It assumes that the reader is familiar with the material in the Learning Manual.
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☛ ✟
For more information about how this manual fits with the other documentation, or to read
this manual in other formats, see Section “Manuals” in General Information.
If you are missing any manuals, the complete documentation can be found at
https://lilypond.org/.
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Copyright ⃝ c 1998–2023 by the authors.

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the
terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1 or any later version
published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections. A copy of
the license is included in the section entitled “GNU Free Documentation License”.
For LilyPond version 2.25.27
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Table of Contents

Musical notation

1 Pitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Writing pitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Absolute octave entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Relative octave entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.3 Accidentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.4 Note names in other languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2 Changing multiple pitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.1 Octave checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.2 Transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.3 Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.4 Retrograde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.5 Modal transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3 Displaying pitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.1 Clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.2 Key signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.3.3 Ottava brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.3.4 Instrument transpositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.3.5 Automatic accidentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.3.6 Alternate accidental glyphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.3.7 Ambitus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.4 Note heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.4.1 Special note heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.4.2 Easy notation note heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.4.3 Shape note heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.4.4 Improvisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

2 Rhythms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.1 Writing rhythms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.1.1 Durations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.1.2 Tuplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.1.3 Scaling durations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.1.4 Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.2 Writing rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.2.1 Rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.2.2 Invisible rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.2.3 Full measure rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.2.4 Caesuras. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.3 Displaying rhythms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.3.1 Time signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.3.2 Metronome marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.3.3 Upbeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.3.4 Unmetered music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.3.5 Polymetric notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.3.6 Automatic note splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.3.7 Showing melody rhythms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.4 Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
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2.4.1 Automatic beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

2.4.2 Setting automatic beam behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.4.3 Manual beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.4.4 Feathered beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.4.5 Slashed beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.5 Bars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.5.1 Bar lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.5.2 Automatic bar lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.5.3 Bar numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
2.5.4 Bar and bar number checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2.5.5 Rehearsal marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
2.5.6 Measure counts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
2.5.7 Section divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.6 Special rhythmic concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.6.1 Grace notes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.6.2 Aligning to cadenzas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2.6.3 Time administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

3 Expressive marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

3.1 Expressive marks attached to notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.1.1 Articulations and ornamentations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.1.2 Dynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.1.3 New dynamic marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.2 Expressive marks as curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.2.1 Slurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.2.2 Phrasing slurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.2.3 Breath marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.2.4 Falls and doits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.3 Expressive marks as lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.3.1 Glissando . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.3.2 Arpeggio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.3.3 Trills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

4 Repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.1 Long repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.1.1 Written-out repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.1.2 Simple repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.1.3 Alternative endings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.1.4 Other variation in repeated sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.1.5 Al-fine repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.1.6 Segno repeat structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.1.7 Segno repeat appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.1.8 Manual repeat marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.2 Short repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.2.1 Percent repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.2.2 Tremolo repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

5 Simultaneous notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

5.1 Single voice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
5.1.1 Chorded notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
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5.1.2 Chord repetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

5.1.3 Simultaneous expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
5.1.4 Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
5.2 Multiple voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.2.1 Single-staff polyphony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.2.2 Voice styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
5.2.3 Collision resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
5.2.4 Merging rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
5.2.5 Automatic part combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
5.2.6 Writing music in parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

6 Staff notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

6.1 Displaying staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
6.1.1 Instantiating new staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
6.1.2 Grouping staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
6.1.3 Nested staff groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
6.1.4 Separating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
6.2 Modifying single staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
6.2.1 Staff symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
6.2.2 Ossia staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
6.2.3 Hiding staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
6.3 Writing parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
6.3.1 Instrument names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
6.3.2 Quoting other voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
6.3.3 Formatting cue notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
6.3.4 Compressing empty measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

7 Editorial annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

7.1 Inside the staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
7.1.1 Selecting notation font size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
7.1.2 Fingering instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
7.1.3 Gliding fingers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
7.1.4 Hidden notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
7.1.5 Coloring objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.1.6 Staff highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.1.7 Brackets for optional material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
7.1.8 Parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
7.1.9 Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
7.2 Outside the staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
7.2.1 Note names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
7.2.2 Balloon help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
7.2.3 Grid lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
7.2.4 Analysis brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

8 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
8.1 Writing text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
8.1.1 Text objects overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
8.1.2 Text scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
8.1.3 Text spanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
8.1.4 Section labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
 iv

8.1.5 Text marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

8.1.6 Separate text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
8.2 Formatting text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
8.2.1 Text markup introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
8.2.2 Selecting font and font size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
8.2.3 Text alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
8.2.4 Graphic notation inside markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
8.2.5 Music notation inside markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
8.3 Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
8.3.1 Finding fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
8.3.2 Font families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
8.3.3 Font features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
8.3.4 Changing fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

Specialist notation

9 Vocal music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

9.1 Common notation for vocal music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
9.1.1 References for vocal music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
9.1.2 Entering lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
9.1.3 Aligning lyrics to a melody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
9.1.4 Automatic syllable durations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
9.1.5 Manual syllable durations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
9.1.6 Multiple syllables to one note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
9.1.7 Multiple notes to one syllable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
9.1.8 Extenders and hyphens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
9.1.9 Gradual changes of vowel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
9.2 Techniques specific to lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
9.2.1 Working with lyrics and variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
9.2.2 Placing lyrics vertically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
9.2.3 Placing syllables horizontally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
9.2.4 Lyrics and repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
9.2.5 Divisi lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
9.2.6 Polyphony with shared lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
9.3 Stanzas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
9.3.1 Adding stanza numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
9.3.2 Adding dynamics marks to stanzas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
9.3.3 Adding singers’ names to stanzas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
9.3.4 Stanzas with different rhythms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
9.3.5 Printing stanzas at the end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
9.3.6 Printing stanzas at the end in multiple columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
9.4 Songs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
9.4.1 References for songs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
9.4.2 Lead sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
9.5 Choral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
9.5.1 References for choral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
9.5.2 Score layouts for choral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
9.6 Opera and stage musicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
9.6.1 References for opera and stage musicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
9.6.2 Character names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
 v

9.6.3 Musical cues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

9.6.4 Spoken music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
9.6.5 Dialogue over music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
9.7 Chants psalms and hymns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
9.7.1 References for chants and psalms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
9.7.2 Setting a chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
9.7.3 Pointing a psalm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
9.7.4 Phrase bar lines in hymn tunes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
9.7.5 Partial measures in hymn tunes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
9.8 Ancient vocal music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

10 Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401

10.1 Common notation for keyboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
10.1.1 References for keyboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
10.1.2 Changing staff manually . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
10.1.3 Changing staff automatically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
10.1.4 Staff-change lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
10.2 Piano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
10.2.1 Piano pedals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
10.3 Accordion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
10.3.1 Discant symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
10.4 Harp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
10.4.1 References for harps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
10.4.2 Harp pedals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412

11 Unfretted string instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

11.1 Common notation for unfretted strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
11.1.1 References for unfretted strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
11.1.2 Bowing indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
11.1.3 Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
11.1.4 Snap (Bartók) pizzicato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

12 Fretted string instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

12.1 Common notation for fretted strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
12.1.1 References for fretted strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
12.1.2 String number indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
12.1.3 Default tablatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
12.1.4 Custom tablatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
12.1.5 Fret diagram markups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
12.1.6 Predefined fret diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
12.1.7 Automatic fret diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
12.1.8 Right-hand fingerings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
12.2 Guitar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
12.2.1 Indicating position and barring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
12.2.2 Indicating harmonics and dampened notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
12.2.3 Indicating power chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
12.3 Banjo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
12.3.1 Banjo tablatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
12.4 Lute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
12.4.1 Lute tablatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
 vi

13 Percussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
13.1 Common notation for percussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
13.1.1 References for percussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
13.1.2 Basic percussion notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
13.1.3 Drum rolls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
13.1.4 Pitched percussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
13.1.5 Percussion staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
13.1.6 Custom percussion staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
13.1.7 Ghost notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478

14 Wind instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

14.1 Common notation for wind instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
14.1.1 References for wind instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
14.1.2 Fingerings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
14.2 Bagpipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
14.2.1 Bagpipe definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
14.2.2 Bagpipe example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
14.3 Woodwinds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
14.3.1 Woodwind diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

15 Chord notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492

15.1 Chord mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
15.1.1 Chord mode overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
15.1.2 Common chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
15.1.3 Extended and altered chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
15.1.4 Chord inversions and specific voicings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
15.2 Displaying chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
15.2.1 Printing chord names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
15.2.2 Customizing chord names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
15.2.3 Chord grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
15.3 Figured bass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
15.3.1 Introduction to figured bass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
15.3.2 Entering figured bass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
15.3.3 Displaying figured bass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514

16 Contemporary music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517

16.1 Pitch and harmony in contemporary music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
16.1.1 References for pitch and harmony in contemporary music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
16.1.2 Microtonal notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
16.1.3 Contemporary key signatures and harmony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
16.2 Contemporary approaches to rhythm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
16.2.1 References for contemporary approaches to rhythm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
16.2.2 Tuplets in contemporary music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
16.2.3 Contemporary time signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
16.2.4 Extended polymetric notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
16.2.5 Beams in contemporary music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
16.2.6 Bar lines in contemporary music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
16.3 Graphical notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
16.4 Contemporary scoring techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
16.5 New instrumental techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
 vii

16.6 Further reading and scores of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519

16.6.1 Books and articles on contemporary musical notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
16.6.2 Scores and musical examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519

17 Ancient notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520

17.1 Overview of the supported styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
17.2 Ancient notation – common features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
17.2.1 Predefined contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
17.2.2 Ligatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
17.2.3 Custodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
17.3 Typesetting mensural music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
17.3.1 Mensural contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
17.3.2 Mensural clefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
17.3.3 Mensural time signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
17.3.4 Mensural note heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
17.3.5 Mensural flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
17.3.6 Mensural rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
17.3.7 Mensural accidentals and key signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
17.3.8 Annotational accidentals (musica ficta) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
17.3.9 White mensural ligatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
17.4 Typesetting Gregorian chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
17.4.1 Gregorian chant contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
17.4.2 Gregorian clefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
17.4.3 Gregorian accidentals and key signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
17.4.4 Divisiones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
17.4.5 Gregorian articulation signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
17.4.6 Augmentum dots (morae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
17.4.7 Gregorian square neume ligatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
17.5 Typesetting Kievan square notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
17.5.1 Kievan contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
17.5.2 Kievan clefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
17.5.3 Kievan notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
17.5.4 Kievan accidentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
17.5.5 Kievan bar lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
17.5.6 Kievan melismata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
17.6 Working with ancient music – scenarios and solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
17.6.1 Incipits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
17.6.2 Mensurstriche layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
17.6.3 Transcribing Gregorian chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
17.6.4 Ancient and modern from one source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549

18 World music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552

18.1 Common notation for non-Western music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
18.1.1 Extending notation and tuning systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
18.2 Arabic music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
18.2.1 References for Arabic music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
18.2.2 Arabic note names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
18.2.3 Arabic key signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
18.2.4 Arabic time signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
18.2.5 Arabic music example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
18.2.6 Further reading for Arabic music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
 viii

18.3 Turkish classical music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558

18.3.1 References for Turkish classical music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
18.3.2 Turkish note names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
18.3.3 Turkish key signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
18.3.4 Further reading for Turkish music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
18.4 Persian classical music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
18.4.1 Persian music notation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
18.4.2 Persian tunings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
18.4.3 Persian key signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
18.4.4 Further reading on Persian music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562

General input and output

19 Input modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565

20 Input structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568

20.1 Structure of a score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
20.2 Multiple scores in a book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
20.3 Multiple output files from one input file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
20.4 Output file names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
20.5 File structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572

21 Titles and headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575

21.1 Creating titles, headers, and footers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
21.1.1 Titles explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
21.1.2 Default layout of bookpart and score titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
21.1.3 Default layout of headers and footers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
21.2 Custom titles, headers, and footers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
21.2.1 Custom text formatting for titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
21.2.2 Custom layout for titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
21.2.3 Custom layout for headers and footers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
21.3 Creating output file metadata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
21.4 Creating footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
21.4.1 Footnotes in music expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
21.4.2 Footnotes in stand-alone text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
21.5 Creating in-notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
21.6 Reference to page numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
21.7 Table of contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599

22 Working with input files. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603

22.1 Including LilyPond files. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
22.2 Different editions from one source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
22.2.1 Using variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
22.2.2 Using tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
22.2.3 Using global settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
22.3 Using music functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
22.3.1 Substitution function syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
22.3.2 Substitution function examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
 ix

22.3.3 How to prevent sharing of music expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616

22.3.4 Substitution functions and relative octave entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
22.4 Special characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
22.4.1 Text encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
22.4.2 Unicode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
22.4.3 ASCII aliases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620

23 Controlling output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622

23.1 Extracting fragments of music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
23.2 Skipping corrected music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
23.3 Alternative output formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
23.3.1 SVG Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
23.4 Embedding files in PDF output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
23.5 Replacing the notation font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

24 Creating MIDI output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626

24.1 Supported notation for MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
24.2 Unsupported notation for MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
24.3 The MIDI block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
24.4 Controlling MIDI dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
24.4.1 Dynamic marks in MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
24.4.2 Setting MIDI volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
24.4.3 Setting MIDI block properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
24.5 Using MIDI instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
24.6 Using repeats with MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
24.7 MIDI channel mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
24.8 Context properties for MIDI effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
24.9 Enhancing MIDI output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
24.9.1 The articulate script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
24.9.2 The swing script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637

25 Extracting musical information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639

25.1 Displaying LilyPond notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
25.2 Displaying Scheme music expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
25.3 Saving music events to a file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639

Spacing issues

26 Page layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643

26.1 The \paper block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
26.2 Paper size and automatic scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
26.2.1 Setting the paper size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
26.2.2 Automatic scaling to paper size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
26.3 Fixed vertical spacing \paper variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
26.4 Flexible vertical spacing \paper variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
26.4.1 Structure of flexible vertical spacing alists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
26.4.2 List of flexible vertical spacing \paper variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
26.5 Horizontal spacing \paper variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
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26.5.1 \paper variables for widths and margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648

26.5.2 \paper variables for two-sided mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
26.5.3 \paper variables for shifts and indents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
26.6 Other \paper variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
26.6.1 \paper variables for line breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
26.6.2 \paper variables for page breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
26.6.3 \paper variables for page numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
26.6.4 \paper variables concerning headers and markups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
26.6.5 \paper variables for debugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654

27 Score layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655

27.1 The \layout block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
27.2 Setting the staff size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657

28 Breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
28.1 Line breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
28.2 Page breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
28.2.1 Manual page breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
28.2.2 Optimal page breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
28.2.3 Minimal page breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
28.2.4 One-page page breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
28.2.5 One-line page breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
28.2.6 One-line-auto-height page breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
28.2.7 Optimal page turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667

29 Vertical spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669

29.1 Flexible vertical spacing within systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
29.1.1 Within-system spacing properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
29.1.2 Spacing of ungrouped staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
29.1.3 Spacing of grouped staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
29.1.4 Spacing of non-staff lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
29.2 Explicit staff and system positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
29.3 Vertical collision avoidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684

30 Horizontal spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686

30.1 Horizontal spacing overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
30.2 New spacing section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
30.3 Changing horizontal spacing globally. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
30.3.1 Uniform stretching of tuplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
30.3.2 Strict note spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
30.4 Adjusting horizontal spacing for specific layout objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
30.4.1 Overview of object-specific horizontal spacing tweaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
30.4.2 Spacing between adjacent non-musical items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
30.4.3 Spacing between adjacent columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
30.5 Line width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
30.6 Proportional notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
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31 Fitting music onto fewer pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702

31.1 Displaying spacing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
31.2 Changing spacing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703

Changing defaults

32 Tuning output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707

33 Interpretation contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708

33.1 Contexts explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
33.1.1 Output definitions – blueprints for contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
33.1.2 Score – the master of all contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
33.1.3 Top-level contexts – staff containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
33.1.4 Intermediate-level contexts – staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
33.1.5 Bottom-level contexts – voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
33.2 Creating and referencing contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
33.3 Keeping contexts alive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
33.4 Modifying context plug-ins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
33.5 Changing context default settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
33.5.1 Changing all contexts of the same type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
33.5.2 Changing just one specific context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
33.5.3 Order of precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
33.6 Defining new contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
33.7 Context layout order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726

34 Explaining the Internals Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729

34.1 Navigating the program reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
34.2 Layout interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
34.3 Determining the grob property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731

35 Modifying properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732

35.1 Overview of modifying properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
35.2 \set and \unset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
35.3 \override and \revert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
35.4 The \once command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
35.5 \set versus \override . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
35.6 \tweak and \single . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
35.7 The \offset command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
35.8 Modifying alists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743

36 Useful concepts and properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746

36.1 Direction and placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
36.1.1 Articulation direction indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
36.1.2 The direction property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
36.2 Distances and measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
36.3 Dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
36.4 Spanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
36.4.1 Modifying broken spanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
 xii

36.4.2 Setting minimum lengths for spanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750

36.4.3 Controlling spanner end points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
36.5 Line styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
36.6 Line spanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
36.7 Visibility of objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
36.7.1 Removing the stencil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
36.7.2 Making objects transparent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
36.7.3 Painting objects white . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
36.7.4 Using break-visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
36.7.5 Special considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
36.8 Rotating objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
36.8.1 Rotating layout objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
36.8.2 Rotating markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
36.9 Aligning objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
36.9.1 Setting X-offset and Y-offset directly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
36.9.2 Using the side-position-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
36.9.3 Using the self-alignment-interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
36.9.4 Using the break-alignable-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
36.10 Modifying stencils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
36.11 Modifying shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
36.11.1 Modifying ties and slurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769

Appendices

A Markup commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777

A.1 Text markup commands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
A.1.1 Font markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
A.1.2 Markup for text alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
A.1.3 Graphical markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
A.1.4 Markup for music and musical symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
A.1.5 Conditional markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
A.1.6 Instrument-specific markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
A.1.7 Accordion registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
A.1.8 Other markup commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839
A.2 Text markup list commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850

B Notation manual tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854

B.1 Chord name chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854
B.2 Common chord modifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854
B.3 Predefined string tunings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
B.4 Predefined fretboard diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
B.4.1 Diagrams for Guitar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
B.4.2 Diagrams for Ukulele . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
B.4.3 Diagrams for Mandolin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
B.5 Predefined paper sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
B.6 MIDI instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
B.7 List of colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
B.8 The Emmentaler font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
B.8.1 Modern glyph charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
 xiii

B.8.2 Ancient glyph charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881

B.9 Note head styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886
B.10 Accidental glyph sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886
B.11 Clef styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
B.11.1 Standard clefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
B.11.2 Percussion staff clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
B.11.3 Tab staff clefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
B.11.4 Ancient music clefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
B.12 List of special characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891
B.13 List of articulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
B.13.1 Articulation scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
B.13.2 Ornament scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
B.13.3 Fermata scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
B.13.4 Instrument-specific scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
B.13.5 Repeat sign scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
B.13.6 Ancient scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
B.14 List of breath marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
B.15 Percussion notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
B.16 List of bar lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
B.17 Default values for outside-staff-priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
B.18 Default values for script-priority. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902
B.19 Technical glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
B.20 Available music functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
B.21 Context modification identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922
B.22 Paper variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923
B.23 Naming conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932
B.24 Predefined type predicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932
B.24.1 R5RS primary predicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932
B.24.2 R5RS secondary predicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
B.24.3 Guile predicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
B.24.4 LilyPond scheme predicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
B.24.5 LilyPond exported predicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934

C Cheat sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936

D GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939

E Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
Musical notation
 3

1 Pitches

dolce e molto ligato

 NN   hh  hh h N N
 NNN hh  hh NN P  N h 


º
 N h h  NNN  NN
34

p  N h  hh sf

   NNN  hh h   N
cresc.

 º  NN   hh  h 
N  N
h h   NNN  NN . N
‘Ž  ‘Ž  ‘Ž 
 NN   hh  hh
 N h  h  NNN  NNN  Nh  NN PP  h  h  ˜
c
h
38

 h  ˜
p h

 NN   hh  hh h  ˜
h   NNN  NN .
. h
‘Ž 
This section discusses how to specify the pitch of notes. There are three steps to this process:
input, modification, and output.

1.1 Writing pitches

This section discusses how to input pitches. There are two different ways to place notes in
octaves: absolute and relative mode. In most cases, relative mode will be more convenient.

1.1.1 Absolute octave entry

A pitch name is specified using lowercase letters a through g. The note names c to b are engraved
in the octave below middle C.
{
\clef bass
c4 d e f
g4 a b c
d4 e f g
}

º h h h h h h hh h h h h

Other octaves may be specified with a single quote (') or comma (,) character. Each ' raises
the pitch by one octave; each , lowers the pitch by an octave.
{
\clef treble
c'4 e' g' c''
c'4 g b c'
\clef bass
Chapter 1: Pitches 4

c,4 e, g, c
c,4 g,, b,, c,
}

º h h  h
h h hh h h h h h hh h h
Common octave marks can be entered just once on a reference pitch after \fixed placed
before the music. Pitches inside \fixed only need ' or , marks when they are above or below
the octave of the reference pitch.
{
\fixed c' {
\clef treble
c4 e g c'
c4 g, b, c
}
\clef bass
\fixed c, {
c4 e g c'
c4 g, b, c
}
}

º h h  h
h h hh h h h h h hh h h
Pitches in the music expression following \fixed are unaffected by any enclosing \relative,
discussed next.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “Pitch names” in Music Glossary.
Snippets: Section “Pitches” in Snippets.

1.1.2 Relative octave entry

Absolute octave entry requires specifying the octave for every single note. Relative octave entry,
in contrast, specifies each octave in relation to the last note: changing one note’s octave will
affect all of the following notes.
Relative note mode has to be entered explicitly using the \relative command:
\relative startpitch musicexpr
In relative mode, each note is assumed to be as close to the previous note as possible. This
means that the octave of each pitch inside musicexpr is calculated as follows:
• If no octave changing mark is used on a pitch, its octave is calculated so that the interval
with the previous note is less than a fifth. This interval is determined without considering
accidentals.
• An octave changing mark ' or , can be added to respectively raise or lower a pitch by an
extra octave, relative to the pitch calculated without an octave mark.
• Multiple octave changing marks can be used. For example, '' and ,, will alter the pitch
by two octaves.
Chapter 1: Pitches 5

• The pitch of the first note is relative to startpitch. startpitch is specified in absolute
octave mode. Which choices are meaningful?
an octave of c
Identifying middle C with c' is quite basic, so finding octaves of c tends to
be straightforward. If your music starts with gis above c''', you’d write
something like \relative c''' { gis' ... }
an octave of the first note inside
Writing \relative gis''' { gis ... } makes it easy to determine the absolute
pitch of the first note inside.
no explicit starting pitch
The form \relative { gis''' ... } serves as a compact version of the previous
option: the first note inside is written in absolute pitch itself. (This happens
to be equivalent to choosing f as the reference pitch.)
The documentation will usually employ the last option.
Here is the relative mode shown in action:
\relative {
\clef bass
c d e f
g a b c
d e f g
}

h h h h h
º h h h h h h h

Octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth:
\relative {
c'' g c f,
c' a, e'' c
}

hh
º hh hh h
h
A note sequence without a single octave mark can nevertheless span large intervals:
\relative {
c f b e
a d g c
}

h h
º h h h
h h
h
When \relative blocks are nested, the innermost \relative block starts with its own
reference pitch independently of the outer \relative.
\relative {
Chapter 1: Pitches 6

c' d e f
\relative {
c'' d e f
}
}

h h h h
º
h h h h
To use absolute mode inside of \relative, put the absolute music inside \fixed c { ... }
and the absolute pitches will not affect the octaves of the relative music:
\relative {
c'4 \fixed c { f'' g'' } c |
c4 \fixed c'' { f g } c
}

h h h h
º
h h h h
\relative has no effect on \chordmode blocks.
\new Staff {
\relative c''' {
\chordmode { c1 }
}
\chordmode { c1 }
}

 º .. ..
. .
\relative is not allowed inside of \chordmode blocks.
Music inside a \transpose block is absolute unless a \relative is included.
\relative {
d' e
\transpose f g {
d e
\relative {
d' e
}
}
}

º h h h h
h h
If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used as the reference point for
the octave placement of a following note or chord. Inside chords, the next note is always relative
to the preceding one. Examine the next example carefully, paying attention to the c notes.
\relative {
Chapter 1: Pitches 7

c'
<c e g>
<c' e g'>
<c, e, g''>
}
h
º hh h
 h
h hh h
h
As explained above, the octave of pitches is calculated only with the note names, regardless
of any alterations. Therefore, an E-double-sharp following a B will be placed higher, while an
F-double-flat will be placed lower. In other words, a double-augmented fourth is considered a
smaller interval than a double-diminished fifth, regardless of the number of semitones that each
interval contains.
\relative {
c''2 fis
c2 ges
b2 eisis
b2 feses
}

N N N N
N N N
 º N
In complex situations, it is sometimes useful to get back to a certain pitch regardless of what
happened before. This can be done using \resetRelativeOctave:
\relative {
<<
{ c''2 d }
\\
{ e,,2 f }
>>
\resetRelativeOctave c''
c2
}

N
º N N
N N
See also
Music Glossary: Section “fifth” in Music Glossary, Section “interval” in Music Glossary, Sec-
tion “Pitch names” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 1.2.1 [Octave checks], page 12.
Snippets: Section “Pitches” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “RelativeOctaveMusic” in Internals Reference.
Chapter 1: Pitches 8

1.1.3 Accidentals
☛ ✟
Note: New users are sometimes confused about accidentals and key
signatures. In LilyPond, note names specify pitches; key signatures
and clefs determine how these pitches are displayed. An unaltered
note like c means ‘C natural’, regardless of the key signature or clef.
For more information, see Section “Pitches and key signatures” in
Learning Manual.
✡ ✠
A sharp pitch is made by adding is to the note name, and a flat pitch by adding es. As you
might expect, a double sharp or double flat is made by adding isis or eses. This syntax is de-
rived from Dutch note naming conventions. To use other names for accidentals, see Section 1.1.4
[Note names in other languages], page 10.
\relative c'' { ais1 aes aisis aeses }

 º . .
. .
A natural pitch is entered as a simple note name; no suffix is required. A natural sign will
be printed when needed to cancel the effect of an earlier accidental or key signature.
\relative c'' { a4 aes a2 }

 º h h N
Quarter tones may be added; the following is a series of Cs with increasing pitches:
\relative c'' { ceseh1 ces ceh c cih cis cisih }

 º . . . . . . .
Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also print them manually. A
reminder accidental can be forced by adding an exclamation mark ! after the pitch. A cautionary
accidental (i.e., an accidental within parentheses) can be obtained by adding the question mark ?
after the pitch.
\relative c'' { cis cis cis! cis? c c c! c? }

 º  h h h  h h h  h  h
Accidentals on tied notes are only printed at the beginning of a new system:
\relative c'' {
cis1~ 1~
\break
cis
}

 º . .
Chapter 1: Pitches 9

 .
3

Selected Snippets
Hiding accidentals on tied notes at the start of a new system
This shows how to hide accidentals on tied notes at the start of a new system.
\relative c'' {
\override Accidental.hide-tied-accidental-after-break = ##t
cis1~ cis~
\break
cis
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

 º . .

 .
3

Preventing extra naturals from being automatically added

In accordance with traditional typesetting rules, a natural sign is printed before a sharp or flat
if a previous double sharp or flat on the same note is canceled. To change this behavior to
contemporary practice, set the extraNatural property to f in the Staff context.
\relative c'' {
aeses4 aes ais a
\set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
aeses4 aes ais a
}

 º h  h  h  h h h h h
See also
Music Glossary: Section “sharp” in Music Glossary, Section “flat” in Music Glossary, Section
“double sharp” in Music Glossary, Section “double flat” in Music Glossary, Section “Pitch
names” in Music Glossary, Section “quarter tone” in Music Glossary.
Learning Manual: Section “Pitches and key signatures” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 1.3.5 [Automatic accidentals], page 31, Section 17.3.8 [Anno-
tational accidentals (musica ficta)], page 529, Section 1.1.4 [Note names in other languages],
page 10.
Snippets: Section “Pitches” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Accidental engraver” in Internals Reference, Section
“Accidental” in Internals Reference, Section “AccidentalCautionary” in Internals Reference,
Section “accidental-interface” in Internals Reference.
Chapter 1: Pitches 10

Known issues and warnings

There are no generally accepted standards for denoting quarter tone accidentals, so LilyPond’s
symbols do not conform to any standard.

1.1.4 Note names in other languages

There are predefined sets of note and accidental names for various other languages. Selecting
the note name language is usually done at the beginning of the file; the following example is
written using Italian note names:
\language "italiano"

\relative {
do' re mi sib
}

º
h h h h
The available languages and the note names they define are:
Language Note Names
nederlands c d e f g a bes b
català or do re mi fa sol la sib si
catalan
deutsch cdefgabh
english c d e f g a bf/b-flat b
espa~
nol or do re mi fa sol la sib si
espanol
français do ré/re mi fa sol la sib si
italiano do re mi fa sol la sib si
norsk cdefgabh
portugu^es or do re mi fa sol la sib si
portugues
suomi cdefgabh
svenska cdefgabh
vlaams do re mi fa sol la sib si
In addition to note names, accidental suffixes may also vary depending on the language:
Language sharp flat double sharp double flat
nederlands is es isis eses
català or d/s b dd/ss bb
catalan
deutsch is es isis eses
english s/-sharp f/-flat ss/x/-sharpsharp ff/-flatflat
espa~
nol or s b ss/x bb
espanol
français d b dd/x bb
italiano d b dd bb
norsk iss/is ess/es ississ/isis essess/eses
portugu^es or s b ss bb
portugues
suomi is es isis eses
Chapter 1: Pitches 11

svenska iss ess ississ essess

vlaams k b kk bb
In Dutch, German, Norwegian, and Finnish, aes is contracted to as; in Dutch and Norwegian,
however, both forms are accepted by LilyPond. Exactly the same holds for es and ees, aeses
and ases, and finally eeses and eses.
In German and Finnish, LilyPond additionally provides the more frequent form asas for
ases.
\relative c'' { a2 as e es a ases e eses }

 º N N N N N N N N
Some music uses microtones whose alterations are fractions of a ‘normal’ sharp or flat. The
following table lists note name suffixes for quarter tone accidentals; here the prefixes semi- and
sesqui- respectively mean ‘half’ and ‘one and a half’.
Language semi-sharp semi-flat sesqui-sharp sesqui-flat
nederlands ih eh isih eseh
català or qd/qs qb tqd/tqs tqb
catalan
deutsch ih eh isih eseh
english qs qf tqs tqf
espa~
nol or cs cb tcs tcb
espanol
français sd sb dsd bsb
italiano sd sb dsd bsb
norsk ih eh issih/isih esseh/eseh
portugu^es or sqt bqt stqt btqt
portugues
suomi ih eh isih eseh
svenska ih eh issih esseh
vlaams hk hb khk bhb
In German, there are similar name contractions for microtones as with normal pitches de-
scribed above.
\language "deutsch"

\relative c'' { asah2 eh aih eisih }

 º  N N  N N
Most languages presented here are commonly associated with Western classical music, also
referred to as Common Practice Period. However, alternate pitches and tuning systems are also
supported: see Section 18.1 [Common notation for non-Western music], page 552.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “Pitch names” in Music Glossary, Section “Common Practice Period”
in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 18.1 [Common notation for non-Western music], page 552.
Installed Files: scm/define-note-names.scm.
Snippets: Section “Pitches” in Snippets.
Chapter 1: Pitches 12

1.2 Changing multiple pitches

This section discusses how to modify pitches.

1.2.1 Octave checks

In relative mode, it is easy to forget an octave changing mark. Octave checks make such errors
easier to find by displaying a warning and correcting the octave if a note is found in an unexpected
octave.
To check the octave of a note, specify the absolute octave after the = symbol. This example
will generate a warning (and change the pitch) because the second note is the absolute octave
d'' instead of d' as indicated by the octave correction.
\relative {
c''2 d='
e2 f
}

º N N N N
The octave of notes may also be checked with the \octaveCheck controlpitch command.
controlpitch is specified in absolute mode. This checks that the interval between the previous
note and the controlpitch is within a fourth (i.e., the normal calculation of relative mode). If
this check fails, a warning is printed. While the previous note itself is not changed, future notes
are relative to the corrected value.
\relative {
c''2 d
\octaveCheck c'
e2 f
}

º N N N N
Compare the two bars below. The first and third \octaveCheck checks fail, but the second
one does not fail.
\relative {
c''4 f g f

c4
\octaveCheck c'
f
\octaveCheck c'
g
\octaveCheck c'
f
}

º h h h h h
 h h
h
Chapter 1: Pitches 13

See also
Snippets: Section “Pitches” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “RelativeOctaveCheck” in Internals Reference.

1.2.2 Transpose
A music expression can be transposed with \transpose. The syntax is
\transpose frompitch topitch musicexpr
This means that musicexpr is transposed by the interval between the pitches frompitch and
topitch: any note with pitch frompitch is changed to topitch and any other note is transposed
by the same interval. Both pitches are entered in absolute mode.
☛ ✟
Note: Music inside a \transpose block is absolute unless a \relative
is included in the block.
✡ ✠
Consider a piece written in the key of D-major. It can be transposed up to E-major; note
that the key signature is automatically transposed as well.
\transpose d e {
\relative {
\key d \major
d'4 fis a d
}
}

 h h
 º h h
If a part written in C (normal concert pitch) is to be played on the A clarinet (for which an
A is notated as a C and thus sounds a minor third lower than notated), the appropriate part
will be produced with:
\transpose a c' {
\relative {
\key c \major
c'4 d e g
}
}


º h h h h
Note that we specify \key c \major explicitly. If we do not specify a key signature, the notes
will be transposed but no key signature will be printed.
\transpose distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both \transpose c cis or
\transpose c des will transpose up a semitone. The first version will print sharps and the
notes will remain on the same scale step, the second version will print flats on the scale step
above.
music = \relative { c' d e f }
\new Staff {
\transpose c cis { \music }
\transpose c des { \music }
Chapter 1: Pitches 14

º h
 h  h  h h  h h h
\transpose may also be used in a different way, to input written notes for a transposing
instrument. The previous examples show how to enter pitches in C (or concert pitch) and typeset
them for a transposing instrument, but the opposite is also possible if you for example have a
set of instrumental parts and want to print a conductor’s score. For example, when entering
music for a B-flat trumpet that begins on a notated E (concert D), one would write:
musicInBflat = { e4 ... }
\transpose c bes, \musicInBflat
To print this music in F (e.g., rearranging to a French horn) you could wrap the existing music
with another \transpose:
musicInBflat = { e4 ... }
\transpose f c' { \transpose c bes, \musicInBflat }
For more information about transposing instruments, see Section 1.3.4 [Instrument transposi-
tions], page 29.

Selected Snippets
Transposing pitches with minimum accidentals ("Smart" transpose)
This example uses some Scheme code to enforce enharmonic modifications for notes in order to
have the minimum number of accidentals. In this case, the following rules apply:
Double accidentals should be removed
B sharp -> C
E sharp -> F
C flat -> B
F flat -> E
In this manner, the most natural enharmonic notes are chosen.
#(define (naturalize-pitch p)
(let ((o (ly:pitch-octave p))
(a (* 4 (ly:pitch-alteration p)))
;; alteration, a, in quarter tone steps,
;; for historical reasons
(n (ly:pitch-notename p)))
(cond
((and (> a 1) (or (eqv? n 6) (eqv? n 2)))
(set! a (- a 2))
(set! n (+ n 1)))
((and (< a -1) (or (eqv? n 0) (eqv? n 3)))
(set! a (+ a 2))
(set! n (- n 1))))
(cond
((> a 2) (set! a (- a 4)) (set! n (+ n 1)))
((< a -2) (set! a (+ a 4)) (set! n (- n 1))))
(if (< n 0) (begin (set! o (- o 1)) (set! n (+ n 7))))
(if (> n 6) (begin (set! o (+ o 1)) (set! n (- n 7))))
(ly:make-pitch o n (/ a 4))))
Chapter 1: Pitches 15

#(define (naturalize music)

(let ((es (ly:music-property music 'elements))
(e (ly:music-property music 'element))
(p (ly:music-property music 'pitch)))
(if (pair? es)
(ly:music-set-property!
music 'elements
(map naturalize es)))
(if (ly:music? e)
(ly:music-set-property!
music 'element
(naturalize e)))
(if (ly:pitch? p)
(begin
(set! p (naturalize-pitch p))
(ly:music-set-property! music 'pitch p)))
music))

naturalizeMusic =
#(define-music-function (m)
(ly:music?)
(naturalize m))

music = \relative c' { c4 d e g }

\score {
\new Staff {
\transpose c ais { \music }
\naturalizeMusic \transpose c ais { \music }
\transpose c deses { \music }
\naturalizeMusic \transpose c deses { \music }
}
\layout { }
}

º   h
h h h h h h
 h  h
h h h h h h h
See also
Notation Reference: Section 1.3.4 [Instrument transpositions], page 29, Section 1.2.3 [Inver-
sion], page 16, Section 1.2.5 [Modal transformations], page 17, Section 1.1.2 [Relative octave
entry], page 4, Section 1.2.4 [Retrograde], page 16.
Snippets: Section “Pitches” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “TransposedMusic” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

The relative conversion will not affect \transpose, \chordmode or \relative sections in its
argument. To use relative mode within transposed music, an additional \relative must be
placed inside \transpose.
Chapter 1: Pitches 16

Triple accidentals will not be printed if using \transpose. An ‘enharmonically equivalent’

pitch will be used instead (e.g., d-flat rather than e-triple-flat).

1.2.3 Inversion
A music expression can be inverted and transposed in a single operation with:
\inversion around-pitch to-pitch musicexpr
The musicexpr is inverted interval by interval around around-pitch, and then transposed
so that around-pitch is mapped to to-pitch.
music = \relative { c' d e f }
\new Staff {
\music
\inversion d' d' \music
\inversion d' ees' \music
}

º
h h h h h h h h h h h h
☛ ✟
Note: Motifs to be inverted should be expressed in absolute form or
be first converted to absolute form by enclosing them in a \relative
block.
✡ ✠

See also
Notation Reference: Section 1.2.5 [Modal transformations], page 17, Section 1.2.4 [Retrograde],
page 16, Section 1.2.2 [Transpose], page 13.

1.2.4 Retrograde
A music expression can be reversed to produce its retrograde:
music = \relative { c'8. ees16( fis8. a16 b8.) gis16 f8. d16 }

\new Staff {
\music
\retrograde \music
}

 º P h hP h hP h hP h h hP h hP h hP h P

h h
Known issues and warnings
\retrograde is a rather simple tool. Since many events are ‘mirrored’ rather than exchanged,
tweaks and directional modifiers for opening spanners need to be added at the matching closing
spanners: ^( needs to be ended by ^), every \< or \cresc needs to be ended by \! or \endcr,
every \> or \decr needs to be ended by \enddecr. Property-changing commands/overrides with
a lasting effect will likely cause surprises.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 1.2.3 [Inversion], page 16, Section 1.2.5 [Modal transformations],
page 17, Section 1.2.2 [Transpose], page 13.
Chapter 1: Pitches 17

1.2.5 Modal transformations

In a musical composition that is based on a scale, a motif is frequently transformed in various
ways. It may be transposed to start at different places in the scale or it may be inverted around
a pivot point in the scale. It may also be reversed to produce its retrograde, see Section 1.2.4
[Retrograde], page 16.
☛ ✟
Note: Any note that does not lie within the given scale will be left
untransformed.
✡ ✠

Modal transposition
A motif can be transposed within a given scale with:
\modalTranspose from-pitch to-pitch scale motif
The notes of motif are shifted within the scale by the number of scale degrees given by the
interval between to-pitch and from-pitch:
diatonicScale = \relative { c' d e f g a b }
motif = \relative { c'8 d e f g a b c }

\new Staff {
\motif
\modalTranspose c f \diatonicScale \motif
\modalTranspose c b, \diatonicScale \motif
}

º h h h h hhhhhhhh hhh
h h h h h h h
hh
An ascending scale of any length and with any intervals may be specified:
pentatonicScale = \relative { ges aes bes des ees }
motif = \relative { ees'8 des ges,4 <ges' bes,> <ges bes,> }

\new Staff {
\motif
\modalTranspose ges ees' \pentatonicScale \motif
}

h h
 º  h  h  h h  h h  h  h h
h  h h
When used with a chromatic scale \modalTranspose has a similar effect to \transpose, but
with the ability to specify the names of the notes to be used:
chromaticScale = \relative { c' cis d dis e f fis g gis a ais b }
motif = \relative { c'8 d e f g a b c }

\new Staff {
\motif
\transpose c f \motif
\modalTranspose c f \chromaticScale \motif
}
Chapter 1: Pitches 18

h h h hh h h hh
º h h h  h h  h
hhhhh hh hh
Modal inversion
A motif can be inverted within a given scale around a given pivot note and transposed in a
single operation with:
\modalInversion around-pitch to-pitch scale motif
The notes of motif are placed the same number of scale degrees from the around-pitch note
within the scale, but in the opposite direction, and the result is then shifted within the scale by
the number of scale degrees given by the interval between to-pitch and around-pitch.
So to simply invert around a note in the scale use the same value for around-pitch and
to-pitch:
octatonicScale = \relative { ees' f fis gis a b c d }
motif = \relative { c'8. ees16 fis8. a16 b8. gis16 f8. d16 }

\new Staff {
\motif
\modalInversion fis' fis' \octatonicScale \motif
}

 º P h hP h hP h hP h hP h hP h hP h hP h

h
To invert around a pivot between two notes in the scale, invert around one of the notes and
then transpose by one scale degree. The two notes specified can be interpreted as bracketing
the pivot point:
scale = \relative { c' g' }
motive = \relative { c' c g' c, }

\new Staff {
\motive
\modalInversion c' g' \scale \motive
}

º h h h h
h h h h
The combined operation of inversion and retrograde produce the retrograde inversion:
octatonicScale = \relative { ees' f fis gis a b c d }
motif = \relative { c'8. ees16 fis8. a16 b8. gis16 f8. d16 }

\new Staff {
\motif
\retrograde \modalInversion c' c' \octatonicScale \motif
}

 º P h hP h hP h hP h
h h hP h P h hP h hP
h
Chapter 1: Pitches 19

See also
Notation Reference: Section 1.2.3 [Inversion], page 16, Section 1.2.4 [Retrograde], page 16,
Section 1.2.2 [Transpose], page 13.

1.3 Displaying pitches

This section discusses how to alter the output of pitches.

1.3.1 Clef
Without any explicit command, the default clef for LilyPond is the treble (or G) clef.
c'2 c'

º
N N
However, the clef can be changed by using the \clef command and an appropriate clef name.
Middle C is shown in each of the following examples.
\clef treble
c'2 c'
\clef alto
c'2 c'
\clef tenor
c'2 c'
\clef bass
c'2 c'

 N N  N N
º N  N N
N
For the full range of possible clef names see Section B.11 [Clef styles], page 887.
Specialized clefs, such as those used in Ancient music, are described in Section 17.3.2 [Mensu-
ral clefs], page 525, and Section 17.4.2 [Gregorian clefs], page 532. Music that requires tablature
clefs is discussed in Section 12.1.3 [Default tablatures], page 419, and Section 12.1.4 [Custom
tablatures], page 437.
For mixing clefs when using cue notes, see the \cueClef and \cueDuringWithClef commands
in Section 6.3.3 [Formatting cue notes], page 260.
By adding _8 or ^8 to the clef name, the clef is transposed one octave down or up respectively,
and _15 and ^15 transpose by two octaves. Other integers can be used if required. Clef names
containing non-alphabetic characters must be enclosed in quotes
\clef treble
c'2 c'
\clef "treble_8"
c'2 c'
\clef "bass^15"
c'2 c'
\clef "alto_2"
c'2 c'
\clef "G_8"
c'2 c'
\clef "F^5"
Chapter 1: Pitches 20

c'2 c'

º  N N  N N N N N N
15 5

N N 8 N N 2
8

Optional octavation can be obtained by enclosing the numeric argument in parentheses or

brackets:
\clef "treble_(8)"
c'2 c'
\clef "bass^[15]"
c'2 c'


º N N
[15]

(8) N N
The pitches are displayed as if the numeric argument were given without parentheses/
brackets.
By default, a clef change taking place at a line break causes the new clef symbol to be printed
at the end of the previous line, as a ‘warning clef’, as well as at the beginning of the next. This
warning clef can be suppressed.
\clef treble c'2 c' \break
\clef bass c'2 c' \break
\set Staff.explicitClefVisibility = #end-of-line-invisible
\clef alto c'2 c' \break
\unset Staff.explicitClefVisibility
\clef bass c'2 c'

º 
N N
N N

2

N N 
3

N N

4

By default, a clef that has previously been printed will not be reprinted if the same \clef
command is issued again and will be ignored. The command \set Staff.forceClef = ##t
changes this behavior.
\clef treble
c'1
\clef treble
c'1
\set Staff.forceClef = ##t
c'1
Chapter 1: Pitches 21

\clef treble
c'1

º 
. . . .
To be more precise, it is not the \clef command itself that prints a clef. Instead, it sets or
changes a property of the Clef_engraver, which then decides by its own whether to display a
clef or not in the current staff. The forceClef property overrides this decision locally to reprint
a clef once.
When there is a manual clef change, the glyph of the changed clef will be smaller than normal.
This behavior can be overridden.
\clef "treble"
c'1
\clef "bass"
c'1
\clef "treble"
c'1
\override Staff.Clef.full-size-change = ##t
\clef "bass"
c'1
\clef "treble"
c'1
\revert Staff.Clef.full-size-change
\clef "bass"
c'1
\clef "treble"
c'1

º  .  .  .
. . . .
Selected Snippets
Tweaking clef properties
Changing the clef glyph, its position, or the ottavation does not change the position of subsequent
notes on the staff. To get key signatures on their correct staff lines, middleCClefPosition must
also be specified, with positive or negative values moving middle C up or down respectively,
relative to the staff’s center line.
For example, \clef "treble_8" is equivalent to setting the clefGlyph, clefPosition (the
vertical position of the clef itself on the staff), middleCPosition, and clefTransposition. Note
that when any of these properties (except middleCPosition) are changed a new clef symbol is
printed.
The following examples show the possibilities when setting these properties manually. On
the first line, the manual changes preserve the standard relative positioning of clefs and notes,
whereas on the second line, they do not.
{
% The default treble clef
\key f \major
Chapter 1: Pitches 22

c'1
% The standard bass clef
\set Staff.clefGlyph = "clefs.F"
\set Staff.clefPosition = 2
\set Staff.middleCPosition = 6
\set Staff.middleCClefPosition = 6
\key g \major
c'1
% The baritone clef
\set Staff.clefGlyph = "clefs.C"
\set Staff.clefPosition = 4
\set Staff.middleCPosition = 4
\set Staff.middleCClefPosition = 4
\key f \major
c'1
% The standard choral tenor clef
\set Staff.clefGlyph = "clefs.G"
\set Staff.clefPosition = -2
\set Staff.clefTransposition = -7
\set Staff.middleCPosition = 1
\set Staff.middleCClefPosition = 1
\key f \major
c'1
% A non-standard clef
\set Staff.clefPosition = 0
\set Staff.clefTransposition = 0
\set Staff.middleCPosition = -4
\set Staff.middleCClefPosition = -4
\key g \major
c'1 \break

% The following clef changes do not preserve

% the normal relationship between notes, key signatures
% and clefs:

\set Staff.clefGlyph = "clefs.F"

\set Staff.clefPosition = 2
c'1
\set Staff.clefGlyph = "clefs.G"
c'1
\set Staff.clefGlyph = "clefs.C"
c'1
\set Staff.clefTransposition = 7
c'1
\set Staff.clefTransposition = 0
\set Staff.clefPosition = 0
c'1

% Return to the normal clef:

\set Staff.middleCPosition = 0
c'1
Chapter 1: Pitches 23

\paper { tagline = ##f }

  .  .
  º      .   . 
. 8

     . .
6 8

. . . .
See also
Notation Reference: Section 17.3.2 [Mensural clefs], page 525, Section 17.4.2 [Gregorian clefs],
page 532, Section 12.1.3 [Default tablatures], page 419, Section 12.1.4 [Custom tablatures],
page 437, Section 6.3.3 [Formatting cue notes], page 260.
Installed Files: scm/parser-clef.scm.
Snippets: Section “Pitches” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Clef engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “Clef” in In-
ternals Reference, Section “ClefModifier” in Internals Reference, Section “clef-interface” in
Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Ottavation numbers attached to clefs are treated as separate grobs. So any \override done to
the Clef will also need to be applied, as a separate \override, to the ClefModifier grob.
\new Staff \with {
\override Clef.color = #(universal-color 'blue)
\override ClefModifier.color = #(universal-color 'vermillion)
}

\clef "treble_8" c'4

º h
8

1.3.2 Key signature

☛ ✟
Note: New users are sometimes confused about accidentals and key
signatures. In LilyPond, note names are the raw input; key signatures
and clefs determine how this raw input is displayed. An unaltered note
like c means ‘C natural’, regardless of the key signature or clef. For
more information, see Section “Pitches and key signatures” in Learning
Manual.
✡ ✠
The key signature indicates the tonality in which a piece is played. It is denoted by a set of
alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of the staff. The key signature may be altered:
\key pitch mode
Chapter 1: Pitches 24

Here, mode should be \major or \minor to get a key signature of pitch-major or pitch-minor,
respectively. You may also use the standard mode names, also called church modes: \ionian,
\dorian, \phrygian, \lydian, \mixolydian, \aeolian, and \locrian.
\relative {
\key g \major
fis''1
f
fis
}

º . . .

Additional modes can be defined, by listing the alterations for each scale step when the mode
starts on C.
freygish = #`((0 . ,NATURAL) (1 . ,FLAT) (2 . ,NATURAL)
(3 . ,NATURAL) (4 . ,NATURAL) (5 . ,FLAT) (6 . ,FLAT))

\relative {
\key c \freygish c'4 des e f
\bar "||" \key d \freygish d es fis g
}

  
  º  h h h h
h h h h
Accidentals in the key signature may be printed in octaves other than their traditional posi-
tions, or in multiple octaves, by using the flat-positions and sharp-positions properties of
KeySignature. Entries in these properties specify the range of staff positions where accidentals
will be printed. If a single position is specified in an entry, the accidentals are placed within the
octave ending at that staff position.
\override Staff.KeySignature.flat-positions = #'((-5 . 5))
\override Staff.KeyCancellation.flat-positions = #'((-5 . 5))
\clef bass \key es \major es g bes d'
\clef treble \bar "||" \key es \major es' g' bes' d''

\override Staff.KeySignature.sharp-positions = #'(2)

\bar "||" \key b \major b' fis' b'2

h
  º h h h  h      h N
   h h h   h
Chapter 1: Pitches 25

Selected Snippets
Preventing natural signs from being printed when the key signature
changes
When the key signature changes, natural signs are automatically printed to cancel any
accidentals from previous key signatures. This may be prevented by setting to f the
printKeyCancellation property in the Staff context.
\relative c' {
\key d \major
a4 b cis d
\key g \minor
a4 bes c d
\set Staff.printKeyCancellation = ##f
\key d \major
a4 b cis d
\key g \minor
a4 bes c d
}

 º  
  

hhhh hhhh hhhh hhhh
Non-traditional key signatures
The commonly used \key command sets the keyAlterations property, in the Staff context.
To create non-standard key signatures, set this property directly. The format of this command
is a list:
\set Staff.keyAlterations =
#`(((octave . step) . alter) ((octave . step) . alter) ...)
where, for each element in the list, octave specifies the octave (0 being the octave from
middle C to the B above), step specifies the note within the octave (0 means C and 6 means
B), and alter is ,SHARP ,FLAT ,DOUBLE-SHARP etc.
Alternatively, using the more concise format for each item in the list (step . alter) specifies
the same alteration holds in all octaves.
For microtonal scales where a “sharp” is not 100 cents, alter refers to the alteration as a
proportion of a 200-cent whole tone.
\include "arabic.ly"
\relative do' {
\set Staff.keyAlterations = #`((0 . ,SEMI-FLAT)
(1 . ,SEMI-FLAT)
(2 . ,FLAT)
(5 . ,FLAT)
(6 . ,SEMI-FLAT))
%\set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
re reb \dwn reb resd
dod dob dosd \dwn dob |
dobsb dodsd do do |
}
Chapter 1: Pitches 26


     º  h  h h  h h  h  h Œ h  h h  h h

See also
Music Glossary: Section “church mode” in Music Glossary, Section “scordatura” in Music
Glossary.
Learning Manual: Section “Pitches and key signatures” in Learning Manual.
Snippets: Section “Pitches” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “KeyChangeEvent” in Internals Reference, Section
“Key engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “Key performer” in Internals Reference,
Section “KeyCancellation” in Internals Reference, Section “KeySignature” in Internals
Reference, Section “key-signature-interface” in Internals Reference.

1.3.3 Ottava brackets

Ottava brackets raise or lower displayed notes by one or more octaves, leaving the sounding
pitch unchanged. The purpose of the octavation is to reduce the use of ledger lines, especially
when wide intervals occur in short passages. The \ottava takes a positive integer to indicate
playing higher than printed, or a negative to play lower. The effect of the ottava brackets lasts
to the next entry of a different octavation, and can be ended by using \ottava 0.
In the following example, all notes sound at the same pitch:
\relative c'' {
a2 b
\ottava -2
a2 b
\ottava -1
a2 b
\ottava 0
a2 b
\ottava 1
a2 b
\ottava 2
a2 b
}
N N
N N 8 15
º N N N N
N N
N N
15 8

By default, only a number is printed at the start of the bracket. That setting may be changed
to include an abbreviated ordinal, either in superscript or in normal letters; the initial bold font
weight of these characters may also be altered, as explained in Section 8.2.2 [Selecting font and
font size], page 314.
The following example demonstrates various options, as well as how to go back to the current
default behavior:
\relative c'' {
\ottava 1
Chapter 1: Pitches 27

a'2 b
\ottava 2
a'2 b
\bar "||"
\set Staff.ottavationMarkups = #ottavation-ordinals
\ottava 1
a,2 b
\ottava 2
a'2 b
\bar "||"
\override Staff.OttavaBracket.font-series = #'normal
\set Staff.ottavationMarkups = #ottavation-simple-ordinals
\ottava 1
a,2 b
\ottava 2
a'2 b
\bar "||"
\revert Staff.OttavaBracket.font-series
\set Staff.ottavationMarkups = #ottavation-numbers
\ottava 1
a,2 b
\ottava 2
a'2 b
}

8 15 8va 15ma 8va 15ma 8 15

º N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

Selected Snippets
Changing ottava text
Internally, \ottava sets the properties ottavation (for example, to 8va or 8vb) and
middleCPosition. To override the text of the bracket, set ottavation after invoking \ottava.
Short text is especially useful when a brief ottava is used.
{
c'2
\ottava 1
\set Staff.ottavation = "8"
c''2
\ottava 0
c'1
\ottava 1
\set Staff.ottavation = "Text"
c''1
}

8 Text
º N N . .
Chapter 1: Pitches 28

Adding an ottava marking to a single voice

If you have more than one voice on the staff, setting octavation in one voice transposes the
position of notes in all voices for the duration of the ottava bracket. If the octavation is only
intended to apply to one voice, the Ottava_spanner_engraver should be moved to Voice
context.
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
\remove Ottava_spanner_engraver
}
\context {
\Voice
\consists Ottava_spanner_engraver
}
}

{
\clef bass
<< { <g d'>1~ q2 <c' e'> }
\\
{
r2.
\ottava -1
<b,,, b,,>4 ~ |
q2
\ottava 0
<c e>2
}
>>
}

. NN NN
º . NN
˜P h N
h N
8
Modifying the Ottava spanner slope
It is possible to change the slope of the Ottava spanner.
\relative c'' {
\override Staff.OttavaBracket.stencil = #ly:line-spanner::print
\override Staff.OttavaBracket.bound-details =
#`((left . ((Y . 0)
(attach-dir . ,LEFT)
(padding . 0)
(stencil-align-dir-y . ,CENTER)))
(right . ((Y . 5.0) ; Change the number here
(padding . 0)
(attach-dir . ,RIGHT)
(text . ,(make-draw-dashed-line-markup
Chapter 1: Pitches 29

(cons 0 -1.2))))))
\override Staff.OttavaBracket.left-bound-info =
#ly:horizontal-line-spanner::calc-left-bound-info-and-text
\override Staff.OttavaBracket.right-bound-info =
#ly:horizontal-line-spanner::calc-right-bound-info
\ottava 1
c1
c'''1
}

.
8

º .
See also
Music Glossary: Section “octavation” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 8.2.2 [Selecting font and font size], page 314.
Snippets: Section “Pitches” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Ottava spanner engraver” in Internals Reference, Section
“OttavaBracket” in Internals Reference, Section “ottava-bracket-interface” in Internals Refer-
ence.

1.3.4 Instrument transpositions

When typesetting scores that involve transposing instruments, some parts can be typeset in a dif-
ferent pitch than the concert pitch. In these cases, the key of the transposing instrument should
be specified; otherwise the MIDI output and cues in other parts will produce incorrect pitches.
For more information about quotations, see Section 6.3.2 [Quoting other voices], page 256.
\transposition pitch
The pitch to use for \transposition should correspond to the real sound heard when a c'
written on the staff is played by the transposing instrument. This pitch is entered in absolute
mode, so an instrument that produces a real sound which is one tone higher than the printed
music should use \transposition d'. \transposition should only be used if the pitches are
not being entered in concert pitch.
Here are a few notes for violin and B-flat clarinet where the parts have been entered using
the notes and key as they appear in each part of the conductor’s score. The two instruments
are playing in unison.
\new GrandStaff <<
\new Staff = "violin" \with {
instrumentName = "Vln"
midiInstrument = "violin"
}
\relative c'' {
% not strictly necessary, but a good reminder
\transposition c'
\key c \major
g4( c8) r c r c4
}
\new Staff = "clarinet" \with {
Chapter 1: Pitches 30

instrumentName = \markup { Cl (B\flat) }

midiInstrument = "clarinet"
}
\relative c'' {
\transposition bes
\key d \major
a4( d8) r d r d4
}
>>

X
 º h h ¢h¢h
T T
Vln


Cl (B  )  º h h ¢h¢h
T T
The \transposition may be changed during a piece. For example, a clarinetist may be
required to switch from an A clarinet to a B-flat clarinet.
flute = \relative c'' {
\key f \major
\cueDuring "clarinet" #DOWN {
R1 _\markup\tiny "clarinet"
c4 f e d
R1 _\markup\tiny "clarinet"
}
}
clarinet = \relative c'' {
\key aes \major
\transposition a
aes4 bes c des
R1^\markup { muta in B\flat }
\key g \major
\transposition bes
d2 g,
}
\addQuote "clarinet" \clarinet
<<
\new Staff \with { instrumentName = "Flute" }
\flute
\new Staff \with { instrumentName = "Cl (A)" }
\clarinet
>>

” h h h h ”
Flute  º h h h
h N
N


clarinet
   clarinet
   º h h h h ”   N N
muta in B
Cl (A)
Chapter 1: Pitches 31

See also
Music Glossary: Section “concert pitch” in Music Glossary, Section “transposing instrument”
in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 6.3.2 [Quoting other voices], page 256, Section 1.2.2 [Trans-
pose], page 13.
Snippets: Section “Pitches” in Snippets.

1.3.5 Automatic accidentals

There are many different conventions on how to typeset accidentals. LilyPond provides a func-
tion to specify which accidental style to use. This function is called as follows:
\new Staff <<
\accidentalStyle voice
{ ... }
>>
The accidental style normally applies to the current Staff (with the exception of the styles
choral, piano and piano-cautionary, which are explained below). Optionally, the function
can take a second argument that determines in which scope the style should be changed. For
example, to use the same style in all staves of the current StaffGroup, use:
\accidentalStyle StaffGroup.voice
The following accidental styles are supported. To demonstrate each style, we use the following
example:
musicA = {
<<
\relative {
cis''8 fis, bes4 <a cis>8 f bis4 |
cis2. <c, g'>4 |
}
\\
\relative {
ais'2 cis, |
fis8 b a4 cis2 |
}
>>
}

musicB = {
\clef bass
\new Voice {
\voiceTwo \relative {
<fis a cis>8[ <fis a cis>
\change Staff = up
cis' cis
\change Staff = down
<fis, a> <fis a>]
\showStaffSwitch
\change Staff = up
dis'4 |
\change Staff = down
<fis, a cis>4 gis <f a d>2 |
}
Chapter 1: Pitches 32

}
}

\new PianoStaff {
<<
\new Staff = "up" {
\accidentalStyle default
\musicA
}
\new Staff = "down" {
\accidentalStyle default
\musicB
}
>>
}

X
 º   hN  h hh  hh  h  hh  Nh P h h Nh
 hN h
NN
 º  hhh hh
 h hh hh h
 hh  h N
Note that the last lines of this example can be replaced by the following, as long as the same
accidental style should be used in both staves.
\new PianoStaff {
<<
\new Staff = "up" {
%%% change the next line as desired:
\accidentalStyle Score.default
\musicA
}
\new Staff = "down" {
\musicB
}
>>
}
default
This is the default typesetting behavior. It corresponds to eighteenth-century com-
mon practice: accidentals are remembered to the end of the measure in which they
occur and only in their own octave. Thus, in the example below, no natural signs
are printed before the b in the second measure or the last c:

X
 º   hN  h hh  hh  h  hh  Nh P h h N h
 hN h
 hh hh hh hh  h N
ºh h  hh  h  NN
voice
Chapter 1: Pitches 33

The normal behavior is to remember the accidentals at Staff-level. In this style,

however, accidentals are typeset individually for each voice. Apart from that, the
rule is similar to default.
As a result, accidentals from one voice do not get canceled in other voices, which is
often an unwanted result: in the following example, it is hard to determine whether
the second a should be played natural or sharp. The voice option should therefore
be used only if the voices are to be read solely by individual musicians. If the staff
is to be used by one musician (e.g., a conductor or in a piano score) then modern or
modern-cautionary should be used instead.

X
 º   hN  h  hh h  hhN  h hh  Nh P h h  N h
h
N
 º  hhh hh
 h
 hhh  h  NN

hh hh
modern
This rule corresponds to the common practice in the twentieth century. It omits
some extra natural signs, which were traditionally prefixed to a sharp following a
double sharp, or a flat following a double flat. The modern rule prints the same
accidentals as default, with two additions that serve to avoid ambiguity: after
temporary accidentals, cancellation marks are printed also in the following measure
(for notes in the same octave) and, in the same measure, for notes in other octaves.
Hence the naturals before the b and the c in the second measure of the upper staff:

X
 º   hN  h  h  hh  h  h  Nh P  h h Nh
h hN h h
h h h NN
 º  hh hh hh hh  hh  h N
modern-cautionary
This rule is similar to modern, but the ‘extra’ accidentals are printed as cautionary
accidentals (with parentheses). They can also be printed at a different size by
overriding AccidentalCautionary’s font-size property.

Y
 º   hN  h  hh  hh  h  hh  Nh P  h h
hN
Nh
 h
NN
 º  hhh hh
 h h
hh hh  hh  h N
modern-voice
This rule is used for multi-voice accidentals to be read both by musicians playing
one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are typeset for each voice,
but they are canceled across voices in the same Staff. Hence, the a in the last
measure is canceled because the previous cancellation was in a different voice, and
the d in the lower staff is canceled because of the accidental in a different voice in
the previous measure:
Chapter 1: Pitches 34

X
 º   hN  h  hh h  hh  h  hh  Nh P  h  h  N hh
N
h h h N
 º  hh hh hh hh  hh  h  NN

modern-voice-cautionary
This rule is the same as modern-voice, but with the extra accidentals (the ones not
typeset by voice) typeset as cautionaries. Even though all accidentals typeset by
default are typeset with this rule, some of them are typeset as cautionaries.

Y
 º   hN  h   hh h   hh  h  hh  Nh P  h   h  N hh
N 
h h h 
  N
 º  hh hh hh hh  hh  h  NN

piano
This rule reflects twentieth-century practice for piano notation. Its behavior is very
similar to modern style, but here accidentals also get canceled across the staves in
the same GrandStaff or PianoStaff, hence all the cancellations of the final notes.
This accidental style applies to the current GrandStaff or PianoStaff unless qual-
ified with a second argument.

X
 º   hN  h  h  hh  h  h  Nh P  h h Nh
h hN h h
 NN
 º  hh hhh
h hh hh h
 hh  h N

piano-cautionary
This is the same as piano but with the extra accidentals typeset as cautionaries.

Y
 º   hN  h  h  hh  h  h  Nh P  h h N  h
h hN h  h
 N
 º  hh hhh
h hh hh h
 hh  h  NN

choral
This rule is a combination of the modern-voice and the piano style. It shows all
accidentals required for singers that only follow their own voice, as well as additional
accidentals for readers that follow all voices of an entire ChoirStaff simultaneously.
This accidental style applies to the current ChoirStaff unless qualified with a second
argument.
Chapter 1: Pitches 35

7
 º   hN  h  hh h  hh  h  hh  Nh P  h h  N hh
N
h h h N
 º  hh hh hh hh  hh  h  NN
6
choral-cautionary
This is the same as choral but with the extra accidentals typeset as cautionaries.

7
 º   hN  h  hh h  hh  h  hh  Nh P  h h  N  hh
N
h h h  N
 º  hh hh hh hh  hh  h  NN
6
neo-modern
This rule reproduces a common practice in contemporary music: accidentals are
printed like with modern, but they are printed again if the same note appears later
in the same measure – except if the note is immediately repeated.

X
 º   hN  h  hh   hh  h  hh  Nh P  h h  N h
hN h
h h h N
 º  hh hh  hh hh  hh  h  NN
neo-modern-cautionary
This rule is similar to neo-modern, but the ‘extra’ accidentals are printed as cau-
tionary accidentals (with parentheses). They can also be printed at a different size
by overriding AccidentalCautionary’s font-size property.

Y
 º   hN  h  h   hh  h  hh  Nh P  h h  N h
h h N  h
NN
 º  hh hhh  hh hh
h h
 hh  h N
neo-modern-voice
This rule is used for multi-voice accidentals to be read both by musicians playing
one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are typeset for each voice as
with neo-modern, but they are canceled across voices in the same Staff.

X
 º   hN  h  hh   hh  h  hh  Nh P  h  h  N h
hN  h
h h h  N
 º  hh hh  hh hh  hh  h  NN
Chapter 1: Pitches 36

neo-modern-voice-cautionary
This rule is similar to neo-modern-voice, but the extra accidentals are printed as
cautionary accidentals.

Y
 º   hN  h   hh h  hh  h  hh  Nh P  h   h  N hh
N
h h h  N
 º  hh hh  hh hh  hh  h  NN

dodecaphonic
This rule reflects a practice introduced by composers at the beginning of the 20th
century, in an attempt to abolish the hierarchy between natural and non-natural
notes. With this style, every note gets an accidental sign, including natural signs.

X
 º   Nh  h  h   hh  h  hh  Nh P  h  h  N  h
h hN h
 h  h  h  N
 º   hh   hh   hh   hh   hh  h   NN

dodecaphonic-no-repeat
Like with the dodecaphonic accidental style every note gets an accidental sign by
default, but accidentals are suppressed for pitches immediately repeated within the
same staff.

X
 º   hN  h  hh   hh  h  hh  Nh P  h  h N  h
h N  h
h h  N
  hhh  h   NN
 º   hh hh   hh hh
dodecaphonic-first
Similar to the dodecaphonic accidental style every pitch gets an accidental sign, but
only the first time it is encountered in a measure. Accidentals are only remembered
for the actual octave but throughout voices.

X
 º   hN  h  hh  hh  h  h  hN P  h  h Nh
hN h h
h h   hhh  h  NN
 º   hh hh hh hh N
teaching
This rule is intended for students, and makes it easy to create scale sheets with auto-
matically created cautionary accidentals. Accidentals are printed like with modern,
but cautionary accidentals are added for all sharp or flat tones specified by the key
signature, except if the note is immediately repeated.
Chapter 1: Pitches 37

D
 
 º    hN   h  h   hh  h h    Nh P  h h  N  h
 h h N  h h
 h h NN
 hhh  h
 
  º  hh hh  hh hh N
no-reset
This is the same as default but with accidentals lasting ‘forever’ and not only
within the same measure:

X
 º   hN  h  hh  hh  h  hh  Nh P  h h N h
hN h
N
 º  hhh hh
 h hh hh hh  h N
h N
forget
This is the opposite of no-reset: Accidentals are not remembered at all – and
hence all accidentals are typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what
came before in the music.

X
 º   hN  h  h  hh h  hh  Nh P h h  N h
h hN h
N
 º  hh  hhh
h
 hhh  h NN

 hh  hh
See also
Snippets: Section “Pitches” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Accidental” in Internals Reference, Section
“Accidental engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “GrandStaff” in Internals Reference,
Section “PianoStaff” in Internals Reference, Section “Staff” in Internals Reference, Section
“AccidentalSuggestion” in Internals Reference, Section “AccidentalPlacement” in Internals
Reference, Section “accidental-suggestion-interface” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Simultaneous notes are not considered in the automatic determination of accidentals; only pre-
vious notes and the key signature are taken into account. Forcing accidentals with ‘!’ or ‘?’ may
be required when the same note name occurs simultaneously with different alterations, as in <f!
fis!>.
\relative c' <<
{ fis8 g } \\
{ f! f }
>>

 º  h  hh
T T
A more sophisticated solution is given in LSR snippet 1172 (https://lsr.di.unimi.it/
LSR/Item?id=1172).
Chapter 1: Pitches 38

In alternative endings, cautionary cancellation should be based on the previous played mea-
sure, but it is based on the previous printed measure. In the following example, the natural c
in the second alternative does not need a natural sign:

. .
 42 N N PP N
The following workaround can be used: define a function that locally changes the accidental
style to forget:
forget = #(define-music-function (music) (ly:music?) #{
\accidentalStyle forget
#music
\accidentalStyle modern
#})
{
\accidentalStyle modern
\time 2/4
\repeat volta 2 {
c'2
}
\alternative {
\volta 1 { cis' }
\volta 2 { \forget c' }
}
}

. .
 42 PP
N N N
1.3.6 Alternate accidental glyphs
Non-Western and ancient notation systems have their own accidentals. The glyphs are controlled
through the alterationGlyphs property of the Staff context and similar context types. The
predefined values for this property are listed in Section B.10 [Accidental glyph sets], page 886.
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
alterationGlyphs = #alteration-vaticana-glyph-name-alist
}
}

{ ces' c' cis' }

º
% h $h  h
The property may also be set to a custom associative list mapping alterations to glyph names.
Alterations are given as fractions in tones. Glyphs are listed at [Accidental glyphs], page 873.
\layout {
Chapter 1: Pitches 39

\context {
\Staff
alterationGlyphs =
#'((-1/2 . "accidentals.flat.arrowdown")
(0 . "accidentals.natural.arrowup")
(1/2 . "accidentals.sharp.arrowup"))
}
}

{ ces' c' cis' }

º
 h h  h
The padding-pairs property of KeySignature and KeyCancellation objects is an associa-
tive list mapping pairs of glyphs to the padding that should be added between these glyphs in
key signatures.
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
alterationGlyphs =
#'((-1/2 . "accidentals.flat.arrowdown")
(0 . "accidentals.natural.arrowup")
(1/2 . "accidentals.sharp.arrowup"))
\override KeySignature.padding-pairs =
#'((("accidentals.sharp.arrowup" . "accidentals.sharp.arrowup")
. 0.25)
(("accidentals.flat.arrowdown" . "accidentals.flat.arrowdown")
. 0.3))
\override KeyCancellation.padding-pairs =
#'((("accidentals.natural.arrowup" . "accidentals.natural.arrowup")
. 0.7))
}
}

{
\key cis \major
ces' c'
\key ces \major
cis'
}

  º         
     
h h h
See also
Notation Reference: Section B.10 [Accidental glyph sets], page 886, [Accidental glyphs],
page 873.
Chapter 1: Pitches 40

Internals Reference: Section “accidental-switch-interface” in Internals Reference, Section

“Alteration glyph engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “key-signature-interface” in Inter-
nals Reference.

1.3.7 Ambitus
The term ambitus (pl. ambitus) denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in a part of music.
It may also denote the pitch range that a musical instrument is capable of playing. Ambitus are
printed on vocal parts so that performers can easily determine if it matches their capabilities.
Ambitus are denoted at the beginning of a piece near the initial clef. The range is graphically
specified by two note heads that represent the lowest and highest pitches. Accidentals are only
printed if they are not part of the key signature.
\layout {
\context {
\Voice
\consists Ambitus_engraver
}
}

\relative {
aes' c e2
cis,1
}

h º h N
 h
h .
Selected Snippets
Adding ambitus per voice
Ambitus can be added per voice. In this case, the ambitus must be moved manually to prevent
collisions.
\new Staff <<
\new Voice \with {
\consists "Ambitus_engraver"
} \relative c'' {
\override Ambitus.X-offset = 2.0
\voiceOne
c4 a d e
f1
}
\new Voice \with {
\consists "Ambitus_engraver"
} \relative c' {
\voiceTwo
es4 f g as
b1
}
>>
Chapter 1: Pitches 41

h h º h h h ..
h h   h hh h  h
Ambitus with multiple voices
Adding the Ambitus_engraver to the Staff context creates a single ambitus per staff, even in
the case of staves with multiple voices.
\new Staff \with {
\consists "Ambitus_engraver"
}
<<
\new Voice \relative c'' {
\voiceOne
c4 a d e
f1
}
\new Voice \relative c' {
\voiceTwo
es4 f g as
b1
}
>>

h º h h h ..
h   h hh h h
Changing the ambitus gap
It is possible to change the default gap between the ambitus noteheads and the line joining
them.
\layout {
\context {
\Voice
\consists "Ambitus_engraver"
}
}

\new Staff {
\time 2/4
% Default setting
c'4 g''
}

\new Staff {
\time 2/4
\override AmbitusLine.gap = 0
c'4 g''
}

\new Staff {
Chapter 1: Pitches 42

\time 2/4
\override AmbitusLine.gap = 1
c'4 g''
}

\new Staff {
\time 2/4
\override AmbitusLine.gap = 1.5
c'4 g''
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

h h
 2
h 4 h
h h
 2
h 4 h
h h
 2
h 4 h
h h
 2
h 4 h
Ambitus after key signature
By default, ambitus are positioned at the left of the clef. The \ambitusAfter function al-
lows for changing this placement. Syntax is \ambitusAfter grob-interface (see Graphical
Object Interfaces (http://lilypond.org/doc/v2.22/Documentation/internals/
graphical-object-interfaces) for a list of possible values for grob-interface.)
A common use case is printing the ambitus between key signature and time signature.
\new Staff \with {
\consists Ambitus_engraver
} \relative {
\ambitusAfter key-signature
\key d \major
es'8 g bes cis d2
}

 h º
 h  h h h h N
See also
Music Glossary: Section “ambitus” in Music Glossary.
Snippets: Section “Pitches” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Ambitus engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “Voice”
in Internals Reference, Section “Staff” in Internals Reference, Section “Ambitus” in Internals
Reference, Section “AmbitusAccidental” in Internals Reference, Section “AmbitusLine” in
Chapter 1: Pitches 43

Internals Reference, Section “AmbitusNoteHead” in Internals Reference, Section “ambitus-

interface” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

There is no collision handling in the case of multiple per-voice ambitus.

1.4 Note heads

This section suggests ways of altering note heads.

1.4.1 Special note heads

The appearance of note heads may be altered:
\relative c'' {
c4 b
\override NoteHead.style = #'cross
c4 b
\revert NoteHead.style
a b
\override NoteHead.style = #'harmonic
a b
\revert NoteHead.style
c4 d e f
}

º h h j j h 7 h h h h
 h 7
To see all note head styles, see Section B.9 [Note head styles], page 886.
The cross style is used to represent a variety of musical intentions. The following generic
predefined commands modify the note head in both staff and tablature contexts and can be used
to represent any musical meaning:
\relative {
c''4 b
\xNotesOn
a b c4 b
\xNotesOff
c4 d
}

º h h j j j j h h
The music function form of this predefined command may be used inside and outside chords
to generate crossed note heads in both staff and tablature contexts:
\relative {
c''4 b
\xNote { e f }
c b < g \xNote c f > b
}
Chapter 1: Pitches 44

º h h j j h h hj h
 h
As synonyms for \xNote, \xNotesOn and \xNotesOff, \deadNote, \deadNotesOn and
\deadNotesOff can be used. The term dead note is commonly used by guitarists.
There is also a similar shorthand for diamond shapes:
\relative c'' {
<c f\harmonic>2 <d a'\harmonic>4 <c g'\harmonic> f\harmonic
}

7 7h 7 7
º N h

Predefined commands
\harmonic, \xNotesOn, \xNotesOff, \xNote.

See also
Snippets: Section “Pitches” in Snippets.
Notation Reference: Section B.9 [Note head styles], page 886, Section 5.1.1 [Chorded notes],
page 207, Section 12.2.2 [Indicating harmonics and dampened notes], page 466.
Internals Reference: Section “note-event” in Internals Reference, Section
“Note heads engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “Ledger line engraver” in Internals
Reference, Section “NoteHead” in Internals Reference, Section “LedgerLineSpanner”
in Internals Reference, Section “note-head-interface” in Internals Reference, Section
“ledger-line-spanner-interface” in Internals Reference.

1.4.2 Easy notation note heads

The ‘easy play’ note head includes a note name inside the head. It is used in music for beginners.
To make the letters readable, it should be printed in a large font size. To print with a larger
font, see Section 27.2 [Setting the staff size], page 657.
#(set-global-staff-size 26)
\relative c' {
\easyHeadsOn
c2 e4 f
g1
\easyHeadsOff
c,1
}

º
C
E
F
G
.
Predefined commands
\easyHeadsOn, \easyHeadsOff.
Chapter 1: Pitches 45

Selected Snippets
Numbers as easy note heads
Easy notation note heads use the note-names property of the NoteHead object to determine
what appears inside the note head. By overriding this property, it is possible to print numbers
representing the scale-degree.
A simple engraver can be created to do this for every note head object it sees.
#(define Ez_numbers_engraver
(make-engraver
(acknowledgers
((note-head-interface engraver grob source-engraver)
(let* ((context (ly:translator-context engraver))
(tonic-pitch (ly:context-property context 'tonic))
(tonic-name (ly:pitch-notename tonic-pitch))
(grob-pitch
(ly:event-property (event-cause grob) 'pitch))
(grob-name (ly:pitch-notename grob-pitch))
(delta (modulo (- grob-name tonic-name) 7))
(note-names
(make-vector 7 (number->string (1+ delta)))))
(ly:grob-set-property! grob 'note-names note-names))))))

#(set-global-staff-size 26)

\paper { tagline = ##f }

\layout {
ragged-right = ##t
\context {
\Voice
\consists \Ez_numbers_engraver
}
}

\relative c' {
\easyHeadsOn
c4 d e f
g4 a b c \break

\key a \major
a,4 b cis d
e4 fis gis a \break

\key d \dorian
d,4 e f g
a4 b c d


}

º 2
3
4
5
6
7
1

1
Chapter 1: Pitches 46

3
  
 4
5
6
7
1

3
2
1

 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1

See also
Notation Reference: Section 27.2 [Setting the staff size], page 657.
Snippets: Section “Pitches” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “note-event” in Internals Reference, Section
“Note heads engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “NoteHead” in Internals Reference,
Section “note-head-interface” in Internals Reference.

1.4.3 Shape note heads

In shape note head notation, the shape of the note head corresponds to the harmonic function
of a note in the scale. This notation was popular in nineteenth-century American song books.
Shape note heads can be produced in Sacred Harp, Southern Harmony, Funk (Harmonia Sacra),
Walker, and Aiken (Christian Harmony) styles:
\relative c'' {
\aikenHeads
c, d e f g2 a b1 c \break
\aikenThinHeads
c,4 d e f g2 a b1 c \break
\sacredHarpHeads
c,4 d e f g2 a b1 c \break
\southernHarmonyHeads
c,4 d e f g2 a b1 c \break
\funkHeads
c,4 d e f g2 a b1 c \break
\walkerHeads
c,4 d e f g2 a b1 c \break
}

º c U J 3
l { v Î

K 4
5

 w Ð c W
m |
> 
9

 o Î c U
Î ~
@ 
13

 q Ð c W
Ð ~
Chapter 1: Pitches 47



17

 Ì Ó u Ï d V

L 5
21

 x Ñ d X
Í Ô
Shapes are typeset according to the step in the scale, where the base of the scale is determined
by the \key command. When writing in a minor key, the scale step can be determined from the
relative major:
\relative c'' {
\key a \minor
\aikenHeads
a b c d e2 f g1 a \break
\aikenHeadsMinor
a,4 b c d e2 f g1 a \break
\aikenThinHeadsMinor
a,4 b c d e2 f g1 a \break
\sacredHarpHeadsMinor
a,2 b c d \break
\southernHarmonyHeadsMinor
a2 b c d \break
\funkHeadsMinor
a2 b c d \break
\walkerHeadsMinor
a2 b c d \break
}

 c U J 3
º l { v

[ H 9
€ l {
5

 o
\ H ;
 m |
9

 q

Z c
13

 U

\ c
15

 W

 V   
17

 
19

 X
Chapter 1: Pitches 48

Predefined commands
\aikenHeads, \aikenHeadsMinor, \aikenThinHeads, \aikenThinHeadsMinor, \funkHeads,
\funkHeadsMinor, \sacredHarpHeads, \sacredHarpHeadsMinor, \southernHarmonyHeads,
\southernHarmonyHeadsMinor, \walkerHeads, \walkerHeadsMinor.

Selected Snippets
Aiken head thin variant noteheads
Aiken head white notes get harder to read at smaller staff sizes, especially with ledger lines.
Losing interior white space makes them appear as quarter notes.
\score {
{
\aikenHeads
c''2 a' c' a

% Switch to thin-variant noteheads

\set shapeNoteStyles = ##(doThin reThin miThin
faThin sol laThin tiThin)
c'' a' c' a
}
}

º R U R U
S W
S W
Direction of merged ’fa’ shape note heads
Using property NoteCollision.fa-merge-direction, the direction of “fa” shape note heads
(“fa”, “faThin”, etc.) can be controlled independently of the stem direction if two voices with
the same pitch and different stem directions are merged. If this property is not set, the “down”
glyph variant is used.
{
\clef bass

<< { \aikenHeads
f2
\override Staff.NoteCollision.fa-merge-direction = #UP
f2 }
\\ { \aikenHeads
f2
f2 }
>>
}

º Ã
Applying note head styles depending on the step of the scale
The shapeNoteStyles property can be used to define various note head styles for each step of
the scale (as set by the key signature or the tonic property).
Chapter 1: Pitches 49

This property requires a set of symbols, which can be purely arbitrary (geometrical expres-
sions such as triangle, cross, and xcircle are allowed) or based on old American engraving
tradition (some latin note names are also allowed).
That said, to imitate old American song books, there are several predefined note head styles
available through shortcut commands such as \aikenHeads or \sacredHarpHeads.
This example shows different ways to obtain shape note heads, and demonstrates the ability
to transpose a melody without losing the correspondence between harmonic functions and note
head styles.
fragment = {
\key c \major
c2 d
e2 f
g2 a
b2 c
}

\new Staff {
\transpose c d
\relative c' {
\set shapeNoteStyles = ##(do re mi fa
#f la ti)
\fragment
}

\break

\relative c' {
\set shapeNoteStyles = ##(cross triangle fa #f
mensural xcircle diamond)
\fragment
}
}

 º U e R 
 ` Z Ã N
R

Q P
5

 à N Y ƒ
P g
To see all note head styles, see Section B.9 [Note head styles], page 886.

See also
Snippets: Section “Pitches” in Snippets.
Notation Reference: Section B.9 [Note head styles], page 886.
Internals Reference: Section “note-event” in Internals Reference, Section
“Note heads engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “NoteHead” in Internals Reference,
Section “note-head-interface” in Internals Reference.
Chapter 1: Pitches 50

1.4.4 Improvisation
Improvisation is sometimes denoted with slashed note heads, where the performer may choose
any pitch but should play the specified rhythm. Such note heads can be created:
\new Voice \with {
\consists Pitch_squash_engraver
} \relative {
e''8 e g a a16( bes) a8 g
\improvisationOn
e8 ~
2 ~ 8 f4 f8 ~
2
\improvisationOff
a16( bes) a8 g e
}

h h h h h h h h h h h h h
º } b } } } b
T T
Predefined commands
\improvisationOn, \improvisationOff.

See also
Snippets: Section “Pitches” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Pitch squash engraver” in Internals Reference, Section
“Voice” in Internals Reference, Section “RhythmicStaff” in Internals Reference.
 51

2 Rhythms

h h h h
31
  2 h h
 4 h h h h
a tempo

  2  hh h hh h hh
cantabile
h h h h h h h h h h h
h h h h h
4
hp  hp h h h h
  h h h h h h h

h h h h
32

 h h h h h
h h h h h h h h hh h  hh h  hh h hh h
  h h h h
cresc.



h h h h h  h h  h h h h h h h h hhh
h h h h
d
33
 

p h h h h h
   hh hh hh hh hh hh h  hh h hh h

hp  hp h h h h
  h h h h h h h
l
h h h h
34

 h h h h h
 h h h h h h h h hh h  hh h  hh h hh h
  h h h h
cresc.


This section discusses rhythms, rests, durations, beaming and bars.

2.1 Writing rhythms

2.1.1 Durations
The durations of notes are entered using numbers and dots. The number entered is based on
the reciprocal value of the length of the note. For example, a quarter note is designated using
the numerical value of 4 as it is a 1/4 note, a half note using 2, an eighth using 8 and so on.
Durations as short as 1024 notes can be entered but shorter values, while possible, can only be
entered as beamed notes. Also see Section 2.4 [Beams], page 97.
For notes longer than a whole use the \longa – double breve – and \breve commands. A
note with the duration of a quadruple breve is possible using the \maxima command but is only
supported within ancient music notation. See Chapter 17 [Ancient notation], page 520.
\relative {
Chapter 2: Rhythms 52

\time 8/1
c''\longa c\breve c1 c2
c4 c8 c16 c32 c64 c128 c128
}

 81  „ . N h h h h h hh

Here are the same durations with automatic beaming turned off.
\relative {
\time 8/1
\autoBeamOff
c''\longa c\breve c1 c2
c4 c8 c16 c32 c64 c128 c128
}

 81  „ . N h h
T
h h h hh
U V W
XX
Isolated durations – durations without a pitch – that occur within a music sequence will take
their pitch from the preceding note or chord.
\relative {
\time 8/1
c'' \longa \breve 1 2
4 8 16 32 64 128 128
}

 81  „ . N h h h h h hh

Isolated pitches – pitches without a duration – that occur within a music sequence will take
their duration from the preceding note or chord. If there is no preceding duration, then default
for the note is always 4, a quarter note.
\relative { a' a a2 a a4 a a1 a }

º h h N N h h . .
Place a dot (.) after the duration to obtain ‘dotted’ note lengths. Double-dotted notes are
specified by appending two dots, and so on.
\relative { a'4 b c4. b8 a4. b4.. c8. }

 º h h h P h h P h P P hT P
T
To avoid clashing with staff lines, dots on notes are normally moved up. In polyphonic
situations however, they can be placed, manually, above or below the staff as required. See
Section 36.1 [Direction and placement], page 746.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 53

Some note durations cannot be represented using just numbers and dots but only by tying
two or more notes together. See Section 2.1.4 [Ties], page 61.
To specify durations that align the syllables of lyrics and notes together see Chapter 9 [Vocal
music], page 335.
Notes can also be spaced proportionately to their duration, see Section 30.6 [Proportional
notation], page 696.

Predefined commands
\autoBeamOn, \autoBeamOff, \dotsUp, \dotsDown, \dotsNeutral.

Selected Snippets
Alternative breve notes
Breve notes are also available with two vertical lines on each side of the notehead instead of one
line and in baroque style.
\relative c'' {
\time 4/2
c\breve |
\override Staff.NoteHead.style = #'altdefault
b\breve
\override Staff.NoteHead.style = #'baroque
b\breve
\revert Staff.NoteHead.style
a\breve
}

 42 „ † ‰ „
Changing the number of augmentation dots per note
The number of augmentation dots on a single note can be changed independently of the dots
placed after the note.
\relative c' {
c4.. a16 r2 |
\override Dots.dot-count = 4
c4.. a16 r2 |
\override Dots.dot-count = 0
c4.. a16 r2 |
\revert Dots.dot-count
c4.. a16 r2 |
}

 º PP †˜ †˜ †˜ †˜
h h hPPPP h h h hPP h
See also
Music Glossary: Section “breve” in Music Glossary, Section “longa” in Music Glossary, Sec-
tion “maxima” in Music Glossary, Section “note value” in Music Glossary, Section “Duration
names notes and rests” in Music Glossary.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 54

Notation Reference: Section 2.4 [Beams], page 97, Section 2.1.4 [Ties], page 61, Sec-
tion 7.1.9 [Stems], page 287, Section 2.1 [Writing rhythms], page 51, Section 2.2 [Writing
rests], page 65, Chapter 9 [Vocal music], page 335, Chapter 17 [Ancient notation], page 520,
Section 30.6 [Proportional notation], page 696.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Dots” in Internals Reference, Section “DotColumn” in Inter-
nals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

While there is no fundamental limit to rest durations (longest or shortest), there is a limit to
the number of glyphs possible so only rests between 1024 and \maxima may be printed.

2.1.2 Tuplets
Tuplets are made from a music expression with the \tuplet command, multiplying the speed
of the music expression by a fraction:
\tuplet fraction { music }
The fraction’s numerator will be printed over or under the notes, optionally with a bracket. The
most common tuplets are triplets (3 notes played within the duration normally allowed for 2).
\relative {
a'2 \tuplet 3/2 { b4 4 4 }
c4 c \tuplet 3/2 { b4 a g }
}

º N hhh h h hhh
3

When entering long passages of tuplets, having to write a separate \tuplet command for
each group is inconvenient. It is possible to specify the duration of one tuplet group directly
before the music in order to have the tuplets grouped automatically:
\relative {
g'2 r8 \tuplet 3/2 8 { cis16 d e e f g g f e }
}

hhhh
º N ¢ h h h h h
3 3 3

Tuplet brackets may be manually placed above or below the staff:

\relative {
\tupletUp \tuplet 3/2 { c''8 d e }
\tupletNeutral \tuplet 3/2 { c8 d e }
\tupletDown \tuplet 3/2 { f,8 g a }
\tupletNeutral \tuplet 3/2 { f8 g a }
}

h h h h
 º h h hhhhhh
3 3

3 3
Chapter 2: Rhythms 55

Tuplets may be nested:

\relative {
\autoBeamOff
c''4 \tuplet 5/4 { f8 e f \tuplet 3/2 { e[ f g] } } f4
}

º h h h h hhhh
 T T T 3
5

Modifying nested tuplets which begin at the same musical moment must be done with \tweak;
see Section 35.6 [\tweak and \single], page 736.
Tuplet brackets may be replaced with slurs, as is preferred in many older editions:
\relative {
\tuplet 3/2 4 {
\override TupletBracket.tuplet-slur = ##t
c'4 e8 d4 f8
\override TupletBracket.bracket-visibility = ##t
e f g f e d
} c1
}

º h hh hhhhhhh
3 3 3 3

.
By default, a bracket is only printed if all of the notes it spans are not beamed together; in
some cases (for example with slurs, as in the example above) it may be preferable to change
that behavior, through the bracket-visibility property as detailed in one of the following
snippets.
More generally, either or both the TupletBracket and TupletNumber objects may be hidden
or shown as explained in Section 36.7 [Visibility of objects], page 756; however, a more flexible
way of modifying the duration of notes without printing a tuplet bracket is also introduced in
Section 2.1.3 [Scaling durations], page 60.

Predefined commands
\tupletUp, \tupletDown, \tupletNeutral.

Selected Snippets
Entering several tuplets using only one \tuplet command
The property tupletSpannerDuration sets how long each of the tuplets contained within the
brackets after \tuplet should last. Many consecutive tuplets can then be placed within a single
\tuplet expression, thus saving typing.
There are ways to set tupletSpannerDuration besides using a \set command. The com-
mand \tupletSpan sets it to a given duration, or clears it when instead of a duration \default
is specified. Another way is to use an optional argument with \tuplet.
\relative c' {
\time 2/4
\tupletSpan 4
\tuplet 3/2 { c8^"\\tupletSpan 4" c c c c c }
Chapter 2: Rhythms 56

\tupletSpan \default
\tuplet 3/2 { c8^"\\tupletSpan \\default" c c c c c }
\tuplet 3/2 4 { c8^"\\tuplet 3/2 4 {...}" c c c c c }
}

\tuplet 3/2 4 {...}

\tupletSpan \default
\tupletSpan 4
 42 h h3 h h h3 h h h h h h h h h3 h h h3 h
3

Changing the tuplet number

By default, only the numerator of the tuplet number is printed over the tuplet bracket, i.e., the
numerator of the argument to the \tuplet command.
Alternatively, num:den of the tuplet number may be printed, or the tuplet number may be
suppressed altogether.
\relative c'' {
\tuplet 3/2 { c8 c c }
\tuplet 3/2 { c8 c c }
\override TupletNumber.text = #tuplet-number::calc-fraction-text
\tuplet 3/2 { c8 c c }
\omit TupletNumber
\tuplet 3/2 { c8 c c }
}

º hhhhhhhhhhhh
3 3 3:2

Non-default tuplet numbers

LilyPond also provides formatting functions to print tuplet numbers different than the actual
fraction, as well as to append a note value to the tuplet number or tuplet fraction.
\relative c'' {
\once \override TupletNumber.text =
#(tuplet-number::non-default-tuplet-denominator-text 7)
\tuplet 3/2 { c4. c4. c4. c4. }
\once \override TupletNumber.text =
#(tuplet-number::non-default-tuplet-fraction-text 12 7)
\tuplet 3/2 { c4. c4. c4. c4. }
\once \override TupletNumber.text =
#(tuplet-number::append-note-wrapper
(tuplet-number::non-default-tuplet-fraction-text 12 7)
(ly:make-duration 3 0))
\tuplet 3/2 { c4. c4. c4. c4. }
\once \override TupletNumber.text =
#(tuplet-number::append-note-wrapper
tuplet-number::calc-denominator-text
(ly:make-duration 2 0))
\tuplet 3/2 { c8 c8 c8 c8 c8 c8 }
\once \override TupletNumber.text =
#(tuplet-number::append-note-wrapper
Chapter 2: Rhythms 57

tuplet-number::calc-fraction-text
(ly:make-duration 2 0))
\tuplet 3/2 { c8 c8 c8 c8 c8 c8 }
\once \override TupletNumber.text =
#(tuplet-number::fraction-with-notes
(ly:make-duration 2 1) (ly:make-duration 3 0))
\tuplet 3/2 { c4. c4. c4. c4. }
\once \override TupletNumber.text =
#(tuplet-number::non-default-fraction-with-notes 12
(ly:make-duration 3 0) 4 (ly:make-duration 2 0))
\tuplet 3/2 { c4. c4. c4. c4. }
}

 º hP hP hP hP hP hP hP hP hP hP hP hP hhhhhhhhhhhh
7 12:7 12:7h 3h 3:2h

 hP hP hP hP hP hP hP hP
5

3h P : 2h 12h : 4h

Controlling tuplet bracket visibility

The default behavior of tuplet-bracket visibility is to print a bracket unless there is a beam of
the same length as the tuplet.
To control the visibility of tuplet brackets, set the property bracket-visibility to either #t
(always print a bracket), if-no-beam (only print a bracket if there is no beam) or #f (never print
a bracket). The latter is in fact equivalent to omitting the TupletBracket object altogether
from the printed output.
music = \relative c'' {
\tuplet 3/2 { c16[ d e } f8]
\tuplet 3/2 { c8 d e }
\tuplet 3/2 { c4 d e }
}

\new Voice {
\relative c' {
\override Score.TextMark.non-musical = ##f
\textMark "default" \music
\override TupletBracket.bracket-visibility = #'if-no-beam
\textMark \markup \typewriter "'if-no-beam" \music
\override TupletBracket.bracket-visibility = ##t
\textMark \markup \typewriter "#t" \music
\override TupletBracket.bracket-visibility = ##f
\textMark \markup \typewriter "#f" \music
\omit TupletBracket
\textMark \markup \typewriter "omit" \music
}
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

Chapter 2: Rhythms 58

º h h hh h h h h h h
default

3 3 3
2
h h hh h h h h h h
'if-no-beam

3 3 3
3
h h
#t
hh h h h h h h

3 3 3
4
h h
#f
hh h h h h h h

3 3 3
5
h h hh h h h h h h
omit

3 3 3

Printing tuplet brackets on the note head side

Whichever option you choose for controlling the tuplet bracket visibility, it will show or hide the
tuplet bracket irrespectively of tuplet bracket placement (stem side or note head side). However,
when placing the tuplet bracket on the note head side some authors recommend always printing
the tuplet bracket. The option visible-over-note-heads can be used to achieve this.
music = \relative c'' {
\tupletNeutral \tuplet 3/2 { c16[ d e } f8]
\tupletUp \tuplet 3/2 { c8 d e }
}

\new Voice {
\relative c' {
\time 2/4
\override TupletBracket.visible-over-note-heads = ##t
\override Score.TextMark.non-musical = ##f
{ \textMark \markup "default" \music }
\override TupletBracket.bracket-visibility = #'if-no-beam
{ \textMark \markup \typewriter "'if-no-beam" \music }
}
}

h h h h3 h h h h h h h3 h
'if-no-beam
2
4 h hdefault

3 3

Permitting line breaks within beamed tuplets

These artificial examples show how both manual and automatic line breaks may be permitted
within beamed tuplets that can’t be rhythmically split in an exact way.
This feature only works with manually beamed tuplets.
\layout {
Chapter 2: Rhythms 59

\context {
\Voice
% Permit automatic line breaks within tuplets.
\remove "Forbid_line_break_engraver"
% Allow beams to be broken at line breaks.
\override Beam.breakable = ##t
}
}

\relative c'' {
<>^"manually forced line break"
a8
\repeat unfold 5 { \tuplet 3/2 { c8[ b g16 a] } }
\tuplet 3/2 { c8[ b \break g16 a] }
\repeat unfold 5 { \tuplet 3/2 { c8[ b g16 a] } }
c8 \bar "||"
}

\relative c'' {
<>^"automatic line break"
\repeat unfold 28 a16
\tuplet 11/8 { a16[ b c d e f e d c b a] }
\repeat unfold 28 a16 \bar "||"
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

manually forced line break

 º h h h hhh h hhh h hhh h hhh h hhh h

3 3 3 3 3 3

 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h hT
3 3 3 3 3 3

h h
 º h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h hhhh
automatic line break

11

3
hhhhhh h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

11

See also
Music Glossary: Section “triplet” in Music Glossary, Section “tuplet” in Music Glossary, Sec-
tion “polymetric” in Music Glossary.
Learning Manual: Section “Tweaking methods” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 36.1 [Direction and placement], page 746, Section 36.7 [Visibil-
ity of objects], page 756, Section 2.6.3 [Time administration], page 148, Section 2.1.3 [Scaling
Chapter 2: Rhythms 60

durations], page 60, Section 35.6 [\tweak and \single], page 736, Section 2.3.5 [Polymetric
notation], page 89.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “TupletBracket” in Internals Reference, Section “Tuplet-
Number” in Internals Reference, Section “TimeScaledMusic” in Internals Reference.

2.1.3 Scaling durations

The duration of single notes, rests or chords may be multiplied by a fraction N/M by appending
*N/M (or *N if M is 1) to the duration. Factors may also be added by using Scheme expressions
evaluating to a number or musical length like *#(ly:music-length music). This is convenient
for scaling a duration of ‘1’ to let a note or multi-measure rest stretch to a length derived from
a music variable.
Adding a factor will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced, but the altered
duration will be used in calculating the position within the measure and setting the duration
in the MIDI output. Multiplying factors may be combined like *L*M/N. Factors are part of the
duration: if a duration is not specified for subsequent notes, the default duration taken from the
preceding note will include any scaling factor.
In the following example, the first three notes take up exactly two beats, but no triplet
bracket is printed.
\relative {
\time 2/4
% Alter durations to triplets
a'4*2/3 gis a
% Normal durations
a4 a
% Double the duration of chord
<a d>4*2
% Duration of quarter, appears like sixteenth
b16*4 c4
}

 42 h h h h h hh h h
U
The duration of spacer rests may also be modified by a multiplier. This is useful for skipping
many measures, e.g., s1*23.
Longer stretches of music may be compressed by a fraction in the same way, as if every
note, chord or rest had the fraction as a multiplier. This leaves the appearance of the music
unchanged but the internal duration of the notes will be multiplied by the given scale factor,
usually num/den. Here is an example showing how music can be compressed and expanded:
\relative {
\time 2/4
% Normal durations
<c'' a>4 c8 a
% Scale music by *2/3
\scaleDurations 2/3 {
<c a f>4. c8 a f
}
% Scale music by *2
\scaleDurations 2 {
Chapter 2: Rhythms 61

<c' a>4 c8 b
}
}

 42 hh h h hhh PPP h h h hh h h
T T
One application of this command is in polymetric notation, see Section 2.3.5 [Polymetric
notation], page 89.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 2.1.2 [Tuplets], page 54, Section 2.2.2 [Invisible rests], page 68,
Section 2.3.5 [Polymetric notation], page 89.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.

Known issues and warnings

The calculation of the position within a measure must take into account all the scaling factors
applied to the notes within that measure and any fractional carry-out from earlier measures. This
calculation is carried out using rational numbers. If an intermediate numerator or denominator
in that calculation exceeds 2^30 the execution and typesetting will stop at that point without
indicating an error.

2.1.4 Ties
A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in effect extends the duration
of a note.
Ties that connect notes to nothing are called laissez vibrer articulation; see [Laissez vibrer],
page 62, for the \laissezVibrer command. Ties that connect nothing to notes (as needed in
seconda volta sections, for example), can be entered with the \repeatTie command; see [Repeat
tie], page 62.
☛ ✟
Note: Ties should not be confused with slurs, which indicate articula-
tion, or phrasing slurs, which indicate musical phrasing. A tie is just
a way of extending a note duration, similar to the augmentation dot.
✡ ✠
A tie is entered by appending a tilde symbol (‘~’) to the first of each pair of notes being tied.
This indicates that the note should be tied to the following note, which must be at the same
pitch. Note that ties make use of the ‘last explicit pitch’ interpretation of isolated durations:
{ a'2~ 4~ 16 r r8 }

†
º N h h¥¢
Ties are used either when the note crosses a bar line, or when dots cannot be used to denote
the rhythm. Ties should also be used when note values cross larger subdivisions of the measure:
\relative {
r8 c'4.~ 4 r4 |
r8^"not" c2~ 8 r4
}
Chapter 2: Rhythms 62

 º ¢ hP h  ¢ N h 
not

If you need to tie many notes across bar lines, it may be easier to use automatic note splitting,
see Section 2.3.6 [Automatic note splitting], page 93. This mechanism automatically splits long
notes, and ties them across bar lines.
When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads whose pitches match are connected. When
no note heads match, no ties will be created. Chords may be partially tied by placing the ties
inside the chord.
\relative c' {
<c e g>2~ 2 |
<c e g>4~ <c e g c>
<c~ e g~ b> <c e g b> |
}

 º NN NN hh hh hhh hhh
N N h hh h h
When a tie continues into alternative endings, you have to specify the repeated tie as follows:
\relative {
\repeat volta 2 { c'' g <c e>2~ }
\alternative {
% the following note is tied normally
\volta 1 { <c e>2. r4 }
% the following note has a repeated tie
\volta 2 { <c e>2\repeatTie d4 c }
}
}

. .
º h N
N N
N P
P  P
P NN h h
 h
L.v. ties (laissez vibrer) indicate that notes must not be damped at the end. It is used in
notation for piano, harp and other string and percussion instruments. They can be entered as
follows:
<c' f' g'>1\laissezVibrer

 º ..
.
Ties may be made to curve up or down manually; see Section 36.1 [Direction and placement],
page 746.
Ties may be made dashed, dotted, or a combination of solid and dashed.
\relative c' {
\tieDotted
c2~ 2
\tieDashed
Chapter 2: Rhythms 63

c2~ 2
\tieHalfDashed
c2~ 2
\tieHalfSolid
c2~ 2
\tieSolid
c2~ 2
}

º
N N N N N N N N N N
Custom dash patterns can be specified:
\relative c' {
\tieDashPattern 0.3 0.75
c2~ 2
\tieDashPattern 0.7 1.5
c2~ 2
\tieSolid
c2~ 2
}

º
N N N N N N
Dash pattern definitions for ties have the same structure as dash pattern definitions for slurs.
For more information about complex dash patterns, see Section 3.2.1 [Slurs], page 164.
Override whiteout and layer layout properties of objects that should cause a gap in ties.
\relative {
\override Tie.layer = -2
\override Staff.TimeSignature.layer = -1
\override Staff.KeySignature.layer = -1
\override Staff.TimeSignature.whiteout = ##t
\override Staff.KeySignature.whiteout = ##t
b'2 b~
\time 3/4
\key a \major
b r4
}

º N N  3 N 
 4
Predefined commands
\tieUp, \tieDown, \tieNeutral, \tieDotted, \tieDashed, \tieDashPattern,
\tieHalfDashed, \tieHalfSolid, \tieSolid.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 64

Selected Snippets
Using ties with arpeggios
Ties are sometimes used to write out arpeggios. In this case, two tied notes need not be
consecutive. This can be achieved by setting the tieWaitForNote property to #t. The same
feature is also useful, for example, to tie a tremolo to a chord, but in principle, it can also be
used for ordinary consecutive notes.
\relative c' {
\set tieWaitForNote = ##t
\grace { c16[ ~ e ~ g] ~ } <c, e g>2
\repeat tremolo 8 { c32 ~ c' ~ } <c c,>1
e8 ~ c ~ a ~ f ~ <e' c a f>2
\tieUp
c8 ~ a
\tieDown
\tieDotted
g8 ~ c g2
}

hh NNN
 º h h h NNN N N . hh N hhh hN
.
Engraving ties manually
A single tie may be engraved manually by changing the staff-position property (an offset)
of the Tie grob; if there are multiple ties at the same musical moment, they can be adjusted
manually by changing the tie-configuration property (a list of offset/direction pairs) of the
TieColumn object.
The offset indicates the distance from the center of the staff in half staff spaces, the direction
can be either 1 (up) or -1 (down).
Note that LilyPond makes a distinction between exact and inexact values for the offset. If
using an exact value (i.e., either an integer or a fraction like (/ 4 5)), the value serves as a rough
vertical position that gets further tuned by LilyPond to make the tie avoid staff lines. If using
an inexact value like a floating point number, it is taken as the precise vertical position without
further adjustments.
\relative c' {
<>^"default"
g'1 ^~ g

<>^"0"
\once \override Tie.staff-position = 0
g1 ^~ g

<>^"0.0"
\once \override Tie.staff-position = 0.0
g1 ^~ g

<>^"reset"
\revert Tie.staff-position
g1 ^~ g
Chapter 2: Rhythms 65

\relative c' {
\override TextScript.outside-staff-priority = ##f
\override TextScript.padding = 0

<>^"default"
<c e g>1~ <c e g>

<>^"0, -2, -4"

\override TieColumn.tie-configuration =
#'((0 . 1) (-2 . 1) (-4 . 1))
<c e g>1~ <c e g>

<>^"0.0, -2.0, -4.0"

\override TieColumn.tie-configuration =
#'((0.0 . 1) (-2.0 . 1) (-4.0 . 1))
<c e g>1~ <c e g>

<>^"reset"
\override TieColumn.tie-configuration = ##f
<c e g>1~ <c e g>
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

º .
default 0 0.0 reset
. . . . . . .

 º ...
default 0, -2, -4 0.0, -2.0, -4.0 reset
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
See also
Music Glossary: Section “tie” in Music Glossary, Section “laissez vibrer” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 3.2.1 [Slurs], page 164, Section 2.3.6 [Automatic note splitting],
page 93.
Snippets: Section “Expressive marks” in Snippets, Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “LaissezVibrerTie” in Internals Reference, Section “Laissez-
VibrerTieColumn” in Internals Reference, Section “TieColumn” in Internals Reference, Sec-
tion “Tie” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Switching staves when a tie is active will not produce a slanted tie.
Changing clefs or ottavations during a tie is not really well-defined. In these cases, a slur
may be preferable.

2.2 Writing rests

Rests are entered as part of the music in music expressions.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 66

2.2.1 Rests
Rests are entered like notes with the note name r. Durations longer than a whole rest use the
following predefined commands:
\new Staff {
% These two lines are just to prettify this example
\time 16/1
\omit Staff.TimeSignature
% Print a maxima rest, equal to four breves
r\maxima
% Print a longa rest, equal to two breves
r\longa
% Print a breve rest
r\breve
r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r128
}

 ´ ± ­ ” ˜  ¢ ¥ ¨ © ª
Whole measure rests, centered in the middle of the measure, must be entered as multi-measure
rests. They can be used for a single measure as well as many measures and are discussed in
Section 2.2.3 [Full measure rests], page 70.
To explicitly specify a rest’s vertical position, write a note followed by \rest. A rest of the
duration of the note will be placed at the staff position where the note would appear. This allows
for precise manual formatting of polyphonic music, since the automatic rest collision formatter
will not move these rests.
\relative { a'4\rest d4\rest }

º  
Selected Snippets
Rest styles
Rests may be used in various styles.
restsA = {
r\maxima r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 s32
s64 s128 s256 s512 s1024 s1024
}
restsB = {
r\maxima r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32
r64 r128 r256 r512 r1024 s1024
}

\new Staff \relative c {

\omit Score.TimeSignature
\cadenzaOn

\override Staff.Rest.style = #'mensural

Chapter 2: Rhythms 67

<>^\markup \typewriter { mensural } \restsA \bar "" \break

\override Staff.Rest.style = #'neomensural

<>^\markup \typewriter { neomensural } \restsA \bar "" \break

\override Staff.Rest.style = #'classical

<>^\markup \typewriter { classical } \restsB \bar "" \break

\override Staff.Rest.style = #'z

<>^\markup \typewriter { z-style } \restsB \bar "" \break

\override Staff.Rest.style = #'default

<>^\markup \typewriter { default } \restsB \bar "" \break
}

\paper {
indent = 0
tagline = ##f
}

•
 µ ² ® š Ÿ £ ¦
mensural

–
 ¶ ³ ¯ › ¤ §
neomensural

”
 ´ ± ­ ˜ ž ¢ ¥ ¨ © ª « ¬™
classical

 ´
z-style
± ­ ” ˜ ¡ ¢ ¥ ¨ © ª « ¬™

”
 ´ ± ­ ˜  ¢ ¥ ¨ © ª « ¬™
default

See also
Music Glossary: Section “breve” in Music Glossary, Section “longa” in Music Glossary, Sec-
tion “maxima” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 2.2.3 [Full measure rests], page 70.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Rest” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

There is no fundamental limit to rest durations (both in terms of longest and shortest), but the
number of glyphs is limited: there are rests from 1024th to maxima (8× whole).
Chapter 2: Rhythms 68

2.2.2 Invisible rests

There are two forms of invisible rests: the spacer rest named ‘s’, and the \skip command. The
spacer rest is a note that does not produce output. Like any other note or rest, its duration sets
the default duration of following notes.
\relative c'' {
c4 c s c |
s2 c |
}

º h h h N
Also like other notes and rests, it implicitly causes Staff and Voice contexts to be created
if none exist.
{ s1 s s }

º
Spacer rests are available only in note mode and chord mode. In other situations, for example,
when entering lyrics, the command \skip is used to skip a musical moment. The \skip command
accepts either an explicit duration or a piece of music as an argument and skips the duration
of the argument. The duration of the \skip is ignored if lyrics derive their durations from the
notes in an associated melody through \addlyrics or \lyricsto.
<<
{
a'2 \skip2 a'2 a'2
}
\new Lyrics {
\lyricmode {
foo2 \skip 1 bla2
}
}
>>

º N N N
foo bla
When the argument to \skip is music, the default duration of the following note is implicitly
set by the last note of the argument. However, to preserve backward compatibility with the
legacy implementation of \skip, a numeric duration argument does not affect the duration of
the subsequent note.
<<
{
\repeat unfold 12 { a'4 }
}
{
a'4 \skip 2 a' |
a'4 \skip { a'8 a' a' a' } a' a' |
Chapter 2: Rhythms 69

s2 a'
}
>>

º h h h h h h h h h h h h

º h h h hh N

The \skip command preserves the effect of an enclosing unfoldRepeats command, unlike
the skip-of-length Scheme function.
MyCadenza = \fixed c' {
\repeat volta 2 {
d8 e f g g4 f4
}
}

music = <<
\new Staff {
\MyCadenza
c'1
}
\new Staff {
#(skip-of-length MyCadenza)
c'1
}
\new Staff {
\skip \MyCadenza
c'1
}
>>

\unfoldRepeats \music

º hhhhh h hhhhh h .
º .
º .
The \skip command simply skips musical time; it creates no output of any kind.
% This is valid input, but does nothing
{ \skip 1 \skip1 \skip 1 }
Chapter 2: Rhythms 70

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Visibility and color of objects” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 7.1.4 [Hidden notes], page 278, Section 36.7 [Visibility of ob-
jects], page 756.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “SkipMusic” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Because duration and music arguments to the \skip command affect the duration of subsequent
music differently, it is good practice to provide an explicit duration for the music immediately
following the command.

2.2.3 Full measure rests

Rests for one or more full measures are entered like notes with the note name uppercase ‘R’. Their
duration is entered identically to the duration notation used for notes, including the ability to
use duration multipliers, as explained in Section 2.1.3 [Scaling durations], page 60:
% Rest measures contracted to single measure
\compressMMRests {
R1*4
R1*24
R1*4
b'2^"Tutti" b'4 a'4
}

4 24 4
º ± ± N h h
Tutti

The example above also demonstrates how to compress multiple empty measures, as explained
in Section 6.3.4 [Compressing empty measures], page 265.
The duration of a multi-measure rest must always be equal to the length of one or several
measures. Therefore, some time signatures require the use of augmentation dots or fractions:
\compressMMRests {
\time 2/4
R1 | R2 |
\time 3/4
R2. | R2.*2 |
\time 13/8
R1*13/8 | R1*13/8*12 |
\time 10/8
R4*5*4 |
}

2 ” ” 2 ”
2
4 ­ 3
4
­ 13
8
12 4
 10 ±
8

8
Chapter 2: Rhythms 71

A full-measure rest is printed as either a whole or breve rest, centered in the measure, de-
pending on the time signature.
\time 4/4
R1 |
\time 6/4
R1*3/2 |
\time 8/4
R1*2 |

º ” 6 ”
4
8
4
­
Markups can be added to multi-measure rests.
\compressMMRests {
\time 3/4
R2.*10^\markup { \italic "ad lib." }
}

10
ad lib.

 43 ´ ­
☛ ✟
Note: Markups and articulations attached to multi-measure rests
are MultiMeasureRestText and MultiMeasureRestScript types, not
TextScript and Script. Overrides must be directed to the correct
object, or they will be ignored. See the following example:
✡ ✠
% This fails, as the wrong object name is specified
\override TextScript.padding = 5
\override Script.color = #blue
R1^"wrong"
R1\fermata
% This is the correct object name to be specified
\override MultiMeasureRestText.padding = 5
\override MultiMeasureRestScript.color = #blue
R1^"right"
R1\fermata

right

 º ”
wrong
”z ” ”z

When a multi-measure rest immediately follows a \partial setting, resulting bar-check warn-
ings may not be displayed.

Predefined commands
\textLengthOn, \textLengthOff, \compressMMRests.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 72

Selected Snippets
Multi-measure rest length control
Multi-measure rests have length according to their total duration which is under the control of
MultiMeasureRest.space-increment. Note that the default value is 2.0.
\relative c' {
\compressEmptyMeasures
R1*2 R1*4 R1*64 R1*16
\override Staff.MultiMeasureRest.space-increment = 2.5
R1*2 R1*4 R1*64 R1*16
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

2 4 64 16 2
º ­ ± ­
4 64 16
±
89


Positioning multi-measure rests
Unlike ordinary rests, there is no predefined command to change the staff position of a multi-
measure rest symbol of either form by attaching it to a note. However, in polyphonic music
multi-measure rests in odd-numbered and even-numbered voices are vertically separated.
The positioning of multi-measure rests can be controlled as follows:
\relative c'' {
% Multi-measure rests by default are set under the fourth line
R1
% They can be moved using an override
\override MultiMeasureRest.staff-position = -2
R1
\override MultiMeasureRest.staff-position = 0
R1
\override MultiMeasureRest.staff-position = 2
R1
\override MultiMeasureRest.staff-position = 3
R1
\override MultiMeasureRest.staff-position = 6
R1
\revert MultiMeasureRest.staff-position
\break

% In two Voices, odd-numbered voices are under the top line

<< { R1 } \\ { a1 } >>
% Even-numbered voices are under the bottom line
<< { a1 } \\ { R1 } >>
% Multi-measure rests in both voices remain separate
<< { R1 } \\ { R1 } >>
Chapter 2: Rhythms 73

% Separating multi-measure rests in more than two voices

% requires an override
<< { R1 } \\ { R1 } \\
\once \override MultiMeasureRest.staff-position = 0
{ R1 }
>>

% Using compressed bars in multiple voices requires another override

% in all voices to avoid multiple instances being printed
\compressMMRests
<<
\revert MultiMeasureRest.direction
{ R1*3 }
\\
\revert MultiMeasureRest.direction
{ R1*3 }
>>
}

” — —
º ” ” ”

” ” ”” 3
­ ”
7

 . .” ” ”
Multi-measure rest markup
Markups attached to a multi-measure rest will be centered above or below it. Long markups
attached to multi-measure rests do not cause the measure to expand. To expand a multi-measure
rest to fit the markup, use an empty chord with an attached markup before the multi-measure
rest. Text attached to a spacer rest in this way is left-aligned to the position where the note
would be placed in the measure, but if the measure length is determined by the length of the
text, the text will appear to be centered.
\relative c' {
\compressMMRests {
\textLengthOn
<>^\markup { [MAJOR GENERAL] }
R1*19
<>_\markup { \italic { Cue: ... it is yours } }
<>^\markup { A }
R1*30^\markup { [MABEL] }
\textLengthOff
c4^\markup { CHORUS } d f c
}
}

19 30
[MAJOR GENERAL] [MABEL]

º
A CHORUS

Cue: ... it is yours

h h hh
Chapter 2: Rhythms 74

See also
Music Glossary: Section “multi-measure rest” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 2.1.1 [Durations], page 51, Section 2.1.3 [Scaling durations],
page 60, Section 6.3.4 [Compressing empty measures], page 265, Chapter 8 [Text], page 298,
Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310, Section 8.1.2 [Text scripts], page 300.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “MultiMeasureRest” in Internals Reference, Section “Multi-
MeasureRestNumber” in Internals Reference, Section “MultiMeasureRestScript” in Internals
Reference, Section “MultiMeasureRestText” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Fingerings over multi-measure rests (e.g., R1*10-4) may result in the fingering numeral colliding
with the bar counter numeral.
There is no way to automatically condense multiple ordinary rests into a single multi-measure
rest.
Multi-measure rests do not take part in rest collisions.

2.2.4 Caesuras
The \caesura command calls for unmetered silence: typically, a short break in sound that does
not shorten the previous note.
\fixed c'' { c2. \caesura d4 }

Ah
 º NP
In chants and hymns, \caesura can serve more generally as a phrase division; for more infor-
mation, see the references at the end of this section. For a break in sound that shortens the
previous note, see Section 3.2.3 [Breath marks], page 169.
Articulations may follow \caesura to indicate the relative duration or significance of the
break; these create CaesuraScript grobs.
\fixed c'' { c2. \caesura \fermata d4 }

z
A
 º NP h
By default, \caesura creates a BreathingSign grob. The breath element of the
caesuraType context property controls which of several predefined signs \caesura creates. See
Section B.14 [List of breath marks], page 895.
\fixed c'' {
\set Score.caesuraType = #'((breath . curvedcaesura))
c2. \caesura d4
}

@h
 º NP
To designate one or more CaesuraScript grobs to be created as a normal part of an unar-
ticulated caesura, set the scripts element of the caesuraType context property. (Additional
Chapter 2: Rhythms 75

scripts can still be attached as articulations.) In conjunction with the breath element, the
scripts listed in the script element attach to the BreathingSign; otherwise, if a BarLine is
present, they attach to it.
The caesuraTypeTransform context property can be set to a Scheme function to enable a
degree of automatic adaptation. The at-bar-line-substitute-caesura-type function gener-
ator supports styles where the notation differs at a bar line.
\fixed c' {
\set Score.caesuraType =
#'((breath . spacer)
(scripts . (outsidecomma)))
\set Score.caesuraTypeTransform =
#(at-bar-line-substitute-caesura-type
'((scripts . (fermata))))
c'2. \caesura d'4
b1 \caesura
a1
}

ih z
º N P . .
Predefined commands
\caesura.

Selected Snippets
Positioning opposing fermatas on a bar line
This snippet demonstrates a command that prints fermatas both above and below a bar line.
If there would not otherwise be a bar line, it adds a double bar line. Semantically, the com-
mand codes a longer-than-normal caesura, which might be considered misuse depending on the
situation.
twoWayFermata = {
\once \set Staff.caesuraType = #'((underlying-bar-line . "||"))
\once \set Staff.caesuraTypeTransform = ##f
\caesura ^\fermata _\fermata
}

music = {
f'1 \twoWayFermata
R1
f'2 \twoWayFermata f'2
R1
b'1 \twoWayFermata \fine
}

\new GrandStaff <<

\new Staff \music
\new Staff \music
>>
Chapter 2: Rhythms 76

z ” z z
X
” .
º . N N
” ”
º . F N FN .
F
See also
Music Glossary: Section “caesura” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 3.2.3 [Breath marks], page 169, Section 17.4.4 [Divisiones],
page 533, Section 17.5.5 [Kievan bar lines], page 543, Section 9.7.4 [Phrase bar lines in hymn
tunes], page 396.
Snippets: Section “Expressive marks” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “BreathingSign” in Internals Reference, Section
“Caesura engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “CaesuraEvent” in Internals Reference,
Section “CaesuraScript” in Internals Reference, Section “Tunable context properties” in
Internals Reference.

2.3 Displaying rhythms

2.3.1 Time signature
To set a basic time signature, use the \time command with the fraction as argument.
\time 2/4
c''2

\time 3/4
c''2.

 42 N 43 N P
Fractional time signatures and denominators longer than a whole note require Scheme syntax.
\time #'(5/2 . 4)
c''2 r8

\override Timing.TimeSignature.denominator-style = #'note

\time #'(2 . 1/2)
f''\breve c''

2 1 N ¢ 2 „ „
 4 2 „
Other unusual denominators may be used to add augmentation dots in the number-over-note
style; however, to benefit the most from features covered elsewhere, using a conventional fraction
for \time and overriding TimeSignature.fraction is recommended in such cases.
\override Timing.TimeSignature.denominator-style = #'note
\once \override Timing.TimeSignature.fraction = #'(2 . 8/3)
\time 6/8
Chapter 2: Rhythms 77

c''8 8 8 8 8 8

 2h P h h h h h h
Mid-measure time signature changes are covered in Section 2.3.3 [Upbeats], page 86.
Time signatures are printed at the beginning of a piece and whenever the time signature
changes. If a change takes place at the end of a line a warning time signature sign is printed
there. This default behavior may be changed, see Section 36.7 [Visibility of objects], page 756.
\relative c'' {
\time 2/4
c2 c
\break
c c
\break
\time 4/4
c c c c
}

 42 N N

 N N º
3

º N N N N
5

The time signature symbol that is used in 2/2 and 4/4 time can be changed to a numeric
style:
\relative c'' {
% Default style
\time 4/4 c1
\time 2/2 c1
% Change to numeric style
\numericTimeSignature
\time 4/4 c1
\time 2/2 c1
% Revert to default style
\defaultTimeSignature
\time 4/4 c1
\time 2/2 c1
}

º . ¹ . 4 .
4
2 .
2
º . ¹ .
Mensural time signatures are covered in Section 17.3.3 [Mensural time signatures], page 526.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 78

In addition to setting the printed time signature, the \time command also sets the values of
the time-signature-based properties beatBase, beatStructure, and beamExceptions. The pre-
defined default values for these properties can be found in scm/time-signature-settings.scm.
The default value of beatStructure can be overridden in the \time command itself by
supplying it as the optional first argument:
\score {
\new Staff {
\relative {
\time 2,2,3 7/8
\repeat unfold 7 { c'8 } |
\time 3,2,2 7/8
\repeat unfold 7 { c8 } |
}
}
}

 87 7
8
hhhhhhh hhhhhhh
Alternatively, the default values of all these time-signature-based variables, including
beatBase and beamExceptions, can be set together. The values can be set independently for
several different time signatures. The new values take effect when a subsequent \time command
with the same value of the time signature is executed:
\score {
\new Staff {
\relative c' {
\overrideTimeSignatureSettings
4/4 % timeSignatureFraction
#1/4 % beatBase
3,1 % beatStructure
#'() % beamExceptions
\time 4/4
\repeat unfold 8 { c8 } |
}
}
}

º
hhhhhhhh
\overrideTimeSignatureSettings takes four arguments:
1. timeSignatureFraction, a fraction describing the time signature to which these values
apply.
2. beatBase, the musical length corresponding to one unit of beatStructure.
3. beatStructure, a Scheme list describing the length of each beat in the measure in units of
beatBase.
4. beamExceptions, an alist containing any beaming rules for the time signature that go be-
yond ending at every beat, as described in Section 2.4.2 [Setting automatic beam behavior],
page 101.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 79

Changed values of default time signature properties can be restored to the original values:

\score {
\relative {
\repeat unfold 8 { c'8 } |
\overrideTimeSignatureSettings
4/4 % timeSignatureFraction
#1/4 % beatBase
3,1 % beatStructure
#'() % beamExceptions
\time 4/4
\repeat unfold 8 { c8 } |
\revertTimeSignatureSettings 4/4
\time 4/4
\repeat unfold 8 { c8 } |
}
}

º º º
hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh
Different values of default time signature properties can be established for different staves by
enabling polymetric notation (see Section 2.3.5 [Polymetric notation], page 89).

\score {
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff {
\overrideTimeSignatureSettings
4/4 % timeSignatureFraction
#1/4 % beatBase
3,1 % beatStructure
#'() % beamExceptions
\time 4/4
\repeat unfold 8 {c''8}
}
\new Staff {
\overrideTimeSignatureSettings
4/4 % timeSignatureFraction
#1/4 % beatBase
1,3 % beatStructure
#'() % beamExceptions
\time 4/4
\repeat unfold 8 {c''8}
}
>>
\layout {
\enablePolymeter
}
}
Chapter 2: Rhythms 80

7
º hhhhhhhh

 º hhhhhhhh
6
A further method of changing these time-signature-related variables, which avoids reprinting
the time signature at the time of the change, is shown in Section 2.4.2 [Setting automatic beam
behavior], page 101.

Predefined commands
\numericTimeSignature, \defaultTimeSignature.

Selected Snippets
Time signature printing only the numerator as a number (instead of
the fraction)
Sometimes, a time signature should not print the whole fraction (for example, 7/4), but
only the numerator (digit 7 in this case). This can be easily done by using \override
Staff.TimeSignature.style = #'single-number to change the style permanently. By using
\revert Staff.TimeSignature.style, this setting can be reversed. To apply the single-number
style to only one time signature, use the \override command and prefix it with a \once.
\relative c'' {
\time 3/4
c4 c c
% Change the style permanently
\override Staff.TimeSignature.style = #'single-number
\time 2/4
c4 c
\time 3/4
c4 c c
% Revert to default style:
\revert Staff.TimeSignature.style
\time 2/4
c4 c
% single-number style only for the next time signature
\once \override Staff.TimeSignature.style = #'single-number
\time 5/4
c4 c c c c
\time 2/4
c4 c
}

 43 h h h 2 h h 3 h h h 42 h h 5 h h h h h 42 h h
See also
Music Glossary: Section “time signature” in Music Glossary
Chapter 2: Rhythms 81

Notation Reference: Section 17.3.3 [Mensural time signatures], page 526, Section 2.3.5
[Polymetric notation], page 89, Section 2.4.2 [Setting automatic beam behavior], page 101,
Section 2.6.3 [Time administration], page 148.
Installed Files: scm/time-signature-settings.scm.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “TimeSignature” in Internals Reference, Section “Tim-
ing translator” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

\numericTimeSignature and \defaultTimeSignature have no effect when used in a
MensuralStaff. To use these modern time signatures in a MensuralStaff, either select them
already when creating the context:
\new MensuralStaff \with { \numericTimeSignature } {
c'1
}

 44
=
or use an explicit \override:
\new MensuralStaff {
\time 2/2
c'1
\override MensuralStaff.TimeSignature.style = #'numbered
\time 2/2
c'
\override MensuralStaff.TimeSignature.style = #'default
\time 2/2
c'
}

» 22 ¹
= = =
If there is more than a single staff, and a time signature starts a prima volta but not the
seconda volta, it is necessary to help LilyPond synchronize this situation by adding an explicit
but invisible time signature in the seconda volta.
music = {
\repeat volta 2 {
\time 2/4 c'2 |
\alternative {
\volta 1 {
\time 3/8 d'4. |
\time 2/4 c'2 | }
\volta 2 {
\once \omit Staff.TimeSignature
\time 2/4 c'2 |
}
}
}
\time 3/8 c'4. |
Chapter 2: Rhythms 82

<<
\new Staff \music
\new Staff \music
>>

. .
 42 N 2
83 h P 4 N N
PP
83 h P
 42 N 3 2 P
8 hP 4 N P N
3
8 hP
2.3.2 Metronome marks
A basic metronome mark is simple to write:
\relative {
\tempo 4 = 120
c'2 d
e4. d8 c2
}

h = 120
º N N hP h N
The stated rate does not have to be an integer, but it must be an exact number.
tempoI = 100
\fixed c' {
\tempo 4 = #(* tempoI 2/3)
e2 e4 d
c2 g2
}

h = 67
º N h h N N
Metronome marks may also be printed as a range of two numbers:
\relative {
\tempo 4 = 40 - 46
c'4. e8 a4 g
b,2 d4 r
}

h = 40 – 46
 º hP h h h h

N
Chapter 2: Rhythms 83

Tempo indications with text can be used instead:

\relative {
\tempo "Allegretto"
c''4 e d c
b4. a16 b c4 r4
}

h h h
º h hP h h h 
Allegretto

Combining a metronome mark and text will automatically place the metronome mark within
parentheses:
\relative {
\tempo "Allegro" 4 = 160
g'4 c d e
d4 b g2
}

h
h
º h h h hh N
Allegro ( = 160)

In general, the text can be any markup object:

\relative {
\tempo \markup { \italic Faster } 4 = 132
a'8-. r8 b-. r gis-. r a-. r
}

h
p
Faster ( = 132)

 º hp ¢ h ¢  hp ¢ hp ¢
T
A particularly useful markup command is \rhythm, which prints a rhythmic pattern. See
Section A.1.4 [Markup for music and musical symbols], page 817.
\relative {
\tempo \markup {
Swing
\hspace #0.4
\rhythm { 8[ 8] } = \rhythm { \tuplet 3/2 { 4 8 } }
}
b8 g' c, d ees d16 ees d c r8
}

Swing h h=h h
º h ¢
h h h h h h h h
Chapter 2: Rhythms 84

A parenthesized metronome mark with no textual indication may be written by including an

empty string in the input:
\relative {
\tempo "" 8 = 96
d''4 g e c
}

h
hhh
h
= 96)
(

 º

In a part for an instrument with long periods of rests (see Section 2.2.3 [Full measure rests],
page 70) it happens quite frequently that tempo indications, rehearsal marks, and text marks
sometimes follow each other closely. The command \markLengthOn provides extra horizontal
(and vertical) space to prevent such marks from horizontal overlapping, often causing unwanted
vertical stacking. Use \markLengthOff to restore the default behavior of ignoring these marks
for the horizontal spacing algorithm.
\compressMMRests {
\markLengthOn
\tempo "Molto vivace"
R1*12
\mark \default \tempo "Allegretto ma non troppo"
R1*16
\mark \default \tempo "Tranquillo"
R1*2
\markLengthOff
\mark \default \tempo "Tempo I"
R1 R1 \break

\markLengthOff
\tempo "Molto vivace"
R1*12
\mark \default \tempo "Allegretto ma non troppo"
R1*16
\mark \default \tempo "Tranquillo"
R1*2
\mark \default \tempo "Tempo I"
R1 R1
}

12 16
Allegretto ma non troppo
A
º
Molto vivace

2
Tranquillo
C
” ”
B Tempo I
­
29


Chapter 2: Rhythms 85

F
D Allegretto maTranquillo
12 16 2
Molto vivace non troppo
” ”
E Tempo I
­
33

Selected Snippets
Printing metronome and rehearsal marks below the staff
By default, metronome and rehearsal marks are printed above the staff. To place them below
the staff simply set the direction property of MetronomeMark or RehearsalMark appropriately.
\layout {
indent = 0
ragged-right = ##f
}

{
% Metronome marks below the staff
\override Score.MetronomeMark.direction = #DOWN
\tempo 8. = 120
c''1

% Rehearsal marks below the staff

\override Score.RehearsalMark.direction = #DOWN
\mark \default
c''1
}

º . .
h P = 120 A

Changing the tempo without a metronome mark

To change the tempo in MIDI output without printing anything, make the metronome mark
invisible.
\score {
\new Staff \relative c' {
\tempo 4 = 160
c4 e g b
c4 b d c
\set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t
\tempo 4 = 96
d,4 fis a cis
d4 cis e d
}
\layout { }
\midi { }
}
Chapter 2: Rhythms 86

h = 160
h h h h
 º h h h h h h h h h h h h
Creating metronome marks in markup mode
New metronome marks can be created in markup mode, but they will not change the tempo in
MIDI output.
\relative c' {
\tempo \markup {
\concat {
(
\smaller \general-align #Y #DOWN \note { 16. } #UP
" = "
\smaller \general-align #Y #DOWN \note { 8 } #UP
)
}
}
c1
c4 c' c,2
}
†
( P=h)
h
º . h
h N
For more details, see Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “metronome” in Music Glossary, Section “metronomic indication” in
Music Glossary, Section “tempo indication” in Music Glossary, Section “metronome mark” in
Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310, Chapter 24 [Creating MIDI
output], page 626, Section 2.2.3 [Full measure rests], page 70.
Snippets: Section “Staff notation” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “MetronomeMark” in Internals Reference.

2.3.3 Upbeats
Partial or pickup measures, such as an anacrusis or an upbeat, are entered using the \partial
command:
\partial duration
When \partial is used at the beginning of a score, duration is the length of the music
preceding the first bar.
\relative {
\time 3/4
\partial 4.
r4 e'8 | a4 c8 b c4 |
}
Chapter 2: Rhythms 87

 43  h h h h h
When \partial is used after the beginning of a score, duration is the remaining length of
the current measure. It does not create a new numbered bar.
\relative {
\set Score.barNumberVisibility = #all-bar-numbers-visible
\override Score.BarNumber.break-visibility =
#end-of-line-invisible
\time 9/8
d''4.~ 4 d8 d( c) b | c4.~ 4. \bar "||"
\time 12/8
\partial 4.
c8( d) e | f2.~ 4 f8 a,( c) f |
}

3 P
1
9 h P h h h h h
2
h P h P 12
(2)
h h h N h h hh
8 T 8 Th
The \partial command is required when the time signature changes in mid measure, but it
may also be used alone.
\relative {
\set Score.barNumberVisibility = #all-bar-numbers-visible
\override Score.BarNumber.break-visibility =
#end-of-line-invisible
\time 6/8
\partial 8
e'8 | a4 c8 b[ c b] |
\partial 4
r8 e,8 | a4 \bar "||"
\partial 4
r8 e8 | a4
c8 b[ c b] |
}

 86 h h hT h h h ¢ h h ¢h h hhhh
(1) 1 2 3 (3) 4

T
For technical reasons, the argument to \partial cannot be a zero-length duration (like
\partial 4*0).

See also
Music Glossary: Section “anacrusis” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 2.6.1 [Grace notes], page 141.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internal Reference: Section “Timing translator” in Internals Reference.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 88

2.3.4 Unmetered music

In music such as cadenzas, it may be desirable to disable automatic measure demarcation and
all that it entails: numbering bars, resetting accidentals, etc. Music between \cadenzaOn and
\cadenzaOff does not count toward the length of a measure.
\relative c'' {
% Show all bar numbers
\override Score.BarNumber.break-visibility = #all-visible
c4 d e d
\cadenzaOn
c4 cis d8[ d d] f4 g4.
\cadenzaOff
d4 e d c
}

º h h h h
2
h  h h h h h h P h h h h 3


To divide an unmetered passage into irregular measures, temporarily re-enable timing and
use \partial to create a tiny measure. The \bar command alone does not start a new measure.
cadenzaMeasure = {
\cadenzaOff
\partial 1024 s1024
\cadenzaOn
}

\relative c'' {
% Show all bar numbers
\override Score.BarNumber.break-visibility = #all-visible
c4 d e d
\cadenzaOn
c4 cis \bar "!" d8[ d d] \cadenzaMeasure f4 g4.
\cadenzaMeasure
\cadenzaOff
d4 e d c
}

h h h h h h h h P 4h h h
º h h h h
2 (2) 3 5

Automatic beaming is disabled by \cadenzaOn. Therefore, all beaming in cadenzas must be

entered manually. See Section 2.4.3 [Manual beams], page 110.
\relative {
\repeat unfold 8 { c''8 }
\cadenzaOn
cis8 c c c c
\bar"|"
c8 c c
\cadenzaOff
\repeat unfold 8 { c8 }
}
Chapter 2: Rhythms 89

 º h h h h h h h h  hT  hT hT hT hT hT hT hT h h h h h h h h
These predefined commands affect all staves in the score, even when placed in just one Voice
context. To change this, move the Timing_translator from the Score context to the Staff
context. See Section 2.3.5 [Polymetric notation], page 89.
Within a cadenza section, automatic breaks are disabled: since there is no metric, it is
not possible to determine automatically where they would be appropriate. Therefore, in a
long cadenza passage, you must insert possible break points at appropriate places using the
\allowBreak command or other solutions in Section 28.1 [Line breaking], page 661.
\relative {
c'4 f g c, d f g c
\cadenzaOn
c4 cis8
\allowBreak
d[ cis c cis]
\allowBreak
d[ f g a]
\allowBreak
ais[ g f g]
\allowBreak
d4 f8
\allowBreak
d[ cis] c4
\allowBreak
a8[ c] g4
}

º h h h h h h h h h h
h h h h T
h h h h h h h h h h h h h
h h h
(3)

 T
Predefined commands
\cadenzaOn, \cadenzaOff.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “cadenza” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 36.7 [Visibility of objects], page 756, Section 2.3.5 [Polymetric
notation], page 89, Section 2.4.3 [Manual beams], page 110, Section 1.1.3 [Accidentals], page 8.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.

2.3.5 Polymetric notation

Polymetric notation is supported explicitly or by manually modifying the visible time signature
symbol and/or scaling note durations.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 90

Different time signatures with equal-length measures

Set a common time signature for each staff, and set the timeSignatureFraction to the desired
fraction. Then use the \scaleDurations function to scale the durations of the notes in each
staff to the common time signature.
In the following example, music with the time signatures of 3/4, 9/8 and 10/8 are used in
parallel. In the second staff, shown durations are multiplied by 2/3 (because 2/3 * 9/8 = 3/4)
and in the third staff, the shown durations are multiplied by 3/5 (because 3/5 * 10/8 = 3/4). It
may be necessary to insert beams manually, as the duration scaling will affect the auto-beaming
rules.
\relative <<
\new Staff {
\time 3/4
c'4 c c |
c4 c c |
}
\new Staff {
\time 3/4
\set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = 9/8
\scaleDurations 2/3 {
\repeat unfold 3 { c8[ c c] }
\repeat unfold 3 { c4 c8 }
}
}
\new Staff {
\time 3/4
\set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = 10/8
\scaleDurations 3/5 {
\repeat unfold 2 { c8[ c c] }
\repeat unfold 2 { c8[ c] } |
c4. c \tuplet 3/2 { c8[ c c] } c4
}
}
>>

 43
h h h h h h
 89 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

 10
8 h h h h h h h h h h hP hP h h h h
3

Different time signatures with unequal-length measures

Each staff can be given its own independent time signature as soon as \enablePolymeter is
placed in the \layout block.
\layout {
\enablePolymeter
}
Chapter 2: Rhythms 91

% Now each staff has its own time signature.

\relative <<
\new Staff {
\time 3/4
c'4 c c |
c4 c c |
}
\new Staff {
\time 2/4
c4 c |
c4 c |
c4 c |
}
\new Staff {
\time 3/8
c4. |
c8 c c |
c4. |
c8 c c |
}
>>

 43
h h h h h h
 42 h h
h h h h
 83 h P h
h h hP h h h
To have just one polymetric score, include \enablePolymeter in a \layout block inside the
\score block.
\score {
<<
\new Staff { c''1 1 }
\new Staff { c'2 d' g'2~ 2 }
>>
}

\score {
\layout {
\enablePolymeter
}
<<
\new Staff { \time 4/4 c''1 1 }
\new Staff { \time 2/4 c'2 d' g'2~ 2 }
>>
Chapter 2: Rhythms 92

º . .

º N N N N

º . .

 42 N N N N
When using polymeter, all staves should include a \time command if their meter is not the
default 4/4. This is true even for special staves without actual staff lines, such as Dynamics
contexts, since the placement of certain spanners like hairpins is synchronized with bar lines.

º . .
.
 43 h

N  43
h hh h N N h h h h
No \time
p
h h hh h N N h h h h
p
 43 h
With \time

h hh h N N h h h h
In order to use this feature with MIDI output, also include \enablePolymeter in a \midi
block.
\layout {
\enablePolymeter
}

\midi {
\enablePolymeter
}

Compound time signatures

These are created using the \compoundMeter function. The syntax for this is:
\compoundMeter #'(list of lists)
The simplest construction is a single list, where the last number indicates the bottom number
of the time signature and those that come before it, the top numbers.
\relative {
\compoundMeter #'((2 2 2 8))
Chapter 2: Rhythms 93

\repeat unfold 6 c'8 \repeat unfold 12 c16

}

 2 + 28 + 2
h h h h h h hhhhhhhhhhhh
More complex meters can be constructed using additional lists. Also, automatic beaming
settings will be adjusted depending on the values.
\relative {
\compoundMeter #'((1 4) (3 8))
\repeat unfold 5 c'8 \repeat unfold 10 c16
}

\relative {
\compoundMeter #'((1 2 3 8) (3 4))
\repeat unfold 12 c'8
}

 41 + 83
h h h h h hhhhhhhhhh
 1 + 28 + 3 + 43
hhhhhhhhhhhh
See also
Music Glossary: Section “polymetric” in Music Glossary, Section “polymetric time signature”
in Music Glossary, Section “meter” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 2.4.1 [Automatic beams], page 98, Section 2.4.3 [Manual
beams], page 110, Section 2.3.1 [Time signature], page 76, Section 2.1.3 [Scaling durations],
page 60.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “TimeSignature” in Internals Reference, Section “Tim-
ing translator” in Internals Reference, Section “Staff” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Although notes that occur at the same moment in each of the different staves will be placed
at the same horizontal location, bar lines (in each staff) may cause inconsistent spacing within
each of the different time signatures.

2.3.6 Automatic note splitting

Long notes which overrun bar lines can be converted automatically to tied notes. This is done
by replacing the Note_heads_engraver with the Completion_heads_engraver. Similarly, long
rests which overrun bar lines are split automatically by replacing the Rest_engraver with the
Completion_rest_engraver. In the following example, notes and rests crossing the bar lines
are split, notes are also tied.
\new Voice \with {
\remove Note_heads_engraver
\consists Completion_heads_engraver
\remove Rest_engraver
Chapter 2: Rhythms 94

\consists Completion_rest_engraver
}
\relative {
c'2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2 r1*2
}

h N † † ” ”
 º h h h h h h h h h P
NP h h h h T h h h h PN
These engravers split all running notes and rests at the bar line, and inserts ties for notes.
One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are not entirely filled, then the ties
show exactly how much each measure is off.
The property completionUnit sets a preferred duration for the split notes.
\new Voice \with {
\remove Note_heads_engraver
\consists Completion_heads_engraver
} \relative {
\time 9/8 g\breve. d''4. \bar "||"
\set completionUnit = #3/8
g\breve. d4.
}

hP NP hP NP hP NP hP
 89
. h . h NP
These engravers split notes with scaled duration, such as those in tuplets, into notes with
the same scale factor as in the input note.
\new Voice \with {
\remove Note_heads_engraver
\consists Completion_heads_engraver
} \relative {
\time 2/4 r4
\tuplet 3/2 {g'4 a b}
\scaleDurations 2/3 {g a b}
g4*2/3 a b
\tuplet 3/2 {g4 a b}
r4
}

3 3

 42  h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h 
See also
Music Glossary: Section “tie” in Music Glossary
Learning Manual: Section “Engravers explained” in Learning Manual, Section “Adding
and removing engravers” in Learning Manual.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 95

Internals Reference: Section “Note heads engraver” in Internals Reference, Section

“Completion heads engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “Rest engraver” in Inter-
nals Reference, Section “Completion rest engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “For-
bid line break engraver” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

For consistency with previous behavior, notes and rests with duration longer than a mea-
sure, such as c1*2, are split into notes without any scale factor, { c1 c1 }. The property
completionFactor controls this behavior, and setting it to #f cause split notes and rests to
have the scale factor of the input durations.

2.3.7 Showing melody rhythms

Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can be done with the
rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff are squashed, and the staff itself has a single
line
<<
\new RhythmicStaff {
\new Voice = "myRhythm" \relative {
\time 4/4
c'4 e8 f g2
r4 g g f
g1
}
}
\new Lyrics {
\lyricsto "myRhythm" {
This is my song
I like to sing
}
}
>>

º h h h N  h h h .
This is my song I like to sing
Guitar chord charts often show the strumming rhythms. This can be done with the
Pitch_squash_engraver and \improvisationOn.
<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
c1 f g c
}
}
\new Voice \with {
\consists Pitch_squash_engraver
} \relative c'' {
\improvisationOn
c4 c8 c c4 c8 c
f4 f8 f f4 f8 f
g4 g8 g g4 g8 g
Chapter 2: Rhythms 96

c4 c8 c c4 c8 c
}
>>

 º } }}} }} } }}} }} } }}} }} } }}} }}

C F G C

Music containing chords can also be used as input to RhythmicStaff and for use with the
Pitch_squash_engraver if the chords are first reduced to single notes with the \reduceChords
music function:
\new RhythmicStaff {
\time 4/4
\reduceChords {
<c>2
<e>2
<c e g>2
<c e g>4
<c e g>4
}
}

º N N N h h
Predefined commands
\improvisationOn, \improvisationOff, \reduceChords.

Selected Snippets
Guitar strum rhythms
For guitar music, it is possible to show strum rhythms, along with melody notes, chord names
and fret diagrams.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"
<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
c1 | f | g | c
}
}
\new FretBoards {
\chordmode {
c1 | f | g | c
}
}
\new Voice \with {
\consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
} {
\relative c'' {
\improvisationOn
c4 c8 c c4 c8 c
f4 f8 f f4 f8 f
Chapter 2: Rhythms 97

g4 g8 g g4 g8 g
c4 c8 c c4 c8 c
}
}
\new Voice = "melody" {
\relative c'' {
c2 e4 e4
f2. r4
g2. a4
e4 c2.
}
}
\new Lyrics {
\lyricsto "melody" {
This is my song.
I like to sing.
}
}
>>

X
CO O
F G OOO

º } }}} }} } }}} }} } }}} }}

32 1 134211 21 3

h h NP NP h
º N 
This is my song. I like

X
C O O

 } }}} }}
4 32 1

h NP

to sing.
See also
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “RhythmicStaff” in Internals Reference, Section
“Pitch squash engraver” in Internals Reference.

2.4 Beams
LilyPond provides two different possibilities for entering beams: automatic and manual input,
which can be also mixed.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 98

2.4.1 Automatic beams

By default, beams are inserted automatically:
\relative c'' {
\time 2/4 c8 c c c
\time 6/8 c8 c c c8. c16 c8
}

 42 h h h h 86 h h h h P h h
If these automatic decisions are not satisfactory, beaming can be entered explicitly; see
Section 2.4.3 [Manual beams], page 110. Beams must be entered manually if beams are to be
extended over rests.
If automatic beaming is not required, it may be turned off with \autoBeamOff and on with
\autoBeamOn:
\relative c' {
c4 c8 c8. c16 c8. c16 c8
\autoBeamOff
c4 c8 c8. c16 c8.
\autoBeamOn
c16 c8
}

º †
h h hP h hP h h h h h P h h P h h
☛ ✟
Note: If beams are used to indicate melismata in songs, then auto-
matic beaming should be switched off with \autoBeamOff and the
beams indicated manually. Using \partCombine with \autoBeamOff
can produce unintended results. See the snippets for more information.
✡ ✠
Beaming patterns that differ from the automatic defaults can be created; see Section 2.4.2
[Setting automatic beam behavior], page 101.

Predefined commands
\autoBeamOff, \autoBeamOn.

Selected Snippets
Beams across line breaks
Normally, LilyPond refuses to automatically break a line at places where a beam crosses a bar
line. This behavior can be changed by setting the Beam.breakable property to #t.
This property does not affect manual breaks inserted with commands like \break.
music = {
\repeat unfold 8 c8
c8 \repeat unfold 7 { c[ c] } c
\repeat unfold 8 c8
}
Chapter 2: Rhythms 99

\relative c'' {
<>^\markup { \typewriter Beam.breakable set to \typewriter "#t" }
\override Beam.breakable = ##t
\music
}

\relative c'' {
<>^\markup { \typewriter Beam.breakable not set }
\music
}

\paper {
line-width = 100\mm
tagline = ##f
}

 º h h h h h h h h hT h h h h h h h
Beam.breakable set to #t

 h h h h h h h hT h h h h h h h h
3

º h h h h h h h h
Beam.breakable not set

 hT h h h h h h h h h h h h h h hT
2

 hhhhhhhh
4

Changing beam knee gap

Kneed beams are inserted automatically when a large gap is detected between the note heads.
This behavior can be tuned through the auto-knee-gap property. A kneed beam is drawn if
the gap is larger than the value of auto-knee-gap plus the width of the beam object (which
depends on the duration of the notes and the slope of the beam). By default auto-knee-gap is
set to 5.5 staff spaces.
{
f8 f''8 f8 f''8
\override Beam.auto-knee-gap = 6
f8 f''8 f8 f''8
}

h h h h
º
h h h h
Chapter 2: Rhythms 100

Partcombine and \autoBeamOff

The function of \autoBeamOff when used with \partCombine can be difficult to understand. It
may be preferable to use
\set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
instead to ensure that auto-beaming is turned off for the entire staff. Use this at a spot in
your score where no beam generated by the auto-beamer is still active.
Internally, \partCombine works with four voices – stem up single, stem down single, combined,
and solo. In order to use \autoBeamOff to stop all auto-beaming when used with \partCombine,
it is necessary to use four calls to \autoBeamOff.
{
% \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f % turns off all auto-beaming

\partCombine {
\autoBeamOff % applies to split up-stems
\repeat unfold 4 a'16
% \autoBeamOff % applies to combined stems
\repeat unfold 4 a'8
\repeat unfold 4 a'16
% \autoBeamOff % applies to solo
\repeat unfold 4 a'16
r4
} {
% \autoBeamOff % applies to split down-stems
\repeat unfold 4 f'8
\repeat unfold 8 f'16 |
r4
\repeat unfold 4 a'16
}
}

† † † † Solo Solo II

 º hh h hh h hh hh hh h hh h hh hh hh hh h h h h h h h h
See also
Notation Reference: Section 2.4.3 [Manual beams], page 110, Section 2.4.2 [Setting automatic
beam behavior], page 101.
Installed Files: scm/auto-beam.scm.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Auto beam engraver” in Internals Reference, Section
“Beam engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “Beam” in Internals Reference, Section
“BeamEvent” in Internals Reference, Section “BeamForbidEvent” in Internals Reference, Sec-
tion “beam-interface” in Internals Reference, Section “unbreakable-spanner-interface” in Inter-
nals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

The properties of a beam are determined at the start of its construction and any additional
beam property changes that occur before the beam has been completed will not take effect until
the next, new beam starts.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 101

2.4.2 Setting automatic beam behavior

When automatic beaming is enabled, the placement of automatic beams is determined by three
context properties: beatBase, beatStructure, and beamExceptions. The default values of
these variables may be overridden as described below, or alternatively the default values them-
selves may be changed as explained in Section 2.3.1 [Time signature], page 76.
If a beamExceptions rule is defined for the time signature in force, that rule alone is used to
determine the beam placement; the values of beatBase and beatStructure are ignored.
If no beamExceptions rule is defined for the time signature in force, the beam placement is
determined by the values of beatBase and beatStructure.

Beaming based on beatBase and beatStructure

By default, beamExceptions rules are defined for most common time signatures, so the
beamExceptions rules must be disabled if automatic beaming is to be based on beatBase and
beatStructure. The beamExceptions rules are disabled by
\set Timing.beamExceptions = #'()
When beamExceptions is set to #'(), either due to an explicit setting or because no
beamExceptions rules are defined internally for the time signature in force, the ending points
for beams are on beats as specified by the context properties beatBase and beatStructure.
beatStructure is a Scheme list that defines the length of each beat in the measure in units of
beatBase. By default, beatBase is one over the denominator of the time signature. By default,
each unit of length beatBase is a single beat.
Note that there are separate beatStructure and beatBase values for each time signature.
Changes to these variables apply only to the time signature that is currently in force, hence those
changes must be placed after the \time command which starts a new time signature section, not
before it. New values given to a particular time signature are retained and reinstated whenever
that time signature is reestablished.
\relative c'' {
\time 5/16
c16^"default" c c c c |
% beamExceptions are unlikely to be defined for 5/16 time,
% but let's disable them anyway to be sure
\set Timing.beamExceptions = #'()
\set Timing.beatStructure = 2,3
c16^"(2+3)" c c c c |
\set Timing.beatStructure = 3,2
c16^"(3+2)" c c c c |
}

 165 hU hU hU hU hU h h h h h h h h h h
default (2+3) (3+2)

\relative {
\time 4/4
a'8^"default" a a a a a a a
% Disable beamExceptions because they are definitely
% defined for 4/4 time
\set Timing.beamExceptions = #'()
\set Timing.beatBase = #1/4
\set Timing.beatStructure = 1,1,1,1
a8^"changed" a a a a a a a
Chapter 2: Rhythms 102

default changed

º hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh
Beam setting changes can be limited to specific contexts. If no setting is included in a
lower-level context, the setting of the enclosing context will apply.
\new Staff {
\time 7/8
% No need to disable beamExceptions
% as they are not defined for 7/8 time
\set Staff.beatStructure = 2,3,2
<<
\new Voice = one {
\relative {
a'8 a a a a a a
}
}
\new Voice = two {
\relative {
\voiceTwo
\set Voice.beatStructure = 1,3,3
f'8 f f f f f f
}
}
>>
}

 87 hh hh hh hh hh hh hh
T
When multiple voices are used the Staff context must be specified if the beaming is to be
applied to all voices in the staff:
\time 7/8
% rhythm 3-1-1-2
% Change applied to Voice by default -- does not work correctly
% Because of auto-generated voices, all beating will
% be at beatBase #1/8
\set beatStructure = 3,1,1,2
<< \relative {a'8 a a a16 a a a a8 a} \\ \relative {f'4. f8 f f f} >>

% Works correctly with context Staff specified

\set Staff.beatStructure = 3,1,1,2
<< \relative {a'8 a a a16 a a a a8 a} \\ \relative {f'4. f8 f f f} >>

 87 hh P h h hh h hh h hh hh hh P h h hh h hh h hh hh
T T T T T T
Chapter 2: Rhythms 103

The value of beatBase can be adjusted to change the beaming behavior, if desired. When
this is done, the value of beatStructure must be set to be compatible with the new value of
beatBase.
\time 5/8
% No need to disable beamExceptions
% as they are not defined for 5/8 time
\set Timing.beatBase = #1/16
\set Timing.beatStructure = 7,3
\repeat unfold 10 { a'16 }

 85 h h h h h h h h h h
By default beatBase is set to one over the denominator of the time signature. Any exceptions
to this default can be found in scm/time-signature-settings.scm.

Beaming based on beamExceptions

Special auto-beaming rules (other than ending a beam on a beat) are defined in the
beamExceptions property.
The value for beamExceptions, a somewhat complex Scheme data structure, is easiest gener-
ated with the \beamExceptions function. This function is given one or more manually beamed
measure-long rhythmic patterns (measures have to be separated by a bar check | since the
function has no other way to discern the measure length). Here is a simple example:
\relative c'' {
\time 3/16
\set Timing.beatStructure = 2,1
\set Timing.beamExceptions =
\beamExceptions { 32[ 32] 32[ 32] 32[ 32] }
c16 c c |
\repeat unfold 6 { c32 } |
}

 163 h h hU h h h h h h
☛ ✟
Note: A beamExceptions value must be complete exceptions list.
That is, every exception that should be applied must be included in
the setting. It is not possible to add, remove, or change only one of
the exceptions. While this may seem cumbersome, it means that the
current beaming settings need not be known in order to specify a new
beaming pattern.
✡ ✠
When the time signature is changed, default values of Timing.beatBase, Timing
.beatStructure, and Timing.beamExceptions are set. Setting the time signature will reset
the automatic beaming settings for the Timing context to the default behavior.
\relative a' {
\time 6/8
\repeat unfold 6 { a8 }
% group (4 + 2)
Chapter 2: Rhythms 104

\set Timing.beatStructure = 4,2

\repeat unfold 6 { a8 }
% go back to default behavior
\time 6/8
\repeat unfold 6 { a8 }
}

 86 h h h h h h h h h h h h 86 h h h h h h
The default automatic beaming settings for a time signature are determined in
scm/time-signature-settings.scm. Changing the default automatic beaming settings for a
time signature is described in Section 2.3.1 [Time signature], page 76.
Many automatic beaming settings for a time signature contain an entry for beamExceptions.
For example, 4/4 time tries to beam the measure in two if there are only eighth notes. The
beamExceptions rule can override the beatStructure setting if beamExceptions is not reset.
\time 4/4
\set Timing.beatBase = #1/8
\set Timing.beatStructure = 3,3,2
% This won't beam (3 3 2) because of beamExceptions
\repeat unfold 8 {c''8} |
% This will beam (3 3 2) because we clear beamExceptions
\set Timing.beamExceptions = #'()
\repeat unfold 8 {c''8}

º hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh
In a similar fashion, eighth notes in 3/4 time are beamed as a full measure by default. To
beam eighth notes in 3/4 time on the beat, reset beamExceptions.
\time 3/4
% by default we beam in (6) due to beamExceptions
\repeat unfold 6 {a'8} |
% This will beam (1 1 1) due to default beatBase and beatStructure
\set Timing.beamExceptions = #'()
\repeat unfold 6 {a'8}

 43 h h h h h h h h h h h h
In engraving from the romantic and classical periods, beams often begin midway through
the measure in 3/4 time, but modern practice is to avoid the false impression of 6/8 time (see
Gould, p. 153). Similar situations arise in 3/8 time. This behavior is controlled by the context
property beamHalfMeasure, which has effect only in time signatures with 3 in the numerator:
\relative a' {
\time 3/4
r4. a8 a a |
\set Timing.beamHalfMeasure = ##f
r4. a8 a a |
}
Chapter 2: Rhythms 105

 43  P h h h  P h h h
How automatic beaming works
When automatic beaming is enabled, the placement of automatic beams is determined by the
context properties beatBase, beatStructure, and beamExceptions.
The following rules, in order of priority, apply when determining the appearance of beams:
• If a manual beam is specified with [...] set the beam as specified, otherwise
• if a beam ending rule is defined in beamExceptions for the beam type, use it to determine
the valid places where beams may end, otherwise
• if a beam ending rule is defined in beamExceptions for a longer beam type, use it to
determine the valid places where beams may end, otherwise
• use the values of beatBase and beatStructure to determine the ends of the beats in the
measure, and end beams at the end of beats.
In the rules above, the beam type is the duration of the shortest note in the beamed group.
The default beaming rules can be found in scm/time-signature-settings.scm.

Selected Snippets
Subdividing beams
The beams of consecutive 16th (or shorter) notes are, by default, not subdivided. That is, the
beams of more than two stems stretch unbroken over entire groups of notes. This behavior can be
modified to subdivide the beams into sub-groups by setting the property subdivideBeams to true
(#t). When set, a number of beamlets between two consecutive stems are removed at intervals
multiple beams will be subdivided at intervals to match the metric value of the subdivision.
Properties beamMinimumSubdivision and beamMaximumSubdivision allow configuring limits
of automatic beam subdivision: the minimum rhythmic interval at which to subdivide beams
and the number of beamlets removed depending on the interval respectively. If the numerator
of beamMaximumSubdivision is not a power of 2, the smaller rhythmic intervals considered
for subdivision are beamMaximumSubdivision divided by powers of 2 and stay greater than or
equal to beamMinimumSubdivision. If beamMaximumSubdivision < beamMinimumSubdivision,
then the depths of beam subdivision are limited to beamMaximumSubdivision, but not the
frequency/intervals, therefore possibly deviating from the correct expected metric value. If
respectIncompleteBeams is set to true (##t), the depth of the subdivision (number of beams)
reflects the longest possible subdivision interval within the remaining length of the beam from
the current stem. However, the last two stems of the beam are exempt from this rule.
\relative c'' {
c32[ c c c c c c c]

\set subdivideBeams = ##t

c32[ c c c c c c c]

% Set minimum beam subdivision interval to 1/8 just for this beam
\once \set beamMinimumSubdivision = #1/8
c32[ c c c c c c c]

% Set maximum beam subdivision interval to 1/16 just for this beam
\once \set beamMaximumSubdivision = #1/16
c32[ c c c c c c c]
Chapter 2: Rhythms 106

% Set maximum beam subdivision interval to 3/8 just for this beam
\once \set beamMaximumSubdivision = #3/8
[ \repeat unfold 16 c64 ] r2.

% Set maximum beam subdivision interval to 1/64 to limit subdivision depth,

% despite not being metrically correct
\once \set beamMinimumSubdivision = #1/32
\once \set beamMaximumSubdivision = #1/64
[ \repeat unfold 32 c128 ] r2.

% Shorten beam by 1/32

c32[ c c c c c c] r32

% Shorten beam by 3/32

c32[ c c c c] r16.

% Respect the incomplete beams of the previous two examples

\set respectIncompleteBeams = ##t
c32[ c c c c c c] r32
% no visual change here as last two stems are exempt from this
% special rule
c32[ c c c c] r16.
}

 º hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh

 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h ˜P
2

 hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh˜P
3

 h h h h h h h ¨ h h h h h ¥P h h h h h h h ¨ h h h h h ¥P
4

Strict beat beaming

Beamlets can be set to point in the direction of the beat to which they belong. The first beam
avoids sticking out flags (the default); the second beam strictly follows the beat.
\relative c'' {
\time 6/8
a8. a16 a a
\set strictBeatBeaming = ##t
a8. a16 a a
}

 86 h P h h h h P h h h
Chapter 2: Rhythms 107

Conducting signs, measure grouping signs

Context properties control the grouping of beats within a measure: beatStructure
lists the length of each beat in units of beatBase. Default values are established in
scm/time-signature-settings.scm. These properties may be changed particularly with
\set.
Alternatively, \time optionally accepts a beat structure to use instead of the default. \time
applies to the Timing context, so it does not reset values of properties that are set in lower-level
contexts such as Voice.
If the Measure_grouping_engraver is included in one of the display contexts, measure
grouping signs will be created. Such signs ease reading rhythmically complex modern
music. In the example, the 9/8 measure is grouped in two different patterns using the two
different methods, while the 5/8 measure is grouped according to the default setting in
scm/time-signature-settings.scm. For the 4/4 measure you have to explicitly set beatBase
to eighths so that the bar’s irregular pattern gets displayed.
\score {
\new Voice \relative c'' {
\time 9/8
g8 g d d g g a( bes g) |
\set Timing.beatStructure = 2,2,2,3
g8 g d d g g a( bes g) |
\time 4,5 9/8
g8 g d d g g a( bes g) |
\time 5/8
a4. g4 |
\time 3,3,2 4/4
\set Timing.beatBase = #1/8
f4 d8 f4 d8 g4
}
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
\consists "Measure_grouping_engraver"
}
}
}

 89 h h h h h h h  h h h h h h h h h  h h 89

 89 h h h h h h h  h h 85 h P h º h h h h h
3

Beam endings in Score context

Beam-ending rules specified in the Score context apply to all staves, but can be modified at
both Staff and Voice levels:
\relative c'' {
\time 5/4
Chapter 2: Rhythms 108

% Set default beaming for all staves

\set Score.beatBase = #1/8
\set Score.beatStructure = 3,4,3
<<
\new Staff {
c8 c c c c c c c c c
}
\new Staff {
% Modify beaming for just this staff
\set Staff.beatStructure = 6,4
c8 c c c c c c c c c
}
\new Staff {
% Inherit beaming from Score context
<<
{
\voiceOne
c8 c c c c c c c c c
}
% Modify beaming for this voice only
\new Voice {
\voiceTwo
\set Voice.beatStructure = 6,4
a8 a a a a a a a a a
}
>>
}
>>
}

 45 h h h h h h h h h h

 45 h h h h h h h h h h

 45 hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh
See also
Notation Reference: Section 2.3.1 [Time signature], page 76.
Installed Files: scm/time-signature-settings.scm.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Auto beam engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “Beam”
in Internals Reference, Section “BeamForbidEvent” in Internals Reference, Section “beam-
interface” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still accepting notes, this
last beam will not be typeset at all. The same holds for polyphonic voices, entered with << ...
Chapter 2: Rhythms 109

\\ ... >>. If a polyphonic voice ends while an automatic beam is still accepting notes, it is not
typeset. The workaround for these problems is to manually beam the last beam in the voice or
score.
By default, the Timing translator is aliased to the Score context. This means that setting
the time signature in one staff will affect the beaming of the other staves as well. Thus, a time
signature setting in a later staff will reset custom beaming that was set in an earlier staff. One
way to avoid this problem is to set the time signature in only one staff.
<<
\new Staff {
\time 3/4
\set Timing.beatBase = #1/8
\set Timing.beatStructure = 1,5
\set Timing.beamExceptions = #'()
\repeat unfold 6 { a'8 }
}
\new Staff {
\repeat unfold 6 { a'8 }
}
>>

 43 h h h h h h

 43 h h h h h h
The default beam settings for the time signature can also be changed, so that the desired
beaming will always be used. Changes in automatic beaming settings for a time signature are
described in Section 2.3.1 [Time signature], page 76.
<<
\new Staff {
\overrideTimeSignatureSettings
3/4 % timeSignatureFraction
#1/8 % beatBase
1,5 % beatStructure
#'() % beamExceptions
\time 3/4
\repeat unfold 6 { a'8 }
}
\new Staff {
\time 3/4
\repeat unfold 6 { a'8 }
}
>>

 43 h h h h h h

 43 h h h h h h
Chapter 2: Rhythms 110

2.4.3 Manual beams

In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic beaming algorithm. For example,
the auto-beamer will not put beams over rests or bar lines, and in choral scores the beaming is
often set to follow the meter of the lyrics rather than the notes. Such beams can be specified
manually by marking the begin and end point with [ and ].
\relative { r4 r8[ g' a r] r g[ | a] r }

º  ¢hh¢¢h h¢
Beaming direction can be set manually using direction indicators:
\relative { c''8^[ d e] c,_[ d e f g] }

h
º hh hhhhh

Individual notes may be marked with \noBeam to prevent them from being beamed:
\relative {
\time 2/4
c''8 c\noBeam c c
}

 42 hT hT h h
Grace note beams and normal note beams can occur simultaneously. Unbeamed grace notes
are not put into normal note beams.
\relative {
c''4 d8[
\grace { e32 d c d }
e8] e[ e
\grace { f16 }
e8 e]
}
†
h hh h hh hh
 º h h hh
Even more strict manual control with the beams can be achieved by setting the properties
stemLeftBeamCount and stemRightBeamCount. They specify the number of beams to draw on
the left and right side, respectively, of the next note. If either property is set, its value will be
used only once, and then it is erased. In this example, the last f is printed with only one beam
on the left side, i.e., the eighth-note beam of the group as a whole.
\relative a' {
a8[ r16 f g a]
a8[ r16
\set stemLeftBeamCount = 2
\set stemRightBeamCount = 1
Chapter 2: Rhythms 111

f16
\set stemLeftBeamCount = 1
g16 a]
}

º h ¥hhhh ¥hhh
Predefined commands
\noBeam.

Selected Snippets
Beam nibs
Beam nibs at the start and end of beams together with beams attached to solitary notes that
look like flat flags are possible with a combination of stemLeftBeamCount, stemRightBeamCount,
and paired [] beam indicators.
For imitating right-pointing flat flags on lone notes, use paired [] beam indicators and
set stemLeftBeamCount to zero. For imitating left-pointing flat flags on lone notes, set
stemRightBeamCount to zero instead (line one).
For right-pointing nibs at the end of a run of beamed notes, set stemRightBeamCount to a pos-
itive value. For left-pointing nibs at the start of a run of beamed notes, set stemLeftBeamCount
instead (line two).
Sometimes it may make sense for a lone note surrounded by rests to carry both a left- and
right-pointing nib. Do this with paired [] beam indicators alone (line three).
Note that \set stemLeftBeamCount is always equivalent to \once \set. In other words, the
beam count settings are not “sticky”, so the pair of nibs attached to the lone 16th note in the
last example has nothing to do with the \set command for the beam before.
\score {
<<
\new RhythmicStaff {
\set stemLeftBeamCount = 0
c16[] r8.
r8.
\set stemRightBeamCount = 0
16[]
}
\new RhythmicStaff {
16 16
\set stemRightBeamCount = 2
16 r r
\set stemLeftBeamCount = 2
16 16 16
}
\new RhythmicStaff {
16 16
\set stemRightBeamCount = 2
16 r16
16[] r16
\set stemLeftBeamCount = 2
Chapter 2: Rhythms 112

16 16
}
>>
}

º h ¢P ¢P h

º hhh¥¥hhh

º hhh¥h¥hh
Using alternative flag styles
Alternative shapes for flags on eighth and shorter notes can be displayed by overriding the
stencil property of Flag. LilyPond provides the following functions: modern-straight-flag,
old-straight-flag, and flat-flag. Use \revert to restore the default shape.
To get stacked (i.e., vertically more compact) flags, call the command \flagStyleStacked,
which can be reset with \flagStyleDefault.
Overriding the Flag stencil does not change how flag elements are positioned vertically. This
is especially noticeable for flat flags: LilyPond doesn’t dynamically adjust the vertical gaps
between flag elements in the same way as it does for beams. A possible solution to harmonize
the appearance is to replace flat flags with half beams, as shown in the second staff; however,
this can’t be done automatically. In the code of this snippet, such half beams are entered with
@ as a prefix, for example @c8.
Be aware that half beams are not Flag grobs. This means in particular that modifying
Flag properties won’t have any effect on them (you have to use Beam properties instead), and
properties for their associated Stem grob will also behave beam-like.
"@" =
#(define-music-function (music) (ly:music?)
#{ \set stemLeftBeamCount = 0 $music [] #})

testnotes = {
\autoBeamOff
c8 d16 e''32 f64 \acciaccatura { g,,,8 } a128 b
}

\relative c' {
\override TextScript.staff-padding = 6
\time 1/4
<>^"default" \testnotes
\override Flag.stencil = #modern-straight-flag
<>_"modern straight" \testnotes
\override Flag.stencil = #old-straight-flag
<>^"old straight" \testnotes
\override Flag.stencil = #flat-flag
<>_"flat" \testnotes
\revert Flag.stencil
Chapter 2: Rhythms 113

\flagStyleStacked
<>^"stacked" \testnotes
\flagStyleDefault
<>_"default" \testnotes
}

\relative c' {
\time 3/4
\override Flag.stencil = #flat-flag

<>^"flat" c8 c[ c] d16 d[ d] e''32 e[ e] f64 f[ f]

\acciaccatura { g,,,8 } a128 a[ a a a a]
<>^"beam-like" @c8 c[ c] @d16 d[ d] @e''32 e[ e] @f64 f[ f]
\acciaccatura { g,,,8 } @a128 a[ a a a a]
}

\layout {
indent = 0
\context {
\Score
\override NonMusicalPaperColumn.line-break-permission = ##f
}
}

hh hh hh hh hh hh
default old straight stacked

1 † V W ‰‰ } ~ w x   †V W ‰ ‰
 4 h h Πhh h h h h h h h h h h }Πh h h h Πh h
h h h h h h h h h h

hhhhhh hhhhhh
modern straight flat default

 43 h
flat beam-like

hhhhh h h hhhhh h h h h h h h hhhhhh

See also
Notation Reference: Section 36.1 [Direction and placement], page 746, Section 2.6.1 [Grace
notes], page 141.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Beam” in Internals Reference, Section “BeamEvent” in Inter-
nals Reference, Section “Beam engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “beam-interface” in
Internals Reference, Section “Stem engraver” in Internals Reference.

2.4.4 Feathered beams

Feathered beams are used to indicate that a small group of notes should be played at an increas-
ing (or decreasing) tempo, without changing the overall tempo of the piece. The extent of the
feathered beam must be indicated manually using [ and ], and the beam feathering is turned
on by specifying a direction to the Beam property grow-direction.
If the placement of the notes and the sound in the MIDI output is to reflect the ritardando or
accelerando indicated by the feathered beam the notes must be grouped as a music expression
Chapter 2: Rhythms 114

delimited by braces and preceded by a \featherDurations command which specifies the ratio
between the durations of the first and last notes in the group.
The square brackets show the extent of the beam and the braces show which notes are to
have their durations modified. Normally these would delimit the same group of notes, but this
is not required: the two commands are independent.
In the following example the eight 16th notes occupy exactly the same time as a half note,
but the first note is one half as long as the last one, with the intermediate notes gradually
lengthening. The first four 32nd notes gradually speed up, while the last four 32nd notes are at
a constant tempo.
\relative c' {
\override Beam.grow-direction = #LEFT
\featherDurations 2/1
{ c16[ c c c c c c c] }
\override Beam.grow-direction = #RIGHT
\featherDurations 2/3
{ c32[ d e f] }
% revert to non-feathered beams
\override Beam.grow-direction = #'()
{ g32[ a b c] }
}

 º hh h h h h h h h h h
h h h h h
The spacing in the printed output represents the note durations only approximately, but the
MIDI output is exact.

Predefined commands
\featherDurations.

See also
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.

Known issues and warnings

The \featherDurations command only works with very short music snippets, and when num-
bers in the fraction are small.

2.4.5 Slashed beams

Slashed beams are printed by using the special stencil procedure beam::slashed-stencil.
The slash may be printed at the left or right side of the beam and is further customiz-
able by overrides of the details subproperties over-beam-height, slash-slope, slash-side,
slash-stem-fraction, slash-thickness, and slash-X-positions. Note that those subprop-
erties negotiate with each other to get a pleasing output, i.e., changing one of them may have
impact on others.
mus = \repeat unfold 4 a16

{
\override TextScript.rotation = #'(15 1 0)
\override Beam.stencil = #beam::slashed-stencil
\mus
Chapter 2: Rhythms 115

<>^"slash-side" %% default: LEFT

\once \override Beam.details.slash-side = #RIGHT
\mus
<>^"over-beam-height" %% default: 0.75
\once \override Beam.details.over-beam-height = #1.5
\mus
<>^"slash-slope" %% default: 2
\once \override Beam.details.slash-slope = #1.0
\mus
<>^"slash-stem-fraction" %% default: 0.3
\once \override Beam.details.slash-stem-fraction = #0.6
\mus
<>^"slash-thickness" %% default: 0.1
\once \override Beam.details.slash-thickness = #0.2
\mus
<>^"slash-X-positions" %% default: (-0.5 . 1)
\once \override Beam.details.slash-X-positions = #'(-1 . 2)
\mus
}

ht on
e a m -heig pe m -fractiickness ositions
-sidover-be ash-slo ash-ste ash-th ash-X-p
slash
º
sl sl sl sl

hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh hhhhhhhhh h h h
2.5 Bars
2.5.1 Bar lines
Bar lines are used to delimit measures and sections, and to indicate repetition. Normally, simple
bar lines are automatically inserted into the printed output at places according to the current
time signature. Various commands insert other kinds of bar lines automatically as part of their
effect (see Section 2.5.2 [Automatic bar lines], page 125).
A bar line inserted automatically can be changed to another type with the \bar command:
\relative { e'4 d c2 \bar "!" }

º h h N
The final note of a measure is not required to end on the automatically inserted bar line: the
note is assumed to carry over into the next measure. But if a long sequence of such carry-over
measures appears, the music can appear compressed or even flowing off the page. This is because
automatic line breaks happen only at the end of complete measures, i.e., where all notes end
before the end of a measure.
☛ ✟
Note: An incorrect duration can inhibit line breaks, leading to a line
of highly compressed music or music that flows off the page.
✡ ✠
Chapter 2: Rhythms 116

Line breaks are also permitted at manually inserted bar lines even within incomplete measures.
To allow a line break without printing a bar line, use \allowBreak; see Section 28.1 [Line
breaking], page 661.
This and other special bar lines may be inserted manually at any point. When they coincide
with the end of a measure they replace the simple bar line which would have been inserted there
automatically. When they do not coincide with the end of a measure the specified bar line is
inserted at that point in the printed output.
Manual bar lines are purely visual. They do not affect any of the properties that a normal bar
line would affect, such as measure numbers and accidentals. They do not affect the calculation
and placement of subsequent automatic bar lines. When a manual bar line is placed where a
normal bar line already exists, the effects of the original bar line are not altered.
Various single and double bar lines are available for manual insertion:
\relative {
f'1 \bar "|"
f1 \bar "."
g1 \bar "||" % see \section
a1 \bar ".|"
b1 \bar ".."
c1 \bar "|.|"
d1 \bar "|." % see \fine
e1
}

. . .
º . . . . .
together with dotted and dashed bar lines:
\relative {
f'1 \bar ";"
g1 \bar "!"
a1
}

PPP
º . P . .
and various repeat bar lines:
\relative {
f'1 \bar ".|:"
g1 \bar ":..:"
a1 \bar ":|.|:"
b1 \bar ":|.:"
c1 \bar ":.|.:"
d1 \bar "[|:"
e1 \bar ":|][|:"
f1 \bar ":|]"
g1 \bar ":|."
a1
}
Chapter 2: Rhythms 117

7P . 7P 7P . 7P . P .
 º . PP . PP PP . PP PP . PP PP . PP PP . 6P 6P 6P 6P P
Ticks and short bar lines are also available; however, in the context of Gregorian chant, using
\divisioMinima and \divisioMaior is preferable (see Section 17.4.4 [Divisiones], page 533).
f'1 \bar "'"
g1 \bar ","
a1

º .
. .
LilyPond supports Kievan notation and provides a special Kievan bar line:
f'1 \bar "k"

º . ?
Further details of this notation are explained in Section 17.5 [Typesetting Kievan square
notation], page 541.
There are various in-staff segno signs which differ in their behavior at line breaks:
\fixed c' {
c4 4 4 4
\bar "S"
d4 4 4 4 \break
\bar "S"
e4 4 4 4
\bar "S-|"
f4 4 4 4 \break
\bar "S-|"
g4 4 4 4
\bar "S-||"
a4 4 4 4 \break
\bar "S-||"
b4 4 4 4
\bar "S-S"
c'4 4 4 4 \break
\bar "S-S"
d'1
}

º h h h h
Œ
h h h h

 Œh Œ h
3

h h h h h h
Chapter 2: Rhythms 118

 Œh Œ h
5

h h h h h h

 Œh h h h Œ h h h h Œ
7

 .
9

Although the bar line types signifying repeats may be inserted manually they do not in them-
selves cause LilyPond to recognize a repeated section. Such repeated sections are better entered
using the various repeat commands (see Chapter 4 [Repeats], page 181), which automatically
print the appropriate bar lines, which can be customized (see Section 2.5.2 [Automatic bar lines],
page 125).
In addition, you can specify ".|:-||", which is equivalent to ".|:" except at line breaks,
where it gives a double bar line at the end of the line and a start repeat at the beginning of the
next line.
\fixed c' {
c4 4 4 4
\bar ".|:"
d4 4 4 4 \break
\bar ".|:"
e4 4 4 4
\bar ".|:-|"
f4 4 4 4 \break
\bar ".|:-|"
g4 4 4 4
\bar ".|:-||"
a4 4 4 4 \break
\bar ".|:-||"
b4 4 4 4
\bar ".|:-|."
c'4 4 4 4 \break
\bar ".|:-|."
d'4 4 4 4
}

º PP
h h h h h h h h

 PP h PP h
3

h h h h h h

 PP h PP h
5

h h h h h h
Chapter 2: Rhythms 119

 PP h h h h PP h h h h
7

h h h h
 PP
9

There are various combinations of repeats with the segno sign:

\fixed c' {
g,4 4 4 4
\bar ":|.S"
a,4 4 4 4 \break
\bar ":|.S"
b,4 4 4 4
\bar ":|.S-S"
c4 4 4 4 \break
\bar ":|.S-S"
d4 4 4 4
\bar "S.|:-S"
e4 4 4 4 \break
\bar "S.|:-S"
f4 4 4 4
\bar "S.|:"
g4 4 4 4 \break
\bar "S.|:"
a4 4 4 4
\bar "S.|:-|"
b4 4 4 4 \break
\bar "S.|:-|"
c'4 4 4 4
\bar "S.|:-||"
d'4 4 4 4 \break
\bar "S.|:-||"
e'4 4 4 4
\bar ":|.S.|:"
f'4 4 4 4 \break
\bar ":|.S.|:"
g'4 4 4 4
\bar ":|.S.|:-S"
a'4 4 4 4 \break
\bar ":|.S.|:-S"
b'1
}

º PP Œ PP
h h h h h h h h

 Œ PP Œ PP Œ
3

h h h h h h h h
Chapter 2: Rhythms 120

Œ PP Œ
5

 h h h h h h h h

 PP h ΠPP h
7

h h h h h h

 ΠPP h ΠPP h h h h
9

h h h

 ΠPP h h h h ΠPP h h h h
11

ΠP h h h h PP ΠPP h h h h PP
13

 P
h h h h h h h h
 Œ PP PP Œ PP PP Œ
15

.
 PP
17

Many of the repeat and segno bar lines above can be inserted automatically by \repeat
commands (see Chapter 4 [Repeats], page 181).
New bar line types can be defined with \defineBarLine:
\defineBarLine bar-type #'(eol-bar bol-bar span-bar)
Briefly, the bar-type argument specifies the bar line glyph to use in the middle of a staff line, and
also serves as the name by which this bar line type is referenced. The other arguments specify
the bar line glyph to use at the end or beginning of a line, or in the span between multiple staves.
Setting any of eol-bar, bol-bar, or span-bar to #t means to use the same bar line type specified
by bar-type for the corresponding position. Setting them to #f means to print no bar line in
the corresponding position.
In more detail, the bar-type argument is a string that serves a dual purpose: It specifies
the bar line glyph to be printed when it occurs in the middle of a staff line; and it identifies
the bar line object that can be invoked with \bar bar-type. It must have the form midglyph
or midglyph-annotation (with a literal hyphen), where annotation is an arbitrary string, and
midglyph is a string each of whose characters is the name of one of the predefined bar line
elements listed below. The resulting bar line glyph to be used in the middle of a line is the
concatenation of these elements. For example, a bar-type of either ";|" or ";|-other" specifies
a compound bar line consisting of a dotted line (‘;’) paired with a solid line (‘|’):
\defineBarLine ";|" #'(#t #t #t)
\defineBarLine ";|-other" #'(#f #f #f)
\fixed c' {
\bar ";|" a1 \bar ";|" b1 \bar ";|-other" c'1 \bar ";|-other"
}
Chapter 2: Rhythms 121

P PPP . PPP .
 º PPP . P P
The annotation (‘other’ in the second example above) is used to distinguish this bar type from
others with the same midglyph but different line break or multi-staff behavior. (By convention,
the string specified in eol-bar is often used as the annotation, so we might have named the
second example ‘";|-f"’.)
The arguments eol-bar and bol-bar specify the bar line to be printed at the end of the line
and beginning of the next line, when \bar bar-type occurs at a line break. bol-bar also applies
when \bar bar-type is used at the beginning of a score. The format of these arguments is the
same as that of bar-type. The string of bar line elements specifies the bar line glyph to print at
the corresponding line position. In addition, either of these arguments can be #t as a shorthand
for copying the value of bar-type; or #f to print no bar line. For example, all of the bar line
types in this example print a dotted-solid line pair in the middle of a staff line, but have different
behavior at ends or beginnings of lines:
% dotted-solid everywhere
\defineBarLine ";|" #'( #t #t #t)
% solid-bold at EOL, solid-solid at BOL
\defineBarLine ";|-A" #'( "|." "||" #f )
% dotted-solid at EOL, nothing at BOL
\defineBarLine ";|-B" #'( #t #f #f )
% nothing at EOL, dotted-solid at BOL
\defineBarLine ";|-C" #'( #f #t #f )
\relative c'' {
\bar ";|" \textMark "\";|\""
a1 \bar ";|-A"
a1 \bar ";|-A" \textEndMark "\";|-A\"" \break
b1 \bar ";|-B" b \bar ";|-B" \textEndMark "\";|-B\"" \break
c1 \bar ";|-C" c \bar ";|-C" \textEndMark "\";|-C\"" \break
d1 \bar ";|" \textEndMark "\";|\""
}

P
P
";|"
PP ";|-A"
 º PP . PP .

PP . ";|-B"
PP
 .
3

PP PP

PPP .
 .
5 ";|-C"

P
P . PP
 PPP
7 ";|"
PP
Note: The eol-bar or bol-bar strings may be names of previously defined bar line types.
In a single staff context, it does not matter: the bar line elements in the given string are
used regardless of any features of the defined bar line named by the string. In particular, any
Chapter 2: Rhythms 122

annotation is ignored in this context. However, in a multi-staff system it is important that

eol-bar and bol-bar refer to previously defined bar line types (including bar-type itself), or be
#t or #f. This is explained in more detail below.
The argument span-bar has an effect only in multi-staff systems (see Section 6.1.2 [Grouping
staves], page 234), where it specifies what to print between grouped staves. This argument
should be a string of bar line elements, of the same length as bar-type or shorter. (Extra
elements are ignored.) Each element will be printed in line with the corresponding element of
bar-type. A space character (‘ ’) can be used to omit a bar line element but leave space for
it. Setting span-bar to #t makes it the same as the mid-line glyph. Setting it to #f omits the
span bar, and setting it to "" (an empty string) makes a zero-width span bar. Here are some
examples:
\defineBarLine ";|!-A" #'(#t #t "!|")
\defineBarLine ";|!-B" #'(#t #t " !|")
\defineBarLine ";|!-C" #'(#t #t #t)
\defineBarLine ";|!-D" #'(#t #t #f)
\fixed c' {
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff {
a1 \bar ";|!-A"
b \bar ";|!-B"
c' \bar ";|!-C"
d' \bar ";|!-D"
e'
}
\new Staff {
a1 b c' d' e'
}
>>
}

7 PPP . PPP . PPP . PPP .

º . P P PP P
PPP
PPP . PPP . PP . PPP .
º PPP
6 . P P P
At line breaks, instead of using span-bar, the bar line types referenced by eol-bar and bol-
bar are used to determine the span bar to print. In the context of a staff group, if eol-bar and
bol-bar do not refer to defined bar line types, LilyPond issues a warning, and no span bar is
printed at line breaks. It is allowed for eol-bar or bol-bar to be #f, in which case no span bar
is printed at the corresponding line position. These arguments can also be #t, or equivalently,
equal to bar-type, in which case the current span-bar does determine the span bar to print at
the corresponding line position:
\defineBarLine "!|-t" #'(#t #t #t)
\defineBarLine "|!-t" #'(#t #t #t)
\defineBarLine ";|!-bad" #'("|!" "!|" #t) % fails at line breaks
\defineBarLine ";|!-good" #'("!|-t" "|!-t" #t)
\relative c'' {
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff {
Chapter 2: Rhythms 123

\bar ";|!-good"
a1 \bar ";|!-good"
% \bar ";|!-bad" % "WARNING: No span bar glyph defined..."
b1 \bar ";|!-good"
}
\new Staff {
a1 b1
}
>>
}

7 PPP .
º . PP
PPP
PP
º . PPP .
6
Note: If span-bar is a string, it should contain only bar line elements, or space (‘ ’), and
not an annotation such as allowed in the other arguments. If span-bar contains an annotation,
LilyPond issues a warning. The one exception is that it may be equal to bar-type, in which case
no warning is issued even if bar-type includes an annotation.
All the available bar line elements are shown below. Most also have predefined bar types (for
arguments to \bar) that reference them individually. Some elements are primarily intended to
be combined with others and so do not have predefined individual bar types.
\defineBarLine ":" #'(#f #t #f)
\defineBarLine "=" #'(#t #f #t)
\defineBarLine "[" #'(#f #t #f)
\defineBarLine "]" #'(#t #f #f)

\new Staff {
s1 \bar "'"
s1 \bar ","
s1 \bar "|"
s1 \bar "."
s1 \bar "!"
s1 \bar ";"
s1 \bar ":"
s1 \bar "k"
s1 \bar "S"
s1 \bar "="
s1 \bar "["
s1 \bar "]"
s1 \bar ""
}

PP PP 7 7
º PP ? Œ 6 6
The "=" bar line provides a double span bar line for use in combination with the segno sign.
Using it as a stand-alone double thin bar line is not recommended; \bar "||" is preferred.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 124

If additional elements are needed, LilyPond provides a simple way to define them. For more
information on modifying or adding bar lines, see file scm/bar-line.scm.
In scores with many staves, a \bar command in one staff is automatically applied to all staves.
The resulting bar lines are connected between different staves of a StaffGroup, PianoStaff, or
GrandStaff.
<<
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff \relative {
e'4 d
\bar "||"
f4 e
}
\new Staff \relative { \clef bass c'4 g e g }
>>
\new Staff \relative { \clef bass c'2 c2 }
>>

7
 º hh h h
h
º h h h
6
N N
º
The bar type used for automatically inserted measure bar lines is "|". This may be changed
at any time with ‘\set Timing.measureBarType = bartype’.
It is also possible to set different types of bar lines in a score with multiple staves, using
one of the possible commands or properties explained below (see Section 2.5.2 [Automatic bar
lines], page 125). Of course this may lead to a mismatch of bar lines and span bars, due to their
different width.
Usually bar lines are left-aligned (disregarding colon signs as in repeat bar lines). To get
them right-aligned the command
[\once] \override Context.BarLine.right-justified = ##t
needs to be applied, where Context is a context suitable for multiple staves, like Score,
StaffGroup, Grandstaff, etc.
\new StaffGroup
<<
\new Staff = "a" {
b1 b b
<<
{ \textMark "BarLines right-justified" b b }
\new Staff \with { alignAboveContext = "b" }
{
\override StaffGroup.BarLine.right-justified = ##t
b
\section
}
Chapter 2: Rhythms 125

>>
}
\new Staff = "b" { b \section }
\new Staff = "c" { b b \section b b b \section }
>>

7 BarLines right-justified
º
. . . . .
 º
.

º
.
º
6 . . . . .
After a line-break bar lines are never right-aligned. For mid-line and right-aligned bar lines
the anchor-point (used to align BarNumber, RehearsalMark, etc.) moves acordingly.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 28.1 [Line breaking], page 661, Chapter 4 [Repeats], page 181,
Section 6.1.2 [Grouping staves], page 234.
Installed Files: scm/bar-line.scm.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “BarLine” in Internals Reference (created at Staff level),
Section “SpanBar” in Internals Reference (across staves), Section “Timing translator” in In-
ternals Reference (for Timing properties).

2.5.2 Automatic bar lines

Various commands other than \bar can also create bar lines as part of their effect. The bar lines
created in these cases can be changed by setting context properties. If a property is set to '()
or is unset, it is ignored; otherwise, the value must be a predefined bar type or one previously
defined with the \defineBarLine command (see Section 2.5.1 [Bar lines], page 115).
Multiple reasons for creating different automatic bar lines may apply at the same time.
Conflicts are resolved in part by providing properties for predetermined combinations and in part
by a priority scheme. The table below presents the available properties in order of increasing
priority.
underlyingRepeatBarType
Used at points of repetition or departure where no bar line would oth-
erwise appear. This is expected when repeated sections are not aligned
to measures. Several commands employ this bar type: \codaMark,
\inStaffSegno, \repeat segno, \repeat volta, and \segnoMark.
caesuraType underlying-bar-line
Used at \caesura; see Section 9.7.4 [Phrase bar lines in hymn tunes],
page 396.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 126

measureBarType
Used at a measure boundary.
caesuraType bar-line
Used at \caesura; see Section 9.7.4 [Phrase bar lines in hymn tunes],
page 396.
sectionBarType
Used at a section break created by \section.
fineBarType
Used at \fine.
doubleRepeatBarType
doubleRepeatSegnoBarType
endRepeatBarType
endRepeatSegnoBarType
fineSegnoBarType
fineStartRepeatSegnoBarType
segnoBarType
startRepeatBarType
startRepeatSegnoBarType
Only one of these bar types is used at a time; which one is used depends
on the structure of the piece.
Properties with startRepeat or endRepeat in the name are used at
the start or end of a repeated section created by \repeat volta, and
properties with doubleRepeat in the name are used where the end of
one repeated section and the start of another coincide.
Properties with segno in the name are used at an in-staff segno, which
can be created by \repeat segno or \segnoMark when the segnoStyle
property is set to bar-line, or created by \inStaffSegno.
Properties with fine in the name are used at \fine.
Priority applies independently to beginning-, middle-, and end-of-line bar lines, allowing a
lower-priority bar line to appear where higher-priority bar types have no glyphs defined (see
Section 2.5.1 [Bar lines], page 115).
\fixed c' {
c1 \section \break
\repeat volta 2 d1
}

º
.

 PP . PP
2
Chapter 2: Rhythms 127

Selected Snippets
Setting the double repeat default for volte
There are three different styles of double repeats for volte, that can be set using
doubleRepeatBarType.
\relative c'' {
\repeat volta 2 { c1 }
\set Score.doubleRepeatBarType = ":..:"
\repeat volta 2 { c1 }
\set Score.doubleRepeatBarType = ":|.|:"
\repeat volta 2 { c1 }
\set Score.doubleRepeatBarType = ":|.:"
\repeat volta 2 { c1 }
}

º . PP PP . PP PP . PP PP . PP

See also
Notation Reference: Section 2.5.1 [Bar lines], page 115, Chapter 4 [Repeats], page 181.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Repeat acknowledge engraver” in Internals Reference.

2.5.3 Bar numbers

Bar numbers are typeset by default at the start of every line except the first line. The number
itself is stored in the currentBarNumber property, which is normally updated automatically for
every measure. It may also be set manually:
\relative c' {
c1 c c c
\break
\set Score.currentBarNumber = 50
c1 c c c
}

º
. . . .
50


. . . .
The default behavior of only printing bar numbers at the start of every line can be changed
through the break-visibility property of BarNumber. This takes three values which may be set
to #t or #f to specify whether the corresponding bar number is visible or not. The order of the
three values is end of line visible, middle of line visible, beginning of line visible.
In the following example bar numbers are printed at all possible places:
\relative c' {
\override Score.BarNumber.break-visibility = ##(#t #t #t)
\set Score.currentBarNumber = 11
Chapter 2: Rhythms 128

c1 | c | c | c |
\break
c1 | c | c | c |
}

º
11 12 13 14 15

. . . .
15 16 17 18 19


. . . .
Selected Snippets
Printing the bar number for the first measure
By default, the first bar number in a score is suppressed if it is less than or equal to 1. By
setting barNumberVisibility to all-bar-numbers-visible, any bar number can be printed
for the first measure and all subsequent measures.
\layout {
indent = 0
ragged-right = ##t
}

\relative c' {
\set Score.barNumberVisibility = #all-bar-numbers-visible
c1 | d | e | f \break
g1 | e | d | c
}

º
1

. . . .
5

 . . . .
Printing bar numbers at regular intervals
By setting the barNumberVisibility property, bar numbers can be printed at regular intervals.
Here the bar numbers are printed every two measures except at the end of the line.
\relative c' {
\override Score.BarNumber.break-visibility = #end-of-line-invisible
\set Score.currentBarNumber = 11
% Print a bar number every second measure
\set Score.barNumberVisibility = #(every-nth-bar-number-visible 2)
c1 | c | c | c | c
\break
c1 | c | c | c | c
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

Chapter 2: Rhythms 129

º
12 14

. . . . .
16 18 20


. . . . .
Printing bar numbers with changing regular intervals
Using the set-bar-number-visibility context function, bar number intervals can be changed.
\relative c' {
\override Score.BarNumber.break-visibility = #end-of-line-invisible
\context Score \applyContext #(set-bar-number-visibility 4)
\repeat unfold 10 c'1
\context Score \applyContext #(set-bar-number-visibility 2)
\repeat unfold 10 c
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

º . . . . . . . .
5

 . . . . . . . .
9 11 13 15

 . . . .
17 19

Printing bar numbers for broken measures

By default a BarNumber of a broken measure is not repeated at the beginning of the new
line. Use first-bar-number-invisible-save-broken-bars for barNumberVisibility to get
a parenthesized BarNumber there.
\layout {
\context {
\Score
barNumberVisibility = #first-bar-number-invisible-save-broken-bars
\override BarNumber.break-visibility = ##(#f #t #t)
}
}

\relative c' {
c1 | d | e | f2 \bar "" \break
fis | g1 | e2 \bar "" \break
<>^"reenabled default"
% back to default -
% \unset Score.barNumberVisibility would do so as well
\set Score.barNumberVisibility =
#first-bar-number-invisible-and-no-parenthesized-bar-numbers
Chapter 2: Rhythms 130

es | d1 | c
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

º
2 3 4

. . . N
(4) 5 6

 N . N
reenabled default
7 8

 N . .
Printing bar numbers using modulo-bar-number-visible
If the remainder of the division of the current BarNumber by the first argument of
modulo-bar-number-visible equals its second argument print the BarNumber.
Useful to print the BarNumber at certain distances, p.e.:
• (modulo-bar-number-visible 3 2) -> prints 2,5,8
• (modulo-bar-number-visible 4 2) -> prints 2,6,10
• (modulo-bar-number-visible 3 1) -> prints 3,5,7
• (modulo-bar-number-visible 5 2) -> prints 2,7,12
\layout {
\context {
\Score
\override BarNumber.break-visibility = ##(#f #t #t)
barNumberVisibility = #(modulo-bar-number-visible 3 2)
}
}

\relative c' {
c1 | d | e | f \break
g1 | e | d | c
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

º
2

. . . .
5 8

 . . . .
Chapter 2: Rhythms 131

Printing bar numbers inside boxes or circles

Bar numbers can also be printed inside boxes or circles.
\relative c' {
% Prevent bar numbers at the end of a line and permit them elsewhere
\override Score.BarNumber.break-visibility = #end-of-line-invisible
\set Score.barNumberVisibility = #(every-nth-bar-number-visible 4)

% Increase the size of the bar number by 2

\override Score.BarNumber.font-size = 2

% Draw a box round the following bar number(s)

\override Score.BarNumber.stencil
= #(make-stencil-boxer 0.1 0.25 ly:text-interface::print)
\repeat unfold 5 { c1 }

% Draw a circle round the following bar number(s)

\override Score.BarNumber.stencil
= #(make-stencil-circler 0.1 0.25 ly:text-interface::print)
\repeat unfold 4 { c1 } \bar "|."
}

4 8
º
. . . . . . . .

.
Alternative bar numbering
Two alternative methods for bar numbering can be set, especially for when using repeated music.
music = \relative c' {
\repeat volta 3 {
c4 d e f |
\alternative {
\volta 1 { c4 d e f | c2 d \break }
\volta 2 { f4 g a b | f4 g a b | f2 a | \break }
\volta 3 { c4 d e f | c2 d } } }
c1 \bar "|."
}

\markup "default"
{
\music
}

\markup \typewriter "'numbers"

{
\set Score.alternativeNumberingStyle = #'numbers
\music
}
Chapter 2: Rhythms 132

\markup \typewriter "'numbers-with-letters"

{
\set Score.alternativeNumberingStyle = #'numbers-with-letters
\music
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

default

.
º h h PP
h h h h h h N N
.
h h PP
4

 h h h h h h N N
.
h h h N
 h N .
7

'numbers

.
º h h PP
h h h h h h N N
.
h h PP
2

 h h h h h h N N
.
h h h N
 h N .
2

'numbers-with-letters

.
º h h PP
h h h h h h N N
.
h h PP
2b

 h h h h h h N N
.
h h h N
 h N .
2c
Chapter 2: Rhythms 133

Aligning bar numbers

Bar numbers by default are right-aligned to their parent object. This is usually the left edge of
a line or, if numbers are printed within a line, the left hand side of a bar line. The numbers may
also be positioned directly over the bar line or left-aligned to the bar line.
\relative c' {
\set Score.currentBarNumber = 111
\override Score.BarNumber.break-visibility = #all-visible
% Increase the size of the bar number by 2
\override Score.BarNumber.font-size = 2
% Print a bar number every second measure
\set Score.barNumberVisibility = #(every-nth-bar-number-visible 2)
c1 | c1
% Center-align bar numbers
\override Score.BarNumber.self-alignment-X = #CENTER
c1 | c1
% Left-align bar numbers
\override Score.BarNumber.self-alignment-X = #LEFT
c1 | c1
}

112 114 116

º
. . . . . .
Removing bar numbers from a score
Bar numbers can be removed entirely by removing the Bar_number_engraver from the Score
context.
\layout {
\context {
\Score
\omit BarNumber
% or:
%\remove "Bar_number_engraver"
}
}

\relative c'' {
c4 c c c \break
c4 c c c
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

º h h h h

 h h h h
Chapter 2: Rhythms 134

Measure-centered bar numbers

For film scores, a common convention is to center bar numbers within their measure. This is
achieved through setting the centerBarNumbers context property to true. When this is used,
the type of the bar number grobs is CenteredBarNumber rather than BarNumber.

This example demonstrates a number of settings: the centered bar numbers are boxed and
placed below the staves.

\layout {
\context {
\Score
centerBarNumbers = ##t
barNumberVisibility = #all-bar-numbers-visible
\override CenteredBarNumber.stencil
= #(make-stencil-boxer 0.1 0.25 ly:text-interface::print)
\override CenteredBarNumberLineSpanner.direction = #DOWN
}
}

\new StaffGroup <<

\new Staff \relative c' {
d4-. f8( e d4) bes'-> |
d,-. f8( e d4) cis'-> |
g-. f8( d e4) g-> |
a,1-> |
}
\new Staff \relative c {
\clef bass
d4 f8 e d2~ |
4 f8 e d2~ |
4 4 2 |
a1 |
}
>>

7 m m
º
 h hhh  h  h hp h h h hm
p hp h h h .m
º h hhN h hhN h h N .
6
1 2 3 4

See also
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.

Internals Reference: Section “BarNumber” in Internals Reference, Section “Centered-

BarNumber” in Internals Reference, Section “CenteredBarNumberLineSpanner” in In-
ternals Reference, Section “Bar number engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “Cen-
tered bar number align engraver” in Internals Reference.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 135

Known issues and warnings

Bar numbers may collide with the top of the StaffGroup bracket, if there is one. To solve this,
the padding property of BarNumber can be used to position the number correctly. See Section
“StaffGroup” in Internals Reference and Section “BarNumber” in Internals Reference for more.

2.5.4 Bar and bar number checks

Bar checks help detect errors in the entered durations. A bar check may be entered using the bar
symbol, |, at any place where a bar line is expected to fall. If bar check lines are encountered
at other places, a list of warnings is printed in the log file, showing the line numbers and lines
in which the bar checks failed. In the next example, the second bar check will signal an error.
\time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2 |
An incorrect duration can result in a completely garbled score, especially if the score is
polyphonic, so a good place to start correcting input is by scanning for failed bar checks and
incorrect durations.
If successive bar checks are off by the same musical interval, only the first warning message
is displayed. This allows the warning to focus on the source of the timing error.
Bar checks can also be inserted in lyrics:
\lyricmode {
\time 2/4
Twin -- kle | Twin -- kle |
}
Note that bar check marks in lyrics are evaluated at the musical moment when the syllable
following the check mark is processed. If the lyrics are associated with the notes of a voice which
has a rest at the beginning of a bar, then no syllable can be located at the start of that bar and
a warning will be issued if a bar check mark is placed in the lyrics at that position.
It is also possible to redefine the action taken when a bar check or pipe symbol, |, is encoun-
tered in the input, so that it does something other than a bar check. This is done by assigning
a music expression to "|". In the following example | is set to insert a double bar line wherever
it appears in the input, rather than checking for end of bar.
"|" = \bar "||"
{
c'2 c' |
c'2 c'
c'2 | c'
c'2 c'
}

º
N N N N N N N N
When copying large pieces of music, it can be helpful to check that the LilyPond bar
number corresponds to the original that you are entering from. This can be checked with
\barNumberCheck, for example,
\barNumberCheck 123
will print a warning if the currentBarNumber is not 123 when it is processed.

See also
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 136

2.5.5 Rehearsal marks

To print a rehearsal mark, use the \mark command.
\relative c'' {
c1 \mark \default
c1 \mark \default
c1 \mark \default
c1 \mark \default
}

º . . . .
A B C D

The mark is incremented automatically if you use \mark \default, but you can also use
an integer argument to set the mark manually. The value to use is stored in the property
rehearsalMark.
\relative c'' {
c1 \mark \default
c1 \mark \default
c1 \mark 8
c1 \mark \default
c1 \mark \default
}

º . . . . .
A B H J K

The letter ‘I’ is skipped in accordance with engraving traditions. If you wish to include the
letter ‘I’, then use one of the following commands, depending on which style of rehearsal mark
you want (letters only, letters in a hollow box, or letters in a hollow circle).
\set Score.rehearsalMarkFormatter = #format-mark-alphabet
\set Score.rehearsalMarkFormatter = #format-mark-box-alphabet
\set Score.rehearsalMarkFormatter = #format-mark-circle-alphabet
\relative c'' {
\set Score.rehearsalMarkFormatter = #format-mark-box-alphabet
c1 \mark \default
c1 \mark \default
c1 \mark 8
c1 \mark \default
c1 \mark \default
}

J
º . . . . .
A B H I

The style is defined by the property rehearsalMarkFormatter. It is a function taking the

current mark (an integer) and the current context as argument. It should return a markup
object. In the following example, rehearsalMarkFormatter is set to a predefined procedure.
After a few measures, it is set to a procedure that produces a boxed number.
\relative c'' {
Chapter 2: Rhythms 137

\set Score.rehearsalMarkFormatter = #format-mark-numbers

c1 \mark \default
c1 \mark \default
\set Score.rehearsalMarkFormatter = #format-mark-box-numbers
c1 \mark \default
\set Score.rehearsalMarkFormatter = #format-mark-circle-numbers
c1 \mark \default
\set Score.rehearsalMarkFormatter = #format-mark-circle-letters
c1
}

3 D
º . . . . .
1 2

The file scm/translation-functions.scm contains the definitions of format-mark-letters

(the default format), format-mark-box-letters, format-mark-numbers, and format-mark-
box-numbers. These can be used as inspiration for other formatting functions.
You may use format-mark-barnumbers, format-mark-box-barnumbers, and format-mark-
circle-barnumbers to get bar numbers instead of incremented numbers or letters.
For common tweaks to the positioning of rehearsal marks, see Section 8.2 [Formatting text],
page 310. For more precise control, consider break-alignable-interface (see Section 36.9
[Aligning objects], page 763).
The file scm/translation-functions.scm contains the definitions of format-mark-numbers
and format-mark-letters. They can be used as inspiration for other formatting functions.

Selected Snippets
Printing marks on every staff
Although rehearsal and text marks are normally only printed above the topmost staff, they may
also be printed on every staff.
\score {
<<
\new Staff { \mark \default c''1 \textMark "molto" c'' }
\new Staff { \mark \default c'1 \textMark "molto" c' }
>>
\layout {
\context {
\Score
\remove Mark_engraver
\remove Text_mark_engraver
\remove Staff_collecting_engraver
}
\context {
\Staff
\consists Mark_engraver
\consists Text_mark_engraver
\consists Staff_collecting_engraver
}
}
}
Chapter 2: Rhythms 138

º . .
A molto

A
º .
molto

.
See also
Notation Reference: Section B.8 [The Emmentaler font], page 871, Section 8.2 [Formatting
text], page 310, Section 36.9 [Aligning objects], page 763, Section 8.2.5 [Music notation inside
markup], page 325, Section 2.3.2 [Metronome marks], page 82, Section 8.1.4 [Section labels],
page 304.
Installed Files: scm/translation-functions.scm.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “AdHocMarkEvent” in Internals Reference, Section
“RehearsalMark” in Internals Reference, Section “RehearsalMarkEvent” in Internals
Reference.

2.5.6 Measure counts

Measure counts are a way to number consecutive measures, for example as an aid for mu-
sicians to count measures in written-out repeats. Using this feature requires adding the
Measure_counter_engraver to a context type, usually Staff or Score.
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
\consists Measure_counter_engraver
}
}

\relative c' {
\time 6/8
\key e \minor
r4 a8 b c dis
\startMeasureCount
\repeat unfold 3 {
e8 b e g8. fis32 e dis8
}
\stopMeasureCount
b'4. r
}

 1
 86  h h h h hP h h h
h h h
 2 3
hP P
3

 h h h hP h hh h h h hP h hh
Broken measures are numbered in parentheses.
\layout {
Chapter 2: Rhythms 139

\context {
\Staff
\consists Measure_counter_engraver
}
}

\relative c' {
\time 6/8
\key e \minor
r4 a8 b c dis
\startMeasureCount
e8 b e g8. fis32 e dis8
e8 b e \break g8. fis32 e dis8
e8 b e g8. fis32 e dis8
\stopMeasureCount
b'4. r
}

 1 2
 86  h h h hP h hh
h h h h h h h
 2 3
hP P
 hP h h h h h h hP h h h
Compressed multi-measure rests receive special treatment: the full measure range is shown.
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
\consists Measure_counter_engraver
}
\context {
\Voice
\override MultiMeasureRestNumber.direction = #DOWN
}
}

\compressMMRests {
\key e \minor
\startMeasureCount
\new CueVoice {
b4.( e'8) b8 r e' r
}
R1*2
\stopMeasureCount
g'2\> fis'2\!
}

º 1 2–3
­
 h
¢
h
¢ N N
hP h 2
Chapter 2: Rhythms 140

Measure counters honor alternative numbering styles. If the style is numbers-with-letters,

they render best with a textual font.
\layout {
\context {
\Score
alternativeNumberingStyle = #'numbers-with-letters
}
\context {
\Staff
\consists Measure_counter_engraver
\override MeasureCounter.Y-offset = 6
\override MeasureCounter.font-encoding = #'latin1
\override MeasureCounter.font-size = 1
}
}

\relative c' {
\startMeasureCount
\repeat volta 2 {
c8 d e f c d e f
}
\alternative {
{ e4 d c b }
{ g'4 g c2 }
}
\bar "|."
\stopMeasureCount
}

1 2a 2b
. .
º h PP h h N
h h h h h h h h h h h
Predefined commands
\startMeasureCount, \stopMeasureCount.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 33.4 [Modifying context plug-ins], page 717, Section 6.3.4 [Com-
pressing empty measures], page 265, Chapter 28 [Breaks], page 661, Section 2.5.3 [Bar num-
bers], page 127.
Internals Reference: Section “Measure counter engraver” in Internals Reference, Section
“MeasureCounter” in Internals Reference, Section “measure-counter-interface” in Internals
Reference.

2.5.7 Section divisions

The \section command marks a point where one section of music ends and another begins. It
does not have to be followed by more music: it may also be used to emphasize that the written
end of the music is not the end of the piece, such as at a D.C. instruction or where one movement
continues into the next without a break. \section normally creates a double bar line, but its
effect can depend on other notation, e.g., repeat bar lines.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 141

The \fine command ends the piece, normally with a final bar line. It is not limited to use
at the written end of the music: it may also appear inside \repeat (see Section 4.1.5 [Al-fine
repeats], page 186).
A section can optionally be named with \sectionLabel (see Section 8.1.4 [Section labels],
page 304).
\fixed c' {
f1
\section
\sectionLabel "Refrain"
g1
a1
\fine
}

Refrain
º . . .
For details on interactions of \fine and \section bar lines with other types of bar lines, and
options for changing their appearance, see Section 2.5.2 [Automatic bar lines], page 125.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “fine” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 2.5.2 [Automatic bar lines], page 125, Section 17.4.4 [Di-
visiones], page 533, Section 4.1.5 [Al-fine repeats], page 186, Section 8.1.4 [Section labels],
page 304.
Internals Reference: Section “FineEvent” in Internals Reference, Section “SectionEvent” in
Internals Reference.

2.6 Special rhythmic concerns

2.6.1 Grace notes
Grace notes are musical ornaments, printed in a smaller font, that take up no additional logical
time in a measure.
\relative {
c''4 \grace b16 a4(
\grace { b16 c16 } a2)
}
†
 º h h h hhN
There are three other types of grace notes possible; the acciaccatura – an unmeasured grace
note indicated by a slurred note with a slashed stem – and the appoggiatura, which takes a fixed
fraction of the main note it is attached to and prints without the slash. It is also possible to
write a grace note with a slashed stem, like the acciaccatura but without the slur, so as to place
it between notes that are slurred themselves, using the \slashedGrace function.
\relative {
\acciaccatura d''8 c4
\appoggiatura e8 d4
Chapter 2: Rhythms 142

\acciaccatura { g16 f } e2
\slashedGrace a,8 g4
\slashedGrace b16 a4(
\slashedGrace b8 a2)
}

Œ
h h h hhN Œ Œ† Œ
 º h
hh h h N
h

The placement of grace notes is synchronized between different staves. In the following
example, there are two sixteenth grace notes for every eighth grace note
<<
\new Staff \relative { e''2 \grace { c16 d e f } e2 }
\new Staff \relative { c''2 \grace { g8 b } c2 }
>>

N hhh
hN
º

º N h h
N

If you want to end a note with a grace, use the \afterGrace command. It takes two
arguments: the main note, and the grace notes following the main note.
\relative { c''1 \afterGrace d1 { c16[ d] } c1 }

º . . hh .

This will place the grace notes after the start of the main note. The point of time where the
grace notes are placed is a given fraction of the main note’s duration. The default setting of
afterGraceFraction = 3/4
may be redefined at top level. Individual \afterGrace commands may have the fraction specified
right after the command itself instead.
The following example shows the results from setting with the default space, setting it at
15/16, and finally at 1/2 of the main note.
<<
\new Staff \relative {
c''1 \afterGrace d1 { c16[ d] } c1
}
\new Staff \relative {
c''1 \afterGrace 15/16 d1 { c16[ d] } c1
}
\new Staff \relative {
c''1 \afterGrace 1/2 d1 { c16[ d] } c1
}
>>
Chapter 2: Rhythms 143

.
º . hh .

º . . hh .

. hh
º . .

The effect of \afterGrace can also be achieved using spacers. The following example places
the grace note after a space lasting 7/8 of the main note.
\new Voice \relative {
<<
{ d''1^\trill_( }
{ s2 s4. \grace { c16 d } }
>>
c1)
}

.u .
 º hh

A \grace music expression will introduce special typesetting settings, for example, to produce
smaller type, and set directions. Hence, when introducing layout tweaks to override the special
settings, they should be placed inside the grace expression. The overrides should also be reverted
inside the grace expression. Here, the grace note’s default stem direction is overridden and then
reverted.
\new Voice \relative {
\acciaccatura {
\stemDown
f''16->
\stemNeutral
}
g4 e c2
}

hm h hN
º [U

Selected Snippets
Using grace note slashes with normal heads
The slash through the stem found in acciaccaturas can be applied in other situations.
\relative c'' {
\override Flag.stroke-style = "grace"
c8( d2) e8( f4)
}
Chapter 2: Rhythms 144

º h N hh
 [T T[
Tweaking grace layout within music
The layout of grace expressions can be changed throughout the music using the functions
add-grace-property and remove-grace-property.
The following example undefines the Stem direction for this grace, so that stems do not always
point up, and changes the default note heads to crosses.
\relative c'' {
\new Staff {
$(remove-grace-property 'Voice 'Stem 'direction)
$(add-grace-property 'Voice 'NoteHead 'style 'cross)
\new Voice {
\acciaccatura { f16 } g4
\grace { d16 e } f4
\appoggiatura { f,32 g a } e2
}
}
}

jh jjh
º [U j j jN

Redefining grace note global defaults

The global defaults for grace notes are stored in the following identifiers.
startGraceMusic
stopGraceMusic
startAcciaccaturaMusic
stopAcciaccaturaMusic
startAppoggiaturaMusic
stopAppoggiaturaMusic
They are defined in file ly/grace-init.ly. By redefining them other effects may be obtained.
startAcciaccaturaMusic = {
<>(
\override Flag.stroke-style = "grace"
\slurDashed
}

stopAcciaccaturaMusic = {
\revert Flag.stroke-style
\slurSolid
<>)
}

\relative c'' {
\acciaccatura d8 c1
}
Chapter 2: Rhythms 145

Œ
º . h

Positioning grace notes with floating space

Setting the property 'strict-grace-spacing makes the musical columns for grace notes ’float-
ing’, i.e., decoupled from the non-grace notes: first the normal notes are spaced, then the (musical
columns of the) graces are put left of the musical columns for the main notes.
\relative c'' {
<<
\override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-grace-spacing = ##t
\new Staff \new Voice {
\afterGrace c4 { c16[ c8 c16] }
c8[ \grace { b16 d } c8]
c4 r
}
\new Staff {
c16 c c c c c c c c4 r
}
>>
}

º h hh hh hhh h 

º hhhhhhhhh 
See also
Music Glossary: Section “grace notes” in Music Glossary, Section “acciaccatura” in Music
Glossary, Section “appoggiatura” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 2.1.3 [Scaling durations], page 60, Section 2.4.3 [Manual
beams], page 110.
Installed Files: ly/grace-init.ly.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “GraceMusic” in Internals Reference, Section
“Grace beam engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “Grace auto beam engraver”
in Internals Reference, Section “Grace engraver” in Internals Reference, Section
“Grace spacing engraver” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

A multi-note beamed acciaccatura is printed without a slash, and looks exactly the same as a
multi-note beamed appoggiatura.
Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation, such as key signatures,
bar lines, etc., are also synchronized. Take care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves
without, for example,
<<
\new Staff \relative { e''4 \section \grace c16 d2. }
\new Staff \relative { c''4 \section d2. }
Chapter 2: Rhythms 146

>>
†
h NP
º h

º h NP

This can be remedied by inserting grace skips of the corresponding durations in the other staves.
For the above example
<<
\new Staff \relative { e''4 \section \grace c16 d2. }
\new Staff \relative { c''4 \section \grace s16 d2. }
>>
†
h NP
º h

º h NP

Please make sure that you use the \grace command for the spacer part, even if the visual
part uses \acciaccatura or \appoggiatura because otherwise an ugly slur fragment will be
printed, connecting the invisible grace note with the following note.
Grace sections should only be used within sequential music expressions. Nesting or juxtapos-
ing grace sections is not supported, and might produce crashes or other errors.
Each grace note in MIDI output has a length of 1/4 of its actual duration. If the combined
length of the grace notes is greater than the length of the preceding note a “Going back in MIDI
time” error will be generated. Either make the grace notes shorter in duration, for example:
c'8 \acciaccatura { c'8[ d' e' f' g'] }
becomes:
c'8 \acciaccatura { c'16[ d' e' f' g'] }
Or explicitly change the musical duration:
c'8 \acciaccatura { \scaleDurations 1/2 { c'8[ d' e' f' g'] } }
See Section 2.1.3 [Scaling durations], page 60.

2.6.2 Aligning to cadenzas

In an orchestral context, cadenzas present a special problem: when constructing a score that
includes a measured cadenza or other solo passage, all other instruments should skip just as
many notes as the length of the cadenza, otherwise they will start too soon or too late.
One solution to this problem is to use the functions mmrest-of-length and skip-of-length.
These Scheme functions take a defined piece of music as an argument and generate a multi-
measure rest or \skip exactly as long as the piece.
MyCadenza = \relative {
c'4 d8 e f g g4
f2 g4 g
}
Chapter 2: Rhythms 147

\new GrandStaff <<

\new Staff {
\MyCadenza c'1
\MyCadenza c'1
}
\new Staff {
#(mmrest-of-length MyCadenza)
c'1
#(skip-of-length MyCadenza)
c'1
}
>>

X
º hhhh N h h . h hhh h N h
h h h
h .
º ” ”
. .
Another solution is to use the \skip command.
MyCadenza = \fixed c' {
\repeat volta 2 {
d8 e f g g4 f4
}
}

music = <<
\new Staff {
\MyCadenza
c'1
}
\new Staff {
\skip \MyCadenza
c'1
}
>>

\unfoldRepeats \music

º hhhhh h hhhhh h .
º .
See also
Music Glossary: Section “cadenza” in Music Glossary.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Chapter 2: Rhythms 148

2.6.3 Time administration

Time is administered by the Timing_translator, which by default is to be found in the Score
context. An alias, Timing, is added to the context in which the Timing_translator is placed.
To ensure that the Timing alias is available, you may need to explicitly instantiate the containing
context (such as Voice or Staff).
The following properties of Timing are used to keep track of timing within the score.
currentBarNumber
The current measure number. For an example showing the use of this property see
Section 2.5.3 [Bar numbers], page 127.
measureLength
The length of the measures in the current time signature. For a 4/4 time this is 1,
and for 6/8 it is 3/4. Its value determines when bar lines are inserted and how
automatic beams should be generated.
measurePosition
This internal property is the current point in the current measure. When it
reaches measureLength, it is reset to zero and currentBarNumber is incremented.
measurePosition should not be set explicitly, but may be changed with the
\partial command.
timing
If set to #t, the above variables are updated for every time step. When set to #f,
the above variables keep their current values indefinitely.
Timing can be changed by setting any of these variables. In the next example, the default
4/4 time signature is printed, but measureLength is set to 5/4. At 4/8 through the third
measure, the \partial command advances the measure position to leave only 5/8 remaining,
which shortens that bar by 1/8. The next bar line then falls at 9/8 rather than 5/4.
\fixed c' {
\override Score.BarNumber.break-visibility = #all-visible
\set Timing.measureLength = #5/4
c1 c4
c1 c4
c4 c \partial 8*5 b4 b b8
c4 c1
}

º h h h
2 3 4 5

. h . h h h T h .
As the example illustrates, \musicLength music computes the musical length of the given music.
For example, \musicLength 8 is the length of an eighth note and \musicLength {8. 8 8} is the
length of seven sixteenth notes.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 2.5.3 [Bar numbers], page 127, Section 2.3.4 [Unmetered music],
page 88.
Snippets: Section “Rhythms” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Timing translator” in Internals Reference, Section “Score” in
Internals Reference.
 149

3 Expressive marks
RONDO

 p p
a
h h h h hp hp hp h
Allegro

 86 h h hp hp h h hp hp hp hp T p hp h h  h hp hp
p p p
hh hhp hh hhp hhp hh p
ph hhp hhp hh
h hhp  hh PP
 6 ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢¢
8
 p hp hp hp h
_
 h h h h hp hp h h hp hp hp hp h h hT
4

p hp hp h h
p p p h h
p hp hhp hh p phh

h h  h
 h h hh h hhp hhp hhp hh h hTp
¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ h h
T
 p hp h hhp hhp h h h h hhp hhp h h h hp hhp hp hp hhp hp z
l
p h hhh ¢  ¢
8

 h hh hp hp hp hp h h
hr p
hp hp hhp hp hp hp hhp hhp hp hhp hp hhp hz
 ¢  ¢ ¢ hh¢ h ¢ hh¢
h ¢h ¢h h ¢ ¢
hr
This section lists various expressive marks that can be created in a score.

3.1 Expressive marks attached to notes

This section explains how to create expressive marks that are attached to notes: articulations,
ornamentations, and dynamics. Methods to create new dynamic markings are also discussed.

3.1.1 Articulations and ornamentations

A variety of symbols that denote articulations, ornamentations, and other performance indica-
tions can be attached to a note using this syntax:
note\name
The possible values for name are listed in Section B.13 [List of articulations], page 892. For
example:
\relative {
c''4\staccato c\mordent b2\turn
c1\fermata

a w
}

p z
º h h N .
Some of these articulations have shorthands for easier entry. Shorthands are appended to the
note name, and their syntax consists of a dash - followed by a symbol signifying the articulation.
Predefined shorthands exist for marcato, stopped, tenuto, staccatissimo, accent, staccato, and
portato. Their corresponding output appears as follows:
\relative {
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 150

c''4-^ c-+ c-- c-!

c4-> c-. c2-_
}

~ q r ‡ m p O
º h h h h h h N
The rules for the default placement of articulations are defined in scm/script.scm. Articu-
lations and ornamentations may be manually placed above or below the staff; see Section 36.1
[Direction and placement], page 746.
The bachschleifer is positioned to the left of the NoteHead. This ornament may have
ledger lines.
{
\autoBeamOff
b'8 g''\bachschleifer
e'' c'''\bachschleifer
}

> hh>h
º h TT T
T
It is also possible to position common articulations and ornamentations to the left or right
of a note head by overriding their side-axis and, if necessary, the direction property. The
convenience functions \atLeft or \atRight take care of this.
{
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(left)
\set stringNumberOrientations = #'(left down)
<
c'-3\5_\rightHandFinger #1 \atLeft \mordent
g'^\rightHandFinger #2
c''-1\2^\rightHandFinger #3 \atRight \prall
e'' ^\rightHandFinger #4
>2^\tenuto
}

r
a
m

N
i

 º 2  NN c
 aN
p
5

Predefined commands
\atLeft, \atRight.
The type of grob that an articulation creates depends on what it is attached to.
• On notes or ordinary rests, articulations create Script objects.
• On multi-measure rests, articulations create MultiMeasureRestScript objects.
• On \caesura, articulations create CaesuraScript objects.
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 151

\override Score.Script.color = #(universal-color 'vermillion)

\override Score.MultiMeasureRestScript.color = #(universal-color 'blue)
\override Score.CaesuraScript.color = #(universal-color 'orange)
a'2\fermata r\fermata
R1\fermata
g'2 \caesura \fermata f'2

z z z z
A
º N ˜ ” N
N
In addition to articulations, text and markups can be attached to notes. See Section 8.1.2
[Text scripts], page 300.
For more information about the ordering of Script and TextScript grobs that are attached
to notes, see Section “Placement of objects” in Learning Manual.

Selected Snippets
Modifying default values for articulation shorthand notation
The shorthands are defined in ‘ly/script-init.ly’, where the variables dashHat, dashPlus,
dashDash, dashBang, dashLarger, dashDot, and dashUnderscore are assigned default val-
ues. The default values for the shorthands can be modified. For example, to associate the
-+ (dashPlus) shorthand with the trill symbol instead of the default + symbol, assign the value
\trill to the variable dashPlus:
\paper { tagline = ##f }

\relative c'' { c1-+ }

dashPlus = \trill

\relative c'' { c1-+ }

q
º .

.u
 º
Controlling the vertical ordering of scripts
The vertical ordering of scripts is controlled with the script-priority property. The lower
this number, the closer it will be put to the note. In this example, the TextScript (the sharp
symbol) first has the lowest priority, so it is put lowest in the first example. In the second, the
prall trill (the Script) has the lowest, so it is on the inside. When two objects have the same
priority, the order in which they are entered determines which one comes first.
Note that for Fingering, StringNumber, and StrokeFinger grobs, if used within a chord,
the vertical order is also determined by the vertical position of the associated note head, which
is added to (or, depending on the direction, subtracted from) the grob’s script-priority value.
This ensures that for fingerings above a chord the lower note is associated with the lower fingering
(and vice versa for the other direction); it doesn’t matter whether you input the notes in the
chord from top to bottom or from bottom to top.
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 152

By default, the least technical scripts are positioned closest to the note head; the rough order
is articulation, flageolet, fingering, right-hand fingering, string number, fermata, bowing, and
text script.
\relative c''' {
\once \override TextScript.script-priority = -100
a2^\prall^\markup { \sharp }

\once \override Script.script-priority = -100

a2^\prall^\markup { \sharp }

\set fingeringOrientations = #'(up)

<c-2 a-1>2
<a-1 c\tweak script-priority -100 -2>2

c
}

 c N N
N N N N
º
See Section B.18 [Default values for script-priority], page 902.

Creating a delayed turn

Creating a delayed turn, where the lower note of the turn uses the accidental, requires several
overrides. The outside-staff-priority property must be set to #f, as otherwise this would
take precedence over the avoid-slur property. Changing the fractions 2/3 and 1/3 adjusts the
horizontal position.
\relative c'' {
\after 2*2/3 \turn c2( d4) r |
\after 4 \turn c4.( d8)
\after 4
{
\once \set suggestAccidentals = ##t
\once \override AccidentalSuggestion.outside-staff-priority = ##f
\once \override AccidentalSuggestion.avoid-slur = #'inside
\once \override AccidentalSuggestion.font-size = -3
\once \override AccidentalSuggestion.script-priority = -1
\once \hideNotes
cis8\turn \noBeam
}
d4.( e8)
}

w
wh wh h P  h
º N  hP
T T
See also
Music Glossary: Section “tenuto” in Music Glossary, Section “accent” in Music Glossary,
Section “staccato” in Music Glossary, Section “portato” in Music Glossary.
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 153

Learning Manual: Section “Placement of objects” in Learning Manual.

Notation Reference: Section 8.1.2 [Text scripts], page 300, Section 36.1 [Direction and
placement], page 746, Section B.13 [List of articulations], page 892, Section 3.3.3 [Trills],
page 178.
Installed Files: scm/script.scm.
Snippets: Section “Expressive marks” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “CaesuraScript” in Internals Reference, Section “Multi-
MeasureRestScript” in Internals Reference, Section “Script” in Internals Reference, Section
“TextScript” in Internals Reference.

3.1.2 Dynamics
Absolute dynamic marks are specified using a command after a note, such as c4\ff. The
available dynamic marks are \ppppp, \pppp, \ppp, \pp, \p, \mp, \mf, \f, \ff, \fff, \ffff,
\fffff, \fp, \sf, \sff, \sp, \spp, \sfz, \rfz, and \n. Dynamic marks may be manually
placed above or below the staff; see Section 36.1 [Direction and placement], page 746.
\relative c'' {
c2\ppp c\mp
c2\rfz c^\mf
c2_\spp c^\ff
}

mf ff
º N N N N N N
ppp mp rfz spp
A crescendo mark is started with \< and terminated with \!, an absolute dynamic, or an
additional crescendo or decrescendo mark. A decrescendo mark is started with \> and is also
terminated with \!, an absolute dynamic, or another crescendo or decrescendo mark. \cr and
\decr may be used instead of \< and \>; \endcr and \enddecr maybe used instead of \! to
end a crescendo or decrescendo mark, respectively. Hairpins are engraved by default using this
notation.
\relative c'' {
c2\< c\!
d2\< d\f
e2\< e\>
f2\> f\!
e2\> e\mp
d2\> d\>
c1\!
}

º N N N N N N N N N N N N .

f mp
A hairpin that is terminated with \! will end at the right edge of the note that has the
\! assigned to it. In the case where it is terminated with the start of another crescendo or
decrescendo mark, it will end at the center of the note that has the next \< or \> assigned to
it. The next hairpin will then start at the right edge of the same note instead of the usual left
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 154

edge had it been terminated with \! before. A hairpin ending on a downbeat will stop at the
preceding bar line.
\relative {
c''1\< | c4 a c\< a | c4 a c\! a\< | c4 a c a\!
}

º . h h h h h h h h h h h h

Hairpins that are terminated with absolute dynamic marks instead of \! will also be engraved
in a similar way. However, the length of the absolute dynamic itself can alter where the preceding
hairpin ends.
\relative {
c''1\< | c4 a c\mf a | c1\< | c4 a c\ffff a
}

º . h h h h . h h h h
mf ffff
Often, marks like crescendo or decrescendo should begin or end at some point of time during
a sustained note. This can be achieved with \after, which can also be used to create delayed
articulations or text scripts:
<<
\relative {
\after 2 \< c'1
d4\f\> e f g
\after 2. \pp c,1
\after 2. \fermata e
\after 2. ^"Fine." f
}
\relative {
\repeat unfold 12 c'4
c c c c\fermata
c c c c
}
>>

z
º .
Fine.

h h h h . . .
f z pp
º
h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
Multiple instances of \after can be used to engrave multiple marks on one note. This is
particularly useful when adding a crescendo and decrescendo to the same note:
\relative {
c''4\< d\! e\> c\!
\after 4 \< \after 2\> \after 2. \! f1
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 155

\textLengthOn
\after 4 \> \after 2. ^"hush!" c1
g4\pp
}

h hh .
º h .
hush!
h
pp
If the first in such a sequence of marks on a single note is supposed to coincide with the
onset of the note, it is convenient to attach it to an empty chord <>. This way, all marks can
be entered in their natural visual order:
{
<>\< \after 4 \> \after 2 \! c'1
% easier to write and read than:
\after 4 \> \after 2 \! c'1\<
}

º
. .
The \espressivo command can also be used to indicate a crescendo and decrescendo on the
same note. However, be warned that this is implemented as an articulation, not a dynamic.
\relative {
c''2 b4 a
g1\espressivo
\after 2. \espressivo c
}

 º N h h .W . W
Textual crescendo marks begin with \cresc. Textual decrescendos begin with \decresc or
\dim. Extender lines are engraved as required.
\relative {
g'8\cresc a b c b c d e\mf |
f8\decresc e d c e\> d c b |
a1\dim ~ |
a2. r4\! |
}

º h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h . NP 
 h
cresc. mf decresc. dim.
Textual marks for dynamic changes can also replace hairpins:
\relative c'' {
\crescTextCresc
c4\< d e f\! |
\dimTextDecresc
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 156

g4\> e d c\! |
\dimTextDecr
e4\> d c b\! |
\dimTextDim
d4\> c b a\! |
\crescHairpin
\dimHairpin
c4\< d\! e\> d\! |
}

º h h h h hh h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

cresc. decresc. decr. dim.

To create new absolute dynamic marks or text that should be aligned with dynamics, see
Section 3.1.3 [New dynamic marks], page 161.

Vertical positioning of dynamics is handled by Section “DynamicLineSpanner” in Internals

Reference.

A Dynamics context is available to engrave dynamics on their own horizontal line. Use spacer
rests to indicate timing. (Notes in a Dynamics context will also take up musical time, but will
not be engraved.) The Dynamics context can usefully contain some other items such as text
scripts, text spanners, and piano pedal marks.

<<
\new Staff \relative {
c'2 d4 e |
c4 e e,2 |
g'4 a g a |
c1 |
}
\new Dynamics {
s1\< |
s1\f |
s2\dim s2-"rit." |
s1\p |
}
>>

º h h h h .
N h h h h
f N dim.
rit.
p
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 157

☛ ✟
Note: Even if there is only a single absolute dynamic mark like \p
in a score, LilyPond always creates two objects for it, a DynamicText
and a DynamicLineSpanner object, and the properties to control the
dynamic mark are shared between these two objects. For example, the
size can be changed with the DynamicText.font-size property, while
the vertical position is controlled by DynamicLineSpanner.Y-offset.
As a consequence, code like
\tweak font-size 5 \p
works but
\tweak Y-offset 5 \p
does not. You have to say
\tweak DynamicLineSpanner.Y-offset 5 \p
instead.
✡ ✠

Predefined commands
\dynamicUp, \dynamicDown, \dynamicNeutral, \crescTextCresc, \dimTextDim,
\dimTextDecr, \dimTextDecresc, \crescHairpin, \dimHairpin.

Selected Snippets
Setting hairpin behavior at bar lines
If the note which ends a hairpin falls on a downbeat, the hairpin stops at the bar line immediately
preceding. This behavior can be controlled by overriding the 'to-barline property.
\relative c'' {
e4\< e2.
e1\!
\override Hairpin.to-barline = ##f
e4\< e2.
e1\!
}

h NP . h NP .
º
Setting the minimum length of hairpins
If hairpins are too short, they can be lengthened by modifying the minimum-length property of
the Hairpin object.
<<
{
\after 4 \< \after 2 \> \after 2. \! f'1
\override Hairpin.minimum-length = 8
\after 4 \< \after 2 \> \after 2. \! f'1
}
{
\repeat unfold 8 c'4
}
>>
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 158

º . .

º h
h h h h h h h
Aligning the ends of hairpins to NoteColumn directions
The ends of hairpins may be aligned to the LEFT, CENTER or RIGHT of NoteColumn grobs by
overriding the property endpoint-alignments, which is a pair of numbers representing the left
and right ends of the hairpin. endpoint-alignments are expected to be directions (either -1, 0
or 1). Other values will be transformed with a warning. The right end of a hairpin terminating
at a rest is not affected, always ending at the left edge of the rest.
{
c'2\< <c' d'>\! |
\override Hairpin.endpoint-alignments = #'(1 . -1)
c'2\< <c' d'>\! |
\override Hairpin.endpoint-alignments = #`(,LEFT . ,CENTER)
c'2\< <c' d'>\! |
}

º
N NN N NN N NN
Moving the ends of hairpins
The ends of hairpins may be offset by setting the shorten-pair property of the Hairpin object.
Positive values move endpoints to the right, negative to the left. Unlike the minimum-length
property, this property only affects the appearance of the hairpin; it does not adjust horizontal
spacing (including the position of bounding dynamics). This method is thus suitable for fine-
tuning a hairpin within its allotted space.
{
c'1~\<
c'2~ c'\!
\once \override Hairpin.shorten-pair = #'(2 . 2)
c'1~\<
c'2~ c'\!
\once \override Hairpin.shorten-pair = #'(-2 . -2)
c'1~\<
c'2~ c'\!
c'1~\p-\tweak shorten-pair #'(2 . 0)\<
c'2~ c'\ffff
}

º
. N N . N N . N N . N N
p ffff
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 159

Printing hairpins using al niente notation

Hairpin dynamics may be printed with a circled tip (“al niente” notation) by setting the
circled-tip property of the Hairpin object to #t.
\relative c'' {
\override Hairpin.circled-tip = ##t
c2\< c\!
c4\> c\< c2\!
}

º N N h h N
Printing hairpins in various styles
Hairpin dynamics may be created in a variety of styles.
\paper { tagline = ##f }

\relative c'' {
\override Hairpin.stencil = #flared-hairpin
a4\< a a a\f
a4\p\< a a a\ff
a4\sfz\< a a a\!
\override Hairpin.stencil = #constante-hairpin
a4\< a a a\f
a4\p\< a a a\ff
a4\sfz\< a a a\!
\override Hairpin.stencil = #flared-hairpin
a4\> a a a\f
a4\p\> a a a\ff
a4\sfz\> a a a\!
\override Hairpin.stencil = #constante-hairpin
a4\> a a a\f
a4\p\> a a a\ff
a4\sfz\> a a a\!
}

º hhhh hhhh hhhh hhhh hhhh hhhh

f p ff sfz f p ff sfz
7

 hhhh hhhh hhhh hhhh hhhh hhhh

f p ff sfz f p ff sfz
Vertically aligned dynamics and textscripts
All DynamicLineSpanner objects (hairpins and dynamic texts) are placed with their reference
line at least 'staff-padding from the staff, unless other notation forces them to be farther.
Setting 'staff-padding to a sufficiently large value aligns the dynamics.
The same idea, together with \textLengthOn, is used to align the text scripts along their
baseline.
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 160

music = \relative c' {

a'2\p b\f
e4\p f\f\> g, b\p
c2^\markup { \huge gorgeous } c^\markup { \huge fantastic }
}

{
\music
\break
\override DynamicLineSpanner.staff-padding = 3
\textLengthOn
\override TextScript.staff-padding = 1
\music
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

fantastic
h h gorgeous
N N
º N N h h
p f p f p
h h gorgeous fantastic
N N
N h
4

 N h
p f p f p
Breaking vertical alignment of dynamics and textscripts
By default, LilyPond uses DynamicLineSpanner grobs to vertically align successive dynamic
objects like hairpins and dynamic text. However, this is not always wanted. By inserting
\breakDynamicSpan, which ends the alignment spanner prematurely, this vertical alignment
can be avoided.
{ g1\< |
e''\f\> |
c'\p }

{ g1\< |
e''\breakDynamicSpan\f\> |
c'\p }

\paper { tagline = ##f }

.
º
. .
f p
.
º
. .
f p
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 161

Hiding the extender line for text dynamics

Text style dynamic changes (such as cresc. and dim.) are printed with a dashed line showing
their extent. This line can be suppressed in the following way:
\relative c'' {
\override DynamicTextSpanner.style = #'none
\crescTextCresc
c1\< | d | b | c\!
}

º . . . .
cresc.
Changing text and spanner styles for text dynamics
The text used for crescendos and decrescendos can be changed by modifying the context prop-
erties crescendoText and decrescendoText.
The style of the spanner line can be changed by modifying the 'style property of
DynamicTextSpanner. The default value is 'dashed-line, and other possible values include
'line, 'dotted-line and 'none.
\relative c'' {
\set crescendoText = \markup { \italic { cresc. poco } }
\set crescendoSpanner = #'text
\override DynamicTextSpanner.style = #'dotted-line
a2\< a
a2 a
a2 a
a2 a\mf
}

º N N N N N N N N
cresc. poco mf
See also
Music Glossary: Section “al niente” in Music Glossary, Section “crescendo” in Music Glos-
sary, Section “decrescendo” in Music Glossary, Section “hairpin” in Music Glossary.
Learning Manual: Section “Articulations and dynamics” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 36.1 [Direction and placement], page 746, Section 3.1.3 [New
dynamic marks], page 161, Section 24.9 [Enhancing MIDI output], page 637, Section 24.4
[Controlling MIDI dynamics], page 628.
Snippets: Section “Expressive marks” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “DynamicText” in Internals Reference, Section “Hairpin”
in Internals Reference, Section “DynamicLineSpanner” in Internals Reference, Section
“Dynamics” in Internals Reference.

3.1.3 New dynamic marks

The easiest way to create dynamic indications is to use \markup objects.
moltoF = \markup { molto \dynamic f }
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 162

\relative {
<d' e>16_\moltoF <d e>
<d e>2..
}

 º hh hh NN PP PP
molto f

In markup mode, editorial dynamics (within parentheses or square brackets) can be created.
The syntax for markup mode is described in Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310.
roundF = \markup {
\center-align \concat { \bold { \italic ( }
\dynamic f \bold { \italic ) } } }
boxF = \markup { \bracket { \dynamic f } }
\relative {
c'1_\roundF
c1_\boxF
}

º
. .
(f) f
Simple, centered dynamic marks are easily created with the make-dynamic-script function.
sfzp = #(make-dynamic-script "sfzp")
\relative {
c'4 c c\sfzp c
}

º
h h h h
sfzp
In general, make-dynamic-script takes any markup object as its argument. The dynamic
font only contains the characters f, m, p, r, s, z, and n; if a dynamic mark that includes plain text
or punctuation symbols is desired, markup commands that reverts font family and font encoding
to normal text should be used, for example \normal-text. Using make-dynamic-script instead
of an ordinary markup ensures vertical alignment of markup objects and hairpins that are
attached to the same note head.
roundF = \markup { \center-align \concat {
\normal-text { \bold { \italic ( } }
\dynamic f
\normal-text { \bold { \italic ) } } } }
boxF = \markup { \bracket { \dynamic f } }
mfEspress = \markup { \center-align \line {
\hspace #3.7 mf \normal-text \italic espress. } }
roundFdynamic = #(make-dynamic-script roundF)
boxFdynamic = #(make-dynamic-script boxF)
mfEspressDynamic = #(make-dynamic-script mfEspress)
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 163

\relative {
c'4_\roundFdynamic\< d e f
g,1~_\boxFdynamic\>
g1
g'1~\mfEspressDynamic
g1
}

º . .
h h h h . .
(f) f mf espress.
The Scheme form of markup mode may be used instead. Its syntax is explained in Section
“Markup construction in Scheme” in Extending.
moltoF = #(make-dynamic-script
(markup #:normal-text "molto"
#:dynamic "f"))
\relative {
<d' e>16 <d e>
<d e>2..\moltoF
}

 º hh hh NN PP PP
molto f

To left-align the dynamic text rather than centering it on a note use a \tweak:
moltoF = \tweak DynamicText.self-alignment-X #LEFT
#(make-dynamic-script
(markup #:normal-text "molto"
#:dynamic "f"))
\relative {
<d' e>16 <d e>
<d e>2..\moltoF <d e>1
}

 º hh hh NN PP PP ..
molto f
Font settings in markup mode are described in Section 8.2.2 [Selecting font and font size],
page 314.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310, Section 8.2.2 [Selecting font and
font size], page 314, Section 24.9 [Enhancing MIDI output], page 637, Section 24.4 [Control-
ling MIDI dynamics], page 628.
Extending LilyPond: Section “Markup construction in Scheme” in Extending.
Snippets: Section “Expressive marks” in Snippets.
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 164

3.2 Expressive marks as curves

This section explains how to create various expressive marks that are curved: normal slurs,
phrasing slurs, breath marks, falls, and doits.

3.2.1 Slurs
Slurs are entered using parentheses:
☛ ✟
Note: In polyphonic music, a slur must be terminated in the same
voice it began.
✡ ✠
\relative {
f''4( g a) a8 b(
a4 g2 f4)
<c e>2( <b d>2)
}

h h h h h h N h NN N
º N
Slurs may be manually placed above or below the staff; see Section 36.1 [Direction and
placement], page 746.
Simultaneous or overlapping slurs require special attention. Most occurrences of outer slurs
actually indicate phrasing, and phrasing slurs may overlap a regular slur, see Section 3.2.2
[Phrasing slurs], page 167. When multiple regular slurs are needed in a single Voice, matching
slur starts and ends need to be labeled by preceding them with \= followed by an identifying
key (a symbol or non-negative integer).
\fixed c' {
<c~ f\=1( g\=2( >2 <c e\=1) a\=2) >
}

 º NN NN
N N
Slurs can be solid, dotted, or dashed. Solid is the default slur style:
\relative {
c'4( e g2)
\slurDashed
g4( e c2)
\slurDotted
c4( e g2)
\slurSolid
g4( e c2)
}

º N hh N hh
h h N h h N
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 165

Slurs can also be made half-dashed (the first half dashed, the second half solid) or half-solid
(the first half solid, the second half dashed):
\relative {
c'4( e g2)
\slurHalfDashed
g4( e c2)
\slurHalfSolid
c4( e g2)
\slurSolid
g4( e c2)
}

º
h h N
hhN
h h N hhN
Custom dash patterns for slurs can be defined:
\relative {
c'4( e g2)
\slurDashPattern 0.7 0.75
g4( e c2)
\slurDashPattern 0.5 2.0
c4( e g2)
\slurSolid
g4( e c2)
}

º N hhN N hh
h h h h N
Predefined commands
\slurUp, \slurDown, \slurNeutral, \slurDashed, \slurDotted, \slurHalfDashed,
\slurHalfSolid, \slurDashPattern, \slurSolid.

Selected Snippets
Adjusting slur positions vertically
Using \override Slur.positions it is possible to set the vertical position of the start and end
points of a slur to absolute values (or rather, forcing LilyPond’s slur algorithm to consider these
values as desired). In many cases, this means a lot of trial and error until good values are found.
You probably have tried the \offset command next just to find out that it doesn’t work for
slurs, emitting a warning instead.
The code in this snippet allows you to tweak the vertical start and end positions by specifying
relative changes, similar to \offset.
Syntax: \offsetPositions #'(dy1 . dy2)
offsetPositions =
#(define-music-function (offsets) (number-pair?)
#{
\once \override Slur.control-points =
#(lambda (grob)
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 166

(match-let ((((_ . y1) _ _ (_ . y2))

(ly:slur::calc-control-points grob))
((off1 . off2) offsets))
(set! (ly:grob-property grob 'positions)
(cons (+ y1 off1) (+ y2 off2)))
(ly:slur::calc-control-points grob)))
#})

\relative c'' {
c4(^"default" c, d2)
\offsetPositions #'(0 . 1)
c'4(^"(0 . 1)" c, d2)
\offsetPositions #'(0 . 2)
c'4(^"(0 . 2)" c, d2)
\bar "||"
g4(^"default" a d'2)
\offsetPositions #'(1 . 0)
g,,4(^"(1 . 0)" a d'2)
\offsetPositions #'(2 . 0)
g,,4(^"(2 . 0)" a d'2)
}

N
default (1 . 0)
N (2 . 0)
N
º hh N h h
default (0 . 1) (0 . 2)

h N h N h h h h h h
Using double slurs for legato chords
Some composers write two slurs when they want legato chords. This can be achieved by setting
doubleSlurs.
\relative c' {
\set doubleSlurs = ##t
<c e>4( <d f> <c e> <d f>)
}

 º h hh h hh
h h
Positioning text markups inside slurs
Text markups need to have the outside-staff-priority property set to false in order to be
printed inside slurs.
\relative c'' {
\override TextScript.avoid-slur = #'inside
\override TextScript.outside-staff-priority = ##f
c2(^\markup { \halign #-10 \natural } d4.) c8
}


P
 º N h hT
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 167

Making slurs with complex dash structure

Slurs can be made with complex dash patterns by defining the dash-definition property.
dash-definition is a list of dash-elements. A dash-element is a list of parameters defining
the dash behavior for a segment of the slur.
The slur is defined in terms of the bezier parameter t which ranges from 0 at the left
end of the slur to 1 at the right end of the slur. dash-element is a list (start-t stop-t
dash-fraction dash-period). The region of the slur from start-t to stop-t will have a
fraction dash-fraction of each dash-period black. dash-period is defined in terms of staff
spaces. dash-fraction is set to 1 for a solid slur.
\relative c' {
\once \override
Slur.dash-definition = #'((0 0.3 0.1 0.75)
(0.3 0.6 1 1)
(0.65 1.0 0.4 0.75))
c4( d e f)
\once \override
Slur.dash-definition = #'((0 0.25 1 1)
(0.3 0.7 0.4 0.75)
(0.75 1.0 1 1))
c4( d e f)
}

º
h h h h h h h h
See also
Music Glossary: Section “slur” in Music Glossary.
Learning Manual: Section “On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties” in Learning Man-
ual.
Notation Reference: Section 36.1 [Direction and placement], page 746, Section 3.2.2 [Phras-
ing slurs], page 167.
Snippets: Section “Expressive marks” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Slur” in Internals Reference.

3.2.2 Phrasing slurs

Phrasing slurs (or phrasing marks) that indicate a musical sentence are written using the com-
mands \( and \) respectively:
\relative {
c''4\( d( e) f(
e2) d\)
}

º h h h h N N

Typographically, a phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal slur. However, they
are treated as different objects; a \slurUp will have no effect on a phrasing slur. Phrasing
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 168

may be manually placed above or below the staff; see Section 36.1 [Direction and placement],
page 746.
Simultaneous or overlapping phrasing slurs are entered using \= as with regular slurs, see
Section 3.2.1 [Slurs], page 164.
Phrasing slurs can be solid, dotted, or dashed. Solid is the default style for phrasing slurs:
\relative {
c'4\( e g2\)
\phrasingSlurDashed
g4\( e c2\)
\phrasingSlurDotted
c4\( e g2\)
\phrasingSlurSolid
g4\( e c2\)
}

º N hhN N hh
h h h h N
Phrasing slurs can also be made half-dashed (the first half dashed, the second half solid) or
half-solid (the first half solid, the second half dashed):
\relative {
c'4\( e g2\)
\phrasingSlurHalfDashed
g4\( e c2\)
\phrasingSlurHalfSolid
c4\( e g2\)
\phrasingSlurSolid
g4\( e c2\)
}

º
h h N
hh
N h h N hh
N
Custom dash patterns for phrasing slurs can be defined:
\relative {
c'4\( e g2\)
\phrasingSlurDashPattern 0.7 0.75
g4\( e c2\)
\phrasingSlurDashPattern 0.5 2.0
c4\( e g2\)
\phrasingSlurSolid
g4\( e c2\)
}

º
h h N
hhN
h h N hhN
Dash pattern definitions for phrasing slurs have the same structure as dash pattern definitions
for slurs. For more information about complex dash patterns, see the snippets under Section 3.2.1
[Slurs], page 164.
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 169

Predefined commands
\phrasingSlurUp, \phrasingSlurDown, \phrasingSlurNeutral, \phrasingSlurDashed,
\phrasingSlurDotted, \phrasingSlurHalfDashed, \phrasingSlurHalfSolid,
\phrasingSlurDashPattern, \phrasingSlurSolid.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 36.1 [Direction and placement], page 746, Section 3.2.1 [Slurs],
page 164.
Snippets: Section “Expressive marks” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “PhrasingSlur” in Internals Reference.

3.2.3 Breath marks

The \breathe command calls for the performer to shorten the previous note to take a breath.
\fixed c'' { c2. \breathe d4 }

º N P ih

For a short break in sound that is not taken away from the previous note, see Section 2.2.4
[Caesuras], page 74.
Unlike other expressive marks, a breath mark is treated as a separate music event; therefore,
any expressive marks pertaining to the preceding note, and any brackets indicating manual
beams, slurs, or phrasing slurs, must be placed before \breathe. \breathe does not accept
articulations itself, but see Section 2.2.4 [Caesuras], page 74.
A breath mark ends an automatic beam; to override this, see Section 2.4.3 [Manual beams],
page 110.
\fixed c'' { c8 \breathe d e f g2 }

º h ihhhN
 T
The breathMarkType context property controls which of several predefined breath marks the
\breathe command creates. See Section B.14 [List of breath marks], page 895.
\fixed c'' {
\set breathMarkType = #'tickmark
c2. \breathe d4
}

th
 º N P
See also
Music Glossary: Section “breath mark” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 2.2.4 [Caesuras], page 74, Section 17.4.4 [Divisiones], page 533.
Snippets: Section “Expressive marks” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “BreathingEvent” in Internals Reference, Section “Breathing-
Sign” in Internals Reference, Section “Breathing sign engraver” in Internals Reference.
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 170

3.2.4 Falls and doits

Falls and doits can be added to notes using the \bendAfter command. The direction of the fall
or doit is indicated with a plus or minus (up or down). The number indicates the pitch interval
that the fall or doit will extend beyond the main note.
\relative c'' {
c2\bendAfter 4
c2\bendAfter -4
c2\bendAfter 6.5
c2\bendAfter -6.5
c2\bendAfter 8
c2\bendAfter -8
}

º N N N N N N

Selected Snippets
Adjusting the shape of falls and doits
The shortest-duration-space property may be tweaked to adjust the shape of falls and doits.
\relative c'' {
\override Score.SpacingSpanner.shortest-duration-space = 4.0
c2-\bendAfter 5
c2-\bendAfter -4.75
c2-\bendAfter 8.5
c2-\bendAfter -6
}

º N N N N

See also
Music Glossary: Section “fall” in Music Glossary, Section “doit” in Music Glossary.
Snippets: Section “Expressive marks” in Snippets.

3.3 Expressive marks as lines

This section explains how to create various expressive marks that follow a linear path: glissandi,
arpeggios, and trills.

3.3.1 Glissando
A glissando is created by appending \glissando to a note:
\relative {
g'2\glissando g'
c2\glissando c,
\afterGrace f,1\glissando f'16
}
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 171

N N N
†
h
º N .
A glissando can connect notes across staves:
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff = "right" {
e'''2\glissando
\change Staff = "left"
a,,4\glissando
\change Staff = "right"
b''8 r |
}
\new Staff = "left" {
\clef bass
s1
}
>>
N h
X
 º T¢

º
h
A glissando can connect notes in chords. If anything other than a direct one-to-one pairing of
the notes in the two chords is required, the connections between the notes are defined by setting
\glissandoMap to a Scheme list. The elements are pairs of integers; each pair (x . y) creates a
glissando line from the x-th note of the first chord to the y-th note of the second chord. Notes
are numbered from zero in the order in which they appear in the input .ly file. Not all notes
need be part in a glissando.
\relative {
<c' e>2\glissando g'
<c, e>\glissando <g' b>
\break
\set glissandoMap = #'((0 . 1) (1 . 0))
<c, g'>\glissando <d a'>
\set glissandoMap = #'((0 . 0) (0 . 1) (0 . 2))
c\glissando <d f a>
\set glissandoMap = #'((2 . 2) (0 . 0))
<f d a'>\glissando <c f c'>
}

º N N NN
NN
N
NN
3

 N N NN NN
N N N N N N
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 172

Different styles of glissandi can be created. For details, see Section 36.5 [Line styles], page 754.

Selected Snippets
Contemporary glissando
A contemporary glissando without a final note can be typeset using a hidden note and cadenza
timing.
\relative c'' {
\time 3/4
\override Glissando.style = #'zigzag
c4 c
\cadenzaOn
c4\glissando
\hideNotes
c,,4
\unHideNotes
\cadenzaOff
\bar "|"
}

 43 h h h

Adding timing marks to long glissandi

Skipped beats in very long glissandi are sometimes indicated by timing marks, often consisting
of stems without noteheads. Such stems can also be used to carry intermediate expression
markings.
If the stems do not align well with the glissando, they may need to be repositioned slightly.
glissandoSkipOn = {
\override NoteColumn.glissando-skip = ##t
\hide NoteHead
\override NoteHead.no-ledgers = ##t
}

glissandoSkipOff = {
\revert NoteColumn.glissando-skip
\undo \hide NoteHead
\revert NoteHead.no-ledgers
}

\relative c'' {
r8 f8\glissando
\glissandoSkipOn
f4 g a a8\noBeam
\glissandoSkipOff
a8

r8 f8\glissando
\glissandoSkipOn
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 173

g4 a8
\glissandoSkipOff
a8 |

r4 f\glissando \<
\glissandoSkipOn
a4\f \>
\glissandoSkipOff
b8\! r |
}

h h h h h h
 º ¢ T TT¢T  T¢
f
Making glissandi breakable
Normally, LilyPond refuses to automatically break a line at places where a glissando crosses a
bar line. This behavior can be changed by setting the Glissando.breakable property to #t.
Also setting the after-line-breaking property to #t makes the glissando line continue after
the break.
The breakable property does not affect manual breaks inserted with commands like \break.
glissandoSkipOn = {
\override NoteColumn.glissando-skip = ##t
\hide NoteHead
\override NoteHead.no-ledgers = ##t
}

music = {
\repeat unfold 16 f8 |
f1\glissando |
a4 r2. |
\repeat unfold 16 f8 |
f1\glissando \once\glissandoSkipOn |
a2 a4 r4 |
\repeat unfold 16 f8
}

\relative c'' {
<>^\markup { \typewriter Glissando.breakable
set to \typewriter "#t" }
\override Glissando.breakable = ##t
\override Glissando.after-line-breaking = ##t
\music
}

\relative c'' {
<>^\markup { \typewriter Glissando.breakable not set }
\music
}

\paper {
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 174

line-width = 100\mm
indent = 0
tagline = ##f
}

º hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh .
Glissando.breakable set to #t

h hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh .
˜ P
4


h hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh

8


h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
Glissando.breakable not set
º
. h
˜P h
3
hhhhhhh hhhhhhhh

. h hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh

7


Extending glissandi across repeats
A glissando which extends into several \alternative blocks can be simulated by adding a
hidden grace note with a glissando at the start of each \alternative block. The grace note
should be at the same pitch as the note which starts the initial glissando. This is implemented
here with a music function which takes the pitch of the grace note as its argument.
Note that in polyphonic music the grace note must be matched with corresponding grace
notes in all other voices.
repeatGliss = #(define-music-function (grace)
(ly:pitch?)
#{
% the next two lines ensure the glissando is long enough
% to be visible
\once \override Glissando.springs-and-rods
= #ly:spanner::set-spacing-rods
\once \override Glissando.minimum-length = 3.5
\once \hideNotes
\grace $grace \glissando
#})

\score {
\relative c'' {
\repeat volta 3 { c4 d e f\glissando }
\alternative {
{ g2 d }
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 175

{ \repeatGliss f g2 e }
{ \repeatGliss f e2 d }
}
}
}

music = \relative c' {

\voiceOne
\repeat volta 2 {
g a b c\glissando
}
\alternative {
{ d1 }
{ \repeatGliss c \once \omit StringNumber e1\2 }
}
}

\score {
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff <<
\new Voice { \clef "G_8" \music }
>>
\new TabStaff <<
\new TabVoice { \clef "moderntab" \music }
>>
>>
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

. . .
º h h h h N N P N N
PP N N
 P
7 .
. PP
.
.
º N N N N
P
8

T
P
0 1 3 5
0 2
A
6B
See also
Music Glossary: Section “glissando” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 36.5 [Line styles], page 754.
Snippets: Section “Expressive marks” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Glissando” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Printing text over the line (such as gliss.) is not supported.
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 176

3.3.2 Arpeggio
An arpeggio on a chord (also known as a broken chord) is denoted by appending \arpeggio to
the chord construct:
\relative { <c' e g c>1\arpeggio }

 º ;;; ...
;.
Different types of arpeggios may be written. \arpeggioNormal reverts to a normal arpeggio:
\relative {
<c' e g c>2\arpeggio

\arpeggioArrowUp
<c e g c>2\arpeggio

\arpeggioArrowDown
<c e g c>2\arpeggio

\arpeggioNormal
<c e g c>2\arpeggio
}

 º ;;; NNN <;; NNN ;;; NNNN ;;; NNN

;N ;N = ;N
These predefined commands internally modify the arpeggio-direction property; see their
full definition in the ly/property-init.ly file.
Special bracketed arpeggio symbols can be created:
\relative {
<c' e g c>2

\arpeggioBracket
<c e g c>2\arpeggio

\arpeggioParenthesis
<c e g c>2\arpeggio

\arpeggioParenthesisDashed
<c e g c>2\arpeggio

\arpeggioNormal
<c e g c>2\arpeggio
}

 º NNN NNN NN
NN
NN
NN ;; NNN
;; N
N N
These predefined commands internally override the Arpeggio object’s stencil property, and
may also adapt its X-extent (that is, the horizontal dimension it takes not to collide with other
objects).
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 177

The dash properties of the parenthesis arpeggio are controlled with the dash-definition
property (see Section 3.2.1 [Slurs], page 164).
Arpeggios can be explicitly written out with ties. For more information, see Section 2.1.4
[Ties], page 61.

Predefined commands
\arpeggio, \arpeggioArrowUp, \arpeggioArrowDown, \arpeggioNormal, \arpeggioBracket,
\arpeggioParenthesis, \arpeggioParenthesisDashed.

Selected Snippets
Creating cross-staff arpeggios in a piano staff
In a PianoStaff, it is possible to let an arpeggio cross between the staves by setting the property
PianoStaff.connectArpeggios.
\new PianoStaff \relative c'' <<
\set PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
\new Staff {
<c e g c>4\arpeggio
<g c e g>4\arpeggio
<e g c e>4\arpeggio
<c e g c>4\arpeggio
}
\new Staff {
\clef bass
\repeat unfold 4 {
<c,, e g c>4\arpeggio
}
}
>>
;;; hhh ; hh h
X
 º ;;;; h ;;;; hh ;;;; hhh ;;; hhhh
;;; ;;; ;; ;;;
;
 º ;;;; h ;;;; h ;;;; h ;;;; h
;;; hh ;;; hh ;; hh ;;; hh
; h ; h ;; h ; h
Creating arpeggios across notes in different voices
An arpeggio can be drawn across notes in different voices on the same staff if the
Span_arpeggio_engraver is added to the Staff context:
\new Staff \with {
\consists "Span_arpeggio_engraver"
}
\relative c' {
\set Staff.connectArpeggios = ##t
<<
{ <e' g>4\arpeggio <d f> <d f>2 }
\\
{ <d, f>2\arpeggio <g b>2 }
>>
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 178

;;; hh hh NNN
 º ;;; NN N
See also
Music Glossary: Section “arpeggio” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 3.2.1 [Slurs], page 164, Section 2.1.4 [Ties], page 61.
Installed Files: ly/property-init.ly.
Snippets: Section “Expressive marks” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Arpeggio” in Internals Reference, Section “Slur” in Internals
Reference, Section “PianoStaff” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Predefined commands such as \arpeggioArrowUp only apply to the current context, and thus
will not affect arpeggios spanning several voices or staves. In such cases, these commands
need to be used in a \context block within \layout, or in a \with block, as explained in
Section 33.5 [Changing context default settings], page 718. Alternatively, rather than using
predefined shortcuts, it may be advisable to directly override the relevant properties for the
Arpeggio object in the appropriate context; for example:
\override Staff.Arpeggio.stencil = #ly:arpeggio::brew-chord-bracket
to print cross-voice arpeggio brackets at the Staff level, or
\override PianoStaff.Arpeggio.arpeggio-direction = #UP
to print cross-staff arrowed arpeggios (pointing upwards) in a PianoStaff context.
It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios in one PianoStaff
at the same point in time.
The simple way of setting parenthesis-style arpeggio brackets does not work for cross-staff
arpeggios; see [Cross-staff stems], page 408.

3.3.3 Trills
Short trills without an extender line are printed with \trill; see Section 3.1.1 [Articulations
and ornamentations], page 149.
Longer trills with an extender line are made with \startTrillSpan and \stopTrillSpan:
\relative {
d''1\startTrillSpan
d1
c2\stopTrillSpan
r2
}

.u vvvvvv.vvvvv
º N ˜
A trill spanner crossing a line break will restart exactly above the first note on the new line.
\relative {
d''1\startTrillSpan
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 179

\break
d1
c2\stopTrillSpan
r2
}

.u vvv
º
vvv
.u N ˜
2


Consecutive trill spans will work without explicit \stopTrillSpan commands, since succes-
sive trill spanners will automatically become the right bound of the previous trill.
\relative {
d''1\startTrillSpan
d1
b1\startTrillSpan
d2\stopTrillSpan
r2
}

.u vvvvvv.vvvvv u vvv N
º . ˜
Trills can also be combined with grace notes. The syntax of this construct and the method
to precisely position the grace notes are described in Section 2.6.1 [Grace notes], page 141.
\relative {
d''1~\afterGrace
d1\startTrillSpan { c32[ d]\stopTrillSpan }
c2 r2
}
vv
. .u h h N ˜
º
Trills that require an auxiliary note with an explicit pitch can be typeset with the
\pitchedTrill command. The first argument is the main note, and the second is the trilled
note, printed as a stemless note head in parentheses.
\relative {
\pitchedTrill
d''2\startTrillSpan fis
d2
c2\stopTrillSpan
r2
}

u v vhv vvv
N N N ˜
º
Chapter 3: Expressive marks 180

The Accidental of the first pitched trill in a measure is always printed, even for naturals.
{
\key d \major
\pitchedTrill
d'2\startTrillSpan cis d\stopTrillSpan
\pitchedTrill
d2\startTrillSpan c d\stopTrillSpan
\pitchedTrill
d2\startTrillSpan e d\stopTrillSpan
}

 º Nu v hv  N Nu v hv N Nu v hv N


Subsequent accidentals (of the same note in the same measure) will need to be added manually.
\relative {
\pitchedTrill
eis''4\startTrillSpan fis
eis4\stopTrillSpan
\pitchedTrill
eis4\startTrillSpan cis
eis4\stopTrillSpan
\pitchedTrill
eis4\startTrillSpan fis
eis4\stopTrillSpan
\pitchedTrill
eis4\startTrillSpan fis!
eis4\stopTrillSpan
}

u vv u vv u vv u vv
º  h h h  h  h  h  h  h h   h  h
 h 

Predefined commands
\startTrillSpan, \stopTrillSpan.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “trill” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 3.1.1 [Articulations and ornamentations], page 149, Sec-
tion 2.6.1 [Grace notes], page 141.
Snippets: Section “Expressive marks” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “TrillSpanner” in Internals Reference, Section “TrillPitch-
Head” in Internals Reference, Section “TrillPitchAccidental” in Internals Reference, Section
“TrillPitchParentheses” in Internals Reference, Section “TrillPitchGroup” in Internals Refer-
ence, Section “Pitched trill engraver” in Internals Reference.
 181

4 Repeats

hh hhh hh h h PP PP h h PP hh hhh h hh
   2 PP hhh hhh PPP PPP hhh hhh PPP
X
h h hh hh P P hh hh P h h
9

4
   2 PP
  4 hh hh PP PP hh hh PP hh hh hh hh hh PP PP hh hh PP hh h hh
h
   hhh hhh PPP PPP hhh  h P h
k
¢  PP
13

 hh h h h
hh PP hh h hh hh
hh hP
   hP h h hh PP
  hh hh PP PP hh h P hh h h h
hh h P h h P h ¢ PP
h
T
Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist for repetitions. LilyPond
supports the following kinds of repeats:
volta This is the standard notation for repeats with or without alternative endings. The
repeated section is framed between repeat bar lines, but the starting bar line is
omitted when the repeated section begins the piece. Alternative endings are printed
in sequence, bracketed, and numbered with the volte to which they apply.
segno This supports various da capo and dal segno cases. The repeated section begins
with a segno mark, except at the start of the piece. Alternative endings are printed
in sequence and marked with coda marks, and a section label such as ‘Coda’ can
optionally be applied to the final alternative. The repeated section ends with an
instruction such as D.S.
unfold The repeated music is written out in full a specified number of times.
percent These are beat or measure repeats. They look like single slashes or percent signs.
tremolo This is used to write tremolo beams.
Chord constructs can be repeated using the chord repetition symbol, q. See Section 5.1.2
[Chord repetition], page 209.

4.1 Long repeats

This section discusses how to input long (usually multi-measure) repeats.

4.1.1 Written-out repeats

The \repeat unfold command repeats music by writing it out a number of times. The syntax
is the same as the \repeat volta and \repeat segno commands, which are documented in
following sections.
To avoid redundancy, unfolding is not demonstrated in detail here; however, some of the
examples in following sections illustrate repeats in multiple forms using the \unfoldRepeats
command to convert the volta or segno form to the unfold form. For another important use
of the \unfoldRepeats command, see Section 24.6 [Using repeats with MIDI], page 633.
Chapter 4: Repeats 182

There are some points of interest specific to the \repeat unfold command.
In some cases, especially in a \relative context, the outcome of unfolding is not the same
as of writing the input music expression multiple times, e.g.,
\repeat unfold 2 { a'4 b c d | }
differs from the following by an octave change:
a'4 b c d |
a'4 b c d |
Also, nesting \repeat unfold can be practical in ways that nesting \repeat volta or
\repeat segno would not be.
☛ ✟
Note: If you include \relative inside a \repeat without explicitly
instantiating the Voice context, extra (unwanted) staves will appear.
See Section “An extra staff appears” in Application Usage.
✡ ✠

See also
Snippets: Section “Repeats” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “UnfoldedRepeatedMusic” in Internals Reference.

4.1.2 Simple repeats

This is the syntax for a repeat without variation:
\repeat volta repeatcount musicexpr
where musicexpr is the music expression to be repeated.
\fixed c'' {
\repeat volta 2 { c2 f }
R1
\repeat volta 2 { g2 c }
}

N P ” N
 º N P PP N PP
By default, a starting bar line is not automatically printed at the beginning of a piece, in
accordance with classical engraving conventions. However, in some contexts, these bar lines are
traditionally added, such as in lead sheets for jazz standards. This can be achieved by setting
the printInitialRepeatBar property.
\fixed c'' {
\set Score.printInitialRepeatBar = ##t
\repeat volta 2 { c2 f }
}

N P
 º PP N P
A repeated section that starts in the middle of a measure usually ends at the same position
in a later measure so that the two ends make a complete measure. The repeat bar lines are
not measure boundaries in such cases, so no bar checks should be placed there. Likewise, no
\partial command should be placed within the repeated music, because the measures are
Chapter 4: Repeats 183

complete; however, a \partial command should be placed before the repeat when there is a
truly incomplete measure the first time through.
\fixed c'' {
\partial 4
\repeat volta 2 {
c4
c2 d
g4 g g
}
\repeat volta 2 {
e4
f2 g
c2.
}
}

h N N h h h P Ph N N N P PP
 º P P
4.1.3 Alternative endings
Repeats with alternative endings can be written two ways. This is the preferred syntax:
\repeat volta repeatcount {
musicexpr...
\alternative {
\volta numberlist musicexpr
\volta numberlist musicexpr
...
}
}
where musicexpr is a music expression, musicexpr... is any number of them, and numberlist
is a comma-separated list of volta numbers chosen from the range 1 to repeatcount.
\fixed c'' {
\repeat volta 6 {
c4 d e f
\alternative {
\volta 1,2,3 { c2 e }
\volta 4,5 { f2 d }
\volta 6 { e2 f }
}
}
c1
}

h h h h .–.
N N P N N P .N N .
º
. .
P P
An older syntax where the \alternative block follows outside the repeated music expression
is still supported and has the same effect.
\repeat volta repeatcount musicexpr
Chapter 4: Repeats 184

\alternative {
\volta numberlist musicexpr
\volta numberlist musicexpr
...
}
\volta specifications within an \alternative block are optional on an all-or-none basis. If
they are omitted, alternatives are used once each, but the first is repeated as needed to satisfy
the repeat count.
\fixed c'' {
\repeat volta 6 {
c4 d e f
\alternative {
{ c2 e }
{ f2 d }
{ e2 f }
}
}
c1
}

h h h h .–.
N N P N N P N N
.
.
º
.
 P P
\alternative blocks can be nested.
music = \fixed c' {
\repeat volta 3 {
s1_"A"
\alternative {
\volta 1 { s1_"B" }
\volta 2,3 {
\once \override Score.VoltaBracket.musical-length =
\musicLength 1
s1_"C"
s1_"D"
\alternative {
\volta 2 { s1_"E" }
\volta 3 { s1_"F" }
}
}
}
}
\fine
}

\score { \music }
\score { \unfoldRepeats \music }

. . . . .
º PP PP
A B C D E F
Chapter 4: Repeats 185

º
A B A C D E A C D F
☛ ✟
Note: Every element in an \alternative block is treated as an alter-
native ending. Something as simple as a bar check on the wrong side
of a bracket can produce unexpected results.
✡ ✠
☛ ✟
Note: If you include \relative inside a \repeat without explicitly
instantiating the Voice context, extra (unwanted) staves will appear.
See Section “An extra staff appears” in Application Usage.
✡ ✠
☛ ✟
Note: When alternative bar numbering is enabled, it is applied to the
outermost bracketed alternatives.
✡ ✠

4.1.4 Other variation in repeated sections

An \alternative block can be used within a \repeat block to produce notation similar to
alternative endings (see Section 4.1.3 [Alternative endings], page 183).
\fixed c'' {
\repeat volta 2 {
R1
\alternative {
\volta 1 { c1 }
\volta 2 { d1 }
}
R1
}
}

. .
º ” . . ” PP

The \volta command is not limited to use on the elements of an \alternative block. It
can be used anywhere within a \repeat to designate music for particular volte, though it does
not create brackets in other cases.
When a \repeat is unfolded, volta-specific music is omitted from every volta to which it
does not apply. Providing an empty Scheme list in place of volta numbers removes the music
entirely.
music = \repeat volta 3 {
\volta #'() { <>^\markup { \bold "3×" } }
\volta 1 { <>_\markup { \italic dolce } }
g''1
}

\score { \music }
\score { \unfoldRepeats \music }
Chapter 4: Repeats 186

.
PP
3×

º
dolce
. . .
º
dolce
When a \repeat is unfolded, it may be desirable not only to filter out volta-specific music,
but also to add music that was not present in the folded form. The \unfolded command
designates music to be ignored until the enclosing \repeat is unfolded.
music = \fixed c' {
\repeat volta 2 {
c1
<<
\volta #'() {
\once \override TextSpanner.bound-details.left.text =
"2nd time tacet"
s4*7\startTextSpan s4\stopTextSpan
}
\volta 1 { f4 f f f | f f f f }
\volta 2 { \unfolded { R1*2 } }
>>
c'1
}
\fine
}

\score { \music }
\score { \unfoldRepeats \music }

º . PP
2nd time tacet

. h h h h h h h h
” ”
º
. hhhh hhhh . .
.
☛ ✟
Note: The \volta and \unfolded commands function with respect to
the innermost repeat enclosing them.
✡ ✠

4.1.5 Al-fine repeats

The \fine command marks the end of the music but does not enforce it. When a repeat
containing \fine is unfolded, the \fine command is unfolded like any other music. For correct
unfolding, it is necessary to specify the volta in which the Fine should be performed and the
volte in which any following music should be performed (see Section 4.1.4 [Other variation in
repeated sections], page 185).
music = \fixed c' {
\repeat volta 2 {
Chapter 4: Repeats 187

f1
\volta 2 \fine
\volta 1 b1
}
}

\score { \music }
\score { \unfoldRepeats \music }

º . . PP
Fine

º . . .
As shown immediately above, at the written end of the music, \fine creates a final
bar line without a Fine instruction. To force Fine to appear in such cases, set the
finalFineTextVisibility context property.
\fixed c' {
\set Score.finalFineTextVisibility = ##t
f1
\fine
}

º .
Fine
To change the text that \fine prints, set the fineText context property.
\fixed c' {
\set Score.fineText = "Fine."
\repeat volta 2 {
f1
\volta 2 \fine
\volta 1 b1
}
}

º . . PP
Fine.
For details on interactions with other types of bar lines and options for changing their ap-
pearance, see Section 2.5.2 [Automatic bar lines], page 125.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “fine” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 2.5.2 [Automatic bar lines], page 125, Section 4.1.4 [Other
variation in repeated sections], page 185, Section 2.5.7 [Section divisions], page 140.
Snippets: Section “Repeats” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “FineEvent” in Internals Reference, Section “Jump engraver”
in Internals Reference, Section “JumpScript” in Internals Reference.
Chapter 4: Repeats 188

4.1.6 Segno repeat structure

\repeat segno differs from \repeat volta only in the resulting notation. Refer to the preceding
sections for general information on entering music with repetition, alternatives, and variation.
This section covers particulars of segno notation without fully reiterating the input syntax.
\repeat segno notates repetition with D.C. or D.S. instructions. It marks the beginning
of the repeated section with a segno mark when it is not the beginning of the piece. It also
marks alternative endings with coda marks in lieu of volta brackets, provided that the endings
are intended to be performed in order, e.g., not \volta 1,3 then \volta 2,4.
When alternative bar numbering is enabled, it is applied to alternatives notated with volta
brackets whether they are created by \repeat segno or \repeat volta, but it is not applied to
alternative endings notated with coda marks.
Demonstrations of common uses follow.
al fine
Repeat instructions include al Fine if a \fine command appears at any
prior point (see Section 4.1.5 [Al-fine repeats], page 186).
music = \fixed c' {
f1
\repeat segno 2 {
g1
\volta 2 \fine
\volta 1 a1
}
\section
}

\score { \music }
\score { \unfoldRepeats \music }
l
º . . .
Fine D.S. l
al Fine

º . . . .
alla coda
The beginning of each alternative ending is marked with an implied
\codaMark \default. Repeat instructions in alternatives include
‘al . . . e poi la . . . ’ referring to the mark at the first alternative and
the mark to skip to. Provided that the duration of the final alternative
is zero, the automatic mark is suppressed, allowing a section label to
be set instead.
music = \fixed c' {
f1
\repeat segno 2 {
g1
\alternative {
\volta 1 { \repeat unfold 4 { a2 } }
Chapter 4: Repeats 189

\volta 2 \volta #'() {

\section
\sectionLabel "Coda"
}
}
}
b1
\fine
}

\score { \music }
\score { \unfoldRepeats \music }
l C
º . N N
Coda
. N N .
D.S. l al C
e poi la Coda

º . . N N N N . .
The return instruction can be abbreviated by setting an alternative
formatting procedure (see Section 4.1.7 [Segno repeat appearance],
page 191).
da capo
Repeat instructions include D.C. when the repeated section begins at
the beginning of the score. The supported da capo cases parallel the
supported dal segno cases.
music = \fixed c' {
\repeat segno 2 {
g1
}
\fine
}

\score { \music }
\score { \unfoldRepeats \music }

º .
D.C.

º . .
dal segno
Repeat instructions include D.S. when the repeated section begins after
the beginning of the score. The beginning of the repeated section is
marked with an implied \segnoMark \default.
music = \fixed c' {
Chapter 4: Repeats 190

f1
\repeat segno 2 {
g1
}
\repeat segno 2 {
a1
}
\fine
}

\score { \music }
\score { \unfoldRepeats \music }
l ll
º . . .
D.S. l D.S. l l

º . . . . .
A dal-segno repeat starting at the beginning of the score can be forced
(see Section 4.1.7 [Segno repeat appearance], page 191).
multiple return
A repeat instruction to be performed more than once includes ‘. . . V.’.
The number of times the instruction is performed is one less than the
number of times the passage is performed.
music = \fixed c' {
\repeat segno 3 {
g1
}
\fine
}

\score { \music }
\score { \unfoldRepeats \music }

º .
D.C. 2 V.

º . . .
See also
Music Glossary: Section “da capo” in Music Glossary, Section “dal segno” in Music Glossary,
Section “fine” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 4.1.5 [Al-fine repeats], page 186, Section 4.1.3 [Alternative end-
ings], page 183, Section 2.5.2 [Automatic bar lines], page 125, Section 4.1.4 [Other variation in
repeated sections], page 185, Section 2.5.7 [Section divisions], page 140, Section 8.1.4 [Section
labels], page 304, Section 4.1.2 [Simple repeats], page 182.
Chapter 4: Repeats 191

Snippets: Section “Repeats” in Snippets.

Internals Reference: Section “CodaMark” in Internals Reference, Section “JumpScript” in
Internals Reference, Section “SectionLabel” in Internals Reference, Section “SegnoMark” in
Internals Reference.

4.1.7 Segno repeat appearance

The marks and return instructions that \repeat segno creates are adjustable in some respects.
Return instructions are formatted with the Scheme procedure specified in the
dalSegnoTextFormatter property. There is a predefined alternative formatter that creates
shorter instructions.
\fixed c' {
\set Score.dalSegnoTextFormatter = #format-dal-segno-text-brief
f1
\repeat segno 2 {
g1
\alternative {
\volta 1 { a1 }
\volta 2 \volta #'() {
\section
\sectionLabel "Coda"
}
}
}
b1
\fine
}
l C
º . . .
Coda
.
D.S. l
al Coda
The sequence numbers of the marks at the beginning of the repeated section and the be-
ginning of the first alternative may be set explicitly without interfering with automatic return
instructions (see Section 4.1.8 [Manual repeat marks], page 197).
\fixed c' {
\repeat segno 2 {
\volta #'() { \segnoMark 2 }
g1
\alternative {
\volta 1 {
\volta #'() { \codaMark 2 }
\repeat unfold 8 { a4 }
}
\volta 2 \volta #'() {
\section
\sectionLabel "Coda"
}
}
}
b1
Chapter 4: Repeats 192

\fine
}
llCC
º . h h h h h h h h
Coda
.
D.S. l l al C C
e poi la Coda
Without the explicit \segnoMark 2, the above would have been rendered as a da-capo repeat.
As an alternative to printing a segno as a mark above the staff, it is possible to print it as
a bar line by setting the segnoStyle property to bar-line. To avoid ambiguity, only the first
segno bar remains unmarked.
\fixed c' {
\set Score.segnoStyle = #'bar-line
R1
\repeat unfold 3 {
\repeat segno 2 {
R1*2
}
}
\fine
}
ll l3 l
” Œ ” ” Œ ” ” Œ ” ”
º
D.S. l 3 l
D.S. D.S. l l
Where a segno bar coincides with other special bar lines, a combination bar line is chosen
automatically from a predetermined set. For each supported combination, the bar line can be
customized by setting a context property (see Section 2.5.2 [Automatic bar lines], page 125).
Segno and coda marks are formatted with procedures specified in the segnoMarkFormatter
and codaMarkFormatter properties. These are interchangeable with procedures used to format
rehearsal marks (see Section 2.5.5 [Rehearsal marks], page 136).
\fixed c' {
\set Score.segnoMarkFormatter = #format-mark-numbers
\set Score.segnoStyle = #'bar-line
R1
\repeat unfold 3 {
\repeat segno 2 {
R1*2
}
}
\fine
}

1 2 3
” Œ ” ” Œ ” ” Œ ” ”
º
D.S. 3
D.S. 1 D.S. 2
Chapter 4: Repeats 193

There is a predefined alternative segno formatter that prints a mark even over the first bar
line:
\fixed c' {
\set Score.segnoMarkFormatter = #format-segno-mark
\set Score.segnoStyle = #'bar-line
R1
\repeat unfold 3 {
\segnoMark \default
R1*2
}
}
l ll l3 l
” Œ ” ” Œ ” ” Œ ” ”
º
There is a predefined alternative coda mark formatter that uses \varcoda signs.
\fixed c' {
\set Score.codaMarkFormatter = #format-varcoda-mark
R1
\repeat unfold 3 {
\codaMark \default
R1*2
}
}

‹ ‹‹ ‹3 ‹
” ” ” ” ” ” ”
º
Selected Snippets
Shortening volta brackets
By default, the volta brackets will be drawn over all of the alternative music, but it is possible to
shorten them by overriding VoltaBracket.musical-length. In the next example, the bracket
only lasts one measure, which is a duration of 3/4.
\fixed c'' {
\time 3/4
c4 c c
\repeat volta 5 {
d4 d d
\alternative {
\volta 1,2,3,4 {
\once \override Score.VoltaBracket.musical-length =
\musicLength 2.
e4 e e
f4 f f
}
\volta 5 {
g4 g g
Chapter 4: Repeats 194

g2.
}
}
}
}

h h h
.–.
h h h h h h h. h h N P
 43 h h h PP PP
Volta brackets in multiple staves
By adding the Volta_engraver to the relevant staff, volte can be put over staves other than
the topmost one in a score.
voltaMusic = \relative c'' {
\repeat volta 2 {
c1
\alternative {
\volta 1 { d1 }
\volta 2 { e1 }
}
}
}

<<
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff \voltaMusic
\new Staff \voltaMusic
>>
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff \with { \consists "Volta_engraver" }
\voltaMusic
\new Staff \voltaMusic
>>
>>

7 .
.
.
PP .
º .

º . . PP .
6
7 .
.
.
PP .
º .
º . . PP .
6
Alternative bar numbering
Two alternative methods for bar numbering can be set, especially for when using repeated music.
Chapter 4: Repeats 195

music = \relative c' {

\repeat volta 3 {
c4 d e f |
\alternative {
\volta 1 { c4 d e f | c2 d \break }
\volta 2 { f4 g a b | f4 g a b | f2 a | \break }
\volta 3 { c4 d e f | c2 d } } }
c1 \bar "|."
}

\markup "default"
{
\music
}

\markup \typewriter "'numbers"

{
\set Score.alternativeNumberingStyle = #'numbers
\music
}

\markup \typewriter "'numbers-with-letters"

{
\set Score.alternativeNumberingStyle = #'numbers-with-letters
\music
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

default

.
º h h PP
h h h h h h N N
.
h h PP
4

 h h h h h h N N
.
h h h N
 h N .
7

'numbers

.
º h PP
h h h h h h h N N
.
h h PP
2

 h h h h h h N N
Chapter 4: Repeats 196

.
h h h N
 h N .
2

'numbers-with-letters

.
º h PP
h h h h h h h N N
.
h h PP
2b

 h h h h h h N N
.
h h h N
 h N .
2c

See also
Music Glossary: Section “repeat” in Music Glossary, Section “volta” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 2.5.2 [Automatic bar lines], page 125, Section 2.5.1 [Bar lines],
page 115, Section 33.4 [Modifying context plug-ins], page 717, Section 36.11.1 [Modifying ties
and slurs], page 769, Section 2.6.3 [Time administration], page 148.
Installed Files: ly/engraver-init.ly.
Snippets: Section “Repeats” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “VoltaBracket” in Internals Reference, Section “Volta-
RepeatedMusic” in Internals Reference, Section “UnfoldedRepeatedMusic” in Internals Ref-
erence.

Known issues and warnings

For repeats in volta form, spanners (slurs, etc.) that cross into alternatives work for the first
alternative only. They likewise cannot wrap around from the end of an alternative back to the
beginning of the repeated section.
The visual appearance of a continuing slur or tie in subsequent alternatives can be achieved
with \repeatTie if the slur extends into only one note in the alternative block, although this
method does not work in TabStaff; see [Repeat tie], page 62. Other methods which may be
tailored to indicate continuing slurs over several notes in alternative blocks, and which also work
in TabStaff contexts, are shown in Section 36.11.1 [Modifying ties and slurs], page 769.
The visual appearance of a continuing glissando in subsequent alternatives can be achieved
by coding a glissando starting on a hidden grace note. See [Extending glissandi across repeats],
page 174.
If a repeat that begins with an incomplete measure has an \alternative block that contains
modifications to the measureLength property, using \unfoldRepeats will result in wrongly-
placed bar lines and bar check warnings.
A nested repeat like
\repeat ...
\repeat ...
\alternative
is ambiguous, since it is not clear to which \repeat the \alternative belongs. This ambiguity
is resolved by always having the \alternative belong to the inner \repeat. For clarity, it is
advisable to use braces in such situations.
Chapter 4: Repeats 197

4.1.8 Manual repeat marks

☛ ✟
Note: These methods are only used for displaying unusual repeat con-
structs, and may produce unexpected behavior. In most cases, repeats
should be created using the standard \repeat command or by print-
ing the relevant bar lines. For more information, see Section 2.5.1 [Bar
lines], page 115.
✡ ✠
The property repeatCommands can be used to control the layout of volta-style repeats. Its
value is a Scheme list. In general, each element is itself a list, '(command args...), but a
command with no arguments may be abbreviated to a symbol; e.g., '((start-repeat)) may
be given as '(start-repeat).
end-repeat
End a repeated section.
\relative {
c''1
d4 e f g
\set Score.repeatCommands = #'(end-repeat)
c1
}

h h .
h h
º . PP
start-repeat
Start a repeated section.
\relative {
c''1
\set Score.repeatCommands = #'(start-repeat)
d4 e f g
c1
}

h h .
PP h h
º .
As per standard engraving practice, repeat signs are not printed at the beginning
of a piece.
volta text
If text is markup, start a volta bracket with that label; if text is #f, end a volta
bracket. A volta bracket which is not ended explicitly will not be printed.
\relative {
f''4 g a b
\set Score.repeatCommands =
#`((volta ,#{ \markup \volta-number "2" #}))
g4 a g a
\set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
c1
Chapter 4: Repeats 198

h h h h h h h h .
º
Multiple repeat commands may occur at the same point:
\relative {
f''4 g a b
\set Score.repeatCommands =
#`((volta ,#{ \markup { \concat { \volta-number 2 , }
\volta-number 5 } #})
end-repeat)
g4 a g a
c1
\set Score.repeatCommands =
#`((volta #f)
(volta ,#{ \markup \volta-number 95 #})
end-repeat)
b1
\set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
}

h h h h h
,
h h h . .

º PP PP
Text can be included with the volta bracket. The text can be a number or numbers or
markup text, see Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310. The simplest way to use markup text
is to define the markup first, then include the markup in a Scheme list.
voltaAdLib = \markup { \volta-number { 1. 2. 3... }
\italic { ad lib. } }
\relative {
c''1
\set Score.repeatCommands = #`((volta ,voltaAdLib) start-repeat)
c4 b d e
\set Score.repeatCommands =
#`((volta #f)
(volta ,#{ \markup \volta-number "4." #})
end-repeat)
f1
\set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
}

PP h h h h PP .
. . ... ad lib.
º .
.

Segno and coda marks can be created with the \segnoMark, \inStaffSegno, and \codaMark
commands. This is the syntax for the mark commands:
\codaMark n
Chapter 4: Repeats 199

\segnoMark n
where n is a sequence number, or \default to use the next automatically. Rehearsal, segno,
and coda marks are counted independently.
\fixed c' {
e1
\segnoMark \default
e1
\segnoMark \default
g1
\codaMark \default
g1
\codaMark \default
b1
\codaMark 96
b1
\segnoMark 96
}
l ll C C C C 96 C l 96 l
º . . . . . .
At the beginning of a piece, \segnoMark \default and \codaMark \default create no mark.
Specify ‘1’ to force a mark.
\fixed c' {
\segnoMark 1
f1
}
l
º .
The \inStaffSegno command is equivalent to \segnoMark \default with the extra effect
of temporarily setting the segnoStyle property to bar-line to force printing it as a bar line.
\fixed c' {
e1
\inStaffSegno
g1
\segnoMark \default
b1
}
ll
º . Œ . .
For more information on changing the appearance of segno and coda marks, see Section 4.1.7
[Segno repeat appearance], page 191.
To create arbitrary jump instructions, use the \jump command.
\fixed c' {
Chapter 4: Repeats 200

\time 2/4
f4 a
b4 c'8 d'
c'4 c
\jump "Gavotte I D.C."
\section
}

 42 h h h h h h
h
Gavotte I D.C.
See also
Notation Reference: Section 2.5.1 [Bar lines], page 115, Section 8.2 [Formatting text],
page 310, Section 2.5.5 [Rehearsal marks], page 136, Section 4.1.7 [Segno repeat appearance],
page 191.
Snippets: Section “Repeats” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “CodaMark” in Internals Reference, Section “Jump engraver”
in Internals Reference, Section “JumpScript” in Internals Reference, Section “Mark engraver”
in Internals Reference, Section “SegnoMark” in Internals Reference, Section “SegnoRepeated-
Music” in Internals Reference, Section “VoltaBracket” in Internals Reference, Section “Volta-
RepeatedMusic” in Internals Reference.

4.2 Short repeats

This section discusses how to input short repeats. Short repeats can take two forms: slashes
or percent signs to represent repeats of a single note, a single measure or two measures, and
tremolos otherwise.

4.2.1 Percent repeats

Repeated short patterns are printed once, and the repeated pattern is replaced with a special
sign.
The syntax is
\repeat percent number musicexpr
where musicexpr is a music expression.
Patterns that are shorter than one measure are replaced by slashes.
\relative c'' {
\repeat percent 4 { c128 d e f }
\repeat percent 4 { c64 d e f }
\repeat percent 5 { c32 d e f }
\repeat percent 4 { c16 d e f }
\repeat percent 4 { c8 d }
\repeat percent 4 { c4 }
\repeat percent 2 { c2 }
}

º h h hh hhhh hhhh

Chapter 4: Repeats 201

h h
 h h h h h N
2

Patterns of one or two measures are replaced by percent-like symbols.

\relative c'' {
\repeat percent 2 { c4 d e f }
\repeat percent 2 { c2 d }
\repeat percent 2 { c1 }
}

º h h h h P N N PP . PP
 P
\relative {
\repeat percent 3 { c''4 d e f | c2 g' }
}

º h h h h N N P P P P

Note that the correct time offset to access the DoublePercentRepeat grob is the beginning
of the repeat’s second bar, which can be easily achieved with \after.
\new Voice \with { \consists Balloon_engraver }
{ \after 1*3
\balloonGrobText DoublePercentRepeat #'(-1 . 2) "repeat"
\repeat percent 2 { g'1 | a'1 } }

repeat

º . . P P
Patterns that are shorter than one measure but contain mixed durations use a double-percent
symbol.
\relative {
\repeat percent 4 { c''8. <d f>16 }
\repeat percent 2 { \tuplet 3/2 { r8 c d } e4 }
}

hh P P P h P
 º h P P P P ¢ h h P
3

Selected Snippets
Percent repeat counter
Measure repeats of more than two repeats can get a counter when the convenient property is
switched, as shown in this example:
\relative c'' {
\set countPercentRepeats = ##t
Chapter 4: Repeats 202

\repeat percent 4 { c1 }
}

º . P2P P3P P4P

Percent repeat count visibility

Percent repeat counters can be shown at regular intervals by setting the context property
repeatCountVisibility.
\relative c'' {
\set countPercentRepeats = ##t
\set repeatCountVisibility = #(every-nth-repeat-count-visible 5)
\repeat percent 10 { c1 } \break
\set repeatCountVisibility = #(every-nth-repeat-count-visible 2)
\repeat percent 6 { c1 d1 }
}

º . PP PP PP P5P PP PP PP PP 10
PP

 . . P2P P P P4P P P P6P

11

Isolated percent repeats

Isolated percents can also be printed.
makePercent =
#(define-music-function (note) (ly:music?)
"Make a percent repeat the same length as NOTE."
(make-music 'PercentEvent
'length (ly:music-length note)))

\relative c'' {
\makePercent s1
}

º PP
See also
Music Glossary: Section “percent repeat” in Music Glossary, Section “simile” in Music Glos-
sary.
Snippets: Section “Repeats” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “RepeatSlash” in Internals Reference, Section “Repeat-
SlashEvent” in Internals Reference, Section “DoubleRepeatSlash” in Internals Reference,
Section “PercentRepeat” in Internals Reference, Section “PercentRepeatCounter” in In-
ternals Reference, Section “PercentRepeatedMusic” in Internals Reference, Section “Per-
cent repeat engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “DoublePercentEvent” in Internals
Chapter 4: Repeats 203

Reference, Section “DoublePercentRepeat” in Internals Reference, Section “DoublePercent-

RepeatCounter” in Internals Reference, Section “Double percent repeat engraver” in Inter-
nals Reference, Section “Slash repeat engraver” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Percent repeats will not contain anything else apart from the percent sign itself; in particular,
timing changes will not be repeated.
\repeat percent 3 { \time 5/4 c2. 2 \time 4/4 2 2 }

 45 º P P P P

 45 N P N º N N
Any meter changes or \partial commands need to occur in parallel passages outside of any
percent repeat, e.g in a separate timing track.
<<
\repeat percent 3 { c2. 2 2 2 }
\repeat unfold 3 { \time 5/4 s4*5 \time 4/4 s1 }
>>

 45 N P N º N N 45 P P º 5 P P º
4
 45 º º
45 45 º
4.2.2 Tremolo repeats
Tremolos can take two forms: alternation between two chords or two notes, and rapid repetition
of a single note or chord. Tremolos consisting of an alternation are indicated by adding beams
between the notes or chords being alternated, while tremolos consisting of the rapid repetition
of a single note are indicated by adding beams or slashes to a single note.
To place tremolo marks between notes, use \repeat with tremolo style:
\relative c'' {
\repeat tremolo 8 { c16 d }
\repeat tremolo 6 { c16 d }
\repeat tremolo 2 { c16 d }
}

º . . NP NP h h

The \repeat tremolo syntax expects exactly two notes within the braces, and the number
of repetitions must correspond to a note value that can be expressed with plain or dotted notes.
Thus, \repeat tremolo 7 is valid and produces a double dotted note, but \repeat tremolo 9
is not.
Chapter 4: Repeats 204

The duration of the tremolo equals the duration of the braced expression multiplied by the
number of repeats: \repeat tremolo 8 { c16 d16 } gives a whole note tremolo, notated as two
whole notes joined by tremolo beams.
There are two ways to put tremolo marks on a single note. The \repeat tremolo syntax is
also used here, in which case the note should not be surrounded by braces:
\repeat tremolo 4 c'16

º
h
The same output can be obtained by adding :N after the note, where N indicates the duration
of the subdivision (it must be at least 8). If N is 8, one beam is added to the note’s stem. If N
is omitted, the last value is used:
\relative {
c''2:8 c:32
c: c:
}

º N N N N

Selected Snippets
Cross-staff tremolos
Since \repeat tremolo expects exactly two musical arguments for chord tremolos, the note
or chord which changes staff within a cross-staff tremolo should be placed inside curly braces
together with its \change Staff command.
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff = "up" \relative c'' {
\key a \major
\time 3/8
s4.
}
\new Staff = "down" \relative c'' {
\key a \major
\time 3/8
\voiceOne
\repeat tremolo 6 {
<a e'>32
{
\change Staff = "up"
\voiceTwo
<cis a' dis>32
}
}
}
>>
Chapter 4: Repeats 205

hP
 3 hh PP
X
 8
 h P
 83 h P
Controlling the appearance of tremolo slashes
Using various properties of the StemTremolo grob it is possible to control the appearance of
tremolo slashes.
• Property slope sets the slope for tremolo slashes.
• Property shape determines whether tremolo slashes look like rectangles (value rectangle)
or like very small beams (value beam-like).
• Property style sets both the slope and the shape depending on whether the note has flags,
beams, or only a plain stem. This is in contrast to the previous two properties, which
change the slope and shape unconditionally. There are two styles defined.
• default: slashes for down-stem flags are longer and more sloped than slashes for up-
stem flags; slashes on beamed notes have a rectangular shape and are parallel to the
beam.
• constant: all slashes are beam-like and have the same slope except for down-stem
flags.
music = {
a''4:32 a':
e''8: \noBeam e':
a'':[ a':]
f':[ g':]
d':[ d':]
}

\new Staff {
<>^\markup "default"
\music
}

\new Staff {
<>^\markup \typewriter "style = #'constant"
\override StemTremolo.style = #'constant
\music
}

\new Staff {
<>^\markup \typewriter "shape = #'rectangle"
\override StemTremolo.shape = #'rectangle
\music
}

\new Staff {
<>^\markup \typewriter "shape = #'beam-like"
\override StemTremolo.shape = #'beam-like
Chapter 4: Repeats 206

\music
}

\new Staff {
<>^\markup \typewriter "slope = -0.2"
\override StemTremolo.slope = -0.2
\music
}

\paper {
indent = 0
tagline = ##f
}

h h
default h
º h Th h hh
hh
h h h
style = #'constant

º h Th h hh
hh
h h
shape = #'rectangle
h
º h Th h hh
hh
h h h
shape = #'beam-like

º h Th h hh
hh
h h h
slope = -0.2

º h Th h hh
hh
See also
Snippets: Section “Repeats” in Snippets.
 207

5 Simultaneous notes

h h h hh P  h h hh P h P hh P
916 P h P h P hP P hP P P
108

 T T T 
u vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvpvvvvvvvvvvv u vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvpp vTvvv
f
 9 P ¢P h h hP  h h hP h h hP hP hP
16 ¢ h h hP
uvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv
112 hh PP  h P hh PP  hh PP h P hh PP  hh PP hh P hh P
P P
hh P
P
 T T T T
uvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv uvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv
 h u vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv
 hP hP h hP  h hh PP hh PP  hh PP h P hh PP
h h hP h  h P
uvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvhvvPvvvvvvvvvvhvvP  h P
 hh PP  h P  h P h P  h P
 ¢P
116


p f
u vv
 h P ¢ P ¢ P ¢ P ¢ P ¢ P   ¢ P ¢ P ¢ P
hP
T
Polyphony in music refers to having more than one voice occurring in a piece of music. Polyphony
in LilyPond refers to having more than one voice on the same staff.

5.1 Single voice

This section discusses simultaneous notes inside the same voice.

5.1.1 Chorded notes

A chord is formed by enclosing a set of pitches between < and >. A chord may be followed by a
duration just like simple notes.
\relative {
<a' c e>1 <a c e>2 <f a c e>4 <a c>8. <g c e>16
}

. NNN hhh hh PP hh
 º .. h h
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 208

Chords may also be followed by articulations, again just like simple notes.
\relative {
<a' c e>1\fermata <a c e>2-> <f a c e>4\prall <a c>8.^! <g c e>16-.
}

º ...z NNNm hhhc hh‡ PP hhp

 h h
The notes within the chord themselves can also be followed by articulation and ornamenta-
tion.
\relative {
<a' c\prall e>1 <a-> c-^ e>2 <f-. a c-. e-.>4
<a-+ c-->8. <g\fermata c e\turn>16
}

m~ p z
.
.
c
NNN hp hrq P hhw
º . hh h P h
However some notation, such as dynamics and hairpins must be attached to the chord rather
than to notes within the chord, otherwise they will not print. Other notation like fingerings and
slurs will get placed markedly different when attached to notes within a chord rather than to
whole chords or single notes.
\relative {
<a'\f c( e>1 <a c) e>\f <a\< c e>( <a\! c e>)
<a c e>\< <a c e> <a c e>\!
}

. ... ... ... ... ... ...

 º ..
f
A chord acts merely as a container for its notes, its articulations and other attached elements.
Consequently, a chord without notes inside does not actually have a duration. Any attached
articulations will happen at the same musical time as the next following note or chord and be
combined with them (for more complex possibilities of combining such elements, see Section 5.1.3
[Simultaneous expressions], page 211):
\relative {
\grace { g'8( a b }
<> ) \p \< -. -\markup \italic "sempre staccato"
\repeat unfold 4 { c4 e } c1\f
}

p h h h h .
 º hhhh h h h
p f
sempre staccato
Relative mode can be used for pitches in chords. The first note of each chord is always
relative to the first note of the chord that came before it, or in the case where no preceding
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 209

chord exists, the pitch of the last note that came before the chord. All remaining notes in the
chord are relative to the note that came before it within the same chord.
\relative {
<a' c e>1 <f a c> <a c e> <f' a c> <b, e b,>
}
...
. ... ..
 º .. ...
.
For more information about chords, see Chapter 15 [Chord notation], page 492.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “chord” in Music Glossary.
Learning Manual: Section “Combining notes into chords” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Chapter 15 [Chord notation], page 492, Section 3.1.1 [Articulations
and ornamentations], page 149, Section 1.1.2 [Relative octave entry], page 4, Section 5.2 [Mul-
tiple voices], page 213.
Snippets: Section “Simultaneous notes” in Snippets.

Known issues and warnings

Chords containing more than two pitches within a staff space, such as ‘<e f! fis!>’, create
overlapping note heads. Depending on the situation, better representations might involve
• temporary use of Section 5.2 [Multiple voices], page 213, ‘<< f! \\ <e fis!> >>’,
• enharmonic transcription of one or more pitches, ‘<e f ges>’, or
• Section 5.1.4 [Clusters], page 212.

5.1.2 Chord repetition

In order to save typing, a shortcut can be used to repeat the preceding chord. The chord
repetition symbol is q:
\relative {
<a' c e>1 q <f a c>2 q
}

. ...
 º .. NNN NNN

As with regular chords, the chord repetition symbol can be used with durations, articulations,
markups, slurs, beams, etc., as only the pitches of the previous chord are duplicated.
\relative {
<a' c e>1\p^"text" q2\<( q8)[-! q8.]\! q16-1-2-3 q8\prall
}

hh‡ hh PP hh hhc


º . NN
 .. N h
text
h hP h


p
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 210

The chord repetition symbol always remembers the last instance of a chord so it is possible
to repeat the most recent chord even if other non-chorded notes or rests have been added since.
\relative {
<a' c e>1 c'4 q2 r8 q8 |
q2 c, |
}
h
. NN ¢ hh NN N
 º .. N h N
T
However, the chord repetition symbol does not retain any dynamics, articulation or ornamen-
tation within, or attached to, the previous chord.
\relative {
<a'-. c\prall e>1\sfz c'4 q2 r8 q8 |
q2 c, |
}

.cp h
NN ¢ hh NN N
 º .. N h N
sfz T
To have some of them retained, the \chordRepeats function can be be called explicitly with
an extra argument specifying a list of event types to keep unless events of that type are already
present on the q chord itself.
\relative {
\chordRepeats #'(articulation-event)
{ <a'-. c\prall e>1\sfz c'4 q2 r8 q8-. } |
q2 c, |

c
}

hhhpp NN
NNNcp N
N
cp h
. ¢T
º .
sfz
Here using \chordRepeats inside of a \relative construction produces unexpected results:
once chord events have been expanded, they are indistinguishable from having been entered as
regular chords, making \relative assign an octave based on their current context.
Since nested instances of \relative don’t affect one another, another \relative inside of
\chordRepeats can be used for establishing the octave relations before expanding the repeat
chords. In that case, the whole content of the inner \relative does not affect the outer one;
hence the different octave entry of the final note in this example.
\relative {
\chordRepeats #'(articulation-event)
\relative
{ <a'-. c\prall e>1\sfz c'4 q2 r8 q8-. } |
q2 c'' |
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 211

h cp c
}

.cp NN ¢ hhpp NN N
º . N h N
sfz T
Interactions with \relative occur only with explicit calls of \chordRepeats: the implicit
expansion at the start of typesetting is done at a time where all instances of \relative have
already been processed.

See also
Notation Reference: Chapter 15 [Chord notation], page 492, Section 3.1.1 [Articulations and
ornamentations], page 149.
Installed Files: ly/chord-repetition-init.ly.

5.1.3 Simultaneous expressions

One or more music expressions enclosed in double angle brackets are taken to be simultaneous.
If the first expression begins with a single note or if the whole simultaneous expression appears
explicitly within a single voice, the whole expression is placed on a single staff; otherwise the
elements of the simultaneous expression are placed on separate staves.
The following examples show simultaneous expressions on one staff:
\new Voice { % explicit single voice
<< \relative { a'4 b g2 }
\relative { d'4 g c,2 } >>
}

 º hh hh N
N
\relative {
% single first note
a' << \relative { a'4 b g }
\relative { d'4 g c, } >>
}

 º h hh hh h
h
This can be useful if the simultaneous sections have identical rhythms, but attempts to
attach notes with different durations to the same stem will cause errors. Notes, articulations,
and property changes in a single ‘Voice’ are collected and engraved in musical order:
\relative {
<a' c>4-. <>-. << c a >> << { c-. <c a> } { a s-. } >>
}

p p p p
 º hh hh hh hh
Multiple stems or beams or different note durations or properties at the same musical time
require the use of multiple voices.
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 212

The following example shows how simultaneous expressions can generate multiple staves
implicitly:
% no single first note
<< \relative { a'4 b g2 }
\relative { d'4 g2 c,4 } >>

º h h N

º h N h
Here different rhythms cause no problems because they are interpreted in different voices.

Known issues and warnings

If notes from two or more voices, with no shifts specified, have stems in the same direction, the
message
warning: This voice needs a \voiceXx or \shiftXx setting
will appear during compilation. This message can be suppressed by:
\override NoteColumn.ignore-collision = ##t
However, this not only suppresses the warning but will prevent any collision resolution what-
soever and may have other unintended effects (also see Known Issues in Section 5.2.3 [Collision
resolution], page 218).

5.1.4 Clusters
A cluster indicates a continuous range of pitches to be played. They can be denoted as the
envelope of a set of notes. They are entered by applying the function \makeClusters to a
sequence of chords, e.g.,
\relative \makeClusters { <g' b>2 <c g'> }

º
Ordinary notes and clusters can be put together in the same staff, even simultaneously. In
such a case no attempt is made to automatically avoid collisions between ordinary notes and
clusters.
The following cluster styles are supported: ramp, leftsided-stairs, rightsided-stairs,
and centered-stairs.
fragment = { <e' d''>4 <g' a'> <e' a'> r }

{
\omit Staff.Clef
\omit Staff.TimeSignature

<>^\markup \typewriter "ramp"

\override ClusterSpanner.style = #'ramp
\makeClusters \fragment

<>_\markup \typewriter "leftsided-stairs"

Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 213

\override ClusterSpanner.style = #'leftsided-stairs

\makeClusters \fragment

<>^\markup \typewriter "rightsided-stairs"

\override ClusterSpanner.style = #'rightsided-stairs
\makeClusters \fragment

<>_\markup \typewriter "centered-stairs"

\override ClusterSpanner.style = #'centered-stairs
\makeClusters \fragment
}

   
ramp rightsided-stairs

leftsided-stairs centered-stairs
See also
Music Glossary: Section “cluster” in Music Glossary.
Snippets: Section “Simultaneous notes” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “ClusterSpanner” in Internals Reference, Section “Cluster-
SpannerBeacon” in Internals Reference, Section “Cluster spanner engraver” in Internals Ref-
erence.

Known issues and warnings

Clusters look good only if they span at least two chords; otherwise they appear too narrow.
Clusters do not have a stem and cannot indicate durations by themselves, but the length of
the printed cluster is determined by the durations of the defining chords. Separate clusters need
a separating rest between them.
Clusters do not produce MIDI output.

5.2 Multiple voices

This section discusses simultaneous notes in multiple voices or multiple staves.

5.2.1 Single-staff polyphony

Explicitly instantiating voices
The basic structure needed to achieve multiple independent voices in a single staff is illustrated
in the following example:
\new Staff <<
\new Voice = "first"
\relative { \voiceOne r8 r16 g'' e8. f16 g8[ c,] f e16 d }
\new Voice= "second"
\relative { \voiceTwo d''16 c d8~ 16 b c8~ 16 b c8~ 16 b8. }
>>
†
¢ ¥h h hh h hh h h
h h h h h P h
º h h hP
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 214

Here, voices are instantiated explicitly and are given names. The \voiceOne . . . \voiceFour
commands set up the voices so that first and third voices get stems up, second and fourth voices
get stems down, third and fourth voice note heads are horizontally shifted, and rests in the
respective voices are automatically moved to avoid collisions. The \oneVoice command returns
all the voice settings to the neutral default directions.
Note that Voice is a bottom-level context (see Section 33.1.5 [Bottom-level contexts – voices],
page 710). In TabStaff one would use TabVoice instead.

Temporary polyphonic passages

A temporary polyphonic passage can be created with the following construct:
<< { \voiceOne ... }
\new Voice { \voiceTwo ... }
>> \oneVoice
Here, the first expression within a temporary polyphonic passage is placed into the Voice context
which was in use immediately before the polyphonic passage, and that same Voice context
continues after the temporary section. Other expressions within the angle brackets are assigned
to distinct temporary voices. This allows lyrics to be assigned to one continuing voice before,
during and after a polyphonic section:
\relative <<
\new Voice = "melody" {
a'4
<<
{
\voiceOne
g f
}
\new Voice {
\voiceTwo
d2
}
>>
\oneVoice
e4
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
This is my song.
}
>>

 º h Nh h h
This is my song.
Here, the \voiceOne and \voiceTwo commands are required to define the settings of each voice.
In TabStaff one needs to use TabVoice.
If the same music should appear in Staff and TabStaff the general Bottom context may be
used (see Section 33.1.5 [Bottom-level contexts – voices], page 710).
mus =
\relative
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 215

\new Bottom = "melody" {

a'4
<<
{
\voiceOne
g f
}
\new Bottom {
\voiceTwo
d2
}
>>
\oneVoice
e4
}

<<
\new Staff \mus
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
This is my song.
}
>>

<<
\new TabStaff \mus
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
This is my song.
}
>>

 º h Nh h h
This is my song.

/
5 3 1 0
3

This is my song.
The double backslash construct
The << {...} \\ {...} >> construct, where the two (or more) expressions are separated by
double backslashes, behaves differently to the similar construct without the double backslashes:
all the expressions within this construct are assigned to new Bottom contexts of the current
type, typically Voice or TabVoice (see Section 33.1.5 [Bottom-level contexts – voices], page 710).
These new Bottom contexts are created implicitly and are given the fixed names "1", "2", etc.
The first example could be typeset as follows:
<<
\relative { r8 r16 g'' e8. f16 g8[ c,] f e16 d }
\\
\relative { d''16 c d8~ 16 b c8~ 16 b c8~ 16 b8. }
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 216

>>
†
¢ ¥h
º h h h h h P h h h hh h h hh h P h h

This syntax can be used where it does not matter that temporary voices are created and
then discarded. These implicitly created voices are given the settings equivalent to the effect of
the \voiceOne . . . \voiceFour commands, in the order in which they appear in the code.
In the following example, the intermediate voice has stems up, therefore we enter it in the
third place, so it becomes voice three, which has the stems up as desired. Spacer rests are used
to avoid printing doubled rests.
<<
\relative { r8 g'' g g g f16 ees f8 d }
\\
\relative { ees'8 r ees r d r d r }
\\
\relative { d''8 s c s bes s a s }
>>
¢
h h h h h h h h h
 º  h ¢ hh ¢ hh ¢ hh ¢
T T T T
In all but the simplest works it is advisable to create explicit Voice contexts as explained
in Section “Contexts and engravers” in Learning Manual and Section “Explicitly instantiating
voices” in Learning Manual.

Voice order
When entering multiple voices in the input file, use the following order:
Voice 1: highest
Voice 2: lowest
Voice 3: second highest
Voice 4: second lowest
Voice 5: third highest
Voice 6: third lowest
etc.
Though this may seem counterintuitive, it simplifies the automatic layout process. Note that
the odd-numbered voices are given up-stems, and the even-numbered voices are given down-
stems:
\new Staff <<
\time 2/4
{ f''2 } % 1: highest
\\
{ c'2 } % 2: lowest
\\
{ d''2 } % 3: second-highest
\\
{ e'2 } % 4: second-lowest
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 217

\\
{ b'2 } % 5: third-highest
\\
{ g'2 } % 6: third-lowest
>>

NN
2
 4 NNNN

When a different voice entry order is desired, the command \voices may be convenient:
\new Staff \voices 1,3,5,6,4,2 <<
\time 2/4
{ f''2 } % 1: highest
\\
{ d''2 } % 3: second-highest
\\
{ b'2 } % 5: third-highest
\\
{ g'2 } % 6: third-lowest
\\
{ e'2 } % 4: second-lowest
\\
{ c'2 } % 2: lowest
>>

NN
2
 4 NNNN
☛ ✟
Note: Lyrics and spanners (such as slurs, ties, hairpins, etc.) cannot
be created ‘across’ voices.
✡ ✠

Identical rhythms
In the special case that we want to typeset parallel pieces of music that have the same rhythm,
we can combine them into a single Voice context, thus forming chords. To achieve this, enclose
them in a simple simultaneous music construct within an explicit voice:
\new Voice <<
\relative { e''4 f8 d e16 f g8 d4 }
\relative { c''4 d8 b c16 d e8 b4 }
>>

º hh hh hh hh hh hh hh

This method leads to strange beamings and warnings if the pieces of music do not have the
same rhythm.
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 218

Predefined commands
\voiceOne, \voiceTwo, \voiceThree, \voiceFour, \oneVoice.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Voices contain music” in Learning Manual, Section “Explicitly
instantiating voices” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 13.1.5 [Percussion staves], page 473, Section 2.2.2 [Invisible
rests], page 68, Section 7.1.9 [Stems], page 287.
Snippets: Section “Simultaneous notes” in Snippets.

5.2.2 Voice styles

Voices may be given distinct colors and shapes, allowing them to be easily identified:
<<
\relative { \voiceOneStyle d''4 c2 b4 }
\\
\relative { \voiceTwoStyle e'2 e }
\\
\relative { \voiceThreeStyle b2. c4 }
\\
\relative { \voiceFourStyle g'2 g }
>>

 º Pkg Q Pgk
ƒP ƒ
The \voiceNeutralStyle command is used to revert to the standard presentation.

Predefined commands
\voiceOneStyle, \voiceTwoStyle, \voiceThreeStyle, \voiceFourStyle,
\voiceNeutralStyle.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “I’m hearing voices” in Learning Manual, Section “Other sources of
information” in Learning Manual.
Snippets: Section “Simultaneous notes” in Snippets.

5.2.3 Collision resolution

The note heads of notes in different voices with the same pitch, same note head and opposite
stem direction are automatically merged, but notes with different note heads or the same stem
direction are not. Rests opposite a stem in a different voice are shifted vertically. The following
example shows three different circumstances, on beats 1 and 3 in bar 1 and beat 1 in bar 2,
where the automatic merging fails.
<<
\relative {
c''8 d e d c d c4
g'2 fis
} \\
\relative {
c''2 c8. b16 c4
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 219

e,2 r
} \\
\relative {
\oneVoice
s1
e'8 a b c d2
}
>>

N
 º hN
h h h hh P h h h h h h  NN
Nh
œ
Notes with different note heads may be merged as shown below. In this example the note
heads on beat 1 of bar 1 are now merged:
<<
\relative {
\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn
c''8 d e d c d c4
g'2 fis
} \\
\relative {
c''2 c8. b16 c4
e,2 r
} \\
\relative {
\oneVoice
s1
e'8 a b c d2
}
>>

N
 º N h h h hh P h h h h h h  NN
Nh
œ
Quarter and half notes are not merged in this way, since it would be difficult to tell them
apart.
Note heads with different dots as shown in beat 3 of bar 1 may be also be merged:
<<
\relative {
\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn
\mergeDifferentlyDottedOn
c''8 d e d c d c4
g'2 fis
} \\
\relative {
c''2 c8. b16 c4
e,2 r
} \\
\relative {
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 220

\oneVoice
s1
e'8 a b c d2
}
>>

N
º N
h h h hP hh h h h h  NN
Nh
œ
The half note and eighth note at the start of the second measure are incorrectly merged
because the automatic merge cannot successfully complete the merge when three or more notes
line up in the same note column, and in this case the merged note head is incorrect. To
allow the merge to select the correct note head a \shift must be applied to the note that
should not be merged. Here, \shiftOn is applied to move the top g out of the column, and
\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn then works properly.
<<
\relative {
\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn
\mergeDifferentlyDottedOn
c''8 d e d c d c4
\shiftOn
g'2 fis
} \\
\relative {
c''2 c8. b16 c4
e,2 r
} \\
\relative {
\oneVoice
s1
e'8 a b c d2
}
>>

N
 º N h h h hP hh h h h h  NN
N
œ
The \shiftOn command allows (but does not force) the notes in a voice to be shifted. When
\shiftOn is applied to a voice, a note or chord in that voice is shifted only if its stem would
otherwise collide with a stem from another voice, and only if the colliding stems point in the
same direction. The \shiftOff command prevents this type of shifting from occurring.
By default, the outer voices (normally voices one and two) have \shiftOff specified, while
the inner voices (three and above) have \shiftOn specified. When a shift is applied, voices with
up-stems (odd-numbered voices) are shifted to the right, and voices with down-stems (even-
numbered voices) are shifted to the left.
Here is an example to help you visualize how an abbreviated polyphonic expression would
be expanded internally.
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 221

☛ ✟
Note: Note that with three or more voices, the vertical order of voices
in your input file should not be the same as the vertical order of voices
on the staff!
✡ ✠
\new Staff \relative {
%% abbreviated entry
<<
{ f''2 } % 1: highest
\\
{ g,2 } % 2: lowest
\\
{ d'2 } % 3: upper middle
\\
{ b2 } % 4: lower middle
>>
%% internal expansion of the above
<<
\new Voice = "1" { \voiceOne \shiftOff f'2 }
\new Voice = "2" { \voiceTwo \shiftOff g,2 }
\new Voice = "3" { \voiceThree \shiftOn d'2 } % shifts right
\new Voice = "4" { \voiceFour \shiftOn b2 } % shifts left
>>
}

º NNNN NNNN
Two additional commands, \shiftOnn and \shiftOnnn provide further shift levels which
may be specified temporarily to resolve collisions in complex situations – see Section “Real
music example” in Learning Manual.
Notes are only merged if they have opposing stem directions (as they have, for example, in
voices one and two by default or when the stems are explicitly set in opposite directions).

Predefined commands
\mergeDifferentlyDottedOn, \mergeDifferentlyDottedOff, \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn,
\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOff.
\shiftOn, \shiftOnn, \shiftOnnn, \shiftOff.

Selected Snippets
Additional voices to avoid collisions
In some instances of complex polyphonic music, additional voices are necessary to prevent colli-
sions between notes. If more than four parallel voices are needed, additional voices can be added
by defining a variable using the Scheme function context-spec-music.
voiceFive = #(context-spec-music (make-voice-props-set 4) 'Voice)

\relative c'' {
\time 3/4
\key d \minor
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 222

\partial 2
<<
\new Voice {
\voiceOne
a4. a8
e'4 e4. e8
f4 d4. c8
}
\new Voice {
\voiceTwo
d,2
d4 cis2
d4 bes2
}
\new Voice {
\voiceThree
f'2
bes4 a2
a4 s2
}
\new Voice {
\voiceFive
s2
g4 g2
f4 f2
}
>>
}

 3 hh h P h h hPh
h P h
 4 NN hh  NN hhh
N NN

Moving dotted notes in polyphony

When a dotted note in the upper voice is moved to avoid a collision with a note in another voice,
the default is to move the upper note to the right. This behaviour can be over-ridden by using
the prefer-dotted-right property of NoteCollision.

\new Staff \relative c' <<

{
f2. f4
\override Staff.NoteCollision.prefer-dotted-right = ##f
f2. f4
\override Staff.NoteCollision.prefer-dotted-right = ##t
f2. f4
}
\\
{ e4 e e e e e e e e e e e }
>>
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 223

 º h N P h h hh N h P h h hh h N P h h h h
Forcing horizontal shift of notes
When the typesetting engine cannot cope, the following syntax can be used to override typeset-
ting decisions. The units of measure used here are staff spaces.
\relative c' <<
{
<d g>2 <d g>
}
\\
{
<b f'>2
\once \override NoteColumn.force-hshift = 1.7
<b f'>2
}
>>

 º NNN NN N
N N
See also
Music Glossary: Section “polyphony” in Music Glossary.
Learning Manual: Section “Multiple notes at once” in Learning Manual, Section “Voices
contain music” in Learning Manual, Section “Real music example” in Learning Manual.
Snippets: Section “Simultaneous notes” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “NoteColumn” in Internals Reference, Section “NoteCollision”
in Internals Reference, Section “RestCollision” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Using \override NoteColumn.ignore-collision = ##t will cause differently headed notes in
different voices to merge incorrectly.
\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn
<< \relative { c'16 a' b a } \\ \relative { c'2 } >>
\override NoteColumn.ignore-collision = ##t
<< \relative { c'16 a' b a } \\ \relative { c'2 } >>

º hhh hhh
N Nh
5.2.4 Merging rests
When using multiple voices it is common to merge rests which occur in both parts. This can be
accomplished using Merge_rests_engraver.
voiceA = \relative { d''4 r d2 | R1 | }
voiceB = \relative { fis'4 r g2 | R1 | }
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 224

\score {
<<
\new Staff \with {
instrumentName = "unmerged"
}
<<
\new Voice { \voiceOne \voiceA }
\new Voice { \voiceTwo \voiceB }
>>
\new Staff \with {
instrumentName = "merged"
\consists Merge_rests_engraver
}
<<
\new Voice { \voiceOne \voiceA }
\new Voice { \voiceTwo \voiceB }
>>
>>
}

h  N ”
unmerged º
 h  N ”

 º  h  NN
merged
h ”

Setting the context property suspendRestMerging to #t allows for turning off rest merging
temporarily.

5.2.5 Automatic part combining

Automatic part combining is used to merge two separate parts of music onto a single staff. This
can be especially helpful when typesetting orchestral scores. A single Voice is printed while
the two parts of music are the same, but in places where they differ, a second Voice is printed.
Stem directions are set up & down accordingly while Solo and a due parts are also identified
and marked appropriately.
The syntax for automatic part combining is:
\partCombine musicexpr1 musicexpr2
The following example demonstrates the basic functionality, putting parts on a single staff
as polyphony and setting stem directions accordingly. The same variables are used for the
independent parts and the combined staff.
instrumentOne = \relative {
c'4 d e f |
R1 |
d'4 c b a |
b4 g2 f4 |
e1 |
}

instrumentTwo = \relative {
R1 |
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 225

g'4 a b c |
d4 c b a |
g4 f( e) d |
e1 |
}

<<
\new Staff \instrumentOne
\new Staff \instrumentTwo
\new Staff \partCombine \instrumentOne \instrumentTwo
>>

” h h h h h N
º h h h .
h h
” h
º h h h h h h h h h h h .
h h h h h hh N
Solo II
º h h
Solo a2 a2
 h h h h h h h hh .
Both parts have identical notes in the third measure, so only one instance of the notes is
printed. Stem, slur, and tie directions are set automatically, depending on whether the parts
are playing solo or in unison. When needed in polyphony situations, the first part (with context
called one) gets “up” stems, while the second (called two) always gets “down” stems. In solo
situations, the first and second parts get marked with “Solo” and “Solo II”, respectively. The
unison (a due) parts are marked with the text “a2”.
By default, the part combiner merges two notes of the same pitch as an a due note, combines
notes with the same rhythm less than a ninth apart as chords and separates notes more than
a ninth apart (or when the voices cross) into separate voices. This can be overridden with an
optional argument of a pair of numbers after the \partCombine command: the first specifies
the interval where notes start to be combined (the default is zero) and the second where the
notes are split into separate voices. Setting the second argument to zero means that the part
combiner splits notes with an interval of a second or more, setting it to one splits notes of a
third or more, and so on.
instrumentOne = \relative {
a4 b c d |
e f g a |
b c d e |
}

instrumentTwo = \relative {
c'4 c c c |
c c c c |
c c c c |
}

<<
\new Staff \partCombine \instrumentOne \instrumentTwo
\new Staff \partCombine #'(2 . 3) \instrumentOne \instrumentTwo
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 226

>>

h h h
º h h
a2

hh hh h hh hh hh hh h h h h h
h h h
º h h h h h
hh h h h h h h h
h h
h h h
h
Both arguments to \partCombine will be interpreted as separate Voice contexts, so if the
music is being specified in relative mode then both parts must contain a \relative function,
i.e.,
\partCombine
\relative ... musicexpr1
\relative ... musicexpr2
A \relative section that encloses a \partCombine has no effect on the pitches of musicexpr1
or musicexpr2.
In professional scores, voices are often kept apart from each other for long passages of music
even if some of the notes are the same in both voices, and could just as easily be printed as
unison. Combining notes into a chord, or showing one voice as solo is, therefore, not ideal as the
\partCombine function considers each note separately. In this case the \partCombine function
can be overridden with one of the following commands. All of the commands may be preceded
with \once in order to have them only apply to the next note in the music expression.
• \partCombineApart keeps the notes as two separate voices, even if they can be combined
into a chord or unison.
• \partCombineChords combines the notes into a chord.
• \partCombineUnisono combines both voices as “unison”.
• \partCombineSoloI prints only voice one, and marks it as a “Solo”.
• \partCombineSoloII prints only voice two and marks it as a “Solo”.
• \partCombineAutomatic ends the functions of the commands above, and reverts back to
the standard \partCombine functionality.
instrumentOne = \relative c' {
\partCombineApart c2^"apart" e |
\partCombineAutomatic e2^"auto" e |
\partCombineChords e'2^"chord" e |
\partCombineAutomatic c2^"auto" c |
\partCombineApart c2^"apart"
\once \partCombineChords e^"chord once" |
c2 c |
}
instrumentTwo = \relative {
c'2 c |
e2 e |
a,2 c |
c2 c' |
c2 c |
c2 c |
}
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 227

<<
\new Staff { \instrumentOne }
\new Staff { \instrumentTwo }
\new Staff { \partCombine \instrumentOne \instrumentTwo }
>>

chord once
N N N N N N N N
º N N
apart auto chord auto apart

N N

º N N N N N N N
N N
N N N
chord once
chord a2 apart
N N N N N NN N N
a2 auto

 º N NN
apart auto

N N N N N
Using \partCombine with lyrics
The \partCombine command is not designed to work with lyrics; if one of the voices is explicitly
named in order to attach lyrics to it, the part combiner will stop working. However, this effect
can be achieved using a NullVoice context. See Section 9.2.6 [Polyphony with shared lyrics],
page 367.

Selected Snippets
Combining two parts on the same staff
The part combiner tool (i.e., the \partCombine command) allows the combination of several
different parts on the same staff. Text directions such as “solo” or “a2” are added by default;
to remove them, simply set the property printPartCombineTexts to #f.
For vocal scores (hymns), there is no need to add “solo/a2” texts, so they should be switched
off. However, it might be better not to use them if there are any solos, as they won’t be indicated.
In such cases, standard polyphonic notation may be preferable.
This snippet presents the three ways two parts can be printed on a same staff: standard
polyphony, \partCombine without texts, and \partCombine with texts.
musicUp = \relative c'' {
\time 4/4
a4 c4.( g8) a4 |
g4 e' g,( a8 b) |
c b a2.
}

musicDown = \relative c'' {

g4 e4.( d8) c4 |
r2 g'4( f8 e) |
d2 \stemDown a
}

\score {
<<
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 228

\new Staff \with {

instrumentName = "standard polyphony"
} << \musicUp \\ \musicDown >>

\new Staff \with {

instrumentName =
\markup { \typewriter "\\partCombine" without text}
printPartCombineTexts = ##f
} \partCombine \musicUp \musicDown

\new Staff \with {

instrumentName =
\markup { \typewriter "\\partCombine" with text}
} \partCombine \musicUp \musicDown
>>

\layout {
indent = 6.0\cm
\context {
\Score
% Setting this to a large value avoids a bar line at the
% beginning that would connect the three staves otherwise.
\override SystemStartBar.collapse-height = 30
}
}
}

h
 º hh hh PP hh h hœ h hh hh hN h N P
h
standard polyphony

T N
h
 º hh hh PP hh h h h hh hh hN h N P
h
\partCombine without text
N
º h P h hh hh
Solo a2
h h
 h h P hh h h h h N N P
h
\partCombine with text
N
Changing \partCombine texts
When using the automatic part combining feature, the printed text for the solo and unison
sections may be changed.
\new Staff <<
\set Staff.soloText = "girl"
\set Staff.soloIIText = "boy"
\set Staff.aDueText = "together"
\partCombine
\relative c'' {
g4 g r r
a2 g
}
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 229

\relative c'' {
r4 r a( b)
a2 g
}
>>

girl boy together

º h h h h N N
See also
Music Glossary: Section “a due” in Music Glossary, Section “part” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 6.3 [Writing parts], page 253.
Snippets: Section “Simultaneous notes” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “PartCombineMusic” in Internals Reference, Section “Voice”
in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

All \partCombine... functions can only accept two voices.
\partCombine... functions cannot be placed inside a \tuplet or \relative block.
If printPartCombineTexts is set and the two voices play the same notes “on and off”, in
the same measure, the part combiner may typeset a2 more than once in that measure.
\partCombine only knows when a note starts in a Voice; it cannot, for example, remember
if a note in one Voice has already started when combining notes that have just started in the
other Voice. This can lead to a number of unexpected issues including “Solo” or “Unison”
marks being printed incorrectly.
\partCombine keeps all spanners (slurs, ties, hairpins, etc.) in the same Voice so that if any
such spanners start or end in a different Voice, they may not be printed properly or at all.
If the \partCombine function cannot combine both music expressions (i.e., when both voices
have different durations), it will give the voices, internally, its own custom names: one and two
respectively. This means if there is any “switch” to a differently named Voice context, the
events in that differently named Voice will be ignored.
Because \partCombine is a two-pass feature, care must be taken to not mix up the two
phases. For example, this code
one = { e''2 \tag #'score f''
\tag #'part fis'' g''1 }
two = { e''2 d'' g'1 }

\removeWithTag #'score \partCombine \one \two

fails because the first pass does not know that you are removing tagged music, so the information
it records is inconsistent with the music when it comes time for the second pass. If you want to
use \partCombine with filtering, unfolded repeats, or other transformations, you must transform
first so that the music is in its final form before the first pass, for example,
...
\partCombine
\removeWithTag #'score \one
\removeWithTag #'score \two
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 230

Refer also to Known issues and warnings when using \partCombine with tablature in Sec-
tion 12.1.3 [Default tablatures], page 419, and the Note in Section 2.4.1 [Automatic beams],
page 98, when using automatic beaming.

5.2.6 Writing music in parallel

Music for multiple parts can be interleaved in input code. The function \parallelMusic accepts
a list with the names of a number of variables to be created, and a musical expression. The
content of alternate measures from the expression become the value of the respective variables,
so you can use them afterwards to print the music.
☛ ✟
Note: Bar checks | must be used, and the measures must be of the
same length.
✡ ✠
\parallelMusic voiceA,voiceB,voiceC {
% Bar 1
r8 g'16 c'' e'' g' c'' e'' r8 g'16 c'' e'' g' c'' e'' |
r16 e'8.~ 4 r16 e'8.~ 4 |
c'2 c'2 |

% Bar 2
r8 a'16 d'' f'' a' d'' f'' r8 a'16 d'' f'' a' d'' f'' |
r16 d'8.~ 4 r16 d'8.~ 4 |
c'2 c'2 |

}
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff << \voiceA \\ \voiceB >>
\new Staff { \clef bass \voiceC }
>>

7 ¢ h h h h¢ h h h h ¢ h h h h¢ h h h h
º
 ¥ hPh hh ¥ hPh hh ¥ hhP h h ¥ hhP h h
T NT NT NT
º N
6
Relative mode may be used. Note that the \relative command is not used inside
\parallelMusic itself. The notes are relative to the preceding note in the voice, not to the
previous note in the input – in other words, relative notes for voiceA ignore the notes in voiceB.
\parallelMusic voiceA,voiceB,voiceC {
% Bar 1
r8 g16 c e g, c e r8 g,16 c e g, c e |
r16 e8.~ 4 r16 e8.~ 4 |
c2 c |

% Bar 2
r8 a,16 d f a, d f r8 a,16 d f a, d f |
r16 d8.~ 4 r16 d8.~ 4 |
c2 c |
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 231

}
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff << \relative c'' \voiceA \\ \relative c' \voiceB >>
\new Staff \relative c' { \clef bass \voiceC }
>>

7 ¢ h h h h¢ h h h h ¢ h h h h¢ h h h h
º
 ¥ hPh hh ¥ hPh hh ¥ hhP h h ¥ hhP h h
T NT NT NT
º N
6
This works quite well for piano music. This example maps four consecutive measures to four
variables:
global = {
\key g \major
\time 2/4
}

\parallelMusic voiceA,voiceB,voiceC,voiceD {
% Bar 1
a8 b c d |
d4 e |
c16 d e fis d e fis g |
a4 a |

% Bar 2
e8 fis g a |
fis4 g |
e16 fis g a fis g a b |
a4 a |

% Bar 3 ...
}

\score {
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff {
\global
<<
\relative c'' \voiceA
\\
\relative c' \voiceB
>>
}
\new Staff {
\global \clef bass
<<
\relative c \voiceC
\\
Chapter 5: Simultaneous notes 232

\relative c \voiceD
>>
}
>>
}

h h
X
2 h h h h
 4 hh h h h h
 2 h h h hh h h h h h h hh h h h
4 h h h h
See also
Learning Manual: Section “Organizing pieces with variables” in Learning Manual.
Snippets: Section “Simultaneous notes” in Snippets.
 233

6 Staff notation
p grazioso m
p p p p
  42 ” ¢ hp h h h h hp hT ¢ h
Comodo
Trumpet B 

2 ¢ hhh h ¢ hhh h ¢ h ¢ h
Tambourine
4

Piano 1

   42 ¢ h h h h ¢
hh hh hh hh ¢
hhh hhh hhh hhh
p hhp hhp hhp hhp hp hp hp hp p p p p
   2 hp  hp  hp 
4
h hp hp h h hp hp hp ¢ m
 h
4

T
¢ h h h h ¢ h ¢ h

1

 ¢ h h h h ¢ hhh h
hp h hp h hp h hp h hhp hhp hhp hhp
  h
  hp 
This section explains how to influence the appearance of staves, how to print scores with more
than one staff, and how to add tempo indications and cue notes to staves.

6.1 Displaying staves

This section describes the different methods of creating and grouping staves.

6.1.1 Instantiating new staves

Staves (singular: staff ) are created with the \new or \context commands. For details, see
Section 33.2 [Creating and referencing contexts], page 711.
The basic staff context is Staff:
\new Staff \relative { c''4 d e f }

º h h h h

The DrumStaff context creates a five-line staff set up for a typical drum set. Each instrument
is shown with a different symbol. The instruments are entered in drum mode following a
\drummode command, with each instrument specified by name. For details, see Section 13.1.5
[Percussion staves], page 473.
\new DrumStaff {
\drummode { cymc hh ss tomh }
}
ƒjj h
º
Chapter 6: Staff notation 234

RhythmicStaff creates a single-line staff that only displays the rhythmic values of the input.
Real durations are preserved. For details, see Section 2.3.7 [Showing melody rhythms], page 95.
\new RhythmicStaff { c4 d e f }

º h h h h
TabStaff creates a tablature with six strings in standard guitar tuning. For details, see
Section 12.1.3 [Default tablatures], page 419.
\new TabStaff \relative { c''4 d e f }

/
8 10 12 13

There are staff contexts specific for the notation of ancient music, for example,
MensuralStaff and VaticanaStaff. They are described in Section 17.2.1 [Predefined
contexts], page 522.
The GregorianTranscriptionStaff context creates a staff to notate modern Gregorian
chant. It engraves divisiones as bar lines, but it does not show measure bar lines.
\new GregorianTranscriptionStaff \relative { c''4 d e f e d }

h h hhhh

New single staff contexts may be defined. For details, see Section 33.6 [Defining new contexts],
page 723.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “staff” in Music Glossary, Section “staves” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 33.2 [Creating and referencing contexts], page 711, Sec-
tion 13.1.5 [Percussion staves], page 473, Section 2.3.7 [Showing melody rhythms], page 95,
Section 12.1.3 [Default tablatures], page 419, Section 17.2.1 [Predefined contexts], page 522,
Section 6.2.1 [Staff symbol], page 241, Section 17.4.1 [Gregorian chant contexts], page 531,
Section 17.3.1 [Mensural contexts], page 524, Section 33.6 [Defining new contexts], page 723.
Snippets: Section “Staff notation” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Staff” in Internals Reference, Section “DrumStaff” in In-
ternals Reference, Section “GregorianTranscriptionStaff” in Internals Reference, Section
“RhythmicStaff” in Internals Reference, Section “TabStaff” in Internals Reference, Section
“MensuralStaff” in Internals Reference, Section “VaticanaStaff” in Internals Reference, Sec-
tion “StaffSymbol” in Internals Reference.

6.1.2 Grouping staves

Various contexts exist to group single staves together in order to form multi-staff systems. Each
grouping context sets the style of the system start delimiter and the behavior of bar lines.
If no context is specified, the default properties will be used: the group is started with a
vertical line, and the bar lines are not connected.
<<
\new Staff \relative { c''1 c }
\new Staff \relative { c''1 c }
Chapter 6: Staff notation 235

>>

º . .

º . .
In the StaffGroup context, the group is started with a bracket and bar lines are drawn
through all the staves.
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff \relative { c''1 c }
\new Staff \relative { c''1 c }
>>

7
º . .

 º . .
6
In a ChoirStaff, the group starts with a bracket, but bar lines are not connected.
\new ChoirStaff <<
\new Staff \relative { c''1 c }
\new Staff \relative { c''1 c }
>>

7
º . .

º . .
6
In a GrandStaff, the group begins with a brace, and bar lines are connected between the
staves.
\new GrandStaff <<
\new Staff \relative { c''1 c }
\new Staff \relative { c''1 c }
>>

X
º . .

º . .
The PianoStaff is identical to a GrandStaff, except that its staves are only removed to-
gether, never separately; see Section 6.2.3 [Hiding staves], page 248.
Chapter 6: Staff notation 236

The OneStaff is a staff group that places separate contexts in the same vertical alignment.
This example shows three staves sharing the same space. Here, the Time_signature_engraver
has been moved from the staves to the OneStaff context to prevent it from being repeated for
each staff.
\layout {
\context {
\OneStaff
\consists Time_signature_engraver
}
\context {
\Staff
\remove Time_signature_engraver
}
\context {
\DrumStaff
\remove Time_signature_engraver
}
}

\new OneStaff {
\new Staff {
c'4 4 d'4 4 e'2 d'
}
\drums {
hihat4 hh bassdrum bd
}
\new Staff {
c'4 4 d'4 4 e'2 d'
}
}

j j
 ºh h h N N h h h h h h N N
h
Each staff group context sets the property systemStartDelimiter to one of the follow-
ing values: SystemStartBar, SystemStartBrace, or SystemStartBracket. A fourth delimiter,
SystemStartSquare, is also available, but it must be explicitly specified.
New staff group contexts may be defined. For details, see Section 33.6 [Defining new contexts],
page 723.

Selected Snippets
Use square bracket at the start of a staff group
The system start delimiter SystemStartSquare can be used by setting it explicitly in a
StaffGroup or ChoirStaff context.
\score {
\new StaffGroup { <<
\set StaffGroup.systemStartDelimiter = #'SystemStartSquare
\new Staff { c'4 d' e' f' }
\new Staff { c'4 d' e' f' }
>> }
Chapter 6: Staff notation 237

º
h h h h
º h h h h
Display bracket with only one staff in a system
If there is only one staff in one of the staff types ChoirStaff or StaffGroup, by default the
bracket and the starting bar line will not be displayed. This can be changed by overriding
collapse-height to set its value to be less than the number of staff lines in the staff.
Note that in contexts such as PianoStaff and GrandStaff where the systems begin with a
brace instead of a bracket, another property has to be set, as shown on the second system in
the example.
\score {
\new StaffGroup <<
% Must be lower than the actual number of staff lines
\override StaffGroup.SystemStartBracket.collapse-height = 4
\override Score.SystemStartBar.collapse-height = 4
\new Staff {
c'1
}
>>
}
\score {
\new PianoStaff <<
\override PianoStaff.SystemStartBrace.collapse-height = 4
\override Score.SystemStartBar.collapse-height = 4
\new Staff {
c'1
}
>>
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

7
º
6 .
ˆ º
.
Mensurstriche layout (bar lines between the staves)
Mensurstriche, bar lines between but not through staves, can be printed by setting
measureBarType to "-span|" and using a grouping context that allows span bars, such as
StaffGroup.
\layout {
Chapter 6: Staff notation 238

\context {
\Staff
measureBarType = "-span|"
}
}

music = \fixed c'' {

c1
d2 \section e2
f1 \fine
}

\new StaffGroup <<

\new Staff \music
\new Staff \music
>>

7 N N .
º .
N N .
º .
6
See also
Music Glossary: Section “brace” in Music Glossary, Section “bracket” in Music Glossary,
Section “grand staff” in Music Glossary, Section “mensurstrich” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 6.3.1 [Instrument names], page 253, Section 33.6 [Defining new
contexts], page 723.
Snippets: Section “Staff notation” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Staff” in Internals Reference, Section “StaffGroup” in Inter-
nals Reference, Section “ChoirStaff” in Internals Reference, Section “GrandStaff” in Inter-
nals Reference, Section “PianoStaff” in Internals Reference, Section “OneStaff” in Internals
Reference, Section “SystemStartBar” in Internals Reference, Section “SystemStartBrace” in
Internals Reference, Section “SystemStartBracket” in Internals Reference, Section “System-
StartSquare” in Internals Reference.

6.1.3 Nested staff groups

Staff-group contexts can be nested to arbitrary depths. In this case, each child context creates
a new bracket adjacent to the bracket of its parent group.
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff \relative { c''2 c | c2 c }
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff \relative { g'2 g | g2 g }
\new StaffGroup \with {
systemStartDelimiter = #'SystemStartSquare
}
<<
\new Staff \relative { e'2 e | e2 e }
\new Staff \relative { c'2 c | c2 c }
>>
Chapter 6: Staff notation 239

>>
>>

7
º N N N N

7
º N N N N

º N N N N
º
66  N N N N

New nested staff group contexts can be defined. For details, see Section 33.6 [Defining new
contexts], page 723.

Selected Snippets
Nesting staves
The property systemStartDelimiterHierarchy can be used to make more complex nested
staff groups. The command \set StaffGroup.systemStartDelimiterHierarchy takes an al-
phabetical list of the number of staves produced. Before each staff a system start delimiter can
be given. It has to be enclosed in brackets and takes as much staves as the brackets enclose.
Elements in the list can be omitted, but the first bracket takes always the complete number of
staves. The possibilities are SystemStartBar, SystemStartBracket, SystemStartBrace, and
SystemStartSquare.

\new StaffGroup
\relative c'' <<
\override StaffGroup.SystemStartSquare.collapse-height = 4
\set StaffGroup.systemStartDelimiterHierarchy
= #'(SystemStartSquare (SystemStartBrace (SystemStartBracket a
(SystemStartSquare b) ) c ) d)
\new Staff { c1 }
\new Staff { c1 }
\new Staff { c1 }
\new Staff { c1 }
\new Staff { c1 }
>>
Chapter 6: Staff notation 240

7
º .

I º .
6
º .

º .

º .
See also
Notation Reference: Section 6.1.2 [Grouping staves], page 234, Section 6.3.1 [Instrument
names], page 253, Section 33.6 [Defining new contexts], page 723.
Snippets: Section “Staff notation” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “StaffGroup” in Internals Reference, Section “ChoirStaff” in
Internals Reference, Section “SystemStartBar” in Internals Reference, Section “SystemStart-
Brace” in Internals Reference, Section “SystemStartBracket” in Internals Reference, Section
“SystemStartSquare” in Internals Reference.

6.1.4 Separating systems

If the number of systems per page changes from page to page it is customary to separate the
systems by placing a system separator mark between them. By default the system separator is
blank, but can be turned on with a \paper option.
\book {
\score {
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff {
\relative {
c''4 c c c
\break
c4 c c c
}
}
\new Staff {
\relative {
c''4 c c c
\break
c4 c c c
}
}
>>
}
\paper {
Chapter 6: Staff notation 241

system-separator-markup = \slashSeparator
tagline = ##f
}
}

7
º h h h h
º h h h h
6
72
 h h h h
h h h h
6
See also
Notation Reference: Chapter 26 [Page layout], page 643.
Snippets: Section “Staff notation” in Snippets.

6.2 Modifying single staves

This section explains how to change specific attributes of one staff: for example, modifying the
number of staff lines or the staff size. Methods to start and stop staves and set ossia sections
are also described.

6.2.1 Staff symbol

The \stopStaff and \startStaff commands can be used to stop or (re)start the staff lines
respectively, from being printed at any point within a score.
\relative {
\stopStaff f''4 d \startStaff g, e
f'4 d \stopStaff g, e
f'4 d \startStaff g, e
}

h h h
º h hh h hh h hh
Predefined commands
\startStaff, \stopStaff.
The lines of a staff belong to the StaffSymbol grob (including ledger lines) and can be
modified using StaffSymbol properties, but these modifications must be made before the staff
is (re)started.
The number of staff lines can be altered:
\relative {
f''4 d \stopStaff
Chapter 6: Staff notation 242

\override Staff.StaffSymbol.line-count = 2
\startStaff g, e |

f'4 d \stopStaff
\revert Staff.StaffSymbol.line-count
\startStaff g, e |
}

h h
º h hh h hh
The position of each staff line can also be altered. A list of numbers sets each line’s position.
0 corresponds to the normal center line, and the normal line positions are (-4 -2 0 2 4). A
single staff line is printed for every value entered so that the number of staff lines, as well as their
position, can be changed with a single override (thus, the line-count property is disregarded
if line-positions is set).
\relative {
f''4 d \stopStaff
\override Staff.StaffSymbol.line-positions = #'(1 3 5 -1 -3)
\startStaff g, e |
f'4 d \stopStaff
\override Staff.StaffSymbol.line-positions = #'(8 6.5 -6 -8 -0.5)
\startStaff g, e |
}

º hh hh
 hh hh
To preserve typical stem directions (in the bottom half of the staff stems point up, in the top
half they point down), align the center line (or space) of the customized staff with the position
of the normal center line (0). The clef position and the position of middle C may need to be
adjusted accordingly to fit the new lines. See Section 1.3.1 [Clef], page 19.
Staff line thickness can be altered. Ledger lines and note stems, by default, are also affected.
\new Staff \with {
\override StaffSymbol.thickness = 3
} \relative {
f''4 d g, e
}

º hh
 hh
It is also possible to set ledger line thickness independently of staff lines.
\new Staff \with {
\override StaffSymbol.thickness = 2
\override StaffSymbol.ledger-line-thickness = #'(0.5 . 0.4)
} \relative {
f'''4 a, a,, f
}
Chapter 6: Staff notation 243

h
h
º
hh
The first value is multiplied by the staff line thickness, the second by the staff space and then
the two values are added together to give the new thickness of the ledger line.
The vertical positions of ledger lines can be altered,
\new Staff \with {
\override StaffSymbol.ledger-positions = #'(-3 -2 -1 2 5 6)
} \relative {
f'''4 a, a,, f
}
h
h
º
hh
Additional ledger lines can be made to appear above or below note heads depending on the
current position relative to other note heads that also have their own ledger lines.
\new Staff \with {
\override StaffSymbol.ledger-extra = 4
} \relative {
f'''4 a, d, f,
}
h
h
h
º h
Ledger lines can also be made to appear inside the staff where custom staff lines are required.
The example shows the default position of ledger lines when the explicit ledger-position is
and is not set. The \stopStaff is needed in the example to revert the \override for the whole
StaffSymbol.
\relative d' {
\override Staff.StaffSymbol.line-positions = #'(-8 0 2 4)
d4 e f g
\stopStaff
\startStaff
\override Staff.StaffSymbol.ledger-positions = #'(-8 -6 (-4 -2) 0)
d4 e f g
}

º h h h h h h h h
The distance between staff lines can be altered. This affects ledger line spacing as well.
\new Staff \with {
\override StaffSymbol.staff-space = 1.5
Chapter 6: Staff notation 244

} \relative {
f'''4 d, g, e,
}
h
h
º h
h
The width of a staff can be modified. The units are staff spaces. The spacing of objects
inside the staff is not affected by this setting.
\new Staff \with {
\override StaffSymbol.width = 23
}
\relative { a4 e' f b | d1 }

º .
h h h
h
Selected Snippets
Making some staff lines thicker than the others
For educational purposes, a staff line can be thickened (e.g., the middle line, or to emphasize
the line of the G clef). This can be achieved by adding extra lines very close to the line that
should be emphasized, using the line-positions property of the StaffSymbol object.
{
\override Staff.StaffSymbol.line-positions =
#'(-4 -2 -0.2 0 0.2 2 4)
d'4 e' f' g'
}

º h h h h
See also
Music Glossary: Section “line” in Music Glossary, Section “ledger line” in Music Glossary,
Section “staff” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 1.3.1 [Clef], page 19.
Snippets: Section “Staff notation” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “StaffSymbol” in Internals Reference, Section “staff-symbol-
interface” in Internals Reference.

6.2.2 Ossia staves

Ossia staves can be set by creating a new simultaneous staff in the appropriate location:
\new Staff \relative {
c''4 b d c
Chapter 6: Staff notation 245

<<
{ c4 b d c }
\new Staff { e4 d f e }
>>
c4 b c2
}

h h h h h h h N
º h h h
º h h h h

However, the above example is not what is usually desired. To create ossia staves that are above
the original staff, have no time signature or clef, and have a smaller font size, tweaks must be
used. The Learning Manual describes a specific technique to achieve this goal, beginning with
Section “Nesting music expressions” in Learning Manual.
The following example uses the alignAboveContext property to align the ossia staff. This
method is most appropriate when only a few ossia staves are needed.
\new Staff = "main" \relative {
c''4 b d c
<<
{ c4 b d c }

\new Staff \with {

\remove Time_signature_engraver
alignAboveContext = "main"
\magnifyStaff #2/3
firstClef = ##f
}
{ e4 d f e }
>>
c4 b c2
}
h h h h

h h
º h h h hh h h h N
If many isolated ossia staves are needed, creating an empty Staff context with a specific
context id may be more appropriate; the ossia staves may then be created by calling this context
and using \startStaff and \stopStaff at the desired locations. The benefits of this method
are more apparent if the piece is longer than the following example.
<<
\new Staff = "ossia" \with {
\remove Time_signature_engraver
\hide Clef
\magnifyStaff #2/3
}
Chapter 6: Staff notation 246

{ \stopStaff s1*6 }

\new Staff \relative {

c'4 b c2
<<
{ e4 f e2 }
\context Staff = "ossia" {
\startStaff e4 g8 f e2 \stopStaff
}
>>
g4 a g2 \break
c4 b c2
<<
{ g4 a g2 }
\context Staff = "ossia" {
\startStaff g4 e8 f g2 \stopStaff
}
>>
e4 d c2
}
>>

h hhN

 º h N hh N hhN
h
h hhN
4

 h h N hh N h h
N
Using the \RemoveAllEmptyStaves command to create ossia staves may be used as an alter-
native. This method is most convenient when ossia staves occur immediately following a line
break. For more information about \RemoveAllEmptyStaves, see Section 6.2.3 [Hiding staves],
page 248.
<<
\new Staff = "ossia" \with {
\remove Time_signature_engraver
\hide Clef
\magnifyStaff #2/3
\RemoveAllEmptyStaves
} \relative {
R1*3
c''4 e8 d c2
}
\new Staff \relative {
c'4 b c2
e4 f e2
Chapter 6: Staff notation 247

g4 a g2 \break
c4 b c2
g4 a g2
e4 d c2
}
>>

º hhN
hhN hhN
h hhN
4

 hh N hhN hhN

Selected Snippets
Vertically aligning ossias and lyrics
This snippet demonstrates the use of the context properties alignBelowContext and
alignAboveContext to control the positioning of lyrics and ossias.
\relative c' <<
\new Staff = "1" { c4 c s2 }
\new Staff = "2" { c4 c s2 }
\new Staff = "3" { c4 c s2 }
{ \skip 2
<<
\lyrics {
\set alignBelowContext = "1"
lyrics4 below
}
\new Staff \with {
alignAboveContext = "3"
fontSize = -2
\override StaffSymbol.staff-space = #(magstep -2)
\remove "Time_signature_engraver"
} {
\tuplet 6/4 {
\override TextScript.padding = 3
c8[^"ossia above" d e d e f]
}
}
>>
}
>>

\paper {
ragged-right = ##t
}
Chapter 6: Staff notation 248

º
h h lyrics below

º h h
ossia above


hhhhhh
6

º
h h
See also
Music Glossary: Section “ossia” in Music Glossary, Section “staff” in Music Glossary, Section
“Frenched staff” in Music Glossary.
Learning Manual: Section “Nesting music expressions” in Learning Manual, Section “Size
of objects” in Learning Manual, Section “Length and thickness of objects” in Learning Man-
ual.
Notation Reference: Section 6.2.3 [Hiding staves], page 248.
Snippets: Section “Staff notation” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “StaffSymbol” in Internals Reference.

6.2.3 Hiding staves

Staff lines can be hidden by removing the Staff_symbol_engraver from the Staff context. As
an alternative, \stopStaff may be used.
\new Staff \with {
\remove Staff_symbol_engraver
}
\relative { a''8 f e16 d c b a2 }
h h hh
º hhN
Empty staves can be hidden (for a so-called ‘Frenched Score’) by applying the
\RemoveEmptyStaves command on a context, which can be done globally (in a \layout block)
as well as for specific staves only (in a \with block). This command removes all empty staves
in a score except for those in the first system. If you want those in the first system to be hidden
also, use \RemoveAllEmptyStaves.
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
\RemoveEmptyStaves
}
}

\relative <<
\new Staff {
e'4 f g a \break
Chapter 6: Staff notation 249

b1 \break
a4 b c2
}
\new Staff {
c,4 d e f \break
R1 \break
f4 g c,2
}
>>

º h h h h

º
h h h h

 .
2

 h hN
3

 h h
N
A staff is considered empty when it contains only multi-measure rests, rests, skips, or a
combination of these elements. All other musical objects (that cause a staff not to be consid-
ered as empty) are listed in the keepAliveInterfaces context property, as initially set in the
ly/engraver-init.ly file.
\RemoveEmptyStaves and \RemoveAllEmptyStaves are both predefined shortcuts that set
such properties as remove-empty and remove-first for the VerticalAxisGroup object, as
explained in Section B.21 [Context modification identifiers], page 922.
The Keep_alive_together_engraver allows groups of staves to only be removed together
and not individually. By default, it is part of the PianoStaff context: a piano part will
only be hidden when both of its staves are empty. Similarly, a common engraving practice in
orchestral scores is to remove empty groups of staves rather than individual staves; that can be
achieved by adding the Keep_alive_together_engraver to the relevant staff grouping context,
as explained Section 33.4 [Modifying context plug-ins], page 717, (see Section 6.1.2 [Grouping
staves], page 234, for the context names).
\layout {
\context {
\StaffGroup
\RemoveEmptyStaves
\consists Keep_alive_together_engraver
}
}
In the following example, staves devoted to wind instruments are removed in the second
system; however, the double bass is not, because it is part of the string section, which is playing.
Chapter 6: Staff notation 250

7  º h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h hh .. hh
3 3 3 3

Flute 
  ˜ U ¥¢  ˜
3 3

 . h ¥¢ 
º ˜ h h h hh h ˜
3

. h
U†
Oboe

¢ h h .
3

  º ˜  h ¥¢  ˜
Bassoon
6 
7 ” hP h hP h h h hP h
3

 ”
Violin I º
 ” ” ˜ h h
Violin II º

Alto
 º ” ” ˜ h h

  º ” ” h h
Cello  ˜

  º ” ” ”
Double bass
6 
74  N h ¥z h h h h h ¥hh h h N h z
Vl.  
U T U T ¥ U T ¢ 
  N h ¥z  h h h h h ¢ h h ¢ N h ¢ z
Vl. II   U T T T
N h z h h h h h h N h z

  U¥ h ¢ T ¢ T ¢ 
Al.
T
z h h h N h z
   N h ¥ h h h h ¢ T ¢ T ¢ 
Cl.
U
  ” ” ”
D.B.
6  
The Keep_alive_together_engraver internally uses the remove-layer property of a staff’s
VerticalAxisGroup to decide whether to print it or not when it is considered empty. That
property may also be set directly, in which case it acts as a priority index: values closest to
zero take precedence over higher numbers, and thus staves whose remove-layer is higher will
be masked in favor of staves of a lower number.
Chapter 6: Staff notation 251

This is particularly useful for ‘divisi’ staves, where some individual parts (see Section 6.3
[Writing parts], page 253) occasionally need to be expanded to more than one staff. In the
following example, two parts are routed to three staves; however, all three staves are never
printed at the same time:
• in the first systems, only a single one of them is shown, as the keepAliveInterfaces
property has been set to an empty list – therefore the other two staves are considered
empty and thus hidden, regardless of what they may contain;
• when that property gets unset (and thus reverts to its default setting), it is no longer
preventing the two other staves from being printed; however, as their remove-layer setting
is lower than the single staff’s, these two staves are now printed in its place.
Such substitutions are applied not just to notes, chords and other musical events that occur
immediately after the new setting, but to the whole system where it takes place.
\layout {
short-indent = 2\cm
indent = 3\cm
\context {
\Staff
keepAliveInterfaces = #'()
}
}

violI = {
\repeat unfold 24 { d'4 }
\once \unset Staff.keepAliveInterfaces
<d' g''>2
\repeat unfold 14 { d'4 }
\bar "|."
}

violII = {
\repeat unfold 24 { g4 }
<g d'>2
\repeat unfold 14 { g4 }
\bar "|."
}

\new StaffGroup \with { \consists Keep_alive_together_engraver } <<

\new Staff \with {
instrumentName = "Violins"
shortInstrumentName = "V I & II"
\override VerticalAxisGroup.remove-layer = 2
} << \violI \\ \violII >>
\new Staff \with {
instrumentName = "Violin I"
shortInstrumentName = "V I"
\RemoveAllEmptyStaves
\override VerticalAxisGroup.remove-layer = 1
} \violI
\new Staff \with {
instrumentName = "Violin II"
shortInstrumentName = "V II"
Chapter 6: Staff notation 252

\RemoveAllEmptyStaves
\override VerticalAxisGroup.remove-layer = 1
} \violII
>>

Violins º h h h h h h h h
h h h h h h h h
3

V I & II  hhhh hhhh hhhh

hhhh hhhh hhhh
76 N
VI  hhhh N hh hhhh

V II
6 N
hhhh N hh hhhh
9

V I & II  h h h h hh hh hh hh
h h h h
\RemoveAllEmptyStaves can also be used to create ossia sections for a staff. For details, see
Section 6.2.2 [Ossia staves], page 244.

Predefined commands
\RemoveEmptyStaves, \RemoveAllEmptyStaves.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “Frenched staff” in Music Glossary.
Learning Manual: Section “Visibility and color of objects” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 33.5 [Changing context default settings], page 718, Sec-
tion 6.2.1 [Staff symbol], page 241, Section 6.2.2 [Ossia staves], page 244, Section 7.1.4 [Hid-
den notes], page 278, Section 2.2.2 [Invisible rests], page 68, Section 36.7 [Visibility of objects],
page 756, Section B.21 [Context modification identifiers], page 922, Section 6.1.2 [Grouping
staves], page 234, Section 33.4 [Modifying context plug-ins], page 717.
Installed Files: ly/engraver-init.ly.
Snippets: Section “Staff notation” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “ChordNames” in Internals Reference, Section “FiguredBass”
in Internals Reference, Section “Lyrics” in Internals Reference, Section “Staff” in
Internals Reference, Section “VerticalAxisGroup” in Internals Reference, Section
“Staff symbol engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “Axis group engraver” in Internals
Reference, Section “Keep alive together engraver” in Internals Reference.
Chapter 6: Staff notation 253

Known issues and warnings

Removing Staff_symbol_engraver also hides bar lines. If bar line visibility is forced, formatting
errors may occur. In this case, use the following overrides instead of removing the engraver:
\omit StaffSymbol
\override NoteHead.no-ledgers = ##t
For the Known issues and warnings associated with \RemoveEmptyStaves see Section 33.5
[Changing context default settings], page 718.

6.3 Writing parts

This section explains how to prepare parts for orchestral or ensemble music, which often requires
to insert instrument names into the score. Methods to quote other voices and to format cue
notes are also described, as well as a way to contract multiple consecutive empty measures in
individual parts.
Additionally, a method for printing divisi staves, sometimes used in individual or desk parts,
can be found in Section 6.2.3 [Hiding staves], page 248.

6.3.1 Instrument names

Instrument names can be printed on the left side of staves in the Staff, PianoStaff, StaffGroup,
GrandStaff and ChoirStaff contexts. The value of instrumentName is used for the first staff,
and the value of shortInstrumentName is used for all succeeding staves.
\new Staff \with {
instrumentName = "Violin "
shortInstrumentName = "Vln. "
} \relative {
c'4.. g'16 c4.. g'16 \break | c1 |
}

†hPP h
Violin  º h U
hPP
2
.
Vln. 

\markup can be used to create more complex instrument names:

\new Staff \with {
instrumentName = \markup {
\column { "Clarinetti"
\line { "in B" \smaller \flat }
}
}
} \relative {
c''4 c,16 d e f g2
}

º h N
hhhh
Clarinetti
in B 
Chapter 6: Staff notation 254

When two or more staff contexts are grouped together, the instrument names and short instru-
ment names are centered by default. To center multi-line instrument names, \center-column
must be used:

<<
\new Staff \with {
instrumentName = "Flute"
} \relative {
f''2 g4 f
}
\new Staff \with {
instrumentName = \markup {
\center-column { "Clarinet"
\line { "in B" \smaller \flat }
}
}
} \relative { c''4 b c2 }
>>

N h h
Flute º

º h h N
 
Clarinet
in B

However, if the instrument names are longer, the instrument names in a staff group may not
be centered unless the indent and short-indent settings are increased. For details about these
settings, see Section 26.5.3 [\paper variables for shifts and indents], page 650.

<<
\new Staff \with {
instrumentName = "Alto Flute in G"
shortInstrumentName = "Flt."
} \relative {
f''2 g4 f \break
g4 f g2
}
\new Staff \with {
instrumentName = "Clarinet"
shortInstrumentName = "Clar."
} \relative {
c''4 b c2 \break
c2 b4 c
}
>>

\layout {
indent = 3.0\cm
short-indent = 1.5\cm
}
Chapter 6: Staff notation 255

N h h
Alto Flute in G  º

Clarinet º h h N
2 h h N
Flt. 

Clar.  N h h
To add instrument names to other contexts (such as ChordNames or FiguredBass),
Instrument_name_engraver must be added to that context. For details, see Section 33.4
[Modifying context plug-ins], page 717.
The shortInstrumentName may be changed in the middle of a piece, along with other settings
as needed for the new instrument. However, only the first instance of instrumentName will be
printed and subsequent changes will be ignored:
prepPiccolo = <>^\markup \italic { muta in Piccolo }

prepFlute = <>^\markup \italic { muta in Flauto }

setPiccolo = {
<>^\markup \bold { Piccolo }
\transposition c''
}

setFlute = {
<>^\markup \bold { Flute }
\transposition c'
}

\new Staff \with {

instrumentName = "Flute"
shortInstrumentName = "Flt."
}
\relative {
g'1 g g g \break
g1 g \prepPiccolo R R \break
\set Staff.instrumentName = "Piccolo"
\set Staff.shortInstrumentName = "Picc."
\setPiccolo
g1 g g g \break
g1 g \prepFlute R R \break
\set Staff.instrumentName = "Flute"
\set Staff.shortInstrumentName = "Flt."
\setFlute
g1 g g g
}
Chapter 6: Staff notation 256

Flute º . . . .
” ”
5 muta in Piccolo
Flt.  . .
9 Piccolo
Picc.  . . . .
” ”
13 muta in Flauto
Picc.  . .
17 Flute
Flt.  . . . .
See also
Notation Reference: Section 26.5.3 [\paper variables for shifts and indents], page 650, Sec-
tion 33.4 [Modifying context plug-ins], page 717.
Snippets: Section “Staff notation” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “InstrumentName” in Internals Reference, Section “Piano-
Staff” in Internals Reference, Section “Staff” in Internals Reference.

6.3.2 Quoting other voices

It is very common for one voice to use the same notes as those from another voice. For example,
first and second violins playing the same phrase during a particular passage of the music. This
is done by letting one voice quote the other, without having to reenter the music all over again
for the second voice.
The \addQuote command, used in the top level scope, defines a stream of music from which
fragments can be quoted.
The \quoteDuring command is used to indicate the point where the quotation begins. It
is followed by two arguments: the name of the quoted voice, as defined with \addQuote, and a
music expression for the duration of the quote.
fluteNotes = \relative {
a'4 gis g gis | b4^"quoted" r8 ais\p a4( f)
}

oboeNotes = \relative {
c''4 cis c b \quoteDuring "flute" { s1 }
}

\addQuote "flute" { \fluteNotes }

\score {
<<
\new Staff \with { instrumentName = "Flute" } \fluteNotes
\new Staff \with { instrumentName = "Oboe" } \oboeNotes
>>
Chapter 6: Staff notation 257

 º h h h h h ¢ h h h
quoted
Flute
p
Oboe  º
h  h h h h ¢  h  h
quoted

h
p
If the music expression used in \quoteDuring contains notes instead of spacer or multi-
measure rests then the quote will appear as polyphony and may produce unexpected results.
fluteNotes = \relative {
a'4 gis g gis | b4^"quoted" r8 ais\p a4( f)
}

oboeNotes = \relative {
c''4 cis c b \quoteDuring "flute" { e4 r8 ais b4 a }
}

\addQuote "flute" { \fluteNotes }

\score {
<<
\new Staff \with { instrumentName = "Flute" } \fluteNotes
\new Staff \with { instrumentName = "Oboe" } \oboeNotes
>>
}

 º h  h  h  h h ¢  h h h
quoted
Flute
p
h h h
quoted
h
Oboe  º
h  h  h h h ¢ h h h
pT
If an \unfoldRepeats command in a music expression is required to be printed when using
\quoteDuring, then it too must also contain its own \unfoldRepeats command;
fluteNotes = \relative {
\repeat volta 2 { a'4 gis g gis }
}

oboeNotesDW = \relative {
\repeat volta 2 \quoteDuring "incorrect" { s1 }
}

oboeNotesW = \relative {
\repeat volta 2 \quoteDuring "correct" { s1 }
}
Chapter 6: Staff notation 258

\addQuote "incorrect" { \fluteNotes }

\addQuote "correct" { \unfoldRepeats \fluteNotes }

\score {
\unfoldRepeats
<<
\new Staff \with { instrumentName = "Flute" }
\fluteNotes
\new Staff \with { instrumentName = "Oboe (incorrect)" }
\oboeNotesDW
\new Staff \with { instrumentName = "Oboe (correct)" }
\oboeNotesW
>>
}

Flute  º h  h  h  h PP h  h  h  h

Oboe (incorrect)  º h  h  h  h PP

Oboe (correct)  º h  h  h  h PP h  h  h  h

The \quoteDuring command uses the \transposition settings of both quoted and quoting
parts to produce notes for the quoting part that have the same sounding pitch as those in the
quoted part.

clarinetNotes = \relative c'' {

\transposition bes
\key d \major
b4 ais a ais | cis4^"quoted" r8 bis\p b4( f)
}

oboeNotes = \relative {
c''4 cis c b \quoteDuring "clarinet" { s1 }
}

\addQuote "clarinet" { \clarinetNotes }

\score {
<<
\new Staff \with { instrumentName = "Clarinet" } \clarinetNotes
\new Staff \with { instrumentName = "Oboe" } \oboeNotes
>>
}
Chapter 6: Staff notation 259

 h
º  h  h  h h ¢  h h  h
quoted
Clarinet 
pT
º h  h  h h h ¢ h h h
quoted
Oboe 
p
By default quoted music will include all articulations, dynamics, markups, etc., in the quoted
expression. It is possible to choose which of these objects from the quoted music are displayed
by using the quotedEventTypes context property.
fluteNotes = \relative {
a'2 g2 |
b4\<^"quoted" r8 ais a4\f( c->)
}

oboeNotes = \relative {
c''2. b4 |
\quoteDuring "flute" { s1 }
}

\addQuote "flute" { \fluteNotes }

\score {
<<
\set Score.quotedEventTypes = #'(note-event articulation-event
crescendo-event rest-event
slur-event dynamic-event)
\new Staff \with { instrumentName = "Flute" } \fluteNotes
\new Staff \with { instrumentName = "Oboe" } \oboeNotes
>>
}

m
Flute  º N h ¢ h h h
quoted
N
f m
Oboe  º NP h h ¢ h h h
f
Quotes can also be tagged, see Section 22.2.2 [Using tags], page 606.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 1.3.4 [Instrument transpositions], page 29, Section 22.2.2 [Using
tags], page 606.
Installed Files: scm/define-event-classes.scm.
Snippets: Section “Staff notation” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Music classes” in Internals Reference, Section “QuoteMusic”
in Internals Reference, Section “Voice” in Internals Reference.
Chapter 6: Staff notation 260

Known issues and warnings

Only the contents of the first Voice occurring in an \addQuote command will be considered
for quotation, so if the music expression contains \new or \context Voice statements, their
contents will not be quoted. Quoting grace notes is unsupported and may cause LilyPond to
crash whereas quoting nested triplets may result in poor notation.

6.3.3 Formatting cue notes

The simplest way to format cue notes is to explicitly create a CueVoice context within the part.
\relative {
R1
<<
{ e'2\rest r4. e8 }
\new CueVoice {
\stemUp d'8^"flute" c d e fis2
}
>>
d,4 r a r
}

º ” h h h h N
 h h  
flute

˜ P
h
The \cueClef command can also be used with an explicit CueVoice context if a change of
clef is required and will print an appropriately sized clef for the cue notes. The \cueClefUnset
command can then be used to switch back to the original clef, again with an appropriately sized
clef.
\relative {
\clef "bass"
R1
<<
{ e'2\rest r4. \cueClefUnset e,8 }
\new CueVoice {
\cueClef "treble" \stemUp d''8^"flute" c d e fis2
}
>>
d,,4 r a r
}

º ” h h h h N  h h  h 
flute

 ˜ P T
The \cueClef and \cueClefUnset commands can also be used without a CueVoice if re-
quired.
\relative {
\clef "bass"
R1
\cueClef "treble"
d''8^"flute" c d e fis2
\cueClefUnset
Chapter 6: Staff notation 261

d,,4 r a r
}

º ”

h h h N
hflute  h  h 
For more complex cue note placement like including transposition, or inserting cue notes from
multiple music sources, the \cueDuring or \cueDuringWithClef commands can be used. These
are more specialized forms of \quoteDuring, see Section 6.3.2 [Quoting other voices], page 256,
in the previous section.
The syntax is
\cueDuring quotename direction music
and
\cueDuringWithClef quotename direction clef music
The music from the corresponding measures of quotename is added as a CueVoice context
and occurs simultaneously with music, which then creates a polyphonic situation. The direc-
tion variable takes the argument #UP or #DOWN, and corresponds to the first and second voice,
respectively, determining how the cue notes are printed in relation to the other voice.
fluteNotes = \relative {
r2. c''4 | d8 c d e fis2 | g2 d |
}

oboeNotes = \relative c'' {

R1
<>^\markup \tiny { flute }
\cueDuring "flute" #UP { R1 }
g2 c,
}

\addQuote "flute" { \fluteNotes }

\new Staff {
\oboeNotes
}

º ” h h h h N
flute

” N N
It is possible to adjust which aspects of the music are quoted with \cueDuring by setting
the quotedCueEventTypes property. Its default value is '(note-event rest-event tie-event
beam-event tuplet-span-event), which means that only notes, rests, ties, beams and tuplets
are quoted, but not articulations, dynamic marks, markup, etc.
☛ ✟
Note: When a Voice starts with \cueDuring, as in the following ex-
ample, the Voice context must be explicitly declared, or else the entire
music expression would belong to the CueVoice context.
✡ ✠
oboeNotes = \relative {
r2 r8 d''16(\f f e g f a)
Chapter 6: Staff notation 262

g8 g16 g g2.
}
\addQuote "oboe" { \oboeNotes }

\new Voice \relative c'' {

\set Score.quotedCueEventTypes = #'(note-event rest-event tie-event
beam-event tuplet-span-event
dynamic-event slur-event)
\cueDuring "oboe" #UP { R1 }
g2 c,
}

˜ ¢ h h h h h h
º ” N
N
f
Markup can be used to show the name of the quoted instrument. If the cue notes require a
change in clef, this can be done manually but the original clef should also be restored manually
at the end of the cue notes.
fluteNotes = \relative {
r2. c''4 d8 c d e fis2 g2 d2
}

bassoonNotes = \relative c {
\clef bass
R1
\clef treble
<>^\markup \tiny { flute }
\cueDuring "flute" #UP { R1 }
\clef bass
g4. b8 d2
}

\addQuote "flute" { \fluteNotes }

\new Staff {
\bassoonNotes
}

º ”  h h h h N 
flute

” hP h N
Alternatively, the \cueDuringWithClef function can be used instead. This command takes
an extra argument to specify the change of clef that needs to be printed for the cue notes but
will automatically print the original clef once the cue notes have finished.
fluteNotes = \relative {
r2. c''4 d8 c d e fis2 g2 d2
}

bassoonNotes = \relative c {
Chapter 6: Staff notation 263

\clef bass
R1
<>^\markup { \tiny "flute" }
\cueDuringWithClef "flute" #UP "treble" { R1 }
g4. b8 d2
}

\addQuote "flute" { \fluteNotes }

\new Staff {
\bassoonNotes
}

º ” h h h h N 
flute
N
 ” hP h

Like \quoteDuring, \cueDuring takes instrument transpositions into account. Cue notes are
produced at the pitches that would be written for the instrument receiving the cue to produce
the sounding pitches of the source instrument.

To transpose cue notes differently, use \transposedCueDuring. This command takes an

extra argument to specify (in absolute mode) the printed pitch that you want to represent the
sound of a concert middle C. This is useful for taking cues from an instrument in a completely
different register.

piccoloNotes = \relative {
\clef "treble^8"
R1
c'''8 c c e g2
c4 g g2
}

bassClarinetNotes = \relative c' {

\key d \major
\transposition bes,
d4 r a r
\transposedCueDuring "piccolo" #UP d { R1 }
d4 r a r
}

\addQuote "piccolo" { \piccoloNotes }

<<
\new Staff \piccoloNotes
\new Staff \bassClarinetNotes
>>
Chapter 6: Staff notation 264

N hhN
” hhh h
8

 º
 º   h h h h
N
 
 h ” h
h h

The \killCues command removes cue notes from a music expression, so the same music
expression can be used to produce the instrument part with cues and the score. The \killCues
command removes only the notes and events that were quoted by \cueDuring. Other markup
associated with cues, such as clef changes and a label identifying the source instrument, can be
tagged for selective inclusion in the score; see Section 22.2.2 [Using tags], page 606.

fluteNotes = \relative {
r2. c''4 d8 c d e fis2 g2 d2
}

bassoonNotes = \relative c {
\clef bass
R1
\tag #'part {
\clef treble
<>^\markup \tiny { flute }
}
\cueDuring "flute" #UP { R1 }
\tag #'part \clef bass
g4. b8 d2
}

\addQuote "flute" { \fluteNotes }

\new Staff {
\bassoonNotes
}

\new StaffGroup <<

\new Staff {
\fluteNotes
}
\new Staff {
\removeWithTag #'part { \killCues { \bassoonNotes } }
}
>>

º ”  h h h h N 
flute

” hP h N
Chapter 6: Staff notation 265

7 P h h h h h N N N
 º ˜

º ” ” N
6 hP h
See also
Notation Reference: Section 6.3.2 [Quoting other voices], page 256, Section 1.3.4 [Instrument
transpositions], page 29, Section 6.3.1 [Instrument names], page 253, Section 1.3.1 [Clef],
page 19, Section 9.6.3 [Musical cues], page 383, Section 22.2.2 [Using tags], page 606.
Snippets: Section “Staff notation” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “CueVoice” in Internals Reference, Section “Voice” in Inter-
nals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Collisions can occur with rests, when using \cueDuring, between Voice and CueVoice contexts.
When using \cueDuringWithClef or \transposedCueDuring the extra argument required for
each case must come after the quote and the direction.

6.3.4 Compressing empty measures

By default, all measures are printed even if they are empty – which can happen if a rhythmic
event (such as notes, rests or invisible rests) is so long as to span several measures. This
behavior can be changed by contracting all empty measures into a single one, as illustrated here
(the second part of this example, with expanded measures, actually reverts back to the default
behavior):
\override Score.BarNumber.break-visibility = ##(#f #t #t)
\time 2/4
\compressEmptyMeasures
c'1 d'1. e'\breve
\bar "||"
\expandEmptyMeasures
c'1 d'1. e'\breve

 42
3 6 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

. .P „ . .P „
Although that notation is syntactically correct, it may be confusing from a musical point of
view, as illustrated in the previous example; hence the need for measure numbers to be explicitly
printed, using the syntax described in Section 36.7.4 [Using break-visibility], page 758.
Where such a notation may become more useful is when applied to Section 2.2.3 [Full measure
rests], page 70. A multi-measure rest will then be shown as a single measure containing a multi-
measure rest symbol, with the number of measures of rest printed above the measure:
% Default behavior
\time 3/4 r2. | R2.*2 |
\time 2/4 R2 |
\time 4/4
% Rest measures contracted to single measure
\compressEmptyMeasures
Chapter 6: Staff notation 266

r1 | R1*17 | R1*4 |
\expandEmptyMeasures
% Rest measures expanded again
\time 3/4
R2.*2 |

 43 ˜ P ” ” 2 ” º ”
4
17 4 ” ”
 ± 3
6

4
Unlike \compressEmptyMeasures, the music function \compressMMRests will only apply to
rests, leaving any other events uncompressed. As a function rather than a property setting, its
syntax differs slightly in that it must be followed by a music expression:
\compressMMRests {
% Rests are compressed...
R1*7
% ... but notes can still span multiple measures.
g'1 a'1*2 d'1
R1*2
}

7 2
º ± ­ ” . . ­
.
All of the commands described in this section actually rely on the skipBars internal property,
which is set in the Score context, see Section 35.2 [\set and \unset], page 732.

Predefined commands
\compressEmptyMeasures, \expandEmptyMeasures, \compressMMRests.

Selected Snippets
Numbering single measure rests
Multi measure rests show their length by a number except for single measures. This can be
changed by setting restNumberThreshold.
{
\compressEmptyMeasures
R1 R1*10 R1*11 \bar "||"
\set restNumberThreshold = 0
R1 R1*10 R1*11 \bar "||"
\set restNumberThreshold = 10
R1 R1*10 R1*11
}

10 11 ”1 10
º ” ´ ­ ´ ­
Chapter 6: Staff notation 267

11 ” 11
´ ­
34


Changing form of multi-measure rests
If there are ten or fewer measures of rests, a series of longa and breve rests (called in German
“Kirchenpausen” - church rests) is printed within the staff; otherwise a simple line is shown. This
default number of ten may be changed by overriding the expand-limit property.
\relative c'' {
\compressMMRests {
R1*2 | R1*5 | R1*9
\override MultiMeasureRest.expand-limit = 3
R1*2 | R1*5 | R1*9
}
}

2 5 9 2 5
º ­ ± ” ´ ” ­
24 9

See also
Notation Reference: Section 36.7.4 [Using break-visibility], page 758, Section 2.2.3 [Full
measure rests], page 70, Section 35.2 [\set and \unset], page 732.
Internals Reference: Section “MultiMeasureRest” in Internals Reference, Section “Multi-
MeasureRestNumber” in Internals Reference, Section “MultiMeasureRestScript” in Internals
Reference, Section “MultiMeasureRestText” in Internals Reference.
 268

7 Editorial annotations

p p
h h h
  2 h h h hp h P P u  
-

k
  4 T h h h h ¢ h h h hPPh h 
T ppT p p p  hp h
  2 hp h P P h hp p u
  4 h hh h  T h  h ¢ h h h h P P h  hp  hp h 
hp hp  
T- 

This section discusses the various ways to change the appearance of notes and add analysis or
educational emphasis.

7.1 Inside the staff

This section discusses how to add emphasis to elements that are inside the staff.

7.1.1 Selecting notation font size

☛ ✟
Note:
For font sizes of text, see Section 8.2.2 [Selecting font and font size],
page 314.
For staff size, see Section 27.2 [Setting the staff size], page 657.
For cue notes, see Section 6.3.3 [Formatting cue notes], page 260.
For ossia staves, see Section 6.2.2 [Ossia staves], page 244.
✡ ✠
To change the size of the notation without changing the staff size, specify a magnification
factor with the \magnifyMusic command:
\new Staff <<
\new Voice \relative {
\voiceOne
<e' e'>4 <f f'>8. <g g'>16 <f f'>8 <e e'>4 r8
}
\new Voice \relative {
\voiceTwo
\magnifyMusic 0.63 {
\override Score.SpacingSpanner.spacing-increment = #(* 1.2 0.63)
r32 c'' a c a c a c r c a c a c a c
r c a c a c a c a c a c a c a c
}
}
>>

º h h h h h h h h h P h h h h h hh h h h h h hh h h h h h h h ¢h h h h
 h hP h h h
¨ ¨ ¨
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 269

The \override in the example above is a bug workaround. See the “Known issues and
warnings” at the end of this section.
If a normal sized note head is merged with a smaller one, the size of the smaller note may
need to be reset (with \once \normalsize) so that the stems and accidentals align properly:
\new Staff <<
\key fis \minor
\mergeDifferentlyDottedOn
\new Voice \relative {
\voiceOne
\magnifyMusic 0.63 {
\override Score.SpacingSpanner.spacing-increment =
#(* 1.2 0.63)

\once \normalsize cis'32( cis' gis b a fis

\once \normalsize d d'
\once \normalsize cis, cis' gis b a gis
\once \normalsize fis fis'
\once \normalsize fis, fis' ais, cis b gis
\once \normalsize eis eis'
\once \normalsize a, a' bis, d cis b
\once \normalsize gis gis')
}
}
\new Voice \relative {
\voiceTwo
cis'8. d16 cis8. fis16 fis8. eis16 a8. gis16
}
>>

 º h h h
h h
hP h h h hP
h h h h
 hP
h hh
h hh
h hh
h h h
h h  h h
hP
The \magnifyMusic command is not intended for cue notes, grace notes, or ossia staves—
there are more appropriate methods of entering each of those constructs. Instead, it is useful
when the notation size changes in a single instrumental part on one staff, and where grace notes
are not appropriate, such as in cadenza-like passages or in cases such as the above examples.
Setting the \magnifyMusic value to 0.63 duplicates the dimensions of the CueVoice context.
☛ ✟
Note: The \magnifyMusic command should not be used when also
resizing the staff. See Section 27.2 [Setting the staff size], page 657.
✡ ✠

Resizing individual layout objects

An individual layout object can be resized by using the \tweak or \override commands to
adjust its font-size property:
\relative {
% resize a note head
<f' \tweak font-size -4 b e>-5
% resize a fingering
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 270

bes-\tweak font-size 0 -3
% resize an accidental
\once \override Accidental.font-size = -4 bes!-^
% resize an articulation
\once \override Script.font-size = 4 bes!-^

hh h  h~  h~
}

º
 h
The default font-size value for each layout object is listed in the Internals Reference. The
font-size property can only be set for layout objects that support the font-interface layout
interface. If font-size is not specified in the object’s ‘Standard settings’ list, its value is 0. See
Section “All layout objects” in Internals Reference.

Understanding the fontSize property

The fontSize context property adjusts the relative size of all glyph-based notational elements
in a context.1
\relative {
\time 3/4
d''4---5 c8( b a g) |
\set fontSize = -6
e'4-- c!8-4( b a g) |
\set fontSize = 0
fis4---3 e8( d) fis4 |
g2.
}

3 hr h h h


NP

4 h
hr
h h h
h  hr h h h
The fontSize value is a number indicating the size relative to the standard size for the
current staff height. The default fontSize is 0; adding 6 to any fontSize value doubles the
printed size of the glyphs, and subtracting 6 halves the size. Each step increases the size by
approximately 12%.
The Scheme function magnification->font-size is provided for convenience since the log-
arithmic units of the font-size property are not entirely intuitive. For example, to adjust the
musical notation to 75% of the default size, use:
\set fontSize = #(magnification->font-size 0.75)
The Scheme function magstep does the opposite: it converts a font-size value into a mag-
nification factor.
The fontSize property will only affect notational elements that are drawn with glyphs, such
as note heads, accidentals, scripts, etc. It will not affect the size of the staff itself, nor will
it scale stems, beams, or horizontal spacing. To scale stems, beams, and horizontal spacing
along with the notation size (without changing the staff size), use the \magnifyMusic command
discussed above. To scale everything, including the staff size, see Section 27.2 [Setting the staff
size], page 657.
1
Note the words ‘glyph-based’ – a stem, for example, is not a glyph but directly constructed by LilyPond with
lines and curves; consequently, it is not affected. The same holds for similar objects like slurs or beams.
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 271

Whenever the fontSize context property is set, its value is added to the value of the
font-size grob property for individual layout objects, before any glyphs are printed. This
can cause confusion when setting individual font-size properties while fontSize is already
set:
% the default font-size for NoteHead is 0
% the default font-size for Fingering is -5
c''4-3

\set fontSize = -3
% the effective font size for NoteHead is now -3
% the effective font size for Fingering is now -8
c''4-3

\override Fingering.font-size = 0
% the effective font size for Fingering is now -3
c''4-3

 

º h

h h

The following shorthand commands are also available:

Command Equivalent to Relative size
\teeny \set fontSize = -3 71%
\tiny \set fontSize = -2 79%
\small \set fontSize = -1 89%
\normalsize \set fontSize = 0 100%
\large \set fontSize = 1 112%
\huge \set fontSize = 2 126%
\relative c'' {
\teeny
c4.-> d8---3
\tiny
c4.-> d8---3
\small
c4.-> d8---3
\normalsize
c4.-> d8---3
\large
c4.-> d8---3
\huge
c4.-> d8---3
}

 m 
º
m r m r
hP h hP h
m r m r
hP h hP h hm P hr h P hr
T T T T T T
Font size changes are achieved by scaling the design size that is closest to the desired size.
The standard font size (for font-size = 0) depends on the standard staff height. For a 20 pt
staff, an 11 pt font is selected.
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 272

Predefined commands
\magnifyMusic, \teeny, \tiny, \small, \normalsize, \large, \huge.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 8.2.2 [Selecting font and font size], page 314, Section 27.2 [Setting
the staff size], page 657, Section 6.3.3 [Formatting cue notes], page 260, Section 6.2.2 [Ossia
staves], page 244.
Installed Files: ly/music-functions-init.ly, ly/property-init.ly.
Snippets: Section “Editorial annotations” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “font-interface” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

There are currently two bugs that are preventing proper horizontal spacing when using
\magnifyMusic. There is only one available workaround, and it is not guaranteed to work
in every case. In the example below, replace the mag variable with your own value. You may
also try removing one or both of the \newSpacingSection commands, and/or the \override
and \revert commands:
\magnifyMusic mag {
\newSpacingSection
\override Score.SpacingSpanner.spacing-increment = #(* 1.2 mag)
[music]
\newSpacingSection
\revert Score.SpacingSpanner.spacing-increment
}

7.1.2 Fingering instructions

LilyPond provides two engravers for handling fingering instructions. In both cases, the fingering
can be entered using the syntax ‘note-digit’.
• The first engraver is Fingering_engraver, which takes care of fingering instructions that
are outside of chord constructs (i.e., outside of <...>). The order of fingering given in the
input code is directly reflected in the output, and the fingering markup is always stacked
vertically within a single column above or below the note or chord.
\relative {
c''4-1 d-2 f-4 e-3 |
<g, b f' g>2_2_1^4^5 <g a c e>_2_1^3^5
}

  NN
h
h h h N
N

º N N

 NN
 
If you want markup texts or strings for fingering, use the \finger command instead.
\relative {
c''4-1 d-2 f\finger \markup \tied-lyric "4~3" c\finger "2 - 3"
}

h h h h
· - 
º


Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 273

• The second engraver is New_fingering_engraver, which handles fingering instructions,

articulations, and harmonic note heads inside of chords (i.e., inside of <...>).
\relative {
<g'-1 b-2 f'-4 g-5>2 <e'-5 c-3 a-2 g-1>
}

NN
NNN
 º NN N


A thumb fingering can also be added (e.g., for cello music) to indicate that a note should be
played with the thumb.
\relative { <a'_\thumb a'-3>2 <b_\thumb b'-3> }

N N
º N N
s s
Fingering instructions may be manually placed above or below the staff, see Section 36.1
[Direction and placement], page 746.
See the next section for snippet examples that demonstrate how to control the positioning of
fingering instructions.

Selected Snippets
Controlling the placement of chord fingerings
The placement of fingering numbers can be controlled precisely by using the property
fingeringOrientation. For fingering orientation to apply, the fingering command must
be used within a chord construct (<...>), even for single notes. Orientation for string
numbers and right-hand fingerings may be controlled in a similar way by using the properties
stringNumberOrientation and strokeFingerOrientation, respectively.
These properties can be set to a list of one to three values. They control whether fingerings
may be placed above (if up appears in the list), below (if down appears), to the left (if left
appears), or to the right (if right appears). Conversely, if a location is not listed, no fingering
is placed there. LilyPond takes these constraints and works out the best placement for the
fingering of the notes of the following chords. Note that left and right are mutually exclusive
– fingerings may be placed only on one side or the other, not both.
\relative c' {
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(left)
<c-1 e-3 a-5>4
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(down)
<c-1 e-3 a-5>4
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(down right up)
<c-1 e-3 a-5>4
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(up)
<c-1 e-3 a-5>4
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(left)
<c-1>2
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(down)
<e-3>2
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 274

\set stringNumberOrientations = #'(up left down)

<f\3 a\2 c\1>1
\set strokeFingerOrientations = #'(down right up)
<c\rightHandFinger 1 e\rightHandFinger 2 c'\rightHandFinger 4 >
}

 º  hhh hhh hhh  hhh N N ..

2.
.
 1 a

  3
.. i
  p


Allowing fingerings to be printed inside the staff
By default, vertically oriented fingerings are positioned outside the staff; that behavior, however,
may be disabled. Attention needs to be paid to situations where fingerings and stems are in
the same direction: by default, fingerings will avoid only beamed stems. That setting can be
changed to avoid no stems or all stems; the following example demonstrates these two options,
as well as how to go back to the default behavior.
\relative c' {
<c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5>2
\override Fingering.staff-padding = #'()
<c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5>4 g'-0
a8[-1 b]-2 g-0 r
\override Fingering.add-stem-support = ##f
a[-1 b]-2 g-0 r
\override Fingering.add-stem-support = ##t
a[-1 b]-2 g-0 r
\override Fingering.add-stem-support = #only-if-beamed
a[-1 b]-2 g-0 r
}

  

 º NNNN hhhh h! h h h! ¢ h h h! ¢ h h h ¢ h h h! ¢
 !


 
See also
Notation Reference: Section 36.1 [Direction and placement], page 746.
Snippets: Section “Editorial annotations” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “FingeringEvent” in Internals Reference, Section “fingering-
event” in Internals Reference, Section “Fingering engraver” in Internals Reference, Section
“New fingering engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “Fingering” in Internals Reference.

7.1.3 Gliding fingers

For stringed instruments a gliding finger is often indicated by a line connecting the same finger
to be used for notes played at different positions on the same string. This line is initiated with
\glide entered before a Fingering and ends with the next occurrence of the same finger. The
line may be printed in various styles.
mus = {
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 275

\set fingeringOrientations = #'(right)

<a'\glide-1>2.
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(left)
<d'-1>4
}

{
<>^"line"
\mus
<>^"stub-left"
\override FingerGlideSpanner.style = #'stub-left
\mus
<>^"stub-right"
\override FingerGlideSpanner.style = #'stub-right
\mus
<>^"stub-both"
\override FingerGlideSpanner.style = #'stub-both
\mus
<>^"dashed-line"
\override FingerGlideSpanner.style = #'dashed-line
\mus
\break
<>^"dotted-line"
\override FingerGlideSpanner.style = #'dotted-line
\mus
<>^"bow"
\override FingerGlideSpanner.style = #'bow
\mus
<>^"trill"
\override FingerGlideSpanner.style = #'trill
\mus
<>^"zigzag"
\override FingerGlideSpanner.style = #'zigzag
\mus
}

line stub-left stub-right stub-both dashed-line

 º N P h N P h N P
h N P
h
N P h
    
6 dotted-line bow trill zigzag

 N P h N P h N P  vvvvv h N P h
   
If style is set to 'bow the direction of the bow may be adjusted using direction modifiers.
{
\override FingerGlideSpanner.style = #'bow
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(down)
<b\glide-1>4 <d'-1>
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(up)
<e''\glide-2> <c''-2>
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 276

\set fingeringOrientations = #'(down)

<b^\glide-1>4 <d'-1>
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(up)
<e''^\glide-2> <c''-2>

\set fingeringOrientations = #'(down)

<b_\glide-1>4 <d'-1>
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(up)
<e''_\glide-2> <c''-2>
}

hh hh hh
º
h h h h h h
  

If the Finger_glide_engraver is moved to Staff context Fingering grobs from different

Voice contexts may be connected.

\score {
\new Staff <<
\new Voice {
\voiceOne
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(right)
<e''-3>2
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(left)
<d''-\tweak bound-details.left.padding 2.5 \glide-2>
<c''-2>
\bar "||"
}
\new Voice {
\voiceTwo
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(right)
<c''\glide-2>
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(left)
<b'-\tweak bound-details.left.padding 2.5 \glide-4>
<a'-4>
}
>>
\layout {
ragged-right = ##f
\context {
\Voice
\remove Finger_glide_engraver
}
\context {
\Staff
\consists Finger_glide_engraver
}
}
}
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 277

N NN
º N  
NN

To connect different fingers or multiple instances of the same finger set the id property with
\= taking a non-negative integer or a symbol or \tweak the text property.
{
b2 \glide \= #'foo ^1
\glide \= #'bar ^1
\glide _2
\glide _1
b' \= #'foo ^2
\= #'bar ^1
_2
_1

\set fingeringOrientations = #'(up)

<
b\glide \=1 -1
f'\glide \=2 -2
d''\glide \=3 -3
b''\glide \=4 -4
>
<
b\=4 -5
f'\=3 -6
d''\=2 -7
b''\=1 -8
>
b\glide -1 b\tweak text "2" -1
}


 
N N


N N
 

º N
 

N NN NN
N N


The FingerGlideSpanner may also connect string numbers indicating to play on the same
string, or stroke fingers indicating an Arrastre.
{
\override StringNumber.staff-padding = 7
\omit TupletNumber
\set fingeringOrientations = #'(left)
\tuplet 5/4 4 {
\set strokeFingerOrientations = #'(down)
<
g-\tweak style #'stub-right \glide-1
\glide \rightHandFinger #1
-\tweak style #'dashed-line \glide _\6
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 278

>16
<d'-\tweak style #'stub-right \glide -3 >
<g'-\tweak style #'stub-right \glide -4 \rightHandFinger #1 >
\set strokeFingerOrientations = #'(up)
<b'-\tweak style #'stub-right \glide -2 \rightHandFinger #2 >
<b'-0\rightHandFinger #3 >
e''\glide \rightHandFinger #4
b' a' f' c'
}
g2\rightHandFinger #4

\tuplet 5/4 4 {
\set strokeFingerOrientations = #'(down)
<f-1 \glide \rightHandFinger #1 _\6 >16
%% Raise a bit, otherwise the stub-line would be hidden by the ledger line.
<c'\tweak Y-offset #0.5 -3>
<f' -4 \rightHandFinger #1 >
\set strokeFingerOrientations = #'(up)
<a'-2\rightHandFinger #2 >
b'\rightHandFinger #3
e''\glide \rightHandFinger #4
b' a' f' c'
}
f2\rightHandFinger #4
}

h h hhhh
a a

 º hh h!h h h h
m m

h
i a i a

hN h
h h
h h N
 p p

p 
p
6 6
See also
Music Glossary: Section “arrastre” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 36.1 [Direction and placement], page 746.
Internals Reference: Section “FingerGlideEvent” in Internals Reference, Section “finger-
glide-event” in Internals Reference, Section “Finger glide engraver” in Internals Reference,
Section “finger-glide-interface” in Internals Reference, Section “FingerGlideSpanner” in Inter-
nals Reference.

7.1.4 Hidden notes

Hidden (or invisible or transparent) notes can be useful in preparing theory or composition
exercises.
\relative {
c''4 d
\hideNotes
e4 f
\unHideNotes
g a
\hideNotes
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 279

b
\unHideNotes
c
}

h h h
h
º h
Note heads, stems, and flags, and rests are invisible. Beams are invisible if they start on a
hidden note. Objects that are attached to invisible notes are still visible.
\relative c'' {
e8(\p f g a)--
\hideNotes
e8(\p f g a)--
}

h h h hr r
º
p p
Predefined commands
\hideNotes, \unHideNotes.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Visibility and color of objects” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 2.2.2 [Invisible rests], page 68, Section 36.7 [Visibility of ob-
jects], page 756, Section 6.2.3 [Hiding staves], page 248.
Snippets: Section “Editorial annotations” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Note spacing engraver” in Internals Reference, Section
“NoteSpacing” in Internals Reference.

7.1.5 Coloring objects

Individual objects may be assigned colors. Valid color names are listed in the Section B.7 [List
of colors], page 866.
\override NoteHead.color = #red
c''4 c''
\override NoteHead.color = #(x11-color 'SlateGrey)
d''
\override Stem.color = "deepskyblue"
e''

º h h h h

In addition to a limited set of simple colors available as predefined variables (see ‘Normal
colors’ in Section B.7 [List of colors], page 866), any color may be entered as a string. That
string may be either a CSS (https://www.w3.org/Style/CSS/)-style predefined color name, or
a hexadecimal color code prefixed by the ‘#’ character (inside the double quotes):
\override NoteHead.color = "lightsalmon"
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 280

\override Flag.color = "#E30074"

\override Beam.color = "#5e45ad"
\override Rest.color = "#3058"
g'8 \huge r4 a'16 f'

º h  hh
If that color code includes an alpha channel for semi-transparency, by using an eight-character
code "#RRGGBBAA" or its shorthand form "#RGBA", it will be used in SVG output but
not in PostScript/PDF output. In the previous example, the rest can be seen through only if
the code is compiled with the SVG backend, as explained in Section 23.3 [Alternative output
formats], page 623.
In a different way, the full range of colors defined for X11 (https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/X11_color_names) can be accessed by using the Scheme function x11-color. That func-
tion takes one argument, which can be a symbol, such as 'DarkSeaGreen4, or a string, such as
"DarkSeaGreen4". The first form is quicker to write and slightly more efficient; however, the
second form also makes it possible to specify X11 colors as multiple words: in this instance,
"dark sea green 4".
If x11-color cannot make sense of the parameter, then the color returned defaults to black.
\new Staff \with {
instrumentName = \markup {
\with-color #(x11-color 'SlateGrey) "Clarinet"
}
}
\relative c'' {
\override Staff.StaffSymbol.color = #(x11-color 'SlateBlue2)
gis8 a
\override Beam.color = #(x11-color "medium turquoise")
gis a
\override Accidental.color = #(x11-color 'orange)
gis a
\override NoteHead.color = #(x11-color "LimeGreen")
gis a
% this is deliberate nonsense; note that the stems remain black
\override Stem.color = #(x11-color 'Boggle)
b2 cis
}

Clarinet  º  h h h h h h h h N N
LilyPond also supports a set of eight color names (https://jfly.uni-koeln.de/color)
that is unambiguous to both color-blind and non-color-blind people. Use universal-color to
access them.
\markup \with-color #(universal-color 'vermillion) vermillion

vermillion
Exact RGB colors can be specified using the Scheme function rgb-color. This function takes
three arguments used respectively for the red, green and blue channels, and an optional alpha
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 281

number for semi-transparency. (All values must be numbers from 0 to 1.) Again, transparency
is only supported in SVG output; for example, in the following fragment the staff’s clef can be
seen through when rendered in SVG.
\new Staff \with {
instrumentName = \markup {
\with-color #(x11-color 'red) "Clarinet"
}
\override Clef.color = #(rgb-color 0 0 0 0.5)
}
\relative c'' {
\override Staff.StaffSymbol.color = #(x11-color 'SlateBlue2)
\override Stem.color = #(rgb-color 0 0 0)
gis8 a
\override Stem.color = #(rgb-color 1 1 1)
gis8 a
\override Stem.color = #(rgb-color 0 0 0.5)
gis4 a
}

Clarinet  º h h h h h h
See also
Notation Reference: Section B.7 [List of colors], page 866, Section 35.6 [\tweak and \single],
page 736.
Snippets: Section “Editorial annotations” in Snippets.

Known issues and warnings

An X11 color is not necessarily exactly the same shade as a similarly named normal color.
Not all X11 colors are distinguishable in a web browser, i.e., a web browser might not display
a difference between LimeGreen and ForestGreen. For web use CSS colors are recommended,
as detailed in Section B.7 [List of colors], page 866.
Notes in a chord cannot be separately colored with \override; use \tweak or the equivalent
\single\override before the respective note instead, see Section 35.6 [\tweak and \single],
page 736.

7.1.6 Staff highlights

For analytical or pedagogical purposes, it may be useful to “highlight” musical passages, for
example in order to show local tonality. This can be done using the \staffHighlight command,
which expects a color. For all ways to enter colors, see Section 7.1.5 [Coloring objects], page 279.
The highlight is terminated using \stopStaffHighlight.
\relative {
\time 2/4
c'4 4
\staffHighlight "lightsteelblue"
g'8( fis g4)-.
\stopStaffHighlight
c2
}
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 282

 42 N
h h h  h hp
If there are consecutive highlights, it is not necessary to write \stopStaffHighlight, as
\staffHighlight also implicitly terminates the current highlight, if any. Similarly, it is not
necessary to add \stopStaffHighlight at the end of the piece. This is particularly handy if
every measure is to be highlighted.
\relative {
\time 2/4
\staffHighlight "lightpink"
c'4 4
\staffHighlight "lightsteelblue"
g'8( fis g4)-.
\staffHighlight "lightpink"
c2
}

 42 N
h h h  h hp
By default, staves are highlighted separately.
music = {
\time 2/4
\staffHighlight "lightpink"
c'4 4
\staffHighlight "lightsteelblue"
g'8( fis g4)-.
\staffHighlight "lightpink"
c2
}

<<
\new Staff \music
\new Staff \music
>>

 42 h
h h h h
p N
 42 h h h
 h hp N
However, several staves can be highlighted together by moving Staff_highlight_engraver
to a higher context than Staff (or RhythmicStaff, or similar). This is done using the \consists
and \remove commands; See Section 33.4 [Modifying context plug-ins], page 717, for more
information. For example, if the engraver is moved to Score, the highlights are shared by all
staves.
\layout {
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 283

\context {
\Staff
\remove Staff_highlight_engraver
}
\context {
\Score
\consists Staff_highlight_engraver
}
}

music = {
\time 2/4
\staffHighlight "lightpink"
c'4 4
\staffHighlight "lightsteelblue"
g'8( fis g4)-.
\staffHighlight "lightpink"
c2
}

<<
\new Staff \music
\new Staff \music
>>

 42 h
h h
 h hp N
 42 h h
h
 h hp N
Staff_highlight_engraver may also be moved to intermediate contexts such as
StaffGroup.
music = {
\time 2/4
\staffHighlight "lightpink"
c'4 4
\staffHighlight "lightsteelblue"
g'8( fis g4)-.
\staffHighlight "lightpink"
c2
}

<<
\new StaffGroup \with { \consists Staff_highlight_engraver } <<
\new Staff \with { \remove Staff_highlight_engraver } \music
\new Staff \with { \remove Staff_highlight_engraver } \music
>>
\new Staff \music
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 284

>>
7
 42 h
h h h h
p N
2
6 4 h h h
 h hp N
 42 h h h
 h hp N
The StaffHighlight.shorten-pair property may be used to tweak the horizontal start and
end of the highlight span.
{
c'1
\once \override Staff.StaffHighlight.shorten-pair = #'(1.0 . 1.0)
\staffHighlight lightsteelblue
c'1
}

º
. .
Predefined commands
\staffHighlight, \stopStaffHighlight.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 7.1.5 [Coloring objects], page 279, Section 33.4 [Modifying con-
text plug-ins], page 717.
Internals Reference: Section “StaffHighlight” in Internals Reference, Section “staff-
highlight-interface” in Internals Reference, Section “Staff highlight engraver” in Internals
Reference, Section “StaffHighlightEvent” in Internals Reference, Section “staff-highlight-event”
in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

The behavior of highlights may not be what is expected at start repeat bar lines. The
shorten-pair property demonstrated above can be used to work around this issue.
{
\staffHighlight "lightsteelblue"
c'1
\stopStaffHighlight
\repeat volta 2 { c'1 }
c'1
}

º PP PP
. . .
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 285

7.1.7 Brackets for optional material

Optional additional material can be enclosed in brackets that pass through the staff.
{
\startOptionalMaterial
c'1
\stopOptionalMaterial
}

º
.
The note positions that the bracket encompasses can be overridden. The endpoints of the
interval are measured in staff spaces from the center of the staff to the center of the note.
{
\tweak OptionalMaterialBracket.positions #'(-4 . 1)
\startOptionalMaterial
c'1
\once \override Staff.OptionalMaterialBracket.positions =
#'(-2 . 4)
\stopOptionalMaterial
}

º .
Predefined commands
\startOptionalMaterial, \stopOptionalMaterial.

See also
Snippets: Section “Editorial annotations” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Optional material bracket engraver” in Internals Reference,
Section “OptionalMaterialBracket” in Internals Reference, Section “optional-material-bracket-
interface” in Internals Reference.

7.1.8 Parentheses
Objects may be parenthesized by prefixing the music event with \parenthesize.
\relative {
c''2 \parenthesize d
c2 \tweak Parentheses.font-size 2 \parenthesize <c e g>
c2 <c e \parenthesize g>
}

 º N N N  NN  N  NNN 
N
Non-note objects may be parenthesized as well. For articulations, a hyphen is needed before
the \parenthesize command.
\relative {
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 286

c''2-\parenthesize -. d
c2 \parenthesize r
}

 p
 º N N N ˜
To parenthesize a group of notes in a chord, use a parallel music construct << ... >>.
\new Voice \relative c {
<<
{ \tweak Parentheses.font-size 0 \parenthesize <ces des> }
{ \parenthesize ees' }
{ \tweak Parentheses.font-size -2 \parenthesize <c' e> }
>>
}

h
 º    hh 
   hh 
In tablature specify NoteColumn to parenthesize the chord.
\new TabVoice {
\override Parentheses.font-size = 0
\parenthesize <f g>
\parenthesize NoteColumn <f g>
}

/ 0
3
 03 
This second form of the \parenthesize command involves a grob path: either
\parenthesize ContextName.GrobName or just \parenthesize GrobName (the latter implying
the bottommost context, typically Voice). This should be added before the musical moment,
like a \once \override. This form makes it possible to parenthesize grobs that are only caused
indirectly by events.
\new Staff \relative <<
{
\parenthesize NoteHead
c'1
}
\new CueVoice {
s2
\voiceOne
\once \override Staff.Parentheses.font-size = 3
\parenthesize Staff.CueClef
\cueClef treble
e'8 f a g
}
>>
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 287

h
h h h
 º . 
See also
Snippets: Section “Editorial annotations” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Parenthesis engraver” in Internals Reference, Section
“Parentheses” in Internals Reference, Section “parentheses-interface” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Currently, the font-size property of the Parentheses grob has to be adjusted manually to
obtain correctly sized parentheses on chords and some other objects.

7.1.9 Stems
Whenever a note is found, a Stem object is created automatically. For whole notes and rests,
they are also created but made invisible.
Stems may be manually placed to point up or down; see Section 36.1 [Direction and place-
ment], page 746.

Predefined commands
\stemUp, \stemDown, \stemNeutral.

Selected Snippets
Default direction of stems on the center line of the staff
The default direction of stems on the center line of the staff is set by the Stem property
neutral-direction.
\relative c'' {
a4 b c b
\override Stem.neutral-direction = #up
a4 b c b
\override Stem.neutral-direction = #down
a4 b c b
}

º h h h h h h h h h h h h
Automatically changing the stem direction of the middle note based
on the melody
LilyPond can alter the stem direction of the middle note on a staff so that it follows the melody,
by adding the Melody_engraver to the Voice context.
The context property suspendMelodyDecisions may be used to turn off this behavior locally.
\relative c'' {
\time 3/4
a8 b g f b g |
\set suspendMelodyDecisions = ##t
a b g f b g |
\unset suspendMelodyDecisions
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 288

c b d c b c |
}

\layout {
\context {
\Voice
\consists "Melody_engraver"
\autoBeamOff
}
}

 43 h h h h h h h h h h h h hT hhhhh
T T TTTTT
See also
Notation Reference: Section 36.1 [Direction and placement], page 746.
Snippets: Section “Editorial annotations” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Stem engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “Stem” in
Internals Reference, Section “stem-interface” in Internals Reference.

7.2 Outside the staff

This section discusses how to add emphasis to elements in the staff from outside of the staff.

7.2.1 Note names

Note names can be printed as text, by using the NoteNames context. When used simultaneously
with a regular staff, that makes it possible to synchronize each note with its name, printed above
or below the Staff.
\language "italiano"
melody = \relative do'' {
fad2 si,8 dod re mi fad4. re8 fad2
}

<<
\new NoteNames { \melody }
\new Staff { \key si \minor \melody }
\new NoteNames {
\set printNotesLanguage = "deutsch"
\set printAccidentalNames = ##f
\melody
}
>>

   
 º N h h h h h P h N
fa si do re mi fa re fa

 T
f h c d e f d f
By default, note names are printed in the same language used for music entry; however, the
printNotesLanguage property allows to select any other language available (see Section 1.1.4
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 289

[Note names in other languages], page 10). Whether accidentals should be printed or not is
determined through the printAccidentalNames property.

By setting both that property to a symbol and printOctaveNames to #t, note names can
be obtained that closely resemble LilyPond entry syntax. If a more general result is desired,
‘scientific’ octave names may also be obtained.

melody = \relative c'' {

fis2 b,8 cis d e fis4. d8 fis2
}

<<
\new NoteNames {
\set printOctaveNames = ##t
\set printAccidentalNames = #'lily
\melody
}
\new Staff { \key b \minor \melody }
\new NoteNames {
\set printOctaveNames = #'scientific
\melody
}
>>

 º N h h h h h P h N
fis'' b' cis'' d'' e'' fis'' d'' fis''

 T
f5 b4 c 5 d5 e5 f5 5
d5 f

The noteNameSeparator property defines how chords will be printed. Other formatting
functions may be defined as noteNameFunction; such a function must expect a pitch and a
context argument, even if one of these can then be ignored.

somechords = \relative c' {

<b d fis>2 <b cis e g> <b d fis> q
}

<<
\new NoteNames {
\set noteNameSeparator = "+"
\somechords
}
\new Staff { \key b \minor \somechords }
\new NoteNames {
\set noteNameFunction =
#(lambda (pitch ctx)
(alteration->text-accidental-markup
(ly:pitch-alteration pitch)))
\somechords
}
>>
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 290

   

b+d+f b+c +e+g b+d+f b+d+f

  º NN N N NNN
N NNN NN
/ /   / /  /  // / / 
See also
Notation Reference: Section 1.1.4 [Note names in other languages], page 10.
Internals Reference: Section “NoteName” in Internals Reference, Section “NoteNames” in
Internals Reference, Section “Note name engraver” in Internals Reference.

7.2.2 Balloon help

Elements of notation can be marked and named with the help of a square balloon. The primary
purpose of this feature is to explain notation.
\new Voice \with { \consists Balloon_engraver }
\relative c'' {
\balloonGrobText #'Stem #'(3 . 4) \markup { "I'm a Stem" }
a8
\balloonGrobText #'Rest #'(-4 . -4) \markup { "I'm a rest" }
r
<c, g'-\balloonText #'(-2 . -2) \markup { "I'm a note head" } c>2.
}

I'm a Stem

 º h ¢ NN PPP
N
I'm a note head
I'm a rest
There are two music functions, balloonText and balloonGrobText; the former is used like
\tweak, but only within chords, to attach text to an individual note of the chord; the latter is
used like \once \override to attach text to any grob anywhere.
Balloon text does not influence note spacing, but this can be altered:
\new Voice \with { \consists Balloon_engraver }
\relative c'' {
\balloonGrobText #'Stem #'(3 . 4) \markup { "I'm a Stem" }
a8
\balloonGrobText #'Rest #'(-4 . -4) \markup { "I'm a rest" }
r
\balloonLengthOn
<c, g'-\balloonText #'(-2 . -2) \markup { "I'm a note head" } c>2.
}

I'm a Stem

º h ¢ NN PP
NP
I'm a note head
I'm a rest
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 291

The default behavior for the attachment point of the line on the frame and the alignment of
the balloon text is demonstrated below.

 43   
rest rest rest

The default calculation of the attachment point can be overruled using the X-attachment
and Y-attachment properties, which take values between -1 and 1, with the limits corresponding
to the left (resp. bottom) and right (resp. top) of the frame. Alignment of the text is controlled
by text-alignment-X and text-alignment-Y, which have a similar form.
\new Voice \with {
\consists Balloon_engraver
}
{
\once \override BalloonText.Y-attachment = -0.5
\once \override BalloonText.text-alignment-X = 0.0
\balloonGrobText Rest #'(1 . 3.5) "rest"
r4
}

º 
rest

Predefined commands
\balloonLengthOn, \balloonLengthOff.

See also
Snippets: Section “Editorial annotations” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “AnnotateOutputEvent” in Internals Reference, Section “Bal-
loon engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “BalloonText” in Internals Reference, Section
“balloon-interface” in Internals Reference.

7.2.3 Grid lines

Vertical lines can be drawn between staves synchronized with the notes.
The Grid_point_engraver must be used to create the end points of the lines, while the
Grid_line_span_engraver must be used to actually draw the lines. By default this centers
grid lines horizontally below and to the left side of each note head. Grid lines extend from the
middle lines of each staff. The gridInterval must specify the duration between the grid lines.
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
\consists Grid_point_engraver
gridInterval = #1/4
}
\context {
\Score
\consists Grid_line_span_engraver
}
}
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 292

\score {
\new ChoirStaff <<
\new Staff \relative {
\stemUp
c''4. d8 e8 f g4
}
\new Staff \relative {
\clef bass
\stemDown
c4 g' f e
}
>>
}

7
º h P hhhh

º h h h h
6
Selected Snippets
Grid lines: changing their appearance
The appearance of grid lines can be changed by overriding some of their properties.
\score {
\new ChoirStaff <<
\new Staff {
\relative c'' {
\stemUp
c'4. d8 e8 f g4
}
}
\new Staff {
\relative c {
% this moves them up one staff space from the default position
\override Score.GridLine.extra-offset = #'(0.0 . 1.0)
\stemDown
\clef bass
\once \override Score.GridLine.thickness = 5.0
c4
\once \override Score.GridLine.thickness = 1.0
g'4
\once \override Score.GridLine.thickness = 3.0
f4
\once \override Score.GridLine.thickness = 5.0
e4
}
}
>>
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 293

\layout {
\context {
\Staff
% set up grids
\consists "Grid_point_engraver"
% set the grid interval to one quarter note
gridInterval = #1/4
}
\context {
\Score
\consists "Grid_line_span_engraver"
% this moves them to the right half a staff space
\override NoteColumn.X-offset = -0.5
}
}
}

7 hP h h h h
 º
ºh h h h
6
See also
Snippets: Section “Editorial annotations” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Grid line span engraver” in Internals Reference, Section
“Grid point engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “GridLine” in Internals Reference, Sec-
tion “GridPoint” in Internals Reference, Section “grid-line-interface” in Internals Reference,
Section “grid-point-interface” in Internals Reference.

7.2.4 Analysis brackets

Brackets are used in musical analysis to indicate structure in musical pieces. Simple horizontal
brackets are supported.
\layout {
\context {
\Voice
\consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver
}
}
\relative {
c''2\startGroup
d\stopGroup
}

º N N
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 294

Analysis brackets may be nested.

\layout {
\context {
\Voice
\consists Horizontal_bracket_engraver
}
}
\relative {
c''4\startGroup\startGroup
d4\stopGroup
e4\startGroup
d4\stopGroup\stopGroup
}

h h
º h h

Selected Snippets
Analysis brackets above the staff
Simple horizontal analysis brackets are added below the staff by default. The following example
shows a way to place them above the staff instead.
\layout {
\context {
\Voice
\consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
}
}

\relative c'' {
\once \override HorizontalBracket.direction = #UP
c2\startGroup
d2\stopGroup
}

N
º N
Analysis brackets with labels
Text markup may be added to analysis brackets through the text property of the
HorizontalBracketText grob. Adding different texts to brackets beginning at the same time
requires the \tweak command.
Bracket text will be parenthesized after a line break.
\paper { tagline = ##f }

\layout {
\context {
\Voice
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 295

\consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
\override HorizontalBracket.direction = #UP
}
}

{
\once\override HorizontalBracketText.text = "a"
c''\startGroup d''\stopGroup
\once\override HorizontalBracketText.text = "a'"
e''\startGroup d''\stopGroup |
c''-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text
\markup \bold \huge "b" \startGroup
-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "a" \startGroup
d''\stopGroup
e''-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text "a'" \startGroup
d''\stopGroup\stopGroup |
c''-\tweak HorizontalBracketText.text foo \startGroup
d'' e'' f'' | \break
g'' a'' b'' c'''\stopGroup
}
a a'

b
h h h h
º h h h h h h h h
a a' foo

h h h h
(foo)
4


Measure spanner
Measure spanners are an alternate way to print annotated brackets. As opposed to horizontal
brackets, they extend between two bar lines rather than two notes. The text is displayed in the
center of the bracket.
\paper { tagline = ##f }

\layout {
\context {
\Staff
\consists Measure_spanner_engraver
}
}

<<
\new Staff \relative c'' {
\key d \minor
R1*2
\tweak text "Answer"
\startMeasureSpanner
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 296

\tuplet 3/2 8 {
a16[ b c] d[ c b] c[ d e] f[ e d]
}
e8 a gis g
fis f e d~ d c b e
\stopMeasureSpanner
}
\new Staff \relative c' {
\key d \minor
\tweak text "Subject"
\tweak direction #DOWN
\startMeasureSpanner
\tuplet 3/2 8 {
d16[ e f] g[ f e] f[ g a] bes[ a g]
}
a8 d cis c
b bes a g~ g f e a
\stopMeasureSpanner
\tweak text "Counter-subject"
\tweak direction #DOWN
\startMeasureSpanner
f8 e a r r16 b, c d e fis g e
a gis a b c fis, b a gis e a4 g8
\stopMeasureSpanner
}
>>

º ” ”

  º h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
3 3
3 3

Subject

h h h h h h h
Answer
h h h
  h h h h h h
3

3
3 3 3

 h h ¢ ¥ h h
h h h h h h
Counter-subject

h h
Answer
h h h h h
 h
4

  h h h h h h h h h h h h
Counter-subject
Chapter 7: Editorial annotations 297

See also
Internals Reference: Section “Horizontal bracket engraver” in Internals Reference, Section
“HorizontalBracket” in Internals Reference, Section “horizontal-bracket-interface” in Inter-
nals Reference, Section “HorizontalBracketText” in Internals Reference, Section “horizontal-
bracket-text-interface” in Internals Reference, Section “Measure spanner engraver” in Inter-
nals Reference, Section “MeasureSpanner” in Internals Reference, Section “measure-spanner-
interface” in Internals Reference, Section “Staff” in Internals Reference.
 298

8 Text

 hh PP hh hhp hhp
Moderato cantabile molto espressivo

   43 hh PP hh hh PP hh hh

NN
p con amabilità
h h h h
(sanft)
   3 hP
  4 hP hh hh PP hh hh NN hh P h h h h
p p
z
u h
h h h h h hh h h h h h P
e
  hP h
 h
4

h T
p T
   hh hh
¢   hh h h hh hh hh hh h hh
 TF h hhh h h
  h N hP h
X
6
h
 T

   h h h h h h h h h hhh hhh hhh hhh hhh hhh hhh hhh hhh
hh h h hh h h hh h h h h h
This section explains how to include text (with various formatting) in music scores.

8.1 Writing text

This section introduces different ways of adding text to a score.
☛ ✟
Note: To write accented and special text (such as characters from other
languages), simply insert the characters directly into the LilyPond
file. The file must be saved as UTF-8. For more information, see
Section 22.4.1 [Text encoding], page 618.
✡ ✠

8.1.1 Text objects overview

Simple text objects are entered as strings between double quotes (these are optional for a single
word). The markup mode is a richer tool that can accept a variety of advanced text formatting
and graphical enhancements, as detailed in Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310.
As such, markup blocks may be used:
• in any TextScript object (attached to notes with -, ^ or _); see Section 8.1.2 [Text scripts],
page 300;
• as ‘spanners’, when some indications are prolonged over several beats or bars; see Sec-
tion 8.1.3 [Text spanners], page 302;
Chapter 8: Text 299

• in any mark printed above the score, such as RehearsalMark or MetronomeMark objects
respectively introduced with the \mark or \tempo keywords; see Section 8.1.5 [Text marks],
page 304;
• as stand-alone text blocks, entered at the top level outside of any \score block (in this
specific case the \markup or \markuplist command is mandatory, and cannot be omitted
in favor of a simple text string between double quotes); see Section 8.1.6 [Separate text],
page 309;
• in any definition inside the \header block (e.g., title, subtitle, composer), or in specific
elements defined inside the \paper block such as evenHeaderMarkup for page numbers.
This is explained in Chapter 21 [Titles and headers], page 575.
Many other text-based objects may be entered as markup blocks, even if that is not their
primary use.
• Fingerings may easily be replaced with markup blocks, if introduced with the \finger
command; see Section 7.1.2 [Fingering instructions], page 272.
• Lyric syllables may be formatted through the \markup command; see Section 9.1 [Common
notation for vocal music], page 335.
• Chord names are in fact defined as markup blocks, and therefore may be redefined in the
same way for customizing chord modifiers or chord exceptions; see Section 15.2 [Displaying
chords], page 497.
• Dynamics are usually entered in a simple way; however it is possible to define Section 3.1.3
[New dynamic marks], page 161, as markup objects. Some dynamics such as crescendo are
printed as spanners and may be redefined through properties such as crescendoText; see
Section 3.1.2 [Dynamics], page 153.
• Less common objects are also made of markup blocks, such as Section 7.2.2 [Balloon help],
page 290, indications.
In fact, it is possible to use \markup to customize the appearance of virtually any graphical
object (or ‘grob’), by overriding either its text property if it has one, or its stencil property.
Some of the logic that makes this a possibility is explained in Section “Flexible architecture” in
Essay.
The following example illustrates the ubiquity of markup blocks, not only as some of the
objects listed above, but also by replacing musical objects with text objects through various
methods.
\header { title = \markup "Header" }

dyn =
#(make-dynamic-script #{ \markup \serif "DynamicText" #})

\markup \box "Top-level markup"

\score {
<<
\new ChordNames
\with {
majorSevenSymbol = \markup "majorSevenSymbol"
}
\chordmode { c1:maj7 }
\new Staff {
\tempo \markup "MetronomeMark"
\textMark "TextMark"
Chapter 8: Text 300

\once \override TupletNumber.text =

\markup "TupletNumber"
\tuplet 3/2 {
\once \override NoteHead.stencil =
#ly:text-interface::print
\once \override NoteHead.text =
\markup \lower #0.5 "NoteHead"
c''8^\markup \italic "TextScript"
a'\finger \markup \serif "Fingering"
\once \override Rest.stencil =
#(lambda (grob)
(grob-interpret-markup grob #{
\markup "Rest"
#}))
r
}
}
\new Lyrics \lyricmode {
\markup \smallCaps "LyricText" 1
}
\new Dynamics { s1\dyn }
>>
}

Header
Top-level markup

MetronomeMark
TextMark
CmajorSevenSymbol
TextScript

º h
Fingering

NoteHead Rest

TupletNumber
LYRICTEXT
DynamicText
See also
Notation Reference: Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310, Section 8.1.2 [Text scripts],
page 300, Section 8.1.3 [Text spanners], page 302, Section 8.1.5 [Text marks], page 304, Sec-
tion 8.1.6 [Separate text], page 309, Section 7.1.2 [Fingering instructions], page 272, Sec-
tion 9.1 [Common notation for vocal music], page 335, Section 15.2 [Displaying chords],
page 497, Section 3.1.3 [New dynamic marks], page 161, Section 3.1.2 [Dynamics], page 153,
Section 7.2.2 [Balloon help], page 290.
Essay on automated music engraving: Section “Flexible architecture” in Essay.
Snippets: Section “Text” in Snippets.

8.1.2 Text scripts

Simple “quoted text” indications may be added to a score, as demonstrated in the following
example. Such indications may be manually placed above or below the staff, using the syntax
described in Section 36.1 [Direction and placement], page 746.
Chapter 8: Text 301

\relative { a'8^"pizz." g f e a4-"scherz." f }

º hhhhh h
pizz.

scherz.
This syntax is actually a shorthand; more complex text formatting may be added to a note
by explicitly using a \markup block, as described in Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310.
\relative {
a'8^\markup { \italic pizz. } g f e
a4_\markup { \tiny scherz. \bold molto } f }

º hhhhh
pizz.

h
scherz. molto
By default, text indications do not influence the note spacing. However, their widths can
be taken into account: in the following example, the first text string does not affect spacing,
whereas the second one does.
\relative {
a'8^"pizz." g f e
\textLengthOn
a4_"scherzando" f
}

º hhhhh
pizz.

h
scherzando
In addition to text scripts, articulations can be attached to notes. For more information, see
Section 3.1.1 [Articulations and ornamentations], page 149.
For more information about the relative ordering of text scripts and articulations, see Section
“Placement of objects” in Learning Manual.

Predefined commands
\textLengthOn, \textLengthOff.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Placement of objects” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310, Section 36.1 [Direction and
placement], page 746, Section 3.1.1 [Articulations and ornamentations], page 149.
Snippets: Section “Text” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “TextScript” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Checking to make sure that text scripts and lyrics are within the margins requires additional
calculations. In cases where slightly faster performance is desired, use
\override Score.PaperColumn.keep-inside-line = ##f
Chapter 8: Text 302

8.1.3 Text spanners

Some performance indications, e.g., rallentando or accelerando, are written as text and are
extended over multiple notes with dotted lines. Such objects, called “spanners”, may be created
from one note to another using the following syntax:
\relative {
\override TextSpanner.bound-details.left.text = "rit."
b'1\startTextSpan
e,\stopTextSpan
}

º .
rit.

.
The string to be printed is set through object properties. By default it is printed in italic
characters, but different formatting can be obtained using \markup blocks, as described in
Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310.
\relative {
\override TextSpanner.bound-details.left.text =
\markup { \upright "rit." }
b'1\startTextSpan c
e,\stopTextSpan
}

º . .
rit.

.
The line style, as well as the text string, can be defined as an object property. This syntax
is described in Section 36.5 [Line styles], page 754.

Predefined commands
\textSpannerUp, \textSpannerDown, \textSpannerNeutral, \startTextSpan,
\stopTextSpan.

Known issues and warnings

LilyPond is only able to handle one text spanner per voice.
The texts at the bounds of a text spanner may collide.
{
\once \override TextSpanner.bound-details.left.text = "The text is"
\once \override TextSpanner.bound-details.right.text = "too long"
c'2\startTextSpan d'2\stopTextSpan
}

º N N
The text
too long
is

Workarounds can be found in Chapter 30 [Horizontal spacing], page 686.

Chapter 8: Text 303

Selected Snippets
Dynamics text spanner postfix
Custom text spanners can be defined and used with hairpin and text crescendos. \< and \>
produce hairpins by default, \cresc etc. produce text spanners by default.
% Some sample text dynamic spanners, to be used as postfix operators
crpoco =
#(make-music 'CrescendoEvent
'span-direction START
'span-type 'text
'span-text "cresc. poco a poco")

\relative c' {
c4\cresc d4 e4 f4 |
g4 a4\! b4\crpoco c4 |
c4 d4 e4 f4 |
g4 a4\! b4\< c4 |
g4\dim a4 b4\decresc c4\!
}

h h h h h h h h h
h
º h h h h h h h h h h
cresc. poco a poco
cresc. dim. decresc.

Dynamics custom text spanner postfix

Postfix functions for custom crescendo text spanners. The spanners should start on the first
note of the measure. One has to use -\mycresc, otherwise the spanner start will rather be
assigned to the next note.
% Two functions for (de)crescendo spanners where you can explicitly
% give the spanner text.
mycresc =
#(define-music-function (mymarkup) (markup?)
(make-music 'CrescendoEvent
'span-direction START
'span-type 'text
'span-text mymarkup))
mydecresc =
#(define-music-function (mymarkup) (markup?)
(make-music 'DecrescendoEvent
'span-direction START
'span-type 'text
'span-text mymarkup))

\relative c' {
c4-\mycresc "custom cresc" c4 c4 c4 |
c4 c4 c4 c4 |
c4-\mydecresc "custom decresc" c4 c4 c4 |
c4 c4\! c4 c4
}
Chapter 8: Text 304

º
h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
custom cresc custom decresc
See also
Notation Reference: Section 36.5 [Line styles], page 754, Section 3.1.2 [Dynamics], page 153,
Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310.
Snippets: Section “Text” in Snippets, Section “Expressive marks” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “TextSpanner” in Internals Reference.

8.1.4 Section labels

The \sectionLabel command marks the beginning of a named passage. It is well suited for use
at a section division created with \section, but it does not imply \section and may be used
alone.
\fixed c' {
\sectionLabel "Verse"
c2 g
\section
\sectionLabel \markup { \rounded-box { Chorus } }
g2 c
\bar "|."
}

Verse Chorus
º N N N N
See also
Notation Reference: Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310, Section 2.5.5 [Rehearsal marks],
page 136, Section 2.5.7 [Section divisions], page 140.
Snippets: Section “Text” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “SectionLabel” in Internals Reference, Section “SectionLabel-
Event” in Internals Reference.

8.1.5 Text marks

Text marks are textual objects that, unlike text scripts (see Section 8.1.2 [Text scripts], page 300),
are not printed over notes but between notes, often aligned to a bar line.
☛ ✟
Note: Older LilyPond versions used the \mark command for text
marks, even though it is primarily intended for rehearsal marks (see
Section 2.5.5 [Rehearsal marks], page 136). The \textMark and
\textEndMark commands are better suited for text marks with regard
to their default settings as well as the ability to have several text marks
at the same moment. It is therefore recommended to use \textMark
and \textEndMark instead of \mark "Text" or \mark \markup ....
Note that if converting code that uses \mark for text marks, overrides
using RehearsalMark should be changed to TextMark.
✡ ✠
Chapter 8: Text 305

Before using text marks, it is recommended to seek a more specific command, if available. For
text that identifies a section, use \sectionLabel (see Section 8.1.4 [Section labels], page 304).
For jump instructions, use \jump (see Section 4.1.8 [Manual repeat marks], page 197). These
commands have different default layout settings, and they create separate objects which can be
styled differently from generic text marks in style sheets.
A text mark is entered using either \textMark or \textEndMark. The \textMark command
draws a left-aligned mark.
\fixed c'' {
\textMark "Fl. 1 solo"
c4 e g2
\textMark "A due"
e4 g c'2
}

N h N
h h
A due
º h
Fl. 1 solo

If a line break occurs at the point \textMark is used, the text appears on the next system.
\fixed c'' {
\textMark "Fl. 1 solo"
c4 e g2
\break
\textMark "A due"
e4 g c'2
}

º h h N
Fl. 1 solo

N
h h
2 A due

Unlike \textMark, \textEndMark creates a right-aligned mark. If it occurs on a line break,
it is printed on the preceding system.
\fixed c' {
\repeat volta 2 {
c4 e8 f g2
e4 f8 g c'2
\textEndMark "ad lib"
}
\break
c'4 8 8 4 8 8
c'1
}

º h hhN N PP
ad lib

h hh
Chapter 8: Text 306

 h hhh hh .
3

Complex text formatting may be added using a \markup block (see Section 8.2 [Formatting
text], page 310).
\relative {
<c' e>1
\textMark \markup { \italic { colla parte } }
<d f>2 <e g>
<c f aes>1
}

colla parte
 º .. NN NN  ..
.
The \markLengthOn and \markLengthOff commands (see Section 2.3.2 [Metronome marks],
page 82) can also be used on text marks.
{
\mark \default
c'2 2
\textEndMark "long mark text"
\markLengthOn
2 2
\mark \default
2 2
\textEndMark "long mark text"
}

A
long mark text
B long mark text
º
N N N N N N
Text marks may be printed below the staff.
\fixed c' {
c4 g c'8 b c4 e' c' c2
c4 g c'8 b c4 e' c' g2
e'4 c' c'8 b c'4
g4 c' c2~ c1
\tweak direction #DOWN
\tweak font-size -1
\textEndMark "Composed on November 13th, 2020"
}

hh h h h h hhh h
º h hh h hh N h
h h N h h N .
Composed on November 13th, 2020
There can be several text marks at the same moment. Their stacking order can be overridden
using the outside-staff-priority property (see Section 29.3 [Vertical collision avoidance],
Chapter 8: Text 307

page 684). Alternatively, a single text mark with \markup \column { ... } can achieve the
same effect.
\fixed c' {
\repeat volta 2 {
c4 g c'8 b c4 e' c' c2
\textEndMark "ad lib."
\tweak outside-staff-priority 1200
\tweak font-size -1
\textEndMark "2nd time a due"
}
}

ad lib.
h h
 º h h h hh PP
2nd time a due

N
The alignment of a text mark can be changed.
{
c'8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
\textMark \markup \column {
\line { Left-aligned mark }
\line { (default for \concat { \typewriter "\\textMark" ) } }
}
d'8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
}

{
c'8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
\tweak self-alignment-X #CENTER
\textMark "Centered mark"
d'8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
}

{
c'8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
\tweak self-alignment-X #RIGHT
\textMark \markup \right-column {
\line { Right-aligned mark }
\line { (default for \concat { \typewriter "\\textEndMark" ) } }
}
d'8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
}

Left-aligned mark
(default for \textMark)
º hhhh
hhhh h h h h h h h h

º hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh
Centered mark
Chapter 8: Text 308

Right-aligned mark
(default for \textEndMark)

º
hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh
Predefined commands
\textMark, \textEndMark, \markLengthOn, \markLengthOff.

Selected Snippets
Printing marks on every staff
Although rehearsal and text marks are normally only printed above the topmost staff, they may
also be printed on every staff.
\score {
<<
\new Staff { \mark \default c''1 \textMark "molto" c'' }
\new Staff { \mark \default c'1 \textMark "molto" c' }
>>
\layout {
\context {
\Score
\remove Mark_engraver
\remove Text_mark_engraver
\remove Staff_collecting_engraver
}
\context {
\Staff
\consists Mark_engraver
\consists Text_mark_engraver
\consists Staff_collecting_engraver
}
}
}

º . .
A molto

A
º .
molto

.
See also
Notation Reference: Section 2.3.2 [Metronome marks], page 82, Section 2.5.5 [Rehearsal
marks], page 136, Section 8.1.4 [Section labels], page 304, Section 8.2 [Formatting text],
page 310, Section 8.2.5 [Music notation inside markup], page 325, Section B.8 [The Emmen-
taler font], page 871.
Snippets: Section “Text” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “TextMarkEvent” in Internals Reference, Section
“Text mark engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “TextMark” in Internals Reference.
Chapter 8: Text 309

8.1.6 Separate text

A \markup or \markuplist block can exist by itself, outside of any \score block, as a “top-level
expression”. This syntax is described in Section 20.5 [File structure], page 572.
\markup {
Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow...
}

Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow...

This allows printing text separately from the music, which is particularly useful when the in-
put file contains several music pieces, as described in Section 20.2 [Multiple scores in a book],
page 569.
\score {
c'1
}
\markup {
Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow...
}
\score {
c'1
}

º
.
Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow...

º
.
Using \markuplist, separate text blocks can be spread over multiple pages, making it possi-
ble to print text documents or books entirely within LilyPond. For a description of this feature
and the specific syntax it requires, see Section 8.2.1 [Text markup introduction], page 310.

Predefined commands
\markup, \markuplist.

Selected Snippets
Stand-alone two-column markup
Stand-alone text may be arranged in several columns using \markup commands:
\markup {
\fill-line {
\hspace #1
\column {
\line { O sacrum convivium }
\line { in quo Christus sumitur, }
\line { recolitur memoria passionis ejus, }
\line { mens impletur gratia, }
\line { futurae gloriae nobis pignus datur. }
Chapter 8: Text 310

\line { Amen. }
}
\hspace #2
\column \italic {
\line { O sacred feast }
\line { in which Christ is received, }
\line { the memory of His Passion is renewed, }
\line { the mind is filled with grace, }
\line { and a pledge of future glory is given to us. }
\line { Amen. }
}
\hspace #1
}
}

O sacrum convivium O sacred feast

in quo Christus sumitur, in which Christ is received,
recolitur memoria passionis ejus, the memory of His Passion is renewed,
mens impletur gratia, the mind is filled with grace,
futurae gloriae nobis pignus datur. and a pledge of future glory is given to us.
Amen. Amen.
See also
Notation Reference: Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310, Section 20.5 [File structure],
page 572, Section 20.2 [Multiple scores in a book], page 569.
Snippets: Section “Text” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “TextScript” in Internals Reference.

8.2 Formatting text

This section presents basic and advanced text formatting, using the markup mode specific syn-
tax.

8.2.1 Text markup introduction

A \markup or \markuplist block is used to typeset text with an extensible syntax called
“markup mode”. Such blocks can be used in many contexts (see Section 8.1.1 [Text objects
overview], page 298).
In markup mode, words are written as-is. A single word does not need any quotes.
\markup intenso

intenso
Several words can be grouped together by enclosing them in quotes.
\markup "molto intenso"

molto intenso
Apart from grouping, quoting also allows writing special characters such as ‘\’ and ‘#’ without
affecting the formatting of the text. Double quotation marks themselves may be printed by
preceding them with backslashes.
\relative {
a'1^"\italic markup..."
Chapter 8: Text 311

a_\markup { \italic "... prints \"italic\" letters!" }

a a
}

º .
\italic markup...
. . .
... prints "italic" letters!
Formatting is achieved through markup commands. Their name is written preceded by a
backslash. They expect a number of arguments specific to the command. For an exhaustive list
of \markup-specific commands, see Section A.1 [Text markup commands], page 777.
\markup \italic "string. assai"
\markup \with-color "red" intenso

string. assai

intenso
Markup commands can be nested. The markup block ends when all commands have received
their arguments.
\markup \with-color "red" \italic intenso

intenso
Several markup expressions can be grouped together within braces to form a so-called markup
list. Without further formatting, the elements of a markup list are typeset in a row.
\markup { molto \italic intenso }

molto intenso
Some commands do not expect a markup but a markup list, allowing for more complex text
arrangements than printing in a row.
\markup \center-column {
\bold "Des Simplicius Simplicissimus Jugend"
"Karl Amadeus Hartmann"
}

Des Simplicius Simplicissimus Jugend

Karl Amadeus Hartmann
Also, some commands do not return a markup but a markup list. The result can then be used
where a markup list is expected. For a list of these commands, see Section A.2 [Text markup
list commands], page 850.
\markup \string-lines
"Twinkle, twinkle, little star,
How I wonder what you are!"

Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are!

\markup \center-column \string-lines
"Twinkle, twinkle, little star,
How I wonder what you are!"

Twinkle, twinkle, little star,

How I wonder what you are!
Chapter 8: Text 312

Elements of a nested markup list are simply treated as elements of the main markup list.
\markup \center-column {
\bold "Des Simplicius Simplicissimus Jugend"
{ Karl Amadeus \smallCaps Hartmann }
}

Des Simplicius Simplicissimus Jugend

Karl
Amadeus
HARTMANN
To group elements of a nested markup list in a row, apply the \line command to the markup
list. This stacks elements from the markup list horizontally into a single markup.
\markup \center-column {
\bold "Des Simplicius Simplicissimus Jugend"
\line { Karl Amadeus \smallCaps Hartmann }
}

Des Simplicius Simplicissimus Jugend

Karl Amadeus HARTMANN
A special feature is the handling of commands taking markups when applied to markup lists.
When a command expects a markup as its last argument, and a markup list is given for this
argument, the markup command is applied to each of the individual markups in the list.
\markup \box { Karl Amadeus \smallCaps Hartmann }

Karl Amadeus HARTMANN

In this case, the result is in turn a markup list, which can be passed to a command expecting
a markup list, or to one expecting a markup, with again the mapping behavior described above
in the latter case.
\markup \center-column \box { Karl Amadeus \smallCaps Hartmann }
\markup \rotate #30 \box { Karl Amadeus \smallCaps Hartmann }

Karl
Amadeus
HARTMANN

rl us NN
de A
Ka a TM
Am H AR

Apply \line to a markup list in order to make it treated as a single markup argument.
\markup \box { Karl Amadeus \smallCaps Hartmann }
\markup \box \line { Karl Amadeus \smallCaps Hartmann }

Karl Amadeus HARTMANN

Karl Amadeus HARTMANN

When the entire content of a \markup expression is a markup list, it is implicitly typeset
using the \line command. Thus, elements are stacked horizontally and grouped as a single,
unbreakable text block. The \markuplist command acts differently: it expects a markup list,
Chapter 8: Text 313

and prints the individual markups on the page, stacking them vertically, and allowing page
breaks. The following example illustrates this difference.
\markup \box \wordwrap {
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur
adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim
veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris
nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.
}

\markuplist \box \wordwrap-lines {

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur
adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim
veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris
nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.
}

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod
tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim
veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea
commodo consequat.

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod

tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim

veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea

commodo consequat.

Markups can be stored in variables, to be reused in any context where a markup is accepted.
For example, such a variable can be directly attached to notes:
allegro = \markup \bold \large Allegro

{
d''8.^\allegro
d'16 d'4 r2
}

Allegro
hP
º hh
˜
The \etc syntax allows to define custom shorthands usable as markup commands.
\markup reddish = \markup \with-color "tomato" \etc

\markup { molto \reddish intenso }

molto intenso
The inner workings of markup commands and how to implement more complex ones is
explained in Section “Markup functions” in Extending.
Chapter 8: Text 314

See also
Notation Reference: Section 8.1.1 [Text objects overview], page 298, Section A.1 [Text markup
commands], page 777, Section A.2 [Text markup list commands], page 850.
Extending LilyPond: Section “Markup functions” in Extending.
Installed Files: scm/markup.scm, scm/define-markup-commands.scm.
Snippets: Section “Text” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “TextScript” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Syntax error messages for markup mode can be confusing.

8.2.2 Selecting font and font size

Basic font switching is supported in markup mode:
\relative {
d''1^\markup {
\bold { Più mosso }
\italic { non troppo \underline Vivo }
}
r2 r4 r8
d,_\markup { \italic quasi \smallCaps Tromba }
f1 d2 r
}

º . ˜  ¢ .
Più mosso non troppo Vivo
˜
h N
quasi TROMBA
The global text size to be used in markups can be set with the text-font-size paper
variable. This is useful to adjust to a different main font that might appear smaller or larger
despite of having the same nominal font sizes. The value is given in points (without specifying
a unit); the default value depends on the staff height and is computed as (staff-height / 20
* 11).
See Section 36.2 [Distances and measurements], page 747, for more information on dimensions
used by LilyPond.
\score {
{ f'^"Default text size" }
\layout { text-font-size = 10 }
}

\score {
{ f'^"Default text size" }
\layout { text-font-size = 20 }
}

º h
Default text size

Default text size

º
 h
Chapter 8: Text 315

The font size can be altered, relative to the global text size, in a number of different ways.
It can be set to predefined size.
\relative b' {
b1_\markup { \huge Sinfonia }
b1^\markup { \teeny da }
b1-\markup { \normalsize camera }
}

º . . .
da

Sinfonia camera

It can be set relative to its previous value.

\relative b' {
b1_\markup { \larger Sinfonia }
b1^\markup { \smaller da }
b1-\markup { \magnify #0.6 camera }
}

º . . .
da

camera
Sinfonia
It can be increased or decreased relative to the value set by the global staff size.
\relative b' {
b1_\markup { \fontsize #-2 Sinfonia }
b1^\markup { \fontsize #1 da }
b1-\markup { \fontsize #3 camera }
}

º . . .
da

Sinfonia camera
It can also be set to a fixed point size, regardless of the global staff size.
\relative b' {
b1_\markup { \abs-fontsize #20 Sinfonia }
b1^\markup { \abs-fontsize #8 da }
b1-\markup { \abs-fontsize #14 camera }
}

º . . .
da

Sinfonia camera
If the text includes spaces, then it is best to put it all inside quote marks, so that the size of
each space is appropriate for the size of the other characters.
\markup \fontsize #6 \bold { Sinfonia da camera }
\markup \fontsize #6 \bold { "Sinfonia da camera" }

Sinfonia da camera
Chapter 8: Text 316

Sinfonia da camera
Text may be printed as subscript or superscript. By default these are printed in a smaller
size, but a normal size can be used as well:
\markup {
\column {
\line { 1 \super st movement }
\line { 1 \normal-size-super st movement
\sub { (part two) } }
}
}

1 st movement
1 st movement (part two)

The markup mode provides an easy way to select alternate font families. A serif font is
selected by default unless specified otherwise; on the last line of the following example, there is
no difference between the first and the second word.
\markup {
\column {
\line { Act \number 1 }
\line { \sans { Scene I. } }
\line { \typewriter { Verona. An open place. } }
\line { Enter \serif Valentine and Proteus. }
}
}

Act1
Scene I.
Verona. An open place.
Enter Valentine and Proteus.
Some of these font families, used for specific items such as numbers or dynamics, do not provide
all characters, as mentioned in Section 3.1.3 [New dynamic marks], page 161, and Section 4.1.8
[Manual repeat marks], page 197.
When used inside a word, some font-switching or formatting commands may produce an
unwanted blank space. This can easily be solved by concatenating the text elements together:
\markup {
\column {
\line {
\concat { 1 \super st }
movement
}
\line {
\concat { \dynamic p , }
\italic { con dolce espressione }
}
}
}

1st movement
p, con dolce espressione
Chapter 8: Text 317

An exhaustive list of font switching commands and custom font usage commands can be
found in Section A.1.1 [Font markup], page 777.
Defining custom font sets is also possible, as explained in Section 8.3 [Fonts], page 327.

Predefined commands
\teeny, \tiny, \small, \normalsize, \large, \huge, \smaller, \larger.

See also
Notation Reference: Section A.1.1 [Font markup], page 777, Section 3.1.3 [New dynamic
marks], page 161, Section 4.1.8 [Manual repeat marks], page 197, Section 8.3 [Fonts],
page 327.
Installed Files: scm/define-markup-commands.scm.
Snippets: Section “Text” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “TextScript” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Using the font sizing commands \teeny, \tiny, \small, \normalsize, \large, and \huge will
lead to inconsistent line spacing compared to using \fontsize.

8.2.3 Text alignment

This subsection discusses how to place text in markup mode. Markup objects can also be moved
as a whole, using the syntax described in Section “Moving objects” in Learning Manual.
Markup objects may be aligned in different ways. By default, a text indication is aligned on
its left edge: in the following example, there is no difference between the first and the second
markup. That example also demonstrates various syntactically correct ways of placing the
alignment commands:
\relative {
d''1-\markup { poco }
f
d-\markup { \left-align poco }
f
d-\markup { \center-align { poco } }
f
d-\markup \right-align { poco }
}

. . .
º . . . .
poco poco poco poco
Horizontal alignment may be fine-tuned using a numeric value:
\relative {
a'1-\markup { \halign #-1 poco }
e'
a,-\markup { \halign #0 poco }
e'
a,-\markup { \halign #0.5 poco }
e'
a,-\markup { \halign #2 poco }
}
Chapter 8: Text 318

. . .
º . . . .
poco poco poco poco
Lastly, words and any other objects may be moved horizontally by preceding them with
\hspace. Negative values are also supported and move any objects that follow into the opposite
direction. Here, we put \hspace into a box to better show its effect.
\relative {
d''1-\markup { poco }
f
d-\markup \concat { \with-color #darkred \box \hspace #4 poco }
f
d-\markup \concat { \with-color #darkred \box \hspace #-4 poco }
f
d-\markup \concat { \with-color #darkred \box \hspace #10 poco }
}

. . .
º . . . .
poco poco poco poco
Some objects may have alignment procedures of their own, and therefore are not affected by
these commands. It is possible to move such markup objects as a whole, as shown for instance
in Section 8.1.5 [Text marks], page 304.
Vertical alignment can be set in a similar way. As stated above, markup objects can be
moved as a whole; however, it is also possible to move specific elements inside a markup block.
\relative {
d'2^\markup {
Acte I
\raise #2 { Scène 1 }
}
a'
g_\markup {
\lower #4 \bold { Très modéré }
}
a
d,^\markup \raise #4 \italic {
Une for^
et.
}
a'4 a g2 a
}

Scène 1 Une forêt.

Acte I

º N N N N N h h N N
Très modéré
Some commands can affect both the horizontal and vertical alignment of text objects in
markup mode:
\relative {
Chapter 8: Text 319

d'2^\markup {
Acte I
\translate #'(2 . 2) "Scène 1"
}
a'
g_\markup {
\general-align #Y #5 \bold "Très modéré"
}
a
d,^\markup \translate-scaled #'(-3 . 2) \teeny {
"Une for^et."
}
a'4 a g2 a
}

Scène 1 Une forêt.

Acte I

º N N N N N h h N N
Très modéré
Note that \vspace can not be used in general to move arbitrary objects up or down within a
\column markup due to the way the latter is implemented. The following naı̈ve approach thus
fails.
\relative {
d'2^\markup {
Acte I
\column {
\vspace #-2
"Scène 1"
}
}
a'
g_\markup \column {
\vspace #1
"Très modéré"
}
a
d,^\markup \column {
"Une for^et."
\vspace #2
}
a'4 a g2 a
}

Acte I Une forêt.

º N N N N N h h N N
Très modéré
What actually works is to put \vspace between two objects that have non-empty extents.
\relative {
Chapter 8: Text 320

d'2^\markup {
Acte I
\column {
" "
\vspace #-2
"Scène 1"
}
}
a'
g_\markup \column {
" "
\vspace #1
"Très modéré"
}
a
d,^\markup \column {
"Une for^et."
\vspace #2
" "
}
a'4 a g2 a
}

Une forêt.

Scène 1
Acte I

º N N N N N
h h N N

Très modéré

A markup object may include several lines of text. In the following example, each element
or expression is placed on its own line, either left-aligned or centered:
\markup {
\column {
a
"b c"
\line { d e f }
}
\hspace #10
\center-column {
a
"b c"
\line { d e f }
}
}

a a
bc bc
def def
Chapter 8: Text 321

Similarly, a list of elements or expressions may be spread to fill the entire horizontal line
width (if there is only one element, it will be centered on the page). These expressions can, in
turn, include multi-line text or any other markup expression:
\markup {
\fill-line {
\line { William S. Gilbert }
\center-column {
\huge \smallCaps "The Mikado"
or
\smallCaps "The Town of Titipu"
}
\line { Sir Arthur Sullivan }
}
}
\markup {
\fill-line { 1885 }
}

William S. Gilbert THE MIKADO Sir Arthur Sullivan

or
THE TOWN OF TITIPU
1885
Elements may be spread to fill any specified width by overriding the line-width property.
By default it is set to #f which indicates the entire line:
\markup {
\column {
\fill-line { left center right }
\null
\override #'(line-width . 30)
\fill-line { left center right }
}
}

left center right

left center right

Long text indications can also be automatically wrapped accordingly to the given line width.
These will be either left-aligned or justified, as shown in the following example.
\markup {
\column {
\line \smallCaps { La vida breve }
\line \bold { Acto I }
\wordwrap \italic {
(La escena representa el corral de una casa de
gitanos en el Albaicı́n de Granada. Al fondo una
puerta por la que se ve el negro interior de
una Fragua, iluminado por los rojos resplandores
del fuego.)
}
Chapter 8: Text 322

\hspace #0

\line \bold { Acto II }

\override #'(line-width . 50)
\justify \italic {
(Calle de Granada. Fachada de la casa de Carmela
y su hermano Manuel con grandes ventanas abiertas
a través de las que se ve el patio
donde se celebra una alegre fiesta)
}
}
}

LA VIDA BREVE
Acto I
(La escena representa el corral de una casa de gitanos en el Albaicín de
Granada. Al fondo una puerta por la que se ve el negro interior de una
Fragua, iluminado por los rojos resplandores del fuego.)
Acto II
(Calle de Granada. Fachada de la casa de Carmela
y su hermano Manuel con grandes ventanas
abiertas a través de las que se ve el patio donde se
celebra una alegre fiesta)
An exhaustive list of text alignment commands can be found in Section A.1.2 [Markup for
text alignment], page 789.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Moving objects” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section A.1.2 [Markup for text alignment], page 789, Section 8.1.5
[Text marks], page 304.
Installed Files: scm/define-markup-commands.scm.
Snippets: Section “Text” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “TextScript” in Internals Reference.

8.2.4 Graphic notation inside markup

Various graphic objects may be added to a score, using markup commands.
Some markup commands allow decoration of text elements with graphics, as demonstrated
in the following example.
\markup \fill-line {
\center-column {
\circle Jack
\box "in the box"
\null
\line {
Erik Satie
\hspace #3
\bracket "1866 - 1925"
}
Chapter 8: Text 323

\null
\rounded-box \bold Prelude
}
}

Jack
in the box

Erik Satie 1866 - 1925

Prelude

Some commands may require an increase in the padding around the text; this is achieved with
some markup commands exhaustively described in Section A.1.2 [Markup for text alignment],
page 789.
\markup \fill-line {
\center-column {
\box "Charles Ives (1874 - 1954)"
\null
\box \pad-markup #2 "THE UNANSWERED QUESTION"
\box \pad-x #8 "A Cosmic Landscape"
\null
}
}
\markup \column {
\line {
\hspace #10
\box \pad-to-box #'(-5 . 20) #'(0 . 5)
\bold "Largo to Presto"
}
\box \pad-around #3 "String quartet keeps very even time."
}

Charles Ives (1874 - 1954)

THE UNANSWERED QUESTION

A Cosmic Landscape

Largo to Presto

String quartet keeps very even time.

Other graphic elements or symbols may be printed without requiring any text. As with any
markup expression, such objects can be combined.
\markup {
\combine
Chapter 8: Text 324

\draw-circle #4 #0.4 ##f

\filled-box #'(-4 . 4) #'(-0.5 . 0.5) #1
\hspace #5

\center-column {
\triangle ##t
\combine
\draw-line #'(0 . 4)
\arrow-head #Y #DOWN ##f
}
}

5
Advanced graphic features include the ability to include external image files converted to the
Encapsulated PostScript format (eps), or to directly embed graphics into the input file, using
native PostScript code. In such a case, it may be useful to explicitly specify the size of the
drawing, as demonstrated below:
c'1^\markup {
\combine
\epsfile #X #10 "./context-example.eps"
\with-dimensions #'(0 . 6) #'(0 . 10)
\postscript "
-2 3 translate
2.7 2 scale
newpath
2 -1 moveto
4 -2 4 1 1 arct
4 2 3 3 1 arct
0 4 0 3 1 arct
0 0 1 -1 1 arct
closepath
stroke"
}
c'

º . .
An exhaustive list of graphics-specific commands can be found in Section A.1.3 [Graphical
markup], page 806.

See also
Notation Reference: Section A.1.2 [Markup for text alignment], page 789, Section 36.3 [Di-
mensions], page 748, Chapter 7 [Editorial annotations], page 268, Section A.1.3 [Graphical
markup], page 806.
Chapter 8: Text 325

Installed Files: scm/define-markup-commands.scm, scm/stencil.scm.

Snippets: Section “Text” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “TextScript” in Internals Reference.

8.2.5 Music notation inside markup

Various musical notation elements may be added to a score, inside a markup object.
Notes and accidentals can be entered using markup commands:
a'2 a'^\markup {
\note {4} #1
=
\note-by-number #1 #1 #1.5
}
b'1_\markup {
\natural \semiflat \flat
\sesquiflat \doubleflat
}
\glissando
a'1_\markup {
\natural \semisharp \sharp
\sesquisharp \doublesharp
}
\glissando b'

h = NP
º N N . . .



Other notation objects may also be printed in markup mode:
\relative {
g1 bes
ees\finger \markup \tied-lyric "4~1"
fis_\markup { \dynamic rf }
bes^\markup {
\beam #8 #0.1 #0.5
}
cis
d-\markup {
\markalphabet #8
\markletter #8
}
}

º
·
. . .
. .
. . rf HH
More generally, any available musical symbol may be included separately in a markup object,
as demonstrated below; an exhaustive list of these symbols and their names can be found in
Section B.8 [The Emmentaler font], page 871.
Chapter 8: Text 326

\relative {
c''2
c'^\markup { \musicglyph "eight" }
c,4_\markup { \left-brace #40 }
c,8._\markup { \musicglyph "clefs.G_change" }
c16
c2^\markup { \musicglyph "timesig.neomensural94" }
}

N8 Ï
º N h
hP h N

The markup mode also supports diagrams for specific instruments:
\relative {
c''1^\markup {
\fret-diagram-terse "x;x;o;2;3;2;"
}
c^\markup {
\harp-pedal "^-v|--ov^"
}
c
c^\markup {
\combine
\musicglyph "accordion.discant"
\combine
\raise #0.5 \musicglyph "accordion.dot"
\raise #1.5 \musicglyph "accordion.dot"
}
}

(('
X X O

º . . . .

Such diagrams are documented in Section A.1.6 [Instrument-specific markup], page 829.
A whole score can even be nested inside a markup object:
\relative {
c'4 d^\markup {
\score {
\relative { c'4 d e f }
}
}
e f |
c d e f
}
Chapter 8: Text 327

º
h h h h
º h h h h
h h h h
An exhaustive list of music notation related commands can be found in Section A.1.4 [Markup
for music and musical symbols], page 817.

See also
Notation Reference: Section A.1.4 [Markup for music and musical symbols], page 817, Sec-
tion B.8 [The Emmentaler font], page 871.
Installed Files: scm/define-markup-commands.scm, scm/fret-diagrams.scm,
scm/harp-pedals.scm.
Snippets: Section “Text” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “TextScript” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Vertical spacing of a \score inside a markup object is controlled by baseline-skip. Any
\paper settings are ignored.

8.3 Fonts
Fonts in LilyPond are handled by several libraries; two of them are of relevance to the user:
FontConfig (https://fontconfig.org) is used to detect available fonts, and selected fonts are
then rendered by Pango (https://pango.org) to display text strings.
This section shows how to access fonts in LilyPond, and how to change them in scores.

8.3.1 Finding fonts

In addition to any font already installed on the operating system, more fonts may be added
to the ones detected by FontConfig (and thus available in LilyPond scores) by the following
commands:
#(ly:font-config-add-font "path/to/font-file")
#(ly:font-config-add-directory "path/to/directory/")
Both commands accept either absolute or relative paths, which makes it possible to compile a
score on any system by simply distributing the relevant font files together with the LilyPond
input files.
To verify that the desired fonts are found by FontConfig, use the command
#(ly:font-config-display-fonts), which prints the complete list of available fonts to the
console log. It also shows the actual font names to be used with LilyPond; these may differ
from the file names themselves. Alternatively, running lilypond -dshow-available-fonts in
a terminal has the same effect.

8.3.2 Font families

Three generic aliases for text font families1 are available: ‘serif’, ‘sans’, and ‘typewriter’. De-
pending on the backend, these families get mapped to different font family aliases.
For the svg backend:
1
In its simplest form, a font family usually contains fonts in roman, italic, bold, and bold italic styles.
Chapter 8: Text 328

generic family SVG font family

serif serif
sans sans-serif
typewriter monospace
‘serif’, ‘sans-serif’, and ‘monospace’ are ‘generic-family’ in SVG and CSS specifications.
For other backends:
generic family default font family alias font families contained in alias
serif LilyPond Serif C059, Century SchoolBook URW,
Century Schoolbook L, TeX Gyre
Schola, DejaVu Serif, . . . , serif
sans LilyPond Sans Serif Nimbus Sans, Nimbus Sans L, TeX
Gyre Heros, DejaVu Sans, . . . , sans-
serif
typewriter LilyPond Monospace Nimbus Mono PS, Nimbus Mono,
Nimbus Mono L, TeX Gyre Cursor,
DejaVu Sans Mono, . . . , monospace
If a character does not exist in the appropriate font of the first listed family, the appropriate
font of the next listed family gets used instead for that character.
Note that the URW font families distributed with LilyPond (‘C059’, ‘Nimbus Sans’, and
‘Nimbus Mono PS’) have a peculiarity: By default, in addition to the standard ligatures like ‘fl’
or ‘ffi’, they substitute the string ‘Nr.’ with the Numero Sign (U+2116) if the ‘latn’ script is
selected. To circumvent this locally, insert a zero-width non-joiner character (ZWNJ, U+200C)
between the ‘N’ and ‘r’ characters. To circumvent this globally, use the following code to make
LilyPond always insert a ZWNJ character.
\paper {
#(add-text-replacements!
`(("Nr." . ,(format #f "N~ar." (ly:wide-char->utf-8 #x200C)))))
}
‘LilyPond Serif’, ‘LilyPond Sans Serif’, and ‘LilyPond Monospace’ are font family aliases
defined in the additional FontConfig configuration file 00-lilypond-fonts.conf, which can
be usually found in directory /usr/local/share/lilypond/2.25.27/fonts, and which is used
exclusively by LilyPond.
Each font family may include different shapes and series. The following example demonstrates
that, including code to also change the size. The value supplied to font-size is taken relative
to the default font size.
\override Score.TextMark.font-family = #'typewriter
\textMark "Ouverture"
\override Voice.TextScript.font-shape = #'italic
\override Voice.TextScript.font-series = #'bold
d''2.^\markup "Allegro"
\override Voice.TextScript.font-size = -3
c''4^"smaller"
Ouverture

NP h
smaller

º
Allegro

A similar syntax may be used in markup mode; however, in most cases it is preferable to use
the simpler syntax explained in Section 8.2.2 [Selecting font and font size], page 314:
\markup {
Chapter 8: Text 329

\column {
\line {
\override #'((font-shape . italic) (font-size . 4))
Idomeneo,
}
\line {
\override #'(font-family . typewriter) {
\override #'(font-series . bold) re
di
}
\override #'(font-family . sans) Creta
}
}
}

Idomeneo,
re di Creta
8.3.3 Font features
When using OpenType fonts, font features can be used.2 Note that not all OpenType fonts
have all features. If you request a feature that does not exist in the chosen font, the feature is
simply ignored. The example below uses the font ‘TeX Gyre Schola’ (this is, the roman style of
the family).
\paper {
property-defaults.fonts.serif = "TeX Gyre Schola"
}

\markup "normal style: Hello HELLO"

\markup \caps "small caps: Hello"

\markup \override #'(font-features . ("smcp")) "true small caps: Hello"

\markup "normal number style: 0123456789"

\markup \override #'(font-features . ("onum"))

"old number style: 0123456789"

\markup \override #'(font-features . ("salt 0"))

"stylistic alternate 0: ϵϕπρθ"

\markup \override #'(font-features . ("salt 1"))

"stylistic alternate 1: ϵϕπρθ"

\markup \override #'(font-features . ("onum" "smcp" "salt 1"))

"multiple features: Hello 0123456789 ϵϕπρθ"

normal style: Hello HELLO

SMALL CAPS: HELLO

2
Selecting OpenType font scripts and languages is not supported yet.
Chapter 8: Text 330

true small caps: Hello

normal number style: 0123456789

old number style: 0123456789

stylistic alternate 0: εφπρθ

stylistic alternate 1: ϵϕϖϱϑ

multiple features: Hello 0123456789 ϵϕϖϱϑ

For the full OpenType font feature list see https://www.microsoft.com/typography/
otspec/featurelist.htm; for identifying features of OpenType fonts see https://lists.gnu.
org/archive/html/lilypond-devel/2017-08/msg00004.html.

See also
Notation Reference: Section B.8 [The Emmentaler font], page 871, Section 8.2.5 [Music nota-
tion inside markup], page 325, Section 36.8 [Rotating objects], page 763, Section 8.2.2 [Select-
ing font and font size], page 314, Section A.1.1 [Font markup], page 777.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 8.3.1 [Finding fonts], page 327, Section 8.3.2 [Font families],
page 327, Section 8.3.4 [Changing fonts], page 330.
Snippets: Section “Text” in Snippets.

8.3.4 Changing fonts

It is possible to change the fonts used in LilyPond’s default font families.
\paper {
property-defaults.fonts.serif = "Linux Libertine O"
property-defaults.fonts.sans = "DejaVu Sans"
property-defaults.fonts.typewriter = "DejaVu Sans Mono"
}

\relative c'{
c1-\markup {
serif,
\sans sans,
\typewriter typewriter. }
}

º
.serif, sans, typewriter.
The same syntax can be used to change the music font; see Section 23.5 [Replacing the
notation font], page 624.
To change the fonts used for one specific grob, or one specific part of a markup, override
the fonts property. The following example changes the font for normal tablature “note heads”
Chapter 8: Text 331

(which use the serif family) while keeping the default font for those that are drawn as a cross
(which use the music family).
\layout {
\override TabVoice.TabNoteHead.property-defaults.fonts.serif =
"Linux Libertine O"
}

\new TabStaff { c' d' e' \deadNote c' }

j
/
0
1 3

Below is an example for overriding fonts in markup:

\markup \override #'(fonts . ((serif . "Linux Libertine O")
(typewriter . "DejaVu Sans Mono"))) {
Copyright ⃝c John Doe \typewriter [email protected]
}

Copyright © John Doe [email protected]

See also
Notation Reference: Section 8.3.1 [Finding fonts], page 327, Section 8.3.2 [Font families],
page 327, Section 8.2.2 [Selecting font and font size], page 314, Section A.1.1 [Font markup],
page 777, Section 23.5 [Replacing the notation font], page 624.
Specialist notation
 335

9 Vocal music

NP h h h h h h
 3   h h ¢h N hh h h 
Recitativo
216 Baritono
h
4 T TT
O Freun de, nicht die se Tö ne!
hP h h h h h h h h h h h
 ” ” N h  h 
222

T
Son dern laßt uns an ge

h hP h h h
 h h h h  
 hT h h    
228

T
neh me re an stim men, und freu
hhhhh
h hhhhh N hzP h h h
ad libitum
  
232

h h h h h h
T T
den vol le re!
This section explains how to typeset vocal music, and make sure that the lyrics will be aligned
with the notes of their melody.

9.1 Common notation for vocal music

This section discusses issues common to most types of vocal music.

9.1.1 References for vocal music

This section indicates where to find details of notation issues that may arise in any type of vocal
music.
• Most styles of vocal music use written text as lyrics. An introduction to this notation is to
be found in Section “Setting simple songs” in Learning Manual.
• Vocal music is likely to require the use of markup mode, either for lyrics or for other text
elements (characters’ names, etc.). This syntax is described in Section 8.2.1 [Text markup
introduction], page 310.
• Ambitus may be added at the beginning of vocal staves, as explained in Section 1.3.7
[Ambitus], page 40.
• Dynamic markings by default are placed below the staff, but in choral music they are usually
placed above the staff in order to avoid the lyrics, as explained in Section 9.5.2 [Score layouts
for choral], page 378.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “ambitus” in Music Glossary.
Learning Manual: Section “Setting simple songs” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 8.2.1 [Text markup introduction], page 310, Section 1.3.7
[Ambitus], page 40, Section 9.5.2 [Score layouts for choral], page 378.
Snippets: Section “Vocal music” in Snippets.
Chapter 9: Vocal music 336

9.1.2 Entering lyrics

Lyrics are entered in a special input mode, which can be introduced by the keyword \lyricmode,
or by using \addlyrics or \lyricsto. In this special input mode, the input d is not parsed as
the pitch D, but rather as a one-letter syllable of text. In other words, syllables are entered like
notes but with pitches replaced by text.
For example:
\lyricmode { Three4 blind mice,2 three4 blind mice2 }
There are two main methods for specifying the horizontal placement of the syllables, either by
specifying the duration of each syllable explicitly, as in the example above, or by leaving the lyrics
to be aligned automatically to a melody or other voice of music, using \addlyrics or \lyricsto.
The former method is described below in Section 9.1.5 [Manual syllable durations], page 341.
The latter method is described in Section 9.1.4 [Automatic syllable durations], page 339.
A word or syllable of lyrics begins with an alphabetic character (plus some other characters,
see below) and is terminated by any white space or a digit. Later characters in the syllable can
be any character that is not a digit or white space.
Because any character that is not a digit or white space is regarded as part of the syllable, a
word is valid even if it ends with }, which often leads to the following mistake:
\lyricmode { lah lah lah}
In this example, the } is included in the final syllable, so the opening brace is not balanced
and the input file will probably not compile. Instead, braces should always be surrounded with
white space:
\lyricmode { lah lah lah }
Punctuation, lyrics with accented characters, characters from non-English languages, or spe-
cial characters (such as the heart symbol or slanted quotes), may simply be inserted directly into
the input file, providing it is saved with UTF-8 encoding. For more information, see Section 22.4
[Special characters], page 618.
\relative { d''8 c16 a bes8 f ees' d c4 }
\addlyrics { Schad’ um das schö -- ne grü -- ne Band, }

º h h h h h h h h
„Schad’ um das schö ne grü ne Band,
Normal quotes may be used in lyrics, but they have to be preceded with a backslash character
and the whole syllable has to be enclosed between additional quotes. For example,
\relative { \time 3/4 e'4 e4. e8 d4 e d c2. }
\addlyrics { "\"I" am so lone -- "ly,\"" said she }

 43 h h P h h h h
NP
"I am so lone ly," said she
The full definition of a word start in lyrics mode is somewhat more complex. A word in
lyrics mode is one that begins with an alphabetic character, _, ?, !, :, ', the control characters
^A through ^F, ^Q through ^W, ^Y, ^^, any 8-bit character with an ASCII code over 127, or a
two-character combination of a backslash followed by one of `, ', ", or ^.
Great control over the appearance of lyrics comes from using \markup inside the lyrics them-
selves. For explanation of many options, see Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310.
Chapter 9: Vocal music 337

Selected Snippets
Formatting lyrics syllables
Markup mode may be used to format individual syllables in lyrics.
mel = \relative c'' { c4 c c c c1 }
lyr = \lyricmode {
Your lyrics \markup { \italic can } \markup { \with-color #red contain }
\markup { \fontsize #8 \bold Markup! }
}

<<
\new Voice = melody \mel
\new Lyrics \lyricsto melody \lyr
>>

º h h h h .
Your lyrics can contain Markup!
See also
Learning Manual: Section “Songs” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 9.1.4 [Automatic syllable durations], page 339, Section 8.3
[Fonts], page 327, Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310, Chapter 19 [Input modes], page 565,
Section 9.1.5 [Manual syllable durations], page 341, Section 22.4 [Special characters], page 618.
Internals Reference: Section “LyricText” in Internals Reference.
Snippets: Section “Text” in Snippets.

9.1.3 Aligning lyrics to a melody

Lyrics are interpreted in \lyricmode and printed in a Lyrics context, see Section 33.1 [Contexts
explained], page 708.
\new Lyrics \lyricmode { ... }
Two variants of \lyricmode additionally set an associated context used to synchronize the
lyric syllables to music. The more convenient \addlyrics immediately follows the musical
content of the Voice context with which it should be synchronized, implicitly creating a Lyrics
context of its own. The more versatile \lyricsto requires both specifying the associated Voice
context by name and explicitly creating a containing Lyrics context. For details see Section 9.1.4
[Automatic syllable durations], page 339.
Lyrics can be aligned with melodies in two main ways:
• Lyrics can be aligned automatically, with the durations of the syllables being taken from
another voice of music or (in special circumstances) an associated melody, using \addlyrics,
\lyricsto, or by setting the associatedVoice property. For more details, see Section 9.1.4
[Automatic syllable durations], page 339.
<<
\new Staff <<
\time 2/4
\new Voice = "one" \relative {
\voiceOne
c''4 b8. a16 g4. r8 a4 ( b ) c2
Chapter 9: Vocal music 338

}
\new Voice = "two" \relative {
\voiceTwo
s2 s4. f'8 e4 d c2
}
>>

% takes durations and alignment from notes in "one"

\new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" {
Life is __ _ love, live __ life.
}

% takes durations and alignment from notes in "one" initially

% then switches to "two"
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" {
No more let
\set associatedVoice = "two" % must be set one syllable early
sins and sor -- rows grow.
}
>>

h P ¢ N
2
4 h h h P h hh h
T h N
Life is love, live life.
No more let sins and sor rows grow.

The first stanza shows the normal way of entering lyrics.

The second stanza shows how the voice from which the lyric durations are taken can be
changed. This is useful if the words to different stanzas fit the notes in different ways and
all the durations are available in Voice contexts. For more details, see Section 9.3 [Stanzas],
page 368.
• Lyrics can be aligned independently of the duration of any notes if the durations of the
syllables are specified explicitly, and entered with \lyricmode.
<<
\new Voice = "one" \relative {
\time 2/4
c''4 b8. a16 g4. f8 e4 d c2
}

% uses previous explicit duration of 2;

\new Lyrics \lyricmode {
Joy to the earth!
}

% explicit durations, set to a different rhythm

\new Lyrics \lyricmode {
Life4 is love,2. live4 life.2
}
>>
Chapter 9: Vocal music 339

 42 h h P h h P h h h N
Joy to the earth!
Life is love, live life.
The first stanza is not aligned with the notes because the durations were not specified, and
the previous value of 2 is used for each word.
The second stanza shows how the words can be aligned quite independently from the notes.
This is useful if the words to different stanzas fit the notes in different ways and the required
durations are not available in a music context. For more details see Section 9.1.5 [Manual
syllable durations], page 341. This technique is also useful when setting dialogue over music;
for examples showing this, see Section 9.6.5 [Dialogue over music], page 387.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Aligning lyrics to a melody” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 33.1 [Contexts explained], page 708, Section 9.1.4 [Automatic
syllable durations], page 339, Section 9.3 [Stanzas], page 368, Section 9.1.5 [Manual syllable
durations], page 341, Section 9.6.5 [Dialogue over music], page 387, Section 9.1.5 [Manual
syllable durations], page 341.
Internals Reference: Section “Lyrics” in Internals Reference.

9.1.4 Automatic syllable durations

Lyrics can be automatically aligned to the notes of a melody in three ways:
• by specifying the named Voice context containing the melody with \lyricsto,
• by introducing the lyrics with \addlyrics and placing them immediately after the Voice
context containing the melody,
• by setting the associatedVoice property, the alignment of the lyrics may be switched to
a different named Voice context at any musical moment.
In all three methods hyphens can be drawn between the syllables of a word and extender
lines can be drawn beyond the end of a word. For details, see Section 9.1.8 [Extenders and
hyphens], page 347.
The Voice context containing the melody to which the lyrics are being aligned must not have
“died”, or the lyrics after that point will be lost. This can happen if there are periods when
that voice has nothing to do. For methods of keeping contexts alive, see Section 33.3 [Keeping
contexts alive], page 714.

Using \lyricsto
Lyrics can be aligned under a melody automatically by specifying the named Voice context
containing the melody with \lyricsto:
<<
\new Voice = "melody" \relative {
a'1 a4. a8 a2
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
These are the words
}
>>
Chapter 9: Vocal music 340

º . hP h N
These are the words
This aligns the lyrics to the notes of the named Voice context, which must already exist. There-
fore normally the Voice context is specified first, followed by the Lyrics context. The lyrics
themselves follow the \lyricsto command. The \lyricsto command invokes lyric mode au-
tomatically. By default, the lyrics are placed underneath the notes. For other placements, see
Section 9.2.2 [Placing lyrics vertically], page 349.

Using \addlyrics
The \addlyrics command is just a convenient shortcut that can sometimes be used instead of
having to set up the lyrics through a more complicated LilyPond structure.
{ MUSIC }
\addlyrics { LYRICS }
is the same as
\new Voice = "blah" { MUSIC }
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "blah" { LYRICS }
Here is an example,
{
\time 3/4
\relative { c'2 e4 g2. }
\addlyrics { play the game }
}

 43 NP
N h
play the game

More stanzas can be added by adding more \addlyrics sections:

{
\time 3/4
\relative { c'2 e4 g2. }
\addlyrics { play the game }
\addlyrics { speel het spel }
\addlyrics { joue le jeu }
}

 43 NP
N h
play the game
speel het spel
joue le jeu

The command \addlyrics cannot handle polyphonic settings. Also, it cannot be used to
associate lyrics to a TabVoice. For these cases one should use \lyricsto.
Chapter 9: Vocal music 341

Using associatedVoice
The melody to which the lyrics are being aligned can be changed by setting the associatedVoice
property,
\set associatedVoice = "lala"
The value of the property (here: "lala") should be the name of a Voice context. For
technical reasons, the \set command must be placed one syllable before the one to which the
change in voice is to apply.
Here is an example demonstrating its use:
<<
\new Staff <<
\time 2/4
\new Voice = "one" \relative {
\voiceOne
c''4 b8. a16 g4. r8 a4 ( b ) c2
}
\new Voice = "two" \relative {
\voiceTwo
s2 s4. f'8 e8 d4. c2
}
>>
% takes durations and alignment from notes in "one" initially
% then switches to "two"
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" {
No more let
\set associatedVoice = "two" % must be set one syllable early
sins and sor -- rows grow.
}
>>

2 h h P ¢ N
4 h h h hh h Ph
P
T T N
No more let sins and sor rows grow.
See also
Notation Reference: Section 9.1.8 [Extenders and hyphens], page 347, Section 33.3 [Keeping
contexts alive], page 714, Section 9.2.2 [Placing lyrics vertically], page 349.

9.1.5 Manual syllable durations

In some complex vocal music, it may be desirable to place lyrics completely independently of
notes. In this case do not use \lyricsto or \addlyrics and do not set associatedVoice.
Syllables are entered like notes – but with pitches replaced by text – and the duration of each
syllable is entered explicitly after the syllable.
Hyphenated lines may be drawn between syllables as usual, but extender lines cannot be
drawn when there is no associated voice.
Here are two examples:
<<
\new Voice = "melody" \relative {
c''2 a f f e e
Chapter 9: Vocal music 342

}
\new Lyrics \lyricmode {
c4. -- a -- f -- f -- e2. -- e
}
>>

º N N N N N N
c a f f e e
<<
\new Staff {
\relative {
c''2 c2
d1
}
}
\new Lyrics {
\lyricmode {
I2 like4. my8 cat!1
}
}
\new Staff {
\relative {
c'8 c c c c c c c
c8 c c c c c c c
}
}
>>

.
º N N
I like my cat!

º hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh
This technique is useful when writing dialogue over music, see Section 9.6.5 [Dialogue over
music], page 387.
To change syllable alignment, simply override the self-alignment-X property:
<<
\new Voice = "melody" \relative {
\time 3/4
c'2 e4 g2 f
}
\new Lyrics \lyricmode {
\override LyricText.self-alignment-X = #LEFT
play1 a4 game4
}
>>
Chapter 9: Vocal music 343

 43
N h N N
play a game
See also
Notation Reference: Section 9.6.5 [Dialogue over music], page 387.
Internals Reference: Section “Lyrics” in Internals Reference, Section “Voice” in Internals
Reference.

9.1.6 Multiple syllables to one note

In order to assign more than one syllable to a single note with spaces between the syllables, you
can surround the phrase with quotes or use a _ character. Alternatively, you can use the tilde
symbol (~) to get a lyric tie.
{
\relative {
\autoBeamOff
r8 b' c fis, fis c' b e,
}
\addlyrics
{
% Ensure hyphens are visible
\override LyricHyphen.minimum-distance = 1.0
Che_in ques -- ta_e_in quel -- l'al -- tr'on -- da
}
\addlyrics { "Che in" ques -- "ta e in" quel -- l'al -- tr'on -- da }
\addlyrics { Che~in ques -- ta~e~in quel -- l'al -- tr'on -- da }
}

º ¢h h h h hT h
T T T h
Che in ques ta e in quel l'al tr'on da
Che in ques ta e in quel l'al tr'on da
· ¸ ¸
Che in ques ta e in quel l'al tr'on da

See also
Internals Reference: Section “LyricCombineMusic” in Internals Reference.

9.1.7 Multiple notes to one syllable

Sometimes, particularly in medieval and Baroque music, several notes are sung on one syllable;
this is called melisma, see Section “melisma” in Music Glossary. The syllable to a melisma is
usually left-aligned with the first note of the melisma.
When a melisma occurs on a syllable other than the last one in a word, that syllable is usually
joined to the following one with a hyphenated line. This is indicated by placing a double hyphen,
--, immediately after the syllable.
Alternatively, when a melisma occurs on the last or only syllable in a word an extender line
is usually drawn from the end of the syllable to the last note of the melisma. This is indicated
by placing a double underscore, __, immediately after the word.
Chapter 9: Vocal music 344

There are five ways in which melismata can be indicated:

• Melismata are created automatically over notes which are tied together:
<<
\new Voice = "melody" \relative {
\time 3/4
f''4 g2 ~ |
4 e2 ~ |
8
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
Ky -- ri -- e __
}
>>

3 h N hN h
4 T
Ky ri e
• Melismata can be created automatically from the music by placing slurs over the notes of
each melisma. This is the usual way of entering lyrics:
<<
\new Voice = "melody" \relative {
\time 3/4
f''4 g8 ( f e f )
e8 ( d e2 )
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
Ky -- ri -- e __
}
>>

3 h hhhh hhN
4
Ky ri e
Note that phrasing slurs do not affect the creation of melismata.
• Notes are considered a melisma if they are manually beamed, providing automatic beaming
is switched off. See Section 2.4.2 [Setting automatic beam behavior], page 101.
<<
\new Voice = "melody" \relative {
\time 3/4
\autoBeamOff
f''4 g8[ f e f]
e2.
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
Ky -- ri -- e
}
>>
Chapter 9: Vocal music 345

3 h h h h h NP
4
Ky ri e
Clearly this is not suited to melismata over notes which are longer than eighth notes.
• An unslurred group of notes will be treated as a melisma if they are bracketed between
\melisma and \melismaEnd.
<<
\new Voice = "melody" \relative {
\time 3/4
f''4 g8
\melisma
f e f
\melismaEnd
e2.
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
Ky -- ri -- e
}
>>

3 h h h h h NP
4
Ky ri e
• A melisma can be defined entirely in the lyrics by entering a single underscore character, _,
for every extra note that has to be added to the melisma.
<<
\new Voice = "melody" \relative {
\time 3/4
f''4 g8 f e f
e8 d e2
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
Ky -- ri -- _ _ _ e __ _ _
}
>>

3 h hhhh hhN
4
Ky ri e
It is possible to have ties, slurs and manual beams in the melody without their indicating
melismata. To do this, set melismaBusyProperties:
<<
\new Voice = "melody" \relative {
\time 3/4
\set melismaBusyProperties = #'()
c'4 d ( e )
g8 [ f ] f4 ~ 4
Chapter 9: Vocal music 346

}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
Ky -- ri -- e e -- le -- i -- son
}
>>

 43 h h h h h h
h
Ky ri e e le i son
Other settings for melismaBusyProperties can be used to selectively include or exclude ties,
slurs, and beams from the automatic detection of melismata; see melismaBusyProperties in
Section “Tunable context properties” in Internals Reference.
Alternatively, if all melismata indications are to be ignored, ignoreMelismata may be set
true; see Section 9.3.4 [Stanzas with different rhythms], page 370.
If a melisma is required during a passage in which melismaBusyProperties is active, it may
be indicated by placing a single underscore in the lyrics for each note which should be included
in the melisma:
<<
\new Voice = "melody" \relative {
\time 3/4
\set melismaBusyProperties = #'()
c'4 d ( e )
g8 [ f ] ~ 4 ~ f
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
Ky -- ri -- _ e __ _ _ _
}
>>

 43 h h h h h h
h
Ky ri e
Predefined commands
\autoBeamOff, \autoBeamOn, \melisma, \melismaEnd.

See also
Musical Glossary: Section “melisma” in Music Glossary.
Learning Manual: Section “Aligning lyrics to a melody” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 9.1.3 [Aligning lyrics to a melody], page 337, Section 9.1.4
[Automatic syllable durations], page 339, Section 2.4.2 [Setting automatic beam behavior],
page 101, Section 9.3.4 [Stanzas with different rhythms], page 370.
Internals Reference: Section “Tunable context properties” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Extender lines under melismata are not created automatically; they must be inserted manually
with a double underscore.
Chapter 9: Vocal music 347

9.1.8 Extenders and hyphens

In the last syllable of a word, melismata are sometimes indicated with a long horizontal line
starting in the melisma syllable, and ending in the next one. Such a line is called an extender
line, and it is entered manually as ‘ __ ’ (note the spaces before and after the two underscore
characters). It is also possible to create extender lines automatically by setting autoExtenders
to #t.
☛ ✟
Note: Melismata are indicated in the score with extender lines, which
are entered as one double underscore; but short melismata can also
be entered by skipping individual notes, which are entered as single
underscore characters; these do not make an extender line to be typeset
by default.
✡ ✠

Centered hyphens are entered as ‘ -- ’ between syllables of a same word (note the spaces
before and after the two hyphen characters). The hyphen will be centered between the syllables,
and its length will be adjusted depending on the space between the syllables.
In tightly engraved music, hyphens can be removed. Whether this happens can be controlled
with the minimum-distance (minimum distance between two syllables) and the minimum-length
(threshold below which hyphens are removed) properties of LyricHyphen.
By default a hyphen is not repeated after a system break when the next line begins with a
new syllable. Setting the after-line-breaking property to #t allows hyphens to be drawn in
such situations.

See also
Internals Reference: Section “LyricExtender” in Internals Reference, Section “LyricHyphen”
in Internals Reference.

9.1.9 Gradual changes of vowel

Vowel transitions (gradual changes of vowel or sustained consonant), which may be indicated
by arrows between syllables, are entered with the command \vowelTransition (see Gould pp.
452–453). The arrow shows the length of the transition, and it is by default always drawn (space
is added if necessary in tightly engraved music). Ties between notes of unchanged pitch or slurs
show that there is no new articulation, despite a change of vowel. The minimum length of the
arrows may be adjusted with the minimum-length property of VowelTransition.
{
c'2 c'
\set melismaBusyProperties = #'()
c'2 ~ c'
\time 3/2
d'4( e' f' e' f'2
e'2.)
}
\addlyrics
{
Ah \vowelTransition oh,
ah \vowelTransition oh,
ah \vowelTransition _ _ _ _
oh.
}
Chapter 9: Vocal music 348

º 3
2 h h h h N NP
N N N N
Ah oh, ah oh, ah oh.
See also
Musical Glossary: Section “vowel transition” in Music Glossary.
Internals Reference: Section “VowelTransition” in Internals Reference.

9.2 Techniques specific to lyrics

9.2.1 Working with lyrics and variables
Variables containing lyrics can be created, but the lyrics must be entered in lyric mode:
musicOne = \relative {
c''4 b8. a16 g4. f8 e4 d c2
}
verseOne = \lyricmode {
Joy to the world, the Lord is come.
}
\score {
<<
\new Voice = "one" {
\time 2/4
\musicOne
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" {
\verseOne
}
>>
}

 42 h h P h hP h h h
N
Joy to the world, the Lord is come.
Durations do not need to be added if the variable is to be invoked with \addlyrics or
\lyricsto.
For different or more complex orderings, the best way is to define the music and lyric variables
first, then set up the hierarchy of staves and lyrics, omitting the lyrics themselves, and then add
the lyrics using \context underneath. This ensures that the voices referenced by \lyricsto
have always been defined earlier. For example:
sopranoMusic = \relative { c''4 c c c }
contraltoMusic = \relative { a'4 a a a }
sopranoWords = \lyricmode { Sop -- ra -- no words }
contraltoWords = \lyricmode { Con -- tral -- to words }

\score {
\new ChoirStaff <<
\new Staff {
\new Voice = "sopranos" {
Chapter 9: Vocal music 349

\sopranoMusic
}
}
\new Lyrics = "sopranos"
\new Lyrics = "contraltos"
\new Staff {
\new Voice = "contraltos" {
\contraltoMusic
}
}
\context Lyrics = "sopranos" {
\lyricsto "sopranos" {
\sopranoWords
}
}
\context Lyrics = "contraltos" {
\lyricsto "contraltos" {
\contraltoWords
}
}
>>
}

7
º h h h h
Sop ra no words
Con tral to words
º h h h h
6
See also
Notation Reference: Section 9.2.2 [Placing lyrics vertically], page 349.
Internals Reference: Section “LyricCombineMusic” in Internals Reference, Section “Lyrics”
in Internals Reference.

9.2.2 Placing lyrics vertically

Depending on the type of music, lyrics may be positioned above the staff, below the staff, or
between staves. Placing lyrics below the associated staff is the easiest, and can be achieved by
simply defining the Lyrics context below the Staff context:
\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\new Voice = "melody" {
\relative { c''4 c c c }
}
}
\new Lyrics {
\lyricsto "melody" {
Here are the words
}
Chapter 9: Vocal music 350

}
>>
}

º h h h h
Here are the words
Lyrics may be positioned above a staff using one of two methods. The simplest (and preferred)
method is to use the same syntax as described above, explicitly specifying the position of the
lyrics. The argument to alignAboveContext is the name of a Staff context or one of its siblings
(using Voice doesn’t work).
Use alignBelowContext to position lyrics below a staff. This is usually only needed to
enforce alignment to a staff that is not the default.
\score {
<<
\new Staff = "staff" {
\new Voice = "melody" {
\relative { c''4 c c c }
}
}
\new Lyrics \with { alignAboveContext = "staff" } {
\lyricsto "melody" {
Here are the words
}
}
>>
}

º h h h h
Here are the words

Alternatively, a two-step process may be used. First the Lyrics context is declared (without
any content) before the Staff and Voice contexts, then the \lyricsto command is placed after
the Voice declaration it references by using \context, as follows:
\score {
<<
\new Lyrics = "lyrics" \with {
% lyrics above a staff should have this override
\override VerticalAxisGroup.staff-affinity = #DOWN
}
\new Staff {
\new Voice = "melody" {
\relative { c''4 c c c }
}
}
\context Lyrics = "lyrics" {
\lyricsto "melody" {
Here are the words
}
Chapter 9: Vocal music 351

}
>>
}

º h h h h
Here are the words

When there are two voices on separate staves the lyrics may be placed between the staves
using either of these methods. Here is an example of the second method:
\score {
\new ChoirStaff <<
\new Staff {
\new Voice = "sopranos" {
\relative { c''4 c c c }
}
}
\new Lyrics = "sopranos"
\new Lyrics = "contraltos" \with {
% lyrics above a staff should have this override
\override VerticalAxisGroup.staff-affinity = #DOWN
}
\new Staff {
\new Voice = "contraltos" {
\relative { a'4 a a a }
}
}
\context Lyrics = "sopranos" {
\lyricsto "sopranos" {
Sop -- ra -- no words
}
}
\context Lyrics = "contraltos" {
\lyricsto "contraltos" {
Con -- tral -- to words
}
}
>>
}

7
º h h h h
Sop ra no words
Con tral to words
º h h h h
6
Other combinations of lyrics and staves may be generated by elaborating these examples, or
by examining the templates in the Learning Manual, see Section “Vocal ensembles templates”
in Learning Manual.
Chapter 9: Vocal music 352

Selected Snippets
Arranging separate lyrics on a single line
Sometimes you may want to put lyrics for different performers on a single line: where there is
rapidly alternating text, for example. This snippet shows how this can be done with \override
VerticalAxisGroup.nonstaff-nonstaff-spacing.minimum-distance = ##f.

\header { tagline = ##f }

\layout {
\context {
\Lyrics
\override VerticalAxisGroup
.nonstaff-nonstaff-spacing
.minimum-distance = ##f
}
}

aliceSings = \markup { \smallCaps "Alice" }

eveSings = \markup { \smallCaps "Eve" }

<<
\new Staff <<
\new Voice = "alice" {
f'4^\aliceSings g' r2 |
s1 |
f'4^\aliceSings g' r2 |
s1 | \break
% ...

\voiceOne
s2 a'8^\aliceSings a' b'4 |
\oneVoice
g'1
}
\new Voice = "eve" {
s1 |
a'2^\eveSings g' |
s1 |
a'2^\eveSings g'
% ...

\voiceTwo
f'4^\eveSings a'8 g' f'4 e' |
\oneVoice
s1
}
>>
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "alice" {
may -- be
sec -- ond
% ...
Chapter 9: Vocal music 353

Shut up, you fool!

}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "eve" {
that the
words are
% ...
...and then I was like--
}
>>

EVE EVE

º h h ˜ h h ˜
ALICE ALICE
N N N N
may be that the sec ond words are
ALICE
hh
5 EVE
 h h h hh h .
Shut up, you fool!
…and then I was like–
Obtaining 2.12 lyrics spacing in newer versions
The vertical spacing engine changed since version 2.14. This can cause lyrics to be spaced
differently.
It is possible to set properties for Lyric and Staff contexts to get the spacing engine to
behave as it did in version 2.12.
\header { tagline = ##f }

global = {
\key d \major
\time 3/4
}

sopMusic = \relative c' {

% VERSE ONE
fis4 fis fis | \break
fis4. e8 e4
}

altoMusic = \relative c' {

% VERSE ONE
d4 d d |
d4. b8 b4 |
}

tenorMusic = \relative c' {

a4 a a |
b4. g8 g4 |
}

bassMusic = \relative c {
Chapter 9: Vocal music 354

d4 d d |
g,4. g8 g4 |
}

words = \lyricmode {
Great is Thy faith -- ful -- ness,
}

\score {
\new ChoirStaff <<
\new Lyrics = sopranos
\new Staff = women <<
\new Voice = "sopranos" {
\voiceOne
\global \sopMusic
}
\new Voice = "altos" {
\voiceTwo
\global \altoMusic
}
>>
\new Lyrics = "altos"
\new Lyrics = "tenors"
\new Staff = men <<
\clef bass
\new Voice = "tenors" {
\voiceOne
\global \tenorMusic
}
\new Voice = "basses" {
\voiceTwo \global \bassMusic
}
>>
\new Lyrics = basses
\context Lyrics = sopranos \lyricsto sopranos \words
\context Lyrics = altos \lyricsto altos \words
\context Lyrics = tenors \lyricsto tenors \words
\context Lyrics = basses \lyricsto basses \words
>>
\layout {
\context {
\Lyrics
\override VerticalAxisGroup.staff-affinity = ##f
\override VerticalAxisGroup.staff-staff-spacing =
#'((basic-distance . 0)
(minimum-distance . 2)
(padding . 2))
}
\context {
\Staff
\override VerticalAxisGroup.staff-staff-spacing =
#'((basic-distance . 0)
Chapter 9: Vocal music 355

(minimum-distance . 2)
(padding . 2))
}
}
}

7 
Great is Thy

 43 hh hh hh
Great is Thy
Great is Thy

  3 hh hh hh
6 4
Great is Thy

72 
faith ful ness,

 hh PP hh hh
T
faith ful ness,
faith ful ness,

  h P h h
6 hP h h
T
faith ful ness,
See also
Learning Manual: Section “Vocal ensembles templates” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 33.7 [Context layout order], page 726, Section 33.2 [Creating
and referencing contexts], page 711.

9.2.3 Placing syllables horizontally

To increase the spacing between lyrics, set the minimum-distance property of LyricSpace.
\relative c' {
c c c c
\override Lyrics.LyricSpace.minimum-distance = 1.0
c c c c
}
\addlyrics {
longtext longtext longtext longtext
longtext longtext longtext longtext
}
Chapter 9: Vocal music 356

º
h h h h
longtext longtext longtext longtext
2


h h h h
longtext longtext longtext longtext
To make this change for all lyrics in the score, set the property in the \layout block.
\score {
\relative {
c' c c c
c c c c
}
\addlyrics {
longtext longtext longtext longtext
longtext longtext longtext longtext
}
\layout {
\context {
\Lyrics
\override LyricSpace.minimum-distance = 1.0
}
}
}

º
h h h h
longtext longtext longtext longtext
2


h h h h
longtext longtext longtext longtext

Selected Snippets
Lyrics alignment
Horizontal alignment for lyrics can be set by overriding the self-alignment-X property of the
LyricText object. -1 is left, 0 is center, and 1 is right; however, you can use #LEFT, #CENTER
and #RIGHT as well.
\layout { ragged-right = ##f }

\relative c'' {
c1
c1
c1
}
\addlyrics {
Chapter 9: Vocal music 357

\once \override LyricText.self-alignment-X = #LEFT

"This is left-aligned"
\once \override LyricText.self-alignment-X = #CENTER
"This is centered"
\once \override LyricText.self-alignment-X = 1
"This is right-aligned"
}

º . . .
This is left-aligned This is centered This is right-aligned
Known issues and warnings
Checking to make sure that text scripts and lyrics are within the margins requires additional
calculations. To speed up processing slightly, this feature can be disabled:
\override Score.PaperColumn.keep-inside-line = ##f
To make lyrics avoid bar lines as well, use
\layout {
\context {
\Lyrics
\consists Bar_engraver
\consists Separating_line_group_engraver
\hide BarLine
}
}

9.2.4 Lyrics and repeats

Simple repeats
Repeats in music are fully described elsewhere; see Chapter 4 [Repeats], page 181. This section
explains how to add lyrics to repeated sections of music.
Lyrics to a section of music that is repeated should be surrounded by exactly the same repeat
construct as the music, if the words are unchanged.
\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\new Voice = "melody" {
\relative {
a'4 a a a
\repeat volta 2 { b4 b b b }
}
}
}
\new Lyrics {
\lyricsto "melody" {
Not re -- peat -- ed.
\repeat volta 2 { Re -- peat -- ed twice. }
}
}
>>
Chapter 9: Vocal music 358

 º h h h h PP h h h h PP
Not re peat ed. Re peat ed twice.
The words will then be correctly expanded if the repeats are unfolded.
\score {
\unfoldRepeats {
<<
\new Staff {
\new Voice = "melody" {
\relative {
a'4 a a a
\repeat volta 2 { b4 b b b }
}
}
}
\new Lyrics {
\lyricsto "melody" {
Not re -- peat -- ed.
\repeat volta 2 { Re -- peat -- ed twice. }
}
}
>>
}
}

º h h h h h h h h h h h h
Not repeat ed. Re peat ed twice. Re peat ed twice.
If the repeated section is to be unfolded and has different words, simply enter all the words:
\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\new Voice = "melody" {
\relative {
a'4 a a a
\repeat unfold 2 { b4 b b b }
}
}
}
\new Lyrics {
\lyricsto "melody" {
Not re -- peat -- ed.
The first time words.
Sec -- ond time words.
}
}
>>
Chapter 9: Vocal music 359

º h h h h h h h h h h h h
Not repeat ed. The first time words. Sec ond time words.
When the words to a repeated volta section are different, the words to each repeat must be
entered in separate Lyrics contexts, correctly nested in parallel sections:
\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\new Voice = "melody" {
\relative {
a'4 a a a
\repeat volta 2 { b4 b b b }
}
}
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
Not re -- peat -- ed.
<<
{ The first time words. }
\new Lyrics {
\set associatedVoice = "melody"
Sec -- ond time words.
}
>>
}
>>
}

 º h h h h PP h h h h PP
Not re peat ed. The first time words.
Sec ond time words.
More verses may be added in a similar way:
\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\new Voice = "singleVoice" {
\relative {
a'4 a a a
\repeat volta 3 { b4 b b b }
c4 c c c
}
}
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "singleVoice" {
Not re -- peat -- ed.
<<
Chapter 9: Vocal music 360

{ The first time words. }

\new Lyrics {
\set associatedVoice = "singleVoice"
Sec -- ond time words.
}
\new Lyrics {
\set associatedVoice = "singleVoice"
The third time words.
}
>>
The end sec -- tion.
}
>>
}

 º h h h h PP h h h h PP h h h h
Not re peat ed. The first time words. The end sec tion.
Sec ond time words.
The third time words.
However, if this construct is embedded within a multi-staff context such as a ChoirStaff
the lyrics of the second and third verses will appear beneath the bottom staff.
To position them correctly use alignBelowContext:
\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\new Voice = "melody" {
\relative {
a'4 a a a
\repeat volta 3 { b4 b b b }
c4 c c c
}
}
}
\new Lyrics = "firstVerse" \lyricsto "melody" {
Not re -- peat -- ed.
<<
{ The first time words. }
\new Lyrics = "secondVerse"
\with { alignBelowContext = "firstVerse" } {
\set associatedVoice = "melody"
Sec -- ond time words.
}
\new Lyrics = "thirdVerse"
\with { alignBelowContext = "secondVerse" } {
\set associatedVoice = "melody"
The third time words.
}
>>
The end sec -- tion.
Chapter 9: Vocal music 361

}
\new Voice = "harmony" {
\relative {
f'4 f f f
\repeat volta 3 { g8 g g4 g2 }
a4 a8. a16 a2
}
}
>>
}

º h h h h PP h h h h PP h h h h
Not re peat ed. The first time words. The end sec tion.
Sec ond time words.
The third time words.

º h h h h PP h h h N PP h h P h N

Repeats with alternative endings

If the words of the repeated section are the same, and none of the \alternative blocks start
with a rest, exactly the same structure can be used for both the lyrics and music. This has the
advantage that \unfoldRepeats will expand both music and lyrics correctly.
\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\time 2/4
\new Voice = "melody" {
\relative {
a'4 a a a
\repeat volta 2 { b4 b }
\alternative {
\volta 1 { b b }
\volta 2 { b c }
}
}
}
}
\new Lyrics {
\lyricsto "melody" {
Not re -- peat -- ed.
\repeat volta 2 { Re -- peat -- }
\alternative {
\volta 1 { ed twice. }
\volta 2 { ed twice. }
}
}
}
>>
}
Chapter 9: Vocal music 362

. .
 42 h h h h PP h h h h PP h h
Not re peat ed. Re peat ed twice. ed twice.

But when the repeated section has different words, or when one of the \alternative blocks
starts with a rest, a repeat construct cannot be used around the words and \skip commands
have to be inserted manually to skip over the notes in the alternative sections which do not
apply.

Note: do not use an underscore, _, to skip notes – an underscore indicates a melisma, causing
the preceding syllable to be left-aligned.
☛ ✟
Note: The \skip command must be followed by a number, but this
number is ignored in lyrics which derive their durations from the notes
in an associated melody through \addlyrics or \lyricsto. Each
\skip skips a single note of any value, irrespective of the value of the
following number.
✡ ✠

\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\time 2/4
\new Voice = "melody" {
\relative {
\repeat volta 2 { b'4 b }
\alternative {
\volta 1 { b b }
\volta 2 { b c }
}
c4 c
}
}
}
\new Lyrics {
\lyricsto "melody" {
The first time words.
\repeat unfold 2 { \skip 1 }
End here.
}
}
\new Lyrics {
\lyricsto "melody" {
Sec -- ond
\repeat unfold 2 { \skip 1 }
time words.
}
}
>>
}
Chapter 9: Vocal music 363

. .
 42 h h h h PP h h h h
The first time words. End here.
Sec ond time words.
When a note is tied over into two or more alternative endings a tie is used to carry the note
into the first alternative ending and a \repeatTie is used in the second and subsequent endings.
This structure causes difficult alignment problems when lyrics are involved and increasing the
length of the alternative sections so the tied notes are contained wholly within them may give
a more acceptable result.
The tie creates a melisma into the first alternative, but not into the second and subsequent
alternatives, so to align the lyrics correctly it is necessary to disable the automatic creation of
melismata over the volta section and insert manual skips.
\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\time 2/4
\new Voice = "melody" {
\relative {
\set melismaBusyProperties = #'()
\repeat volta 2 { b'4 b ~}
\alternative {
\volta 1 { b b }
\volta 2 { b \repeatTie c }
}
\unset melismaBusyProperties
c4 c
}
}
}
\new Lyrics {
\lyricsto "melody" {
\repeat volta 2 { Here's a __ }
\alternative {
\volta 1 { \skip 1 verse }
\volta 2 { \skip 1 sec }
}
ond one.
}
}
>>
}

. .
 42 h h h h PP h h h h
Here's a verse sec ond one.
Note that if \unfoldRepeats is used around a section containing \repeatTie, the
\repeatTie should be removed to avoid both types of tie being printed.
Chapter 9: Vocal music 364

When the repeated section has different words a \repeat cannot be used around the lyrics
and \skip commands need to be inserted manually, as before.
\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\time 2/4
\new Voice = "melody" {
\relative {
\repeat volta 2 { b'4 b ~}
\alternative {
\volta 1 { b b }
\volta 2 { b \repeatTie c }
}
c4 c
}
}
}
\new Lyrics {
\lyricsto "melody" {
Here's a __ verse.
\repeat unfold 2 { \skip 1 }
}
}
\new Lyrics {
\lyricsto "melody" {
Here's one
\repeat unfold 2 { \skip 1 }
more to sing.
}
}
>>
}

. .
 42 h h h h PP h h h h
Here's a verse.
Here's one more to sing.
If you wish to show extenders and hyphens into and out of alternative sections these must
be inserted manually.
\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\time 2/4
\new Voice = "melody" {
\relative {
\repeat volta 2 { b'4 b ~}
\alternative {
\volta 1 { b b }
\volta 2 { b \repeatTie c }
}
Chapter 9: Vocal music 365

c4 c
}
}
}
\new Lyrics {
\lyricsto "melody" {
Here's a __ verse.
\repeat unfold 2 { \skip 1 }
}
}
\new Lyrics {
\lyricsto "melody" {
Here's "a_"
\skip 1
"_" sec -- ond one.
}
}
>>
}

. .
 42 h h h h PP h h h h
Here's a verse.
Here's a_ _ sec ond one.
See also
Notation Reference: Section 33.3 [Keeping contexts alive], page 714, Chapter 4 [Repeats],
page 181.

9.2.5 Divisi lyrics

When just the words and rhythms of the two parts differ while the pitches remain the same,
temporarily turning off the automatic detection of melismata and indicating the melisma in the
lyrics may be the appropriate method to use:
\score {
<<
\new Voice = "melody" {
\relative c' {
\set melismaBusyProperties = #'()
\slurDashed
e4 e8( e) c4 c |
\unset melismaBusyProperties
c
}
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
They shall not o -- ver -- come
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
We will _ rock you, yeah
}
Chapter 9: Vocal music 366

>>
}

º h h h h h h
They shall not o ver come
We will rock you, yeah
When both music and words differ it may be better to display the differing music and lyrics
by naming voice contexts and attaching lyrics to those specific contexts:
\score {
<<
\new Voice = "melody" {
\relative {
<<
{
\voiceOne
e'4 e8 e
}
\new Voice = "splitpart" {
\voiceTwo
c4 c
}
>>
\oneVoice
c4 c |
c
}
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
They shall not o -- ver -- come
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "splitpart" {
We will
}
>>
}

º h hh h h h h
h
They shall not o ver come
We will
It is common in choral music to have a voice part split for several measures. The << {...}
\\ {...} >> construct, where the two (or more) musical expressions are separated by double
backslashes, might seem the proper way to set the split voices. This construct, however, will
assign all the expressions within it to NEW Voice contexts which will result in no lyrics being
set for them since the lyrics will be set to the original voice context – not, typically, what one
wants. The temporary polyphonic passage is the proper construct to use, see section Temporary
polyphonic passages in Section 5.2.1 [Single-staff polyphony], page 213.
Chapter 9: Vocal music 367

9.2.6 Polyphony with shared lyrics

When two voices with different rhythms share the same lyrics, aligning the lyrics to one of the
voices may lead to problems in the other voice. For example, the second lyric extender below is
too short, since the lyrics are aligned only to the top voice:
soprano = \relative { b'8( c d c) d2 }
alto = \relative { g'2 b8( a g a) }
words = \lyricmode { la __ la __ }

\new Staff <<

\new Voice = "sopranoVoice" { \voiceOne \soprano }
\new Voice { \voiceTwo \alto }
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "sopranoVoice" \words
>>

h N
 º Nh h h h h h h
la la
To get the desired result, align the lyrics to a new NullVoice context containing a suitable
combination of the two voices. The notes of the NullVoice context do not appear on the printed
page, but can be used to align the lyrics appropriately:
soprano = \relative { b'8( c d c) d2 }
alto = \relative { g'2 b8( a g a) }
aligner = \relative { b'8( c d c) b( a g a) }
words = \lyricmode { la __ la __ }

\new Staff <<

\new Voice { \voiceOne \soprano }
\new Voice { \voiceTwo \alto }
\new NullVoice = "aligner" \aligner
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "aligner" \words
>>

 º Nh h h h Nh h h h
la la
This method also can be used with the \partCombine function, which does not allow lyrics
on its own:
soprano = \relative { b'8( c d c) d2 }
alto = \relative { g'2 b8( a g a) }
aligner = \relative { b'8( c d c) b( a g a) }
words = \lyricmode { la __ la __ }

\new Staff <<

\new Voice \partCombine \soprano \alto
\new NullVoice = "aligner" \aligner
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "aligner" \words
>>
Chapter 9: Vocal music 368

h N
 º Nh h h h h h h
la la
Known issues and warnings
The \addlyrics function only works with Voice lyrics and so cannot be used with NullVoice.
The \partCombine function is described in Section 5.2.5 [Automatic part combining], page 224.
Lastly, this method can be used even when the voices are in different staves, and is not
limited to only two voices:
soprano = \relative { b'8( c d c) d2 }
altoOne = \relative { g'2 b8( a b4) }
altoTwo = \relative { d'2 g4( fis8 g) }
aligner = \relative { b'8( c d c) d( d d d) }
words = \lyricmode { la __ la __ }

\new ChoirStaff \with {\accepts NullVoice } <<

\new Staff \soprano
\new NullVoice = "aligner" \aligner
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "aligner" \words
\new Staff \partCombine \altoOne \altoTwo
>>
7
º hhhhN
la la

º N hh h  hh h
6 N
9.3 Stanzas
9.3.1 Adding stanza numbers
Stanza numbers can be added by setting stanza, e.g.,
\new Voice \relative {
\time 3/4 g'2 e4 a2 f4 g2.
} \addlyrics {
\set stanza = "1. "
Hi, my name is Bert.
} \addlyrics {
\set stanza = "2. "
Oh, ché -- ri, je t'aime
}

 43 N h N h NP
1. Hi, my name is Bert.
2. Oh, ché ri, je t'aime
Chapter 9: Vocal music 369

These numbers are put just before the start of the first syllable. Two lines of a stanza can also
be grouped together, for example in case of a repeat with different lyrics:
stanzaOneOne = \lyricmode {
\set stanza = \markup {
\column {
\vspace #.2
\line { "1." \left-brace #30 }
}
}
Child, you’re mine and I love you.
Lend thine ear to what I say.
}

stanzaOneThree = \lyricmode {
Child, I have no great -- er joy
Than to have you walk in truth.
}

\new Voice {
\repeat volta 2 {
c'8 c' c' c' c' c' c'4
c'8 c' c' c' c' c' c'4
}
}
\addlyrics { \stanzaOneOne }
\addlyrics { \stanzaOneThree }

º
­
h h h h h h h
1. Child, you’re mine and I love you.
Child, I have no great er joy

PP
2


h h h h h h h
Lend thine ear to what I say.
Than to have you walk in truth.
9.3.2 Adding dynamics marks to stanzas
Stanzas differing in loudness may be indicated by putting a dynamics mark before each stanza.
In LilyPond, everything coming in front of a stanza goes into the StanzaNumber object; dynamics
marks are no different. For technical reasons, you have to set the stanza outside \lyricmode:
text = {
\set stanza = \markup { \dynamic "ff" "1. " }
\lyricmode {
Big bang
}
}

<<
Chapter 9: Vocal music 370

\new Voice = "tune" {

\time 3/4
g'4 c'2
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "tune" \text
>>

 43 h
N
ff 1. Big bang
9.3.3 Adding singers’ names to stanzas
Names of singers can also be added. They are printed at the start of the line, just like in-
strument names. They are created by setting vocalName. A short version may be entered as
shortVocalName.
\new Voice \relative {
\time 3/4 g'2 e4 a2 f4 g2.
} \addlyrics {
\set vocalName = "Bert "
Hi, my name is Bert.
} \addlyrics {
\set vocalName = "Ernie "
Oh, ché -- ri, je t'aime
}

 43 N h N h NP
Bert Hi, my name is Bert.
Ernie Oh, ché ri, je t'aime
9.3.4 Stanzas with different rhythms
Often, different stanzas of one song are put to one melody in slightly differing ways. Such
variations can still be captured with \lyricsto.

Ignoring melismata
One possibility is that the text has a melisma in one stanza, but multiple syllables in an-
other. One solution is to make the faster voice ignore the melisma. This is done by setting
ignoreMelismata in the Lyrics context.
<<
\relative \new Voice = "lahlah" {
\set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
c'4
\slurDotted
f8.[( g16])
a4
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
more slow -- ly
}
Chapter 9: Vocal music 371

\new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {

go
\set ignoreMelismata = ##t
fas -- ter
\unset ignoreMelismata
still
}
>>

º h h
h hP
more slow ly
go fas ter still
Known issues and warnings
Unlike most \set commands, \set ignoreMelismata does not work if prefixed with \once. It
is necessary to use \set and \unset to bracket the lyrics where melismata are to be ignored.

Adding syllables to grace notes

By default, grace notes (e.g., via \grace) do not get assigned syllables when using \lyricsto,
but this behavior can be changed:
<<
\new Voice = melody \relative {
f'4 \appoggiatura a32 b4
\grace { f16 a16 } b2
\afterGrace b2 { f16[ a16] }
\appoggiatura a32 b4
\acciaccatura a8 b4
}
\new Lyrics
\lyricsto melody {
normal
\set includeGraceNotes = ##t
case,
gra -- ce case,
after -- grace case,
\set ignoreMelismata = ##t
app. case,
acc. case.
}
>>
‡ ‡ Œ
º h h h h h
N N h h h h h h
normal case, gra ce case, after grace case, app. case, acc. case.
Known issues and warnings
Like associatedVoice, includeGraceNotes needs to be set at latest one syllable before the
one which is to be put under a grace note. In the case of a grace note at the very beginning of
a piece of music, using a \with, or a \context block within \layout, is recommended:
Chapter 9: Vocal music 372

<<
\new Voice = melody \relative c' {
\grace { c16( d e f }
g1) f
}
\new Lyrics \with { includeGraceNotes = ##t }
\lyricsto melody {
Ah __ fa
}
>>

º h. .
hhh
Ah fa
Switching to an alternative melody
More complex variations in setting lyrics to music are possible. The melody to which the lyrics
are being set can be changed from within the lyrics by setting the associatedVoice property:
<<
\relative \new Voice = "lahlah" {
\set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
c'4
<<
\new Voice = "alternative" {
\voiceOne
\tuplet 3/2 {
% show associations clearly.
\override NoteColumn.force-hshift = -3
f8 f g
}
}
{
\voiceTwo
f8.[ g16]
\oneVoice
} >>
a8( b) c
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
Ju -- ras -- sic Park
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
% Tricky: need to set associatedVoice
% one syllable too soon!
\set associatedVoice = "alternative" % applies to "ran"
Ty --
ran --
no --
\set associatedVoice = "lahlah" % applies to "rus"
sau -- rus Rex
} >>
Chapter 9: Vocal music 373

 º h h h P h h h h h hT
3

T
Ju ras sic Park
Ty ran no sau rus Rex
The text for the first stanza is set to the melody called ‘lahlah’ in the usual way, but the second
stanza is set initially to the lahlah context and is then switched to the alternative melody
for the syllables ‘ran’ to ‘sau’ by the lines:
\set associatedVoice = "alternative" % applies to "ran"
Ty --
ran --
no --
\set associatedVoice = "lahlah" % applies to "rus"
sau -- rus Rex
Here, alternative is the name of the Voice context containing the triplet.
Note the placement of the \set associatedVoice command – it appears to be one syllable
too early, but this is correct.
☛ ✟
Note: The \set associatedVoice command must be placed one syl-
lable before the one at which the switch to the new voice is to occur.
In other words, changing the associated Voice happens one syllable
later than expected. This is for technical reasons, and it is not a bug.
✡ ✠

9.3.5 Printing stanzas at the end

Sometimes it is appropriate to have one stanza set to the music, and the rest added in verse form
at the end of the piece. This can be accomplished by adding the extra verses into a \markup
section outside of the main score block. Notice that there are several different ways to force
line breaks when using \markup. For inputting a whole string you may use \string-lines
with manually inserted \n or automatic line breaks as entered or \wordwrap-string. If inner
formatting code is used a combination of \line and \column is recommended.
melody = \relative {
e' d c d | e e e e |
d d e d | c1 | }

text = \lyricmode {
\set stanza = "1."
Ma- ry had a lit- tle lamb,
its fleece was white as snow. }

\score {
<<
\new Voice = "one" { \melody }
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \text
>>
}

\markup \column \string-lines

"Verse 2. \n Everywhere that Mary went \n The lamb was sure to go."
Chapter 9: Vocal music 374

\markup \column \string-lines

"Verse 3.
All the children laughed and played,
To see a lamb at school."

\markup \column {
\line \italic { Verse 4. }
\line { And so the teacher turned it out, }
\line { But still it lingered near. } }

\markup \wordwrap-string "

Verse 5.

Mary took it home again,

It was against the rule."

º h h h h h h h h h h h
h .
1. Ma- ry had a lit- tle lamb, its fleece was white as snow.
Verse 2.
Everywhere that Mary went
The lamb was sure to go.
Verse 3.
All the children laughed and played,
To see a lamb at school.
Verse 4.
And so the teacher turned it out,
But still it lingered near.
Verse 5.
Mary took it home again,
It was against the rule.

9.3.6 Printing stanzas at the end in multiple columns

When a piece of music has many verses, they are often printed in multiple columns across the
page. An outdented verse number often introduces each verse. The following example shows
how to produce such output in LilyPond.
melody = \relative {
c'4 c c c | d d d d
}

text = \lyricmode {
\set stanza = "1." This is verse one.
It has two lines.
}

\score {
<<
Chapter 9: Vocal music 375

\new Voice = "one" { \melody }

\new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \text
>>
\layout { }
}

\markup {
\fill-line {
% moves the column off the left margin;
% can be removed if space on the page is tight
\hspace #0.1
\column {
\line { \bold "2."
\column {
"This is verse two."
"It has two lines."
}
}
% adds vertical spacing between verses
\combine \null \vspace #0.1
\line { \bold "3."
\column {
"This is verse three."
"It has two lines."
}
}
}
% adds horizontal spacing between columns
\hspace #0.1
\column {
\line { \bold "4."
\column {
"This is verse four."
"It has two lines."
}
}
% adds vertical spacing between verses
\combine \null \vspace #0.1
\line { \bold "5."
\column {
"This is verse five."
"It has two lines."
}
}
}
% gives some extra space on the right margin;
% can be removed if page space is tight
\hspace #0.1
}
}
Chapter 9: Vocal music 376

º
h h h h h h h h
1. This is verse one. It has two lines.
2. This is verse two. 4. This is verse four.
It has two lines. It has two lines.
3. This is verse three. 5. This is verse five.
It has two lines. It has two lines.
See also
Internals Reference: Section “LyricText” in Internals Reference, Section “StanzaNumber” in
Internals Reference.

9.4 Songs
9.4.1 References for songs
Songs are usually written on three staves with the melody for the singer on the top staff and
two staves of piano accompaniment at the bottom. The lyrics of the first stanza are printed
immediately underneath the top staff. If there are just a small number of further stanzas these
can be printed immediately under the first one, but if there are more stanzas than can be
easily accommodated there the second and subsequent stanzas are printed after the music as
stand-alone text.
All the notational elements needed to write songs are fully described elsewhere:
• For constructing the staff layout, see Section 6.1 [Displaying staves], page 233.
• For writing piano music, see Chapter 10 [Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments],
page 401.
• For writing the lyrics to a melody line, see Section 9.1 [Common notation for vocal music],
page 335.
• For placing the lyrics, see Section 9.2.2 [Placing lyrics vertically], page 349.
• For entering stanzas, see Section 9.3 [Stanzas], page 368.
• Songs are frequently printed with the chording indicated by chord names above the staves.
This is described in Section 15.2 [Displaying chords], page 497.
• To print fret diagrams of the chords for guitar accompaniment or accompaniment by other
fretted instruments, see “Fret diagram markups” in Section 12.1 [Common notation for
fretted strings], page 418.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Songs” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 9.1 [Common notation for vocal music], page 335, Section 15.2
[Displaying chords], page 497, Section 6.1 [Displaying staves], page 233, Chapter 10 [Keyboard
and other multi-staff instruments], page 401, Section 9.2.2 [Placing lyrics vertically], page 349,
Section 9.3 [Stanzas], page 368.
Snippets: Section “Vocal music” in Snippets.

9.4.2 Lead sheets

Lead sheets may be printed by combining vocal parts and ‘chord mode’; this syntax is explained
in Chapter 15 [Chord notation], page 492.
Chapter 9: Vocal music 377

Selected Snippets
Simple lead sheet
When put together, chord names, a melody, and lyrics form a lead sheet:
<<
\chords { c2 g:sus4 f e }
\new Staff \relative c'' {
a4 e c8 e r4
b2 c4( d)
}
\addlyrics { One day this shall be free __ }
>>

C Gsus4 F E
º h h h h N h h
One day this shall be free
See also
Notation Reference: Chapter 15 [Chord notation], page 492.

9.5 Choral
This section discusses notation issues that relate most directly to choral music. This includes
anthems, part songs, oratorio, etc.

9.5.1 References for choral

Choral music is usually notated on two, three or four staves within a ChoirStaff group. Ac-
companiment, if required, is placed beneath in a PianoStaff group, which is usually reduced
in size for rehearsal of a cappella choral works. The notes for each vocal part are placed in a
Voice context, with each staff being given either a single vocal part (i.e., one Voice) or a pair
of vocal parts (i.e., two Voices).
Words are placed in Lyrics contexts, either underneath each corresponding music staff, or
one above and one below the music staff if this contains the music for two parts.
Several common topics in choral music are described fully elsewhere:
• An introduction to creating an SATB vocal score can be found in the Learning Manual,
see Section “Four-part SATB vocal score” in Learning Manual. There is also a built-in
template which simplifies the entry of SATB vocal music, see Section “Built-in templates”
in Learning Manual.
• Several templates suitable for various styles of choral music can also be found in the Learning
Manual, see Section “Vocal ensembles templates” in Learning Manual.
• For information about ChoirStaff and PianoStaff see Section 6.1.2 [Grouping staves],
page 234.
• Shape note heads, as used in Sacred Harp and similar notation, are described in Section 1.4.3
[Shape note heads], page 46.
• When two vocal parts share a staff the stems, ties, slurs, etc., of the higher part will be
directed up and those of the lower part down. To do this, use \voiceOne and \voiceTwo.
See Section 5.2.1 [Single-staff polyphony], page 213.
• When a vocal part temporarily splits, you should use Temporary polyphonic passages (see
Section 5.2.1 [Single-staff polyphony], page 213).
Chapter 9: Vocal music 378

Predefined commands
\oneVoice, \voiceOne, \voiceTwo.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Four-part SATB vocal score” in Learning Manual, Section “Vocal
ensembles templates” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 33.7 [Context layout order], page 726, Section 6.1.2 [Group-
ing staves], page 234, Section 1.4.3 [Shape note heads], page 46, Section 5.2.1 [Single-staff
polyphony], page 213.
Snippets: Section “Vocal music” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “ChoirStaff” in Internals Reference, Section “Lyrics” in Inter-
nals Reference, Section “PianoStaff” in Internals Reference.

9.5.2 Score layouts for choral

Choral music containing four staves, with or without piano accompaniment, is usually laid out
with two systems per page. Depending on the page size, achieving this may require changes to
several default settings. The following settings should be considered:
• The global staff size can be modified to change the overall size of the elements of the score.
See Section 27.2 [Setting the staff size], page 657.
• The distances between the systems, the staves and the lyrics can all be adjusted indepen-
dently. See Chapter 29 [Vertical spacing], page 669.
• The dimensions of the vertical layout variables can be displayed as an aid to adjusting
the vertical spacing. This and other possibilities for fitting the music onto fewer pages are
described in Chapter 31 [Fitting music onto fewer pages], page 702.
• If the number of systems per page changes from one to two it is customary to indicate
this with a system separator mark between the two systems. See Section 6.1.4 [Separating
systems], page 240.
• For details of other page formatting properties, see Chapter 26 [Page layout], page 643.
Dynamic markings by default are placed below the staff, but in choral music they are usually
placed above the staff in order to avoid the lyrics. The predefined command \dynamicUp does
this for the dynamic markings in a single Voice context. If there are many Voice contexts this
predefined command would have to be placed in every one. Alternatively its expanded form can
be used to place all dynamic markings in the entire score above their respective staves, as shown
here:
\score {
\new ChoirStaff <<
\new Staff {
\new Voice {
\relative { g'4\f g g g }
}
}
\new Staff {
\new Voice {
\relative { d'4 d d\p d }
}
}
>>
\layout {
\context {
Chapter 9: Vocal music 379

\Score
\override DynamicText.direction = #UP
\override DynamicLineSpanner.direction = #UP
}
}
}

7 f
º h h h h
p
º
6 h h h h
Predefined commands
\dynamicUp, \dynamicDown, \dynamicNeutral.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 31.2 [Changing spacing], page 703, Section 31.1 [Displaying spac-
ing], page 702, Chapter 31 [Fitting music onto fewer pages], page 702, Chapter 26 [Page
layout], page 643, Chapter 27 [Score layout], page 655, Section 6.1.4 [Separating systems],
page 240, Section 27.2 [Setting the staff size], page 657, Chapter 28 [Breaks], page 661, Chap-
ter 29 [Vertical spacing], page 669.
Internals Reference: Section “VerticalAxisGroup” in Internals Reference, Section “Staff-
Grouper” in Internals Reference.

Selected Snippets
Using arpeggioBracket to make divisi more visible
The arpeggioBracket can be used to indicate the division of voices where there are no stems
to provide the information. This is often seen in choral music.
\include "english.ly"

\score {
\relative c'' {
\key a \major
\time 2/2
<<
\new Voice = "upper"
<<
{ \voiceOne \arpeggioBracket
a2( b2
<b d>1\arpeggio)
<cs e>\arpeggio ~
<cs e>4
}
\addlyrics { \lyricmode { A -- men. } }
>>
\new Voice = "lower"
{ \voiceTwo
Chapter 9: Vocal music 380

a1 ~
a
a ~
a4 \bar "|."
}
>>
}
\layout { ragged-right = ##t }
}

 ¹ ... ... hhh

 N. N
A men.
See also
Notation Reference: Section 3.3 [Expressive marks as lines], page 170.

9.6 Opera and stage musicals

The music, lyrics and dialogue to opera and stage musicals are usually set out in one or more
of the following forms:
• A Conductors’ Score containing the full orchestral and vocal parts, together with libretto
cues if there are spoken passages.
• Orchestral Parts containing the music for the individual instruments of the orchestra or
band.
• A Vocal Score containing all vocal parts with piano accompaniment. The accompaniment
is usually an orchestral reduction, and if so the name of the original orchestral instrument
is often indicated. Vocal scores sometimes includes stage directions and libretto cues.
• A Vocal Book containing just the vocal parts (no accompaniment), sometimes combined
with the libretto.
• A Libretto containing the extended passages of spoken dialogue usually found in musicals,
together with the words to the sung parts. Stage directions are usually included. LilyPond
can be used to typeset libretti but as they contain no music alternative methods may be
preferable.
The sections in the LilyPond documentation which cover the topics needed to create scores
in the styles commonly found in opera and musicals are indicated in the References below. This
is followed by sections covering those techniques which are peculiar to typesetting opera and
musical scores.

9.6.1 References for opera and stage musicals

In addition to vocal and stage ensembles, most of the following notions may apply to nearly any
orchestral and ensemble music:
• A conductors’ score contains many grouped staves and lyrics. Ways of grouping staves is
shown in Section 6.1.2 [Grouping staves], page 234. To nest groups of staves see Section 6.1.3
[Nested staff groups], page 238.
• The printing of empty staves in conductors’ scores and vocal scores is often suppressed. To
create such a “Frenched score” see Section 6.2.3 [Hiding staves], page 248.
• Writing orchestral parts is covered in Section 6.3 [Writing parts], page 253. Other sections
in the Specialist notation chapter may be relevant, depending on the orchestration used.
Chapter 9: Vocal music 381

Many instruments are transposing instruments, see Section 1.3.4 [Instrument transpositions],
page 29.
• If the number of systems per page changes from page to page it is customary to separate the
systems with a system separator mark. See Section 6.1.4 [Separating systems], page 240.
• For details of other page formatting properties, see Chapter 26 [Page layout], page 643.
• Dialogue cues, stage directions and footnotes can be inserted, see Section 21.4 [Creating
footnotes], page 588, and Chapter 8 [Text], page 298. Extensive stage directions can also be
added with a section of stand-alone markups between two \score blocks, see Section 8.1.6
[Separate text], page 309.

See also
Musical Glossary: Section “Frenched score” in Music Glossary, Section “Frenched staves” in
Music Glossary, Section “transposing instrument” in Music Glossary.

Notation Reference: Section 21.4 [Creating footnotes], page 588, Section 6.1.2 [Grouping
staves], page 234, Section 6.2.3 [Hiding staves], page 248, Section 1.3.4 [Instrument trans-
positions], page 29, Section 6.1.3 [Nested staff groups], page 238, Chapter 26 [Page layout],
page 643, Section 6.1.4 [Separating systems], page 240, Section 1.2.2 [Transpose], page 13, Sec-
tion 6.3 [Writing parts], page 253, Section 8.1 [Writing text], page 298.

Snippets: Section “Vocal music” in Snippets.

9.6.2 Character names

Character names are usually shown to the left of the staff when the staff is dedicated to that
character alone:

\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\set Staff.vocalName = \markup \smallCaps Kaspar
\set Staff.shortVocalName = \markup \smallCaps Kas.
\relative {
\clef "G_8"
c'4 c c c
\break
c4 c c c
}
}
\new Staff {
\set Staff.vocalName = \markup \smallCaps Melchior
\set Staff.shortVocalName = \markup \smallCaps Mel
\clef "bass"
\relative {
a4 a a a
a4 a a a
}
}
>>
}
Chapter 9: Vocal music 382

KASPAR º h h h h
 h h h h
8

MELCHIOR º

 h h h h
2

KAS.

 h h h h
8

MEL

When two or more characters share a staff the character’s name is usually printed above the
staff at the start of every section applying to that character. This can be done with markup.
Often a specific font is used for this purpose.
\relative c' {
\clef "G_8"
c4^\markup \fontsize #1 \smallCaps Kaspar
c c c
\clef "bass"
a4^\markup \fontsize #1 \smallCaps Melchior
a a a
\clef "G_8"
c4^\markup \fontsize #1 \smallCaps Kaspar
c c c
}

º h h h h  h h h h h h h h
MELCHIOR KASPAR
KASPAR
 
8 8

Alternatively, if there are many character changes, it may be easier to set up variables to
hold the definitions for each character so that the switch of characters can be indicated easily
and concisely.
kaspar = {
\clef "G_8"
\set Staff.shortVocalName = "Kas."
\set Staff.midiInstrument = "voice oohs"
<>^\markup \smallCaps "Kaspar"
}

melchior = {
\clef "bass"
\set Staff.shortVocalName = "Mel."
\set Staff.midiInstrument = "choir aahs"
<>^\markup \smallCaps "Melchior"
}

\relative c' {
\kaspar
Chapter 9: Vocal music 383

c4 c c c
\melchior
a4 a a a
\kaspar
c4 c c c
}

h h h h  h h h h Kh ASPAR
 h h h
M
º
KASPAR ELCHIOR


8 8

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Organizing pieces with variables” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Chapter 8 [Text], page 298, Section A.1 [Text markup commands],
page 777.

9.6.3 Musical cues

Musical cues can be inserted in Vocal Scores, Vocal Books and Orchestral Parts to indicate what
music in another part immediately precedes an entry. Also, cues are often inserted in the piano
reduction in Vocal Scores to indicate what each orchestral instrument is playing. This aids the
conductor when a full Conductors’ Score is not available.
The basic mechanism for inserting cues is fully explained in the main text, see Section 6.3.2
[Quoting other voices], page 256, and Section 6.3.3 [Formatting cue notes], page 260. But when
many cues have to be inserted, for example, as an aid to a conductor in a vocal score, the
instrument name must be positioned carefully just before and close to the start of the cue notes.
The following example shows how this is done.
flute = \relative {
s4 s4 e'' g
}
\addQuote "flute" { \flute }

pianoRH = \relative {
c''4. g8
% position name of cue-ing instrument just before the cue notes,
% and above the staff
<>^\markup { \right-align { \tiny "Flute" } }
\cueDuring "flute" #UP { g4 bes4 }
}
pianoLH = \relative { c4 <c' e> e, <g c> }

\score {
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff {
\pianoRH
}
\new Staff {
\clef "bass"
\pianoLH
}
>>
}
Chapter 9: Vocal music 384

X
h P h h
º h h h
Flute


hh h
º h h h
If a transposing instrument is being quoted the instrument part should specify its key so
the conversion of its cue notes will be done automatically. The example below shows this
transposition for a B-flat clarinet. The notes in this example are low on the staff so DOWN is
specified in \cueDuring (so the stems are down) and the instrument name is positioned below
the staff.
clarinet = \relative c' {
\transposition bes
fis4 d d c
}
\addQuote "clarinet" { \clarinet }

pianoRH = \relative c'' {

\transposition c'
% position name of cue-ing instrument below the staff
<>_\markup { \right-align { \tiny "Clar." } }
\cueDuring "clarinet" #DOWN { c4. g8 }
g4 bes4
}
pianoLH = \relative { c4 <c' e> e, <g c> }

\score {
<<
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff {
\new Voice {
\pianoRH
}
}
\new Staff {
\clef "bass"
\pianoLH
}
>>
>>
}

g Clar. h
 º hh P h h  h
h
h h
º h h h
From these two examples it is clear that inserting many cues in a Vocal Score would be
tedious, and the notes of the piano part would become obscured. However, as the following
Chapter 9: Vocal music 385

snippet shows, it is possible to define a music function to reduce the amount of typing and to
make the piano notes clearer.

Selected Snippets
Adding orchestral cues to a vocal score
This shows one approach to simplify adding many orchestral cues to the piano reduction in a
vocal score. The music function \cueWhile takes four arguments: the music from which the
cue is to be taken, as defined by \addQuote, the name to be inserted before the cue notes, then
either #UP or #DOWN to specify either \voiceOne with the name above the staff or \voiceTwo
with the name below the staff, and finally the piano music in parallel with which the cue notes
are to appear. The name of the cued instrument is positioned to the left of the cued notes.
Many passages can be cued, but they cannot overlap each other in time.
cueWhile =
#(define-music-function
(instrument name dir music)
(string? string? ly:dir? ly:music?)
#{
\cueDuring $instrument #dir {
\once \override TextScript.self-alignment-X = #RIGHT
\once \override TextScript.direction = $dir
<>-\markup { \tiny #name }
$music
}
#})

flute = \relative c'' {

\transposition c'
s4 s4 e g
}
\addQuote "flute" { \flute }

clarinet = \relative c' {

\transposition bes
fis4 d d c
}
\addQuote "clarinet" { \clarinet }

singer = \relative c'' { c4. g8 g4 bes4 }

words = \lyricmode { here's the lyr -- ics }

pianoRH = \relative c'' {

\transposition c'
\cueWhile "clarinet" "Clar." #DOWN { c4. g8 }
\cueWhile "flute" "Flute" #UP { g4 bes4 }
}
pianoLH = \relative c { c4 <c' e> e, <g c> }

\score {
<<
\new Staff {
Chapter 9: Vocal music 386

\new Voice = "singer" {

\singer
}
}
\new Lyrics {
\lyricsto "singer"
\words
}
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff {
\new Voice {
\pianoRH
}
}
\new Staff {
\clef "bass"
\pianoLH
}
>>
>>
}

 º hP h h h
here's the lyr ics

g Clar. h
h h
 º hh P h h h  h
Flute

 º h h h hh
See also
Musical Glossary: Section “cue-notes” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 36.9 [Aligning objects], page 763, Section 36.1 [Direction and
placement], page 746, Section 6.3.3 [Formatting cue notes], page 260, Section 6.3.2 [Quoting
other voices], page 256, Section 22.3 [Using music functions], page 613.
Snippets: Section “Vocal music” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “CueVoice” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

\cueDuring automatically inserts a CueVoice context and all cue notes are placed in that
context. This means it is not possible to have two overlapping sequences of cue notes by this
technique. Overlapping sequences could be entered by explicitly declaring separate CueVoice
contexts and using \quoteDuring to extract and insert the cue notes.

9.6.4 Spoken music

Such effects as ‘parlato’ or ‘Sprechgesang’ require performers to speak without pitch but still
with rhythm; these are notated by cross note heads, as demonstrated in Section 1.4.1 [Special
note heads], page 43.
Chapter 9: Vocal music 387

9.6.5 Dialogue over music

Dialogue over music is usually printed over the staves in an italic font, with the start of each
phrase keyed in to a particular music moment.
For short interjections a simple markup suffices.
\relative {
a'4^\markup { \smallCaps { Alex - } \italic { He's gone } } a a a
a4 a a^\markup { \smallCaps { Bethan - } \italic Where? } a
a4 a a a
}

ALEX - He's gone BETHAN - Where?

º h h h h h h h h h h h h
For longer phrases it may be necessary to expand the music to make the words fit neatly.
There is no provision in LilyPond to do this fully automatically, and some manual intervention
to layout the page will be necessary.
For long phrases or for passages with a lot of closely packed dialogue, using a Lyrics context
will give better results. The Lyrics context should not be associated with a music Voice; instead
each section of dialogue should be given an explicit duration. If there is a gap in the dialogue,
the final word should be separated from the rest and the duration split between them so that
the underlying music spaces out smoothly.
If the dialogue extends for more than one line it will be necessary to manually insert \breaks
and adjust the placing of the dialogue to avoid running into the right margin. The final word
of the last measure on a line should also be separated out, as above.
Here is an example illustrating how this might be done.
music = \relative {
\repeat unfold 3 { a'4 a a a }
}

dialogue = \lyricmode {
\markup {
\fontsize #1 \upright \smallCaps Abe:
"Say this over measures one and"
}4*7
"two"4 |
\break
"and this over measure"4*3
"three"4 |
}

\score {
<<
\new Lyrics \with {
\override LyricText.font-shape = #'italic
\override LyricText.self-alignment-X = #LEFT
}
{ \dialogue }
\new Staff {
\new Voice { \music }
Chapter 9: Vocal music 388

}
>>
}

ABE: Say this over measures one and two

º h h h h h h h h
and this over measure three
3

 h h h h
See also
Notation Reference: Section 9.1.5 [Manual syllable durations], page 341, Chapter 8 [Text],
page 298.
Internal Reference: Section “LyricText” in Internals Reference.

9.7 Chants psalms and hymns

The music and words for chants, psalms and hymns usually follow a well-established format in
any particular church. Although the formats may differ from church to church the typesetting
problems which arise are broadly similar, and are covered in this section.

9.7.1 References for chants and psalms

Typesetting Gregorian chant in various styles of ancient notation is described in Chapter 17
[Ancient notation], page 520.

See also
Notation reference: Chapter 17 [Ancient notation], page 520.
Snippets: Section “Vocal music” in Snippets.

9.7.2 Setting a chant

Modern chant settings use modern notation with varying numbers of elements taken from ancient
notation. Some of the elements and methods to consider are shown here.
Chants often use quarter notes without stems to indicate the pitch, with the rhythm being
taken from the spoken rhythm of the words.
stemOff = { \hide Staff.Stem }

\relative c' {
\stemOff
a'4 b c2 |
}

º h h N
Chants often omit measure bar lines or use shortened or dotted bar lines to indicate pauses
in the music. To set a chant with no musical meter, see Section 2.3.4 [Unmetered music],
page 88. To retain all the effects of a time signature but disable automatic measure bar lines,
Chapter 9: Vocal music 389

set measureBarType to '(). Without regular bar lines, you might need to take steps to control
horizontal spacing; see Section 28.1 [Line breaking], page 661.
\score {
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff {
\relative {
a'4 b c2 |
a4 b c2 | \section
a4 b c2 |
}
}
\new Staff {
\relative {
a'4 b c2 |
a4 b c2 | \section
a4 b c2 |
}
}
>>
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
measureBarType = #'()
forbidBreakBetweenBarLines = ##f
}
}
}

7
º h h N h h N h h N

º h h N h h N h h N
6
Measure bar lines can also be modified on a staff-by-staff basis; see Section 33.4 [Modifying
context plug-ins], page 717.
Rests or pauses in chants can be indicated by modified bar lines.
\relative a' {
a4
\cadenzaOn
b c2
a4 b c2
\bar "'"
a4 b c2
\bar ","
a4 b c2
\bar ";"
a4 b c2
\bar "!"
a4 b c2
Chapter 9: Vocal music 390

\bar "||"
}

N N N N PPP h N
 º h h h h h h h h Ph h h N
Alternatively, the notation used in Gregorian chant for pauses or rests is sometimes used
even though the rest of the notation is modern.
\score {
\relative {
g'2 a4 g
\divisioMinima
g2 a4 g
\divisioMaior
g2 a4 g
\divisioMaxima
g2 a4 g
\finalis
}
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
\remove Caesura_engraver
\consists Divisio_engraver
\EnableGregorianDivisiones
caesuraType = #'((breath . chantquarterbar))
measureBarType = #'()
forbidBreakBetweenBarLines = ##f
}
}
}

º N h h N h h N h h N h h
Chants usually omit the time signature and often omit the clef too.
\score {
\new Staff {
\relative {
a'4 b c2 |
a4 b c2 |
a4 b c2 |
}
}
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
\remove Time_signature_engraver
\remove Clef_engraver
measureBarType = #'()
forbidBreakBetweenBarLines = ##f
Chapter 9: Vocal music 391

}
}
}

h h N h h N h h N
Chants for psalms in the Anglican tradition are usually either single, with 7 bars of music, or
double, with two lots of 7 bars. Each group of 7 bars is divided into two halves, corresponding
to the two halves of each verse, usually separated by a double bar line. Only whole and half
notes are used. The 1st bar in each half always contains a single chord of whole notes. This is
the “reciting note”. Chants are usually centered on the page.
SopranoMusic = \relative {
g'1 | c2 b | a1 |
a1 | d2 c | c b | c1 |
}

AltoMusic = \relative {
e'1 | g2 g | f1 |
f1 | f2 e | d d | e1 |
}

TenorMusic = \relative {
c'1 | c2 c | c1 |
d1 | g,2 g | g g | g1 |
}

BassMusic = \relative {
c1 | e2 e | f1 |
d1 | b2 c | g' g | c,1 |
}

global = {
\time 2/2
\skip 1*3 \section
\skip 1*4 \fine
}

% Use markup to center the chant on the page

\markup {
\fill-line {
\score { % centered
<<
\new ChoirStaff <<
\new Staff <<
\global
\clef "treble"
\new Voice = "Soprano" <<
\voiceOne
\SopranoMusic
>>
\new Voice = "Alto" <<
Chapter 9: Vocal music 392

\voiceTwo
\AltoMusic
>>
>>
\new Staff <<
\clef "bass"
\global
\new Voice = "Tenor" <<
\voiceOne
\TenorMusic
>>
\new Voice = "Bass" <<
\voiceTwo
\BassMusic
>>
>>
>>
>>
\layout {
\context {
\Score
\override SpacingSpanner.base-shortest-duration =
\musicLength 2
fineBarType = "||"
}
\context {
\Staff
\remove Time_signature_engraver
}
}
} % End score
}
} % End markup

7 NN N N NN .
 .. NN .. .. N N NN .
. N N . .
 . N N . . N NN N N ..
6 N
Some other approaches to setting such a chant are shown in the first of the following snippets.

Selected Snippets
Chant or psalms notation
This form of notation is used for Psalm chant, where verses aren’t always the same length.
stemOff = \hide Staff.Stem
stemOn = \undo \stemOff

\score {
\new Staff \with { \remove "Time_signature_engraver" }
Chapter 9: Vocal music 393

{
\key g \minor
\cadenzaOn
\stemOff a'\breve bes'4 g'4
\stemOn a'2 \section
\stemOff a'\breve g'4 a'4
\stemOn f'2 \section
\stemOff a'\breve^\markup { \italic flexe }
\stemOn g'2 \fine
}
}

 h h N
flexe
 „ „ h hN „ N
Canticles and other liturgical texts may be set more freely, and may use notational elements
from ancient music. Often the words are shown underneath and aligned with the notes. If so,
the notes are spaced in accordance with the syllables rather than the notes’ durations.

Ancient notation template – modern transcription of Gregorian

music
This example demonstrates how to do modern transcription of Gregorian music. Gregorian
music has no measure, no stems; it uses only half and quarter note heads, and special marks,
indicating rests of different length.
chant = \relative c' {
\set Score.timing = ##f
f4 a2 \divisioMinima
g4 b a2 f2 \divisioMaior
g4( f) f( g f) a2 \finalis \break
f4 a2 \divisioMinima
g4 b a2 f2 \divisioMaior
g4( f) f( g a) g2( f) \finalis
}

verba = \lyricmode {
Lo -- rem ip -- sum do -- lor sit a -- met,
lo -- rem ip -- sum do -- lor sit a -- met.
}

\score {
\new GregorianTranscriptionStaff <<
\new GregorianTranscriptionVoice = "melody" \chant
\new GregorianTranscriptionLyrics = "one" \lyricsto melody \verba
>>
}

 h N h h N N hhhhhN
Lo rem ip sum do lor sit a met,
Chapter 9: Vocal music 394

 h N h h N N hhhhhN N
lo rem ip sum do lor sit a met.
See also
Learning Manual: Section “Visibility and color of objects” in Learning Manual, Section “Vo-
cal ensembles templates” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Chapter 17 [Ancient notation], page 520, Section 2.5.1 [Bar lines],
page 115, Section 33.4 [Modifying context plug-ins], page 717, Section 17.4 [Typesetting Gre-
gorian chant], page 531, Section 2.3.4 [Unmetered music], page 88, Section 36.7 [Visibility of
objects], page 756.

9.7.3 Pointing a psalm

The words to an Anglican psalm are usually printed in separate verses centered underneath the
chant.
Single chants (with 7 bars) are repeated for every verse. Double chants (with 14 bars) are
repeated for every pair of verses. Marks are inserted in the words to show how they should be
fitted to the chant. Each verse is divided into two halves. A colon is usually used to indicate
this division. This corresponds to the double bar line in the music. The words before the colon
are sung to the first three bars of music; the words after the colon are sung to the last four bars.
Single bar lines (or in some psalters an inverted comma or similar symbol) are inserted
between words to indicate where the bar lines in the music fall. In markup mode a single bar
line can be entered with the bar check symbol, |.
\markup {
\fill-line {
\column {
\line { O come let us sing | unto the | Lord : let }
\line { us heartily rejoice in the | strength of | our }
\line { sal- | -vation. }
}
}
}

O come let us sing | unto the | Lord : let

us heartily rejoice in the | strength of | our
sal- | -vation.
Other symbols may require glyphs from the fetaMusic fonts. For details, see Section 8.3
[Fonts], page 327.
tick = \markup {
\raise #1 \fontsize #-5 \musicglyph "scripts.rvarcomma"
}
\markup {
\fill-line {
\column {
\line { O come let us sing \tick unto the \tick Lord : let }
\line { us heartily rejoice in the \tick strength of \tick our }
\line { sal \tick vation. }
}
}
Chapter 9: Vocal music 395

O come let us sing k unto the k Lord : let

us heartily rejoice in the k strength of k our
sal k vation.

Where there is one whole note in a bar all the words corresponding to that bar are recited on
that one note in speech rhythm. Where there are two notes in a bar there will usually be only
one or two corresponding syllables. If there are more that two syllables a dot is usually inserted
to indicate where the change in note occurs.
dot = \markup {
\raise #0.7 \musicglyph "dots.dot"
}
tick = \markup {
\raise #1 \fontsize #-5 \musicglyph "scripts.rvarcomma"
}
\markup {
\fill-line {
\column {
\line { O come let us sing \tick unto \dot the \tick Lord : let }
\line { us heartily rejoice in the \tick strength of \tick our }
\line { sal \tick vation. }
}
}
}

P
O come let us sing k unto the k Lord : let
us heartily rejoice in the k strength of k our
sal k vation.

In some psalters an asterisk is used to indicate a break in a recited section instead of a comma,
and stressed or slightly lengthened syllables are indicated in bold text.
dot = \markup {
\raise #0.7 \musicglyph "dots.dot"
}
tick = \markup {
\raise #1 \fontsize #-5 \musicglyph "scripts.rvarcomma"
}
\markup {
\fill-line {
\column {
\line { Today if ye will hear his voice * }
\line { \concat { \bold hard en } |
not your | hearts : as in the pro- }
\line { vocation * and as in the \bold day of tempt- | }
\line { -ation | in the | wilderness. }
}
}
}
Chapter 9: Vocal music 396

Today if ye will hear his voice *

harden | not your | hearts : as in the pro-
vocation * and as in the day of tempt- |
-ation | in the | wilderness.
In other psalters an accent is placed over the syllable to indicate stress.
tick = \markup {
\raise #2 \fontsize #-5 \musicglyph "scripts.rvarcomma"
}
\markup {
\fill-line {
\column {
\line { O come let us \concat { si \combine \tick ng } |
unto the | Lord : let }
\line { us heartily \concat { rejo \combine \tick ice }
in the | strength of | our }
\line { sal- | -vation. }
}
}
}
k
O come let us sik ng | unto the | Lord : let
us heartily rejo ice in the | strength of | our
sal- | -vation.
The use of markup to center text, and arrange lines in columns is described in Section 8.2
[Formatting text], page 310.
Most of these elements are shown in one or other of the two verses in the template, see Section
“Psalms” in Learning Manual.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Psalms” in Learning Manual, Section “Vocal ensembles templates”
in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 8.3 [Fonts], page 327, Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310.

9.7.4 Phrase bar lines in hymn tunes

The \caesura command can be configured to create phrase bar lines that interact well with
other automatic bar lines (see Section 2.5.2 [Automatic bar lines], page 125).
In the following examples, the source code for the tune in old-hundredth-example.ly uses
\caesura between poetic lines and \fine at the end. There are no \fermata or \bar commands;
those symbols appear in the output because of the caesura configuration.
The Boston Handel and Haydn Society Collection of Church Music (1830) has a thick bar
after each phrase. For this tune, it also has fermatas over the bar lines:
\layout {
\context {
\Score
caesuraType = #'((bar-line . ".")
(scripts . (fermata)))
fineBarType = ".."
}
Chapter 9: Vocal music 397

}
\include "old-hundredth-example.ly"

z z
 ¹ .
Genevan Psalter rhythm
 . NN NN . . . . NN NN . .
z
 . N N N N . . . . . . N N . . .
z z
¹ N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
Simplified rhythm

N N
z
 N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N


J.S. James’ Original Sacred Harp (1911) has a thick bar when a line is broken in mid-measure
at the end of a phrase.
\layout {
\context {
\Score
caesuraType = #'((underlying-bar-line . "x-."))
fineBarType = ".."
}
}
\include "old-hundredth-example.ly"

¹ . N N N N . . . . N N N N . . .
Genevan Psalter rhythm

 . N N N N . . . . . . N N . . .

¹ N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
Simplified rhythm

 N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
9.7.5 Partial measures in hymn tunes
Hymn tunes frequently start and end every line of music with partial measures so that each line
of music corresponds exactly with a line of text. This requires a \partial command at the start
of the music and a bar line at the end of each line.
Chapter 9: Vocal music 398

Hymn template
This code shows one way of setting out a hymn tune when each line starts and ends with a
partial measure. It also shows how to add the verses as stand-alone text under the music.
Timeline = {
\time 4/4
\tempo 4=96
\partial 2
s2 | s1 | s2 \breathe s2 | s1 | s2 \caesura \break
s2 | s1 | s2 \breathe s2 | s1 | s2 \fine
}

SopranoMusic = \relative g' {

g4 g | g g g g | g g g g | g g g g | g2
g4 g | g g g g | g g g g | g g g g | g2
}

AltoMusic = \relative c' {

d4 d | d d d d | d d d d | d d d d | d2
d4 d | d d d d | d d d d | d d d d | d2
}

TenorMusic = \relative a {
b4 b | b b b b | b b b b | b b b b | b2
b4 b | b b b b | b b b b | b b b b | b2
}

BassMusic = \relative g {
g4 g | g g g g | g g g g | g g g g | g2
g4 g | g g g g | g g g g | g g g g | g2
}

global = {
\key g \major
}

\score { % Start score

<<
\new PianoStaff << % Start pianostaff
\new Staff << % Start Staff = RH
\global
\clef "treble"
\new Voice = "Soprano" << % Start Voice = "Soprano"
\Timeline
\voiceOne
\SopranoMusic
>> % End Voice = "Soprano"
\new Voice = "Alto" << % Start Voice = "Alto"
\Timeline
\voiceTwo
\AltoMusic
>> % End Voice = "Alto"
Chapter 9: Vocal music 399

>> % End Staff = RH

\new Staff << % Start Staff = LH
\global
\clef "bass"
\new Voice = "Tenor" << % Start Voice = "Tenor"
\Timeline
\voiceOne
\TenorMusic
>> % End Voice = "Tenor"
\new Voice = "Bass" << % Start Voice = "Bass"
\Timeline
\voiceTwo
\BassMusic
>> % End Voice = "Bass"
>> % End Staff = LH
>> % End pianostaff
>>
} % End score

\markup {
\fill-line {
""
{
\column {
\left-align {
"This is line one of the first verse"
"This is line two of the same"
"And here's line three of the first verse"
"And the last line of the same"
}
}
}
""
}
}

\layout {
\context {
\Score
caesuraType = #'((bar-line . "||"))
fineBarType = "||"
}
}

\paper { % Start paper block

indent = 0 % don't indent first system
line-width = 130 % shorten line length to suit music
tagline = ##f % Don't print tag line, can be removed
} % End paper block
Chapter 9: Vocal music 400

 h = 96
X
i
 º hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh NN
  º hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh i hh hh hh hh hh hh NN

X
 i
 hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh NN
  hh hh hh hh hh hh hh hh i hh hh hh hh hh hh NN

This is line one of the first verse

This is line two of the same
And here's line three of the first verse
And the last line of the same

9.8 Ancient vocal music

Ancient vocal music is supported, as explained in Chapter 17 [Ancient notation], page 520.

See also
Notation Reference: Chapter 17 [Ancient notation], page 520.
 401

10 Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments

Un peu retenu
très expressif

  h h h h hh h hh h
  42 ¢ h h h ¢ h h h ¢ h h h
ppp
r r T r r T r r T
h h h h h h h h h h h h
   2 h h h h h h
 4

z
long
Rall.
h
    hh h

n
h T h
a Tempo

 hhh PPP h h
z h h hhh PPP h
hh pp r r
   hh  h h ¢ hh  h ¢ hh  h
 hh P  h  hh PP  h  hh PP  h
P T T T
F
ped.
8
z
;;; hh  h h ;;; hh PP
Lent
  Rallentando
m ¢ N ;;; h P
;;; h   hh  NN

  P
hhh h h   hh h h  hhh PP   hhh hh P ;;; ;;;
h  h PP ;;; ppp T ;;; z
T ;;;  h ;;; h P
   h h N
 h h ¢  hh   hh hh P  ;;; h  T N
h hh P T P
P

This section discusses several aspects of music notation that are unique to keyboard instruments
and other instruments notated on many staves, such as harps and vibraphones. For the purposes
of this section this entire group of multi-staff instruments is called “keyboards” for short, even
though some of them do not have a keyboard.

10.1 Common notation for keyboards

This section discusses notation issues that may arise for most keyboard instruments.

10.1.1 References for keyboards

Keyboard instruments are usually notated with Piano staves. These are two or more normal
staves coupled with a brace. The same notation is also used for other keyed instruments. Organ
Chapter 10: Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments 402

music is normally written with two staves inside a PianoStaff group and third, normal staff for
the pedals.
The staves in keyboard music are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between
the two staves. This section discusses notation techniques particular to keyboard music.
Several common issues in keyboard music are covered elsewhere:
• Keyboard music usually contains multiple voices and the number of voices may change
regularly; this is described in Section 5.2.3 [Collision resolution], page 218.
• Keyboard music can be written in parallel, as described in Section 5.2.6 [Writing music in
parallel], page 230.
• Dynamics may be placed in a Dynamics context, between the two Staff contexts to align
the dynamic marks on a horizontal line centered between the staves; see Section 3.1.2
[Dynamics], page 153.
• Fingerings are indicated with Section 7.1.2 [Fingering instructions], page 272.
• Organ pedal indications are inserted as articulations, see Section B.13 [List of articulations],
page 892.
• Vertical grid lines can be shown with Section 7.2.3 [Grid lines], page 291.
• Keyboard music often contains Laissez vibrer ties as well as ties on arpeggios and tremolos,
described in Section 2.1.4 [Ties], page 61.
• Placing arpeggios across multiple voices and staves is covered in Section 3.3.2 [Arpeggio],
page 176.
• Tremolo marks are described in Section 4.2.2 [Tremolo repeats], page 203.
• Several of the tweaks that can occur in keyboard music are demonstrated in Section “Real
music example” in Learning Manual.
• Hidden notes can be used to produce ties that cross voices, as shown in Section “Other uses
for tweaks” in Learning Manual.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Real music example” in Learning Manual, Section “Other uses for
tweaks” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 6.1.2 [Grouping staves], page 234, Section 6.3.1 [Instrument
names], page 253, Section 5.2.3 [Collision resolution], page 218, Section 5.2.6 [Writing music
in parallel], page 230, Section 7.1.2 [Fingering instructions], page 272, Section B.13 [List of
articulations], page 892, Section 7.2.3 [Grid lines], page 291, Section 2.1.4 [Ties], page 61, Sec-
tion 3.3.2 [Arpeggio], page 176, Section 4.2.2 [Tremolo repeats], page 203.
Internals Reference: Section “PianoStaff” in Internals Reference.
Snippets: Section “Keyboards” in Snippets.

10.1.2 Changing staff manually

Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the command
\change Staff = staffname
The string staffname is the name of the staff. It switches the current voice from its current staff
to the staff called staffname. Typical values for staffname are "up" and "down", or "RH" and
"LH".
The staff to which the voice is being switched must exist at the time of the switch. If
necessary, staves should be “kept alive”, see Section 33.3 [Keeping contexts alive], page 714, or
explicitly instantiated, for example by using the empty chord, <>, see Section 5.1.1 [Chorded
notes], page 207.
\new PianoStaff <<
Chapter 10: Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments 403

\new Staff = "up" {

% enforce creation of all contexts at this point of time
<>
\change Staff = "down" c2
\change Staff = "up" c'2
}
\new Staff = "down" {
\clef bass
% keep staff alive
s1
}
>>

X
 º
N
º N
Cross-staff notes are beamed automatically:
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff = "up" {
<e' c'>8
\change Staff = "down"
g8 fis g
\change Staff = "up"
<g'' c''>8
\change Staff = "down"
e8 dis e
\change Staff = "up"
}
\new Staff = "down" {
\clef bass
% keep staff alive
s1
}
>>

hh
X
º
 h
h
 º h h h h  h h
If the beaming needs to be tweaked, make any changes to the stem directions first. The beam
positions are then measured from the center of the staff that is closest to the beam. For a simple
example of beam tweaking, see Section “Fixing overlapping notation” in Learning Manual.
Overlapping notation can result when voices cross staves:
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff = "up" {
\voiceOne
Chapter 10: Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments 404

% Make space for fingering in the cross-staff voice

\once\override DynamicLineSpanner.staff-padding = 4
e''2\p\< d''\>
c''1\!
}
\new Staff = "down" <<
{
\clef bass
s4. e,8\rest g,2\rest
c1
} \\ {
c8\( g c'
\change Staff = "up"
e' g' b'-3 a' g'\)
f'1
}
>>
>>

N


º Nh h h .
 h h .
p h 

º hh .
¢˜
The stem and slur overlap the intervening line of dynamics because automatic collision reso-
lution is suspended for beams, slurs and other spanners that connect notes on different staves,
as well as for stems and articulations if their placement is affected by a cross-staff spanner. The
resulting collisions must be resolved manually, where necessary, using the methods in Section
“Fixing overlapping notation” in Learning Manual.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Fixing overlapping notation” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 7.1.9 [Stems], page 287, Section 2.4.1 [Automatic beams],
page 98, Section 33.3 [Keeping contexts alive], page 714.
Snippets: Section “Keyboards” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Beam” in Internals Reference, Section “ContextChange” in
Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Beam collision avoidance does not work for automatic beams that end right before a change in
staff. In this case use manual beams.

10.1.3 Changing staff automatically

Voices can be made to switch automatically between the top and the bottom staff. The syntax
for this is
\autoChange ...music...
This will create two staves inside the current staff group (usually a PianoStaff), called "up"
and "down". The lower staff will be in the bass clef by default. The auto-changer switches on
Chapter 10: Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments 405

the basis of the pitch (middle C is the turning point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to
switch in advance.
\new PianoStaff {
\autoChange {
g4 a b c'
d'4 r a g
}
}

X
 º h
h
º h h h 
h h

It is possible to specify other pitches for the turning point. If the staves are not instantiated
explicitly, other clefs may be used.
music = {
g8 b a c' b8 d' c'8 e'
d'8 r f' g' a'2
}

\autoChange d' \music

\autoChange b \with { \clef soprano } \music
\autoChange d' \with { \clef alto } \with { \clef tenor } \music

 º ¢
h h hhN
hh
º hhhhh

º h h h ¢ h h N

hh h
º hhh

º h h¢hhN
T

º hhhhhhh

A \relative section that is outside of \autoChange has no effect on the pitches of the music,
so if necessary, put \relative inside \autoChange.
If additional control is needed over the individual staves, they can be created manually with
the names "up" and "down". The \autoChange command will then switch its voice between the
existing staves.
Chapter 10: Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments 406

☛ ✟
Note: If staves are created manually, they must be named "up" and
"down".
✡ ✠
For example, staves must be created manually in order to place a key signature in the lower
staff:
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff = "up" {
\new Voice = "melOne" {
\key g \major
\autoChange \relative {
g8 b a c b d c e
d8 r fis, g a2
}
}
}
\new Staff = "down" {
\key g \major
\clef bass
}
>>

X

 º hhh h
h
 º h h h h ¢hh
N

See also
Notation Reference: Section 10.1.2 [Changing staff manually], page 402.
Snippets: Section “Keyboards” in Snippets.

Known issues and warnings

The staff switches may not end up in optimal places. For high quality output, staff switches
should be specified manually.
Chords will not be split across the staves; they will be assigned to a staff based on the first
note named in the chord construct.

10.1.4 Staff-change lines

Whenever a voice switches to another staff, a line connecting the notes can be printed automat-
ically:
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff = "one" {
\showStaffSwitch
c'1
\change Staff = "two"
b2 a
}
\new Staff = "two" {
\clef bass
Chapter 10: Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments 407

s1*2
}
>>

X
 º
.
º N N

A staff-change line between chords connects the chords’ “last notes” as written in the source
file; this can be used to quickly adjust the line’s vertical start and end positions.
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff = "one" {
<c' e' g'>1
\showStaffSwitch
\change Staff = "two"
<a c' f>1
\hideStaffSwitch
\change Staff = "one"
<e' g' c'>1
\showStaffSwitch
\change Staff = "two"
<f a c'>1
}
\new Staff = "two" {
\clef bass
s1*4
}
>>

X
 º .. ..
. .
.. ...
º .
Predefined commands
\showStaffSwitch, \hideStaffSwitch.

See also
Snippets: Section “Keyboards” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Note head line engraver” in Internals Reference, Section
“VoiceFollower” in Internals Reference.
Chapter 10: Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments 408

Selected Snippets
Cross-staff stems
This snippet shows how to use Span_stem_engraver and \crossStaff to connect stems across
staves automatically.
The stem lengths need not be specified, as the variable distance between noteheads and staves
is calculated automatically. However, it is important that \crossStaff is applied to the correct
voice or staff (i.e., on the opposite side of where a beam is or would be positioned) to get the
desired effect.
\layout {
\context {
\PianoStaff
\consists "Span_stem_engraver"
}
}

\new PianoStaff <<

\new Staff {
<b d'>4 r d'16\> e'8. g8 r\! |
e'8 f' g'4
\voiceTwo
% Down to lower staff
\crossStaff { e'8 e'8 } e'4 |
}

\new Staff {
\clef bass
\voiceOne
% Up to upper staff
\crossStaff { <e g>4 e, g16 a8. c8 } d |
g8 f g4 \voiceTwo g8 g g4 |
}
>>

g
 º h  h hP ¢ h h h h h h
h h
 º hh h hP h h h h h h h h
h
Indicating cross-staff chords with arpeggio bracket
An arpeggio bracket can indicate that notes on two different staves are to be played with the
same hand. In order to do this, the PianoStaff must be set to accept cross-staff arpeggios and
the arpeggios must be set to the bracket shape in the PianoStaff context.
(Debussy, Les collines d’Anacapri, m. 65)
\new PianoStaff <<
\set PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
\override PianoStaff.Arpeggio.stencil =
#ly:arpeggio::brew-chord-bracket
Chapter 10: Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments 409

\new Staff {
\relative c' {
\key b \major
\time 6/8
b8-.(\arpeggio fis'-.\> cis-.
e-. gis-. b-.)\!\fermata^\laissezVibrer \bar "||"
}
}
\new Staff {
\relative c' {
\clef bass
\key b \major
<<
{
<a e cis>2.\arpeggio
}
\\
{
<a, e a,>2.
}
>>
}
}
>>

 z

  86 hp h hp
hp
hp hp p
  6  NN PPP
 8  NN P
 N PP
See also
Snippets: Section “Keyboards” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Stem” in Internals Reference.

10.2 Piano
This section discusses notation issues that relate most directly to the piano.

10.2.1 Piano pedals

Pianos generally have three pedals that alter the way sound is produced: sustain, sostenuto
(sos.), and una corda (U.C.). Sustain pedals are also found on vibraphones and celestas.
\relative {
c''4\sustainOn d e g
<c, f a>1\sustainOff
c4\sostenutoOn e g c,
<bes d f>1\sostenutoOff
c4\unaCorda d e g
Chapter 10: Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments 410

<d fis a>1\treCorde

}

º h h h h ... h h h h  ... h h h h ...


‘Ž  Sost. Ped. una corda tre corde

There are three styles of pedal indications: text, bracket, and mixed. The sustain pedal
and the una corda pedal use the text style by default while the sostenuto pedal uses mixed by
default.
\relative {
c''4\sustainOn g c2\sustainOff
\set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'mixed
c4\sustainOn g c d
d\sustainOff\sustainOn g, c2\sustainOff
\set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'bracket
c4\sustainOn g c d
d\sustainOff\sustainOn g, c2
\bar "|."
}

h hh N hh h h hh N
º hh N hh h
‘Ž  ‘Ž
The placement of the pedal commands matches the physical movement of the sustain pedal
during piano performance. Pedaling to the final bar line is indicated by omitting the final pedal
off command.
Pedal indications may be placed in a Dynamics context, which aligns them on a horizontal
line.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 2.1.4 [Ties], page 61.
Snippets: Section “Keyboards” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “SustainPedal” in Internals Reference, Section “SustainPedal-
LineSpanner” in Internals Reference, Section “SustainEvent” in Internals Reference, Section
“SostenutoPedal” in Internals Reference, Section “SostenutoPedalLineSpanner” in Internals
Reference, Section “SostenutoEvent” in Internals Reference, Section “UnaCordaPedal” in
Internals Reference, Section “UnaCordaPedalLineSpanner” in Internals Reference, Section
“UnaCordaEvent” in Internals Reference, Section “PianoPedalBracket” in Internals Reference,
Section “Piano pedal engraver” in Internals Reference.

10.3 Accordion
This section discusses notation that is unique to the accordion.

10.3.1 Discant symbols

Accordions are often built with more than one set of reeds that may be in unison with, an octave
above, or an octave below the written pitch. Each accordion maker has different names for the
shifts that select the various reed combinations, such as oboe, musette, or bandonium, so a
system of symbols has come into use to simplify the performance instructions.
Chapter 10: Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments 411

A complete list of all available accordion registers can be found in Section A.1.7 [Accordion
registers], page 834.

Selected Snippets
Accordion register symbols
Accordion register symbols are available as \markup as well as as standalone music events (as
register changes tend to occur between actual music events). Bass registers are not overly
standardized. The available commands can be found in ’Discant symbols’ in the Notation
Reference.
#(use-modules (lily accreg))

\new PianoStaff
<<
\new Staff \relative {
\clef treble
\discant "10"
r8 s32 f'[ bes f] s e[ a e] s d[ g d] s16 e32[ a]
<<
{ r16 <f bes> r <e a> r <d g> }
\\
{ d r a r bes r }
>> |
<cis e a>1
}

\new Staff \relative {

\clef treble
\freeBass "1"
r8 d'32 s16. c32 s16. bes32 s16. a32[ cis] s16
\clef bass \stdBass "Master"
<<
{ r16 <f, bes d>^"b" r <e a c>^"am" r <d g bes>^"gm" |
<e a cis>1^"a" }
\\
{ d8_"D" c_"C" bes_"B" | a1_"A" }
>>
}
>>

('
¥ †¥ †¥ †
º ¢ h h h h hh h hh h h h hh¥ hh  h hh ..
4
¥ 
.
U( hU ¥ U
((( ( b† am† † a
-
¥  hh ¥  hh ¥ hh  ...
gm
() ‡ ‡ ‡ h h h h h .
º ¢ h h
h h hh D C B
A
Chapter 10: Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments 412

See also
Snippets: Section “Keyboards” in Snippets.

10.4 Harp
This section discusses notation issues that are unique to the harp.

10.4.1 References for harps

Some common characteristics of harp music are covered elsewhere:
• The glissando is the most characteristic harp technique, Section 3.3.1 [Glissando], page 170.
• A bisbigliando is written as a tremolo Section 4.2.2 [Tremolo repeats], page 203.
• Natural harmonics are covered under Section 11.1.3 [Harmonics], page 414.
• For directional arpeggios and non-arpeggios, see Section 3.3.2 [Arpeggio], page 176.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 4.2.2 [Tremolo repeats], page 203, Section 3.3.1 [Glissando],
page 170, Section 3.3.2 [Arpeggio], page 176, Section 11.1.3 [Harmonics], page 414.

10.4.2 Harp pedals

Harps have seven strings per octave that may be sounded at the natural, flattened, or sharpened
pitch. In lever harps, each string is adjusted individually, but in pedal harps every string with
the same pitch name is controlled by a single pedal. From the player’s left to right, the pedals
are D, C, and B on the left and E, F, G, and A on the right. The position of the pedals may be
indicated with text marks:
\textLengthOn
cis''1_\markup \concat \vcenter {
[D \flat C \sharp B|E \sharp F \sharp G A \flat] }
c''!1_\markup \concat \vcenter {
[ C \natural ] }

 º . .
   
[D C B|E F GA ] [C ]
or pedal diagrams:
\textLengthOn
cis''1_\markup { \harp-pedal "^v-|vv-^" }
c''!1_\markup { \harp-pedal "^o--|vv-^" }

 º . .

The \harp-pedal command accepts a string of characters, where ^ is the highest pedal
position (flattened pitch), - is the middle pedal position (natural pitch), v is the lowest pedal
position (sharpened pitch), and | is the divider. A prefixed o will circle the following pedal
symbol.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 8.1.2 [Text scripts], page 300, Section A.1.6 [Instrument-specific
markup], page 829.
 413

11 Unfretted string instruments

1
lentement n.
1) n. 2) s.p.

y ˆ ... z ˆ y ... z y ˆ ...

s. vib. p. vib. s. vib.
fatigué
IV IV IV

 NN .. NN .. h NN .. N . N h
b b b pp
mf mf mf ff
s.p.

y y y y y
accel... n. s.p. n.
p. vib.
p p p p p p p p p p
 h h h h h h h h h h h h hhhhhhN
IV IV

b b b b hhhhhhhhhh
3 3

mf ff
3 3 3

s.p. n. s.p. n.

y y y y
ritar... p. vib. m. vib.

IV IV IV i
 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h  N  N  N NN ..
b b b b 3 3
b
3 3 3
ppp
This section provides information and references which are helpful when writing for unfretted
string instruments, principally orchestral strings.

11.1 Common notation for unfretted strings

There is little specialist notation for unfretted string instruments. The music is notated on a
single staff, and usually only a single voice is required. Two voices might be required for some
double-stopped or divisi passages.

11.1.1 References for unfretted strings

Most of the notation which is useful for orchestral strings and other bowed instruments is covered
elsewhere:
• Textual indications such as “pizz.” and “arco” are added as simple text – see Section 8.1.2
[Text scripts], page 300.
• Fingerings, including the thumb indication, are described in Section 7.1.2 [Fingering instruc-
tions], page 272.
• String numbers may be added (generally in roman numbers for bowed instruments) as
explained in Section 12.1.2 [String number indications], page 418.
• Double stopping is normally indicated by writing a chord, see Section 5.1.1 [Chorded notes],
page 207. Directives for playing chords may be added, see Section 3.3.2 [Arpeggio], page 176.
• Templates for string quartets can be found in Section “String quartet templates” in Learning
Manual. Others are shown in the snippets.
Chapter 11: Unfretted string instruments 414

See also
Learning Manual: Section “String quartet templates” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 8.1.2 [Text scripts], page 300, Section 7.1.2 [Fingering instruc-
tions], page 272, Section 5.1.1 [Chorded notes], page 207, Section 3.3.2 [Arpeggio], page 176.
Snippets: Section “Unfretted strings” in Snippets.

11.1.2 Bowing indications

Bowing indications are created as articulations, which are described in Section 3.1.1 [Articula-
tions and ornamentations], page 149.
The bowing commands, \upbow and \downbow, are used with slurs as follows:
\relative { c''4(\downbow d) e(\upbow f) }

hy h hˆ h
º
Roman numerals can be used for string numbers (rather than the default circled Arabic numbers),
as explained in Section 12.1.2 [String number indications], page 418.
Alternatively, string indications may be printed using markup commands; articulation scripts
may also indicate open strings.
a'4 \open
\romanStringNumbers
a'\2
a'2^\markup { \small "sul A" }

b sul A
º h h N
II

Predefined commands
\downbow, \upbow, \open, \romanStringNumbers.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 3.1.1 [Articulations and ornamentations], page 149, Section 12.1.2
[String number indications], page 418, Section 3.2.1 [Slurs], page 164.

11.1.3 Harmonics
Natural harmonics
Natural harmonics can be notated in several ways. A diamond-shaped note head generally
means to touch the string where you would stop the note if it were not a diamond.
\relative d'' {
d4 e4.
\harmonicsOn
d8 e e
d4 e4.
\harmonicsOff
d8 e e
}
Chapter 11: Unfretted string instruments 415

hP 7 7 7 7 7P h h h
º h
Alternatively a normal note head is shown at the pitch to be sounded together with a small
circle to indicate it should be played as a harmonic:
d''2^\flageolet d''_\flageolet

NX N
 º
X
Artificial harmonics
Artificial harmonics are notated with two notes, one with a normal note head indicating the
stopped position and one with an open diamond note head to indicate the harmonic position.
Artificial harmonics indicated with \harmonic do not show the dots. The context property
harmonicDots should be set if dots are required.
\relative e' {
<e a\harmonic>2. <c g'\harmonic>4
\set harmonicDots = ##t
<e a\harmonic>2. <c g'\harmonic>4
}

 º N7 P h7 N7 PP h7
See also
Music Glossary: Section “harmonics” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 1.4.1 [Special note heads], page 43, Section 11.1.1 [References
for unfretted strings], page 413.

Known issues and warnings

If you want to center a harmonic on a whole note, make it part of a chord.
{
<< { d''1\harmonic } \\ { a'1 } >>
<a' d''\harmonic>1
}

 º .7 .7
11.1.4 Snap (Bartók) pizzicato
A snap pizzicato (also known as “Bartok pizz”) is a type of pizzicato where the string is delib-
erately plucked upwards (rather than sideways) such that it hits the fingerboard.
\relative {
c'4\snappizzicato
<c' e g>4\snappizzicato
<c' e g>4^\snappizzicato
<c, e g>4_\snappizzicato
Chapter 11: Unfretted string instruments 416

hho
o hho h hh
º h h h
o
 417

12 Fretted string instruments

m
h
 h h
h h h h h h
h h
 º hh hhh  h h
8
h h h
fp
h
 h h h h h  hh
h h h h h

 h hh h hh


8
h h h
fp 

m rit. m
  h  h .   Andantino
h ”
 h
hh h h h h .
h .
h h h h h h hhh
8
h h . h h
dim. p
il canto ben marcato

h h hh P h h h hh P h h


 h h h h h h h h h
h h h h h h

h h h

 
8 h h h h
p dol.
h
hh h h h h h
 h h h h h h h h h h h hh ! h h  h h h h
h

h
  


h
8 h h h


h h hh P h h h h h hh h hh


 h h h h h h h h
h h h h h h

h h h
h
8
h h h

This section discusses several aspects of music notation that are unique to fretted string instru-
ments.
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 418

12.1 Common notation for fretted strings

This section discusses common notation that is unique to fretted string instruments.

12.1.1 References for fretted strings

Music for fretted string instruments is normally notated on a single staff, either in traditional
music notation or in tablature. Sometimes the two types are combined, and it is especially
common in popular music to use chord diagrams above a staff of traditional notation. The guitar
and the banjo are transposing instruments, sounding an octave lower than written. Scores for
these instruments should use the "treble_8" clef (or \transposition c to get correct MIDI
output). Some other elements pertinent to fretted string instruments are covered elsewhere:
• Fingerings are indicated as shown in Section 7.1.2 [Fingering instructions], page 272.
• Instructions for Laissez vibrer ties as well as ties on arpeggios and tremolos can be found
in Section 2.1.4 [Ties], page 61.
• Instructions for handling multiple voices can be found in Section 5.2.3 [Collision resolution],
page 218.
• Instructions for indicating harmonics can be found in Section 11.1.3 [Harmonics], page 414.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 7.1.2 [Fingering instructions], page 272, Section 2.1.4 [Ties],
page 61, Section 5.2.3 [Collision resolution], page 218, Section 6.3.1 [Instrument names],
page 253, Section 5.2.6 [Writing music in parallel], page 230, Section 3.3.2 [Arpeggio],
page 176, Section B.13 [List of articulations], page 892, Section 1.3.1 [Clef], page 19, Sec-
tion 1.3.4 [Instrument transpositions], page 29.

12.1.2 String number indications

The string on which a note should be played may be indicated by appending \number to a note.
\clef "treble_8"
c4\5 e\4 g2\3
<c\5 e\4 g\3>1

º
5 4 3 4
N ..
8
h h .
5
When fingerings and string indications are used together, their vertical placement can be
controlled with the script-priority property, see [Controlling the vertical ordering of scripts],
page 151, and Section B.18 [Default values for script-priority], page 902; the ordering in the
source code has no influence.
\clef "treble_8"
g4\3-0
g-0\3
g-\tweak script-priority 200 -0 \3

3 3 !

º h h h
! ! 3

8
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 419

String numbers may also, as is customary with unfretted strings, be printed in Roman nu-
merals and placed below the staff rather than above.
\clef "treble_8"
c'2\2
a\3
\romanStringNumbers
c'\2
\set stringNumberOrientations = #'(down)
a\3
\arabicStringNumbers
g1\4

º N N N N
2 3

.
II

III 4
8

Most behaviors of string number indications (namely, the StringNumber object), including
their placement, may be set in the same way as fingerings: see Section 7.1.2 [Fingering instruc-
tions], page 272.

Predefined commands
\arabicStringNumbers, \romanStringNumbers.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 7.1.2 [Fingering instructions], page 272.
Snippets: Section “Fretted strings” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “StringNumber” in Internals Reference, Section “Fingering”
in Internals Reference.

12.1.3 Default tablatures

Music for plucked string instruments is frequently notated using a finger/touch notation or
tablature. In contrast to traditional notation pitches are not denoted with note heads, but by
numbers (or letter-like symbols in historical intavolatura). The staff lines in tablature indicate
the string on which the note is to be played, and a number placed on a staff line indicates the fret
at which the corresponding string is to be pressed. Notes that are to be played simultaneously
are vertically aligned.
By default, string 1 is the highest string, and corresponds to the top line on the TabStaff.
The tuning of the TabStaff strings defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings).
The notes are printed as tablature, by using TabStaff and TabVoice contexts. A calligraphic
tablature clef is added automatically.
\new TabStaff \relative {
a,8 a' <c e> a
d,8 a' <d f> a
}

/
0 1
1 3
2 2 2 2
0
0

Default tablatures do not contain any symbols for tone duration nor any other musical
symbols such as expressive marks, for example.
symbols = {
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 420

\time 3/4
c4-.^"Allegro" d( e)
f4-.\f g a^\fermata
\mark \default
c8_.\<\( c16 c~ 2\!
c'2.\prall\)
}

\score {
<<
\new Staff { \clef "G_8" \symbols }
\new TabStaff { \symbols }
>>
}

zA c
 43 h h hp h h NP
Allegro

8
hp f hp h h N
/ 0 2 3
0 2
1

3 3 3 3

If all musical symbols used in traditional notation should also show up in tablature one has
to apply the command \tabFullNotation in a TabStaff-context. Please bear in mind that
half notes are double-stemmed in tablature in order to distinguish them from quarter notes.
symbols = {
\time 3/4
c4-.^"Allegro" d( e)
f4-.\f g a^\fermata
\mark \default
c8_.\<\( c16 c~ 2\!
c'2.\prall\)
}

\score {
\new TabStaff {
\tabFullNotation
\symbols
}
}

zA c
Allegro
P
/ 43 1

p
0 2

p p
0 2 3
3 3 333

f
By default pitches are assigned to the lowest playing position on the fretboard (first position).
Open strings are automatically preferred. If you would like a certain pitch to be played on a
specific string you can add a string number indication to the pitch name. If you don’t want to
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 421

have string number indications appear in traditional notation, you can override the respective
stencil. Usually it will be more comfortable to define the playing position by using the value of
minimumFret. The default value for minimumFret is 0.
Even when minimumFret is set, open strings are used whenever possible. This behavior can
be changed by setting restrainOpenStrings to #t.
\layout { \omit Voice.StringNumber }
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff \relative {
\clef "treble_8"
\time 2/4
c16 d e f g4
c,16\5 d\5 e\4 f\4 g4\4
c,16 d e f g4
}
\new TabStaff \relative {
c16 d e f g4
c,16\5 d\5 e\4 f\4 g4\4
\set TabStaff.minimumFret = 5
\set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t
c,16 d e f g4
}
>>

7
 42 h h h h h hhhhh
8
h hhhh
/ 0

6
0 2 3 2 3 5 5
3 3 5 5 7 8
8

Chord constructs can be repeated by the chord repetition symbol ‘q’, (see Section 5.1.2 [Chord
repetition], page 209, for more). In combination with tabulatures, its behavior of removing string
and fingering numbers alongside with other events may lead to unwanted results, in particular
different fret positions. The command \tabChordRepeats keeps the fingering consistent across
repetitions. In the following example, the default fingering for this chord (without fingering
indications) would be ‘gis’ on 4th string, ‘b’ on 3rd string, and ‘cis’ on 2nd string. As we use
b-0 in the input, ‘b’ is on the second string, and ‘cis’ moves to the 3rd string. \tabChordRepeats
allows to keep the same fingering in the following q chords:
guitar = \relative {
r8 <gis-2 cis-3 b-0>~ q4 q8~ 8 q4
}

\new StaffGroup <<

\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
\guitar
}
\new TabStaff {
\tabChordRepeats \guitar
}
>>
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 422

7
 º ¢   hhh hhh hhh hhh hhh
!

/ 0
6
0
6
0
6

6
6 6 6

Ties over a line break are parenthesized by default. The same holds for the second alternative
of a repeat.
ties = \relative {
\repeat volta 2 {
e'2. f4~
2 g2~
}
\alternative {
\volta 1 { g4 f2. }
\volta 2 { g4\repeatTie c,2. }
}
b1~
\break
b1
\bar "|."
}

\score {
<<
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
\ties
}
\new TabStaff {
\ties
}
>>
>>
\layout {
indent = 0
ragged-right = ##t
}
}

7 NP h N N h
.
N P h P
.

 º P
P N .
P
8

/
0 1 3 1 3

P
1 0

6
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 423

76
 .
8

/ 0

6
The command \hideSplitTiedTabNotes cancels the behavior of engraving fret numbers in
parentheses:
ties = \relative {
\repeat volta 2 {
e'2. f4~
2 g2~ }
\alternative {
\volta 1 { g4 f2. }
\volta 2 { g4\repeatTie c,2. }
}
b1~
\break
b1
\bar "|."
}

\score {
<<
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
\ties
}
\new TabStaff {
\hideSplitTiedTabNotes
\ties
}
>>
>>
\layout {
indent = 0
ragged-right = ##t
}
}

7 NP h N N h
.
N P h P
.

 º P
P N .
P
8

/
0 1 3 1

P
1 0

6
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 424

76
 .
8

/
6
Harmonic indications can be added to tablature notation as sounding pitches:
\layout { \omit Voice.StringNumber }
firstHarmonic = {
d'4\4\harmonic
g'4\3\harmonic
b'2\2\harmonic
}
\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
\firstHarmonic
}
\new TabStaff { \firstHarmonic }
>>
}

7 7 7
 º
8

/ 12
12
12

Note that the command \harmonic must always be attached to single notes (possibly inside
of a chord) instead of whole chords. It only makes sense for open-string harmonics in the 12th
fret. All other harmonics should be calculated by LilyPond. This can be achieved by indicating
the fret where a finger of the fretting hand should touch a string.
fretHarmonics = {
\harmonicByFret 5 d16\4
\harmonicByFret 4 d16\4
\harmonicByFret 3 d8\4
\harmonicByFret 5 <g\3 b\2>2.
}
\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
\fretHarmonics
}
\new TabStaff { \fretHarmonics }
>>
}
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 425

2P
n 7 P
n4  n 7
4 4

 º
8 3

/ 5 4 3
5
5

Alternatively, harmonics can be computed by defining the ratio of string lengths above and
below the harmonic fingering.
ratioHarmonics = {
\harmonicByRatio #1/2 <g\3 b\2 e'\1>4
\harmonicByRatio #1/3 <g\3 b\2 e'\1>4
\harmonicByRatio #1/4 { g8\3 b8\2 e'4\1 }
}
\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
\ratioHarmonics
}
\new TabStaff { \ratioHarmonics }
>>
}

n
1

nn  nnn n
n
1
1 2
2 3 2

n
 º
8 3 3

/
12 7 5
12 7 5
12 7 5

String bendings can be added to tablature notation. A bending is introduced by appending \^

to the note or chord to be bent; it terminates automatically at the next note or chord. Available
are the following styles: the default prints a curve with an arrow head up or down, 'hold a
dashed horizontal line, 'pre-bend a vertical line with an arrow head, and 'pre-bend-hold a
vertical line with an arrow head continued by a dashed line.
The commands \bendHold, \preBend, and \preBendHold are shortcuts for setting the bend-
ing style.
bend-styles = {
<>^"default"
f'4\^ g'4\^ f'2

<>^\markup \typewriter "'hold"

\grace f'4\^ g'1\bendHold \^ g'1
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 426

<>^\markup \typewriter "'pre-bend"

\grace f'4\preBend \^ g'1\bendHold \^ g'1

<>^\markup \typewriter "'pre-bend-hold"

\grace f'4\preBendHold \^ g'1\bendHold \^ g'1\^ f'

\bar "|."
}

\score {
\new StaffGroup
<<
\new Staff {
\override TextScript.font-size = -2
\clef "G_8"
\bend-styles
}
\new TabStaff \bend-styles
>>
\layout {
\context {
\Voice
\omit StringNumber
}
\context {
\TabStaff
minimumFret = 5
}
}
}

7 h h N h. . h. . h. . .
'hold 'pre-bend 'pre-bend-hold
default

 º
8 1 1 1 1

/ 6 6 6 8 6 8 6 8 6

6
Open strings are usually not bent. To have them bent as well set the property bend-me to
#t. To exclude other notes from being bent set it to #f.
mus = {
<>^"default"
<a b f'>4\^
<ais b fis'>\^
<a b f'>2

<>^"bend open strings"

<a \tweak bend-me ##t b f'>4\^
<ais \tweak bend-me ##t bis fis'>\^
<a b f'>2
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 427

<>^"exclude other strings"

<g \tweak bend-me ##f b\3 d'>4\^
<a e'\2 >\^
<g \tweak bend-me ##f b\3 d'>2

\bar "|."
}

\score {
\new StaffGroup
<<
\new Staff {
\override TextScript.font-size = -2
\clef "G_8"
\mus
}
\new TabStaff \mus
>>
\layout {
\context {
\Voice
\omit StringNumber
}
}
}

7 h h N h h N hhh hh NN
default bend open strings

 º hh  hh  NN hh   hh   NN
exclude other strings

N
8
½ ½ 1

/
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 3 3
2 2 2 2 4 4

6
5 5

For consecutive bendings the starting bend may need to have an appropriate setting for
details.successive-level. For convenience there is the function bendStartLevel, taking an
integer.
printNext = -\tweak details.target-visibility ##t \etc

mus = {
c'4\3\^ cis'\3 \^ d'2\3

\grace bes4\3\preBendHold \bendStartLevel 2 \printNext \^

d'4\3\bendHold \^ d'2\3\^ des'4\3 \^ c'1\3

\bar "|."
}

\score {
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 428

\new StaffGroup
<<
\new Staff {
\override TextScript.font-size = -2
\clef "G_8"
\mus
}
\new TabStaff \mus
>>
\layout {
\context {
\Voice
\omit StringNumber
}
}
}

7
 º h h N h h N h .
8 ½ 2
½

/ 5 3 7 7 6 5

6
Per default the BendSpanner ends at the following note or chord even if it is tied to the
starting note or chord. A single NoteColumn may be skipped by using \skipNC. A group of
NoteColumns can be skipped by using \skipNCs at the beginning and \endSkipNCs at the end.
bends-with-ties-and-skips = {
a'4~\^ \skipNC a'4~ \skipNC a'4 b'4
a'4~ a'4~\^ \skipNC a'4 b'4
a'4~ a'4~ a'4\^ b'4
c'2\^ d'~ \bendHold \^ \skipNC d'~ d'\^ c'
\grace { c'8-\preBendHold \^ }
\skipNCs d'2~ d'2~ \endSkipNCs d'\^ c'2
\bar "|."
}

\score {
\new StaffGroup
<<
\new Staff {
\clef "G_8"
\bends-with-ties-and-skips
}
\new TabVoice \bends-with-ties-and-skips
>>
\layout {
\context {
\Voice
\omit StringNumber
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 429

}
\context {
\TabStaff
minimumFret = 3
restrainOpenStrings = ##t
}
}
}

7 hhhh hhhh hhhh

 º N N N N N hN N N N
8 1 1 1 1 1

/
5 5 5
3
5 5 5 5

6
Predefined commands
\skipNCs, \skipNC, \endSkipNCs.

Selected Snippets
Stem and beam behavior in tablature
The direction of stems is controlled the same way in tablature as in traditional notation. Beams
can be made horizontal, as shown in this example.
\new TabStaff {
\relative c {
\tabFullNotation
g16 b d g b d g b
\stemDown
\override Beam.concaveness = 10000
g,,16 b d g b d g b
}
}

/º
3 7 3 7
0 3 0 3
0 0
0 0
2 2
3 3

Polyphony in tablature
Polyphony is created the same way in a TabStaff as in a regular staff.
upper = \relative c' {
\time 12/8
\key e \minor
\voiceOne
r4. r8 e, fis g16 b g e e' b c b a g fis e
}

lower = \relative c {
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 430

\key e \minor
\voiceTwo
r16 e d c b a g4 fis8 e fis g a b c
}

\score {
<<
\new StaffGroup = "tab with traditional" <<
\new Staff = "guitar traditional" <<
\clef "treble_8"
\new Voice = "upper" \upper
\new Voice = "lower" \lower
>>
\new TabStaff = "guitar tab" <<
\new TabVoice = "upper" \upper
\new TabVoice = "lower" \lower
>>
>>
>>
}

7  P ¢ hhhhh
12
 8 ¥hhh h
h h h hh
hhh h h h hhh h h hh
T
8

/
0
0 0 1 0
0 0 2 0

6
2 0 2 4 2 4 2
3 2 0 0 2 3
3 2 0 2 3

Open string harmonics in tablature

This snippet demonstrates open-string harmonics.
openStringHarmonics = {
\textSpannerDown
\override TextSpanner.staff-padding = 3
\override TextSpanner.dash-fraction = 0.3
\override TextSpanner.dash-period = 1

%first harmonic
\override TextSpanner.bound-details.left.text =
\markup\small "1st harm. "
\harmonicByFret 12 e,2\6\startTextSpan
\harmonicByRatio #1/2 e,\6\stopTextSpan

%second harmonic
\override TextSpanner.bound-details.left.text =
\markup\small "2nd harm. "
\harmonicByFret 7 e,\6\startTextSpan
\harmonicByRatio #1/3 e,\6
\harmonicByFret 19 e,\6
\harmonicByRatio #2/3 e,\6\stopTextSpan
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 431

%\harmonicByFret 19 < e,\6 a,\5 d\4 >

%\harmonicByRatio #2/3 < e,\6 a,\5 d\4 >

%third harmonic
\override TextSpanner.bound-details.left.text =
\markup\small "3rd harm. "
\harmonicByFret 5 e,\6\startTextSpan
\harmonicByRatio #1/4 e,\6
\harmonicByFret 24 e,\6
\harmonicByRatio #3/4 e,\6\stopTextSpan
\break

%fourth harmonic
\override TextSpanner.bound-details.left.text =
\markup\small "4th harm. "
\harmonicByFret 4 e,\6\startTextSpan
\harmonicByRatio #1/5 e,\6
\harmonicByFret 9 e,\6
\harmonicByRatio #2/5 e,\6
\harmonicByFret 16 e,\6
\harmonicByRatio #3/5 e,\6\stopTextSpan

%fifth harmonic
\override TextSpanner.bound-details.left.text =
\markup\small "5th harm. "
\harmonicByFret 3 e,\6\startTextSpan
\harmonicByRatio #1/6 e,\6\stopTextSpan
\break

%sixth harmonic
\override TextSpanner.bound-details.left.text =
\markup\small "6th harm. "
\harmonicByFret 2.7 e,\6\startTextSpan
\harmonicByRatio #1/7 e,\6\stopTextSpan

%seventh harmonic
\override TextSpanner.bound-details.left.text =
\markup\small "7th harm. "
\harmonicByFret 2.3 e,\6\startTextSpan
\harmonicByRatio #1/8 e,\6\stopTextSpan

%eighth harmonic
\override TextSpanner.bound-details.left.text =
\markup\small "8th harm. "
\harmonicByFret 2 e,\6\startTextSpan
\harmonicByRatio #1/9 e,\6\stopTextSpan
}

\score {
<<
\new Staff
\with { \omit StringNumber } {
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 432

\new Voice {
\clef "treble_8"
\openStringHarmonics
}
}
\new TabStaff {
\new TabVoice {
\openStringHarmonics
}
}
>>
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

7 7 7 7
 º 7 7
7 7 7 7
8 1st harm. 3rd harm.
2nd harm.

/
7 7
12 12 7 7 19 19 5 5 24 24
6 7 7 7 7 7 7

8 4th harm. 5th harm.

/
4 4 9 9 16 16 3 3

7 7 7 7 7 7
10


8 6th harm. 7th harm. 8th harm.

/
2.7 2.7 2.3 2.3 2 2

Fretted-string harmonics in tablature

The following demonstrates fretted-string harmonics in a tablature.
pinchedHarmonics = {
\textSpannerDown
\override TextSpanner.bound-details.left.text =
\markup {\halign #-0.5 \teeny "PH" }
\override TextSpanner.style = #'dashed-line
\override TextSpanner.dash-period = 0.6
\override TextSpanner.bound-details.right.attach-dir = 1
\override TextSpanner.bound-details.right.text =
\markup { \draw-line #'(0 . 1) }
\override TextSpanner.bound-details.right.padding = -0.5
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 433

harmonics = {
% artificial harmonics (AH)
\textLengthOn
<\parenthesize b b'\harmonic>4_\markup { \teeny "AH 16" }
<\parenthesize g g'\harmonic>4_\markup { \teeny "AH 17" }
<\parenthesize d' d''\harmonic>2_\markup { \teeny "AH 19" }

% pinched harmonics (PH)

\pinchedHarmonics
<a'\harmonic>2\startTextSpan
<d''\harmonic>4
<e'\harmonic>4\stopTextSpan

% tapped harmonics (TH)

<\parenthesize g\4 g'\harmonic>4_\markup { \teeny "TH 17" }
<\parenthesize a\4 a'\harmonic>4_\markup { \teeny "TH 19" }
<\parenthesize c'\3 c''\harmonic>2_\markup { \teeny "TH 17" }

% touch harmonics (TCH)

a4( <e''\harmonic>2. )_\markup { \teeny "TCH" }
}

frettedStrings = {
% artificial harmonics (AH)
\harmonicByFret 4 g4\3
\harmonicByFret 5 d4\4
\harmonicByFret 7 g2\3

% pinched harmonics (PH)

\harmonicByFret 7 d2\4
\harmonicByFret 5 d4\4
\harmonicByFret 7 a4\5

% tapped harmonics (TH)

\harmonicByFret 5 d4\4
\harmonicByFret 7 d4\4
\harmonicByFret 5 g2\3

% touch harmonics (TCH)

a4 \harmonicByFret 9 g2.\3
}

\score {
<<
\new Staff
\with { \omit StringNumber } {
\new Voice {
\clef "treble_8"
\harmonics
}
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 434

}
\new TabStaff {
\new TabVoice {
\frettedStrings
}
}
>>
}

7 7 7 7 77 7 7 7 7
N N
 º h h   h h h
AH 19 PH TCH
8 AH 16 AH 17 TH 17
TH 17 TH 19

/ 4
5
7
7 5 5 7
5 2 9
7

Slides in tablature
Slides can be typeset in both Staff and TabStaff contexts.
slides = {
c'8\3(\glissando d'8\3)
c'8\3\glissando d'8\3
\hideNotes
\grace { g16\glissando }
\unHideNotes
c'4\3
\afterGrace d'4\3\glissando {
\stemDown \hideNotes
g16 }
\unHideNotes
}

\score {
<<
\new Staff { \clef "treble_8" \slides }
\new TabStaff { \slides }
>>
\layout {
\context {
\Score
\override Glissando.minimum-length = 4
\override Glissando.springs-and-rods =
#ly:spanner::set-spacing-rods
\override Glissando.thickness = 2
\omit StringNumber
% or:
%\override StringNumber.stencil = ##f
}
}
}
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 435

h h h h
 º h h
8

/ 5 7 5 7 5 7

Chord glissando in tablature

Slides for chords are indicated by default in both Staff and TabStaff.
String numbers may be necessary for TabStaff because automatic string calculations are
different for chords and for single notes.
myMusic = \relative c' {
<c e g>1 \glissando <f a c>
<cis, eis gis>1 \glissando <f a c>
<cis eis gis>1 \glissando <f a c\3>
}

\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
\omit StringNumber
\myMusic
}
\new TabStaff \myMusic
>>
}

\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
\omit StringNumber
\myMusic
}
\new TabStaff \with { \override Glissando.style = #'none } {
\myMusic
}
>>
}

\paper { tagline = ##f }

.. ...
 º .   ...
...
  ...
...
8

/
3 8
5 10 1
5 10 1 2 1 5
3 3 3 7
4 4 8
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 436

.. ...
 .
º   ...
...
  ...
...
8

/
3 8
5 10 1
5 10 1 2 1 5
3 3 3 7
4 4 8

Hammer on and pull off

Hammer-on and pull-off can be obtained using slurs.
\new TabStaff {
\relative c' {
d4( e\2)
a( g)
}
}

/
5 3
3 5

Hammer on and pull off using voices

The arc of hammer-on and pull-off is upwards in voices one and three and downwards in voices
two and four:
\new TabStaff {
\relative c' {
<< { \voiceOne g2( a) }
\\ { \voiceTwo a,( b) }
>> \oneVoice
}
}

/ 0 2
0 2

Hammer on and pull off using chords

When using hammer-on or pull-off with chorded notes, only a single arc is drawn. However
“double arcs” are possible by setting the doubleSlurs property to #t.
\new TabStaff {
\relative c' {
% chord hammer-on and pull-off
\set doubleSlurs = ##t
<g' b>8( <a c> <g b>)
}
}

/
7 8 7
8 10 8
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 437

See also
Notation Reference: Section 5.1.2 [Chord repetition], page 209, Section 3.3.1 [Glissando],
page 170, Section 11.1.3 [Harmonics], page 414, Section 7.1.9 [Stems], page 287, Section 4.1.1
[Written-out repeats], page 181.
Snippets: Section “Fretted strings” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “TabNoteHead” in Internals Reference, Section “TabStaff” in
Internals Reference, Section “TabVoice” in Internals Reference, Section “Beam” in Internals
Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic string selector may easily
select the same string for two notes in a chord.
In order to handle \partCombine, a TabStaff must use specially-created voices:
melodia = \partCombine { e4 g g g } { e4 e e e }
<<
\new TabStaff <<
\new TabVoice = "one" s1
\new TabVoice = "two" s1
\new TabVoice = "shared" s1
\new TabVoice = "solo" s1
{ \melodia }
>>
>>

a2

/ 2
0
2
0
2
0
2

Guitar special effects are limited to harmonics and slides.

12.1.4 Custom tablatures

LilyPond tablature automatically calculates the fret for a note based on the string to which the
note is assigned. In order to do this, the tuning of the strings must be specified. The tuning of
the strings is given in the stringTunings property.
LilyPond comes with predefined string tunings for banjo, mandolin, guitar, bass guitar,
ukulele, violin, viola, cello, and double bass. LilyPond automatically sets the correct trans-
position for predefined tunings. The following example is for bass guitar, which sounds an
octave lower than written.
<<
\new Voice \with {
\omit StringNumber
} {
\clef "bass_8"
\relative {
c,4 d e f
}
}
\new TabStaff \with {
stringTunings = #bass-tuning
} {
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 438

\relative {
c,4 d e f
}
}
>>

 º hhhh
8

/ 3
0 2 3

The default string tuning is guitar-tuning, which is the standard EADGBE tuning. Some
other predefined tunings are guitar-open-g-tuning, mandolin-tuning and banjo-open-g-
tuning. The predefined string tunings are found in ly/string-tunings-init.ly.
Any desired string tuning can be created. The \stringTuning function can be used to define
a string tuning which can be used to set stringTunings for the current context.
Its argument is a chord construct defining the pitches of each string in the tuning. The chord
construct must be in absolute octave mode, see Section 1.1.1 [Absolute octave entry], page 3.
The string with the highest number (generally the lowest string) must come first in the chord.
For example, we can define a string tuning for a four-string instrument with pitches of a'', d'',
g', and c':
mynotes = {
c'4 e' g' c'' |
e''4 g'' b'' c'''
}

<<
\new Staff {
\clef treble
\mynotes
}
\new TabStaff {
\set Staff.stringTunings = \stringTuning <c' g' d'' a''>
\mynotes
}
>>

h h hh
 º h h h h
/ 0 5
2 5
2 3

0 4
The stringTunings property is also used by FretBoards to calculate automatic fret dia-
grams.
String tunings are used as part of the hash key for predefined fret diagrams (see Section 12.1.6
[Predefined fret diagrams], page 451).
The previous example could also be written as follows:
custom-tuning = \stringTuning <c' g' d'' a''>
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 439

mynotes = {
c'4 e' g' c'' |
e''4 g'' b'' c'''
}

<<
\new Staff {
\clef treble
\mynotes
}
\new TabStaff {
\set TabStaff.stringTunings = #custom-tuning
\mynotes
}

hh
>>

h h
 º h h h h
/ 0 5
2 5
2 3

0 4
Internally, a string tuning is a Scheme list of string pitches, one for each string, ordered by
string number from 1 to N, where string 1 is at the top of the tablature staff and string N is
at the bottom. This ordinarily results in ordering from highest pitch to lowest pitch, but some
instruments (e.g., ukulele) do not have strings ordered by pitch.
A string pitch in a string tuning list is a LilyPond pitch object. Pitch objects are created with
the Scheme function ly:make-pitch (see Section “Scheme functions” in Internals Reference).
\stringTuning creates such an object from chord input.
LilyPond automatically calculates the number of lines in the TabStaff and the number of
strings in an automatically calculated FretBoard as the number of elements in stringTunings.
To let all TabStaff contexts use the same custom tuning by default, you can use
\layout {
\context {
\TabStaff
stringTunings = \stringTuning <c' g' d'' a''>
}
}
A modern tab clef can also be used.
\new TabStaff {
\clef moderntab
<a, e a>1
\break
\clef tab
<a, e a>1
}

T
A 2
2
0
B 0
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 440

/ 2
2
0

The modern tab clef supports tablatures from 4 to 7 strings.

TabStaff may support microtones like quarter tones, which can be played using bendings.
supportNonIntegerFret = ##t needs to be set in Score context. However, microtones are not
supported in FretBoards.
\layout {
\context {
\Score
supportNonIntegerFret = ##t
}
}

custom-tuning = \stringTuning <e, a, d ges beh eeh'>

mus = \relative {
eeses'4
eeseh
ees
eeh
e
eih
eis
eisih
eisis
}

<<
\new Staff << \clef "G_8" \mus >>
\new TabStaff \with { stringTunings = \custom-tuning } \mus
>>

º h  h  h  h h  h  h h
h

8

/
0 1/2 1 11/2 2 21/2
31/2 4 41/2

See also
Notation Reference: Section 1.1.1 [Absolute octave entry], page 3, Section 12.1.6 [Predefined
fret diagrams], page 451.
Installed Files: ly/string-tunings-init.ly, scm/tablature.scm.
Snippets: Section “Fretted strings” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Tab note heads engraver” in Internals Reference, Section
“Scheme functions” in Internals Reference.
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 441

Known issues and warnings

Automatic tablature calculations do not work properly in most cases for instruments where
string pitches do not vary monotonically with string number, such as ukuleles.

12.1.5 Fret diagram markups

Fret diagrams can be added to music as a markup to the desired note. The markup contains
information about the desired fret diagram. There are three different fret diagram markup
interfaces: standard, terse, and verbose. The three interfaces produce equivalent markups, but
have varying amounts of information in the markup string. Details about the syntax of the
different markup strings used to define fret diagrams are found at Section A.1.6 [Instrument-
specific markup], page 829.
The standard fret diagram markup string indicates the string number and the fret number
for each dot to be placed on the string. In addition, open and unplayed (muted) strings can be
indicated.
<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
c1 d:m
}
}
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
<c e g c' e'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram "6-x;5-3;4-2;3-o;2-1;1-o;"
}
<d a d' f'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram "6-x;5-x;4-o;3-2;2-3;1-1;"
}
}
>>

C Dm
X X O
X O O

.. ..
º ... ..
8

Barré indications can be added to the diagram from the fret diagram markup string.
<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
f1 g
}
}
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
<f, c f a c' f'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram "c:6-1-1;6-1;5-3;4-3;3-2;2-1;1-1;"
}
<g, d g b d' g'>1^\markup {
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 442

\fret-diagram "c:6-1-3;6-3;5-5;4-5;3-4;2-3;1-3;"
}
}
>>

F G
3fr

.. ..
º ..
. ...
.
8 .
The size of the fret diagram, and the number of frets in the diagram can be changed in the
fret diagram markup string.
<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
f1 g
}
}
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
<f, c f a c' f'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram "s:1.5;c:6-1-1;6-1;5-3;4-3;3-2;2-1;1-1;"
}
<g, b, d g b g'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram "h:6;6-3;5-2;4-o;3-o;2-o;1-3;"
}
}
>>

F G
OOO

.. .
º ..
.
..
...
8 .
The number of strings in a fret diagram can be changed to accommodate different instruments
such as banjos and ukuleles with the fret diagram markup string.
<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
a1
}
}
\new Staff {
% An 'A' chord for ukulele
a'1^\markup {
\fret-diagram "w:4;4-2-2;3-1-1;2-o;1-o;"
}
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 443

}
>>

A OO

º .
Fingering indications can be added, and the location of fingering labels can be controlled by
the fret diagram markup string.
<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
c1 d:m
}
}
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
<c e g c' e'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram "f:1;6-x;5-3-3;4-2-2;3-o;2-1-1;1-o;"
}
<d a d' f'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram "f:2;6-x;5-x;4-o;3-2-2;2-3-3;1-1-1;"
}
}
>>

C Dm
X X O
X O O
1

..
2

..
3

º ..
231

...
8

Dot radius and dot position can be controlled with the fret diagram markup string.
<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
c1 d:m
}
}
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
<c e g c' e'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram "d:0.35;6-x;5-3;4-2;3-o;2-1;1-o;"
}
<d a d' f'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram "p:0.2;6-x;5-x;4-o;3-2;2-3;1-1;"
}
}
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 444

>>

C Dm
X X O
X O O

.. ..
º ... ..
8

Fret-diagrams may be printed left-handed

\markup
\center-column {
"C"
"(left-handed)"
\override #`(fret-diagram-details . ((handedness . ,LEFT)))
\fret-diagram "6-x;5-3-3;4-2-2;3-o;2-1;1-o;"
}

C
(left-handed)
O O X

The \fret-diagram-terse markup string omits string numbers; the string number is implied
by the presence of semicolons. There is one semicolon for each string in the diagram. The first
semicolon corresponds to the highest string number and the last semicolon corresponds to the
first string. Mute strings, open strings, and fret numbers can be indicated.
<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
c1 d:m
}
}
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
<c e g c' e'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram-terse "x;3;2;o;1;o;"
}
<d a d' f'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram-terse "x;x;o;2;3;1;"
}
}
>>

C Dm
X X O
X O O

.. ..
º ... ..
8
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 445

Barré indicators can be included in the \fret-diagram-terse markup string.

<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
f1 g
}
}
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
<f, c f a c' f'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram-terse "1-(;3;3;2;1;1-);"
}
<g, d g b d' g'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram-terse "3-(;5;5;4;3;3-);"
}
}
>>

F G
3fr

.. ..
º ..
. ...
.
8 .
Fingering indications can be included in the \fret-diagram-terse markup string.
<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
c1 d:m
}
}
\new Staff {
\override Voice.TextScript.fret-diagram-details.finger-code =
#'below-string
\clef "treble_8"
<c e g c' e'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram-terse "x;3-3;2-2;o;1-1;o;"
}
<d a d' f'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram-terse "x;x;o;2-2;3-3;1-1;"
}
}
>>

C Dm
X X O
X O O

.. ..
º ..
231

...
32 1

8
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 446

Other fret diagram properties must be adjusted using \override when using the
\fret-diagram-terse markup.
Only one indication per string can be included in a \fret-diagram-terse markup. To have
multiple indications per string use a fret diagram or \fret-diagram-verbose markup.
The \fret-diagram-verbose markup string is in the format of a Scheme list. Each element
of the list indicates an item to be placed on the fret diagram.
<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
c1 d:m
}
}
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
<c e g c' e'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram-verbose #'(
(mute 6)
(place-fret 5 3)
(place-fret 4 2)
(open 3)
(place-fret 2 1)
(open 1)
)
}
<d a d' f'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram-verbose #'(
(mute 6)
(mute 5)
(open 4)
(place-fret 3 2)
(place-fret 2 3)
(place-fret 1 1)
)
}
}
>>

C Dm
X X O
X O O

.. .
º ... ...
8

Fingering indications and barrés can be included in a \fret-diagram-verbose markup string.

Unique to the \fret-diagram-verbose interface is a capo indication that can be placed on the
fret diagram. The capo indication is a thick bar that covers all strings. The fret with the capo
will be the lowest fret in the fret diagram.
Fingering indication dots can be colored as well as parenthesized; the parenthesis’s color can
also be altered independently.
Markups can be placed into the dots as well.
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 447

<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
f1 g c c b
}
}
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
\override Voice.TextScript
.fret-diagram-details.finger-code = #'below-string
<f, c f a c' f'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram-verbose #'(
(place-fret 6 1)
(place-fret 5 3)
(place-fret 4 3)
(place-fret 3 2)
(place-fret 2 1)
(place-fret 1 1)
(barre 6 1 1)
)
}
<g, b, d g b g'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram-verbose #'(
(place-fret 6 3 2)
(place-fret 5 2 1)
(open 4)
(open 3)
(open 2)
(place-fret 1 3 3)
)
}
<c g c' e' g'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram-verbose #'(
(capo 3)
(mute 6)
(place-fret 4 5 1)
(place-fret 3 5 2)
(place-fret 2 5 3)
)
}
\override Voice.TextScript.size = 1.4
<c g c' e' g'>1^\markup {
\fret-diagram-verbose #'(
(place-fret 6 3 1 red parenthesized default-paren-color)
(place-fret 5 3 1 inverted)
(place-fret 4 5 2 blue parenthesized)
(place-fret 3 5 3 blue)
(place-fret 2 5 4 blue)
(place-fret 1 3 1 inverted)
)
}
\override Voice.TextScript.size = 1.5
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 448

<b, fis b dis' fis'>1^\markup

\override #'(fret-diagram-details . ((finger-code . in-dot)))
\fret-diagram-verbose #`(
(place-fret 5 2 1)
(place-fret 4 4 "fis" red)
(place-fret 3 4 "b" red)
(place-fret
2 4
,#{ \markup
\concat {
\vcenter "d"
\fontsize #-5
\musicglyph "accidentals.sharp"} #}
red)
(place-fret 1 2 1)
)
}
>>

F G C C B
3fr
OOO X
3fr 1 1

. .. ...
fis b d

..   ...
112341

º .. ..
21 3 123

 ... ... .
.. .
8 . .
All other fret diagram properties must be adjusted using \override when using the
\fret-diagram-verbose markup.
The graphical layout of a fret diagram can be customized according to user preference through
the properties of the fret-diagram-interface. Details are found at Section “fret-diagram-
interface” in Internals Reference; see Section “Fret diagrams explained and developed” in Snip-
pets for an exhaustive example. For a fret diagram markup, the interface properties belong to
Voice.TextScript.

Selected Snippets
Changing fret orientations
Fret diagrams can be oriented in three ways. By default the top string or fret in the different
orientations will be aligned.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"

<<
\chords {
c1
c1
c1
}
\new FretBoards {
\chordmode {
c1
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 449

\override FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.orientation =
#'landscape
c1
\override FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.orientation =
#'opposing-landscape
c1
}
}
\new Voice {
c'1
c'1
c'
}
>>

X
C O O
C C
O X
1 3
O 2
2 O
3 1

º
X O
32 1

. . .
Customizing markup fret diagrams
Fret diagram properties can be set through 'fret-diagram-details. For markup fret diagrams,
overrides can be applied to the Voice.TextScript object or directly to the markup.
<<
\chords { c1 | c | c | d }

\new Voice = "mel" {

\textLengthOn
% Set global properties of fret diagram
\override TextScript.size = 1.2
\override TextScript.fret-diagram-details.finger-code = #'in-dot
\override TextScript.fret-diagram-details.dot-color = #'white

%% C major for guitar, no barre, using defaults

% terse style
c'1^\markup { \fret-diagram-terse "x;3-3;2-2;o;1-1;o;" }

%% C major for guitar, barred on third fret

% verbose style
% size 1.0
% roman fret label, finger labels below string, straight barre
c'1^\markup {
% standard size
\override #'(size . 1.0) {
\override #'(fret-diagram-details . (
(number-type . roman-lower)
(finger-code . in-dot)
(barre-type . straight))) {
\fret-diagram-verbose #'((mute 6)
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 450

(place-fret 5 3 1)
(place-fret 4 5 2)
(place-fret 3 5 3)
(place-fret 2 5 4)
(place-fret 1 3 1)
(barre 5 1 3))
}
}
}

%% C major for guitar, barred on third fret

% verbose style
% landscape orientation, arabic numbers, M for mute string
% no barre, fret label down or left, small mute label font
c'1^\markup {
\override #'(fret-diagram-details . (
(finger-code . below-string)
(number-type . arabic)
(label-dir . -1)
(mute-string . "M")
(orientation . landscape)
(barre-type . none)
(xo-font-magnification . 0.4)
(xo-padding . 0.3))) {
\fret-diagram-verbose #'((mute 6)
(place-fret 5 3 1)
(place-fret 4 5 2)
(place-fret 3 5 3)
(place-fret 2 5 4)
(place-fret 1 3 1)
(barre 5 1 3))
}
}

%% simple D chord
% terse style
% larger dots, centered dots, fewer frets
% label below string
d'1^\markup {
\override #'(fret-diagram-details . (
(finger-code . below-string)
(dot-radius . 0.35)
(dot-position . 0.5)
(fret-count . 3))) {
\fret-diagram-terse "x;x;o;2-1;3-2;2-3;"
}
}
}
>>
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 451

C C C D
1 XXO
X O O 4
1 X 3
2 1 1 iii 2
3 2 3 4 1

º .
M
3 123

. . .
See also
Notation Reference: Section A.1.6 [Instrument-specific markup], page 829.
Snippets: Section “Fretted strings” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “fret-diagram-interface” in Internals Reference.

12.1.6 Predefined fret diagrams

Fret diagrams can be displayed using the FretBoards context. By default, the FretBoards
context will display fret diagrams that are stored in a lookup table:
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"
\new FretBoards {
\chordmode {
c1 d
}
}
X O O X X O

32 1 132

The default predefined fret diagrams are contained in the file predefined-guitar-
fretboards.ly. Fret diagrams are stored based on the pitches of a chord and the value
of stringTunings that is currently in use. predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly contains
predefined fret diagrams only for guitar-tuning. Predefined fret diagrams can be added for
other instruments or other tunings by following the examples found in predefined-guitar-
fretboards.ly.
Fret diagrams for the ukulele are contained in the file predefined-ukulele-fretboards.ly.
\include "predefined-ukulele-fretboards.ly"

myChords = \chordmode { a1 a:m a:aug }

\new ChordNames {
\myChords
}

\new FretBoards {
\set Staff.stringTunings = #ukulele-tuning
\myChords
}

A Am A+
OO OOO O

21 2 312
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 452

Fret diagrams for the mandolin are contained in the file

predefined-mandolin-fretboards.ly.
\include "predefined-mandolin-fretboards.ly"

myChords = \chordmode { c1 c:m7.5- c:aug }

\new ChordNames {
\myChords
}

\new FretBoards {
\set Staff.stringTunings = #mandolin-tuning
\myChords
}

C Cø C+
O
2fr 2fr

412 3142 4123

Chord pitches can be entered either as simultaneous music or using chord mode (see Sec-
tion 15.1.1 [Chord mode overview], page 492).
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"
\new FretBoards {
\chordmode { c1 }
<c' e' g'>1
}
X O O X O O

32 1 32 1

It is common that both chord names and fret diagrams are displayed together. This is
achieved by putting a ChordNames context in parallel with a FretBoards context and giving
both contexts the same music.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"
mychords = \chordmode {
c1 f g
}

<<
\new ChordNames {
\mychords
}
\new FretBoards {
\mychords
}
>>

X
C O O
F G OOO

32 1 134211 21 3
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 453

Predefined fret diagrams are transposable, as long as a diagram for the transposed chord is
stored in the fret diagram table.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"
mychords = \chordmode {
c1 f g
}

mychordlist = {
\mychords
\transpose c e { \mychords }
}
<<
\new ChordNames {
\mychordlist
}
\new FretBoards {
\mychordlist
}
>>

X
C O O
F G
OOO O
E OO X O
A O X
B

32 1 134211 21 3 231 123 12341

The predefined fret diagram table for guitar contains eight chords (major, minor, augmented,
diminished, dominant seventh, major seventh, minor seventh, dominant ninth) for each of
17 keys.
The predefined fret diagram table for ukulele contains these chords plus an additional three
chords (major sixth, suspended second, and suspended fourth).
See Section B.4 [Predefined fretboard diagrams], page 858, for a complete list of the predefined
fret diagrams. If there is no entry in the table for a chord, the FretBoards engraver calculates a
fret diagram using the automatic fret diagram functionality, see Section 12.1.7 [Automatic fret
diagrams], page 461.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"
mychords = \chordmode {
c1 c:maj9
}

<<
\new ChordNames {
\mychords
}
\new FretBoards {
\mychords
}
>>

9
X
C O O
C
X X
10fr

32 1
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 454

Fret diagrams can be added to the fret diagram table. To add a diagram, you must specify
the hash table for the diagram, the chord for the diagram, the tuning to be used, and a definition
for the diagram. Normally, the hash table will be default-fret-table. The diagram definition can
be either a \fret-diagram-terse definition string or a \fret-diagram-verbose marking list.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"

\storePredefinedDiagram #default-fret-table
\chordmode { c:maj9 }
#guitar-tuning
"x;3-2;o;o;o;o;"

mychords = \chordmode {
c1 c:maj9
}

<<
\new ChordNames {
\mychords
}
\new FretBoards {
\mychords
}
>>

9
X
C O O X
C
OOOO

32 1 2

Different fret diagrams for the same chord name can be stored using different octaves of
pitches. The different octave should be at least two octaves above or below the default octave,
because the octaves above and below the default octave are used for transposing fretboards.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"

\storePredefinedDiagram #default-fret-table
\chordmode { c'' }
#guitar-tuning
#(offset-fret 2
(chord-shape 'bes guitar-tuning))

mychords = \chordmode {
c1 c''
}

<<
\new ChordNames {
\mychords
}
\new FretBoards {
\mychords
}
>>
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 455

X
C O O
C
X
3fr

32 1 12341

In addition to fret diagrams, LilyPond stores an internal list of chord shapes. The chord
shapes are fret diagrams that can be shifted along the neck to different positions to provide dif-
ferent chords. Chord shapes can be added to the internal list and then used to define predefined
fret diagrams. Because they can be moved to various positions on the neck, chord shapes will
normally not contain any open strings. Like fret diagrams, chord shapes can be entered as either
\fret-diagram-terse strings or \fret-diagram-verbose marking lists.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"

% Add a new chord shape

\addChordShape #'powerf #guitar-tuning "1-1;3-3;3-4;x;x;x;"

% add some new chords based on the power chord shape

\storePredefinedDiagram #default-fret-table
\chordmode { f'' }
#guitar-tuning
#(chord-shape 'powerf guitar-tuning)
\storePredefinedDiagram #default-fret-table
\chordmode { g'' }
#guitar-tuning
#(offset-fret 2
(chord-shape 'powerf guitar-tuning))

mychords = \chordmode {
f1 f'' g g''
}

<<
\new ChordNames {
\mychords
}
\new FretBoards {
\mychords
}
>>

F F X X X
GOOO
G
X X X
3fr

134211 134 21 3 134

The graphical layout of a fret diagram can be customized according to user preference through
the properties of the fret-diagram-interface. Details are found at Section “fret-diagram-
interface” in Internals Reference; see Section “Fret diagrams explained and developed” in Snip-
pets for an exhaustive example. For a predefined fret diagram, the interface properties belong
to FretBoards.FretBoard.
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 456

Selected Snippets
Customizing fretboard fret diagrams
Fret diagram properties can be set through 'fret-diagram-details. For FretBoard fret dia-
grams, overrides are applied to the FretBoards.FretBoard object. Like Voice, FretBoards is
a bottom-level context, and therefore can be omitted in property overrides.

% begin verbatim
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"

\storePredefinedDiagram #default-fret-table \chordmode { c' }

#guitar-tuning
"x;1-1-(;3-2;3-3;3-4;1-1-);"

% shorthand
oo = #(define-music-function
(grob-path value)
(list? scheme?)
#{ \once \override $grob-path = #value #})

<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode { c1 | c | c | d | bes }
}
\new FretBoards {
% Set global properties of fret diagram
\override FretBoards.FretBoard.size = 1.2
\override FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.finger-code = #'in-dot
\override FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.dot-color = #'white
\chordmode {
c
\oo FretBoard.size #1.0
\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.barre-type #'straight
\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.dot-color #'black
\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.finger-code #'below-string
c'
\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.barre-type #'none
\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.number-type #'arabic
\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.orientation #'landscape
\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.mute-string "M"
\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.label-dir #LEFT
\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.dot-color #'black
c'
\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.finger-code #'below-string
\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.dot-radius #0.35
\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.dot-position #0.5
\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.fret-count #3
d
\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.barre-type #'straight
\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.finger-code #'none
\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.dot-radius #0.25
\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.dot-color #'black
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 457

\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.string-overhang #0.

\oo FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.barre-thickness #2.
bes
}
}
\new Voice {
c'1 | c' | c' | d' | bes
}
>>

X
C
O O X
C
1
C D
X X O X
B 
1 4
2 3
3 2
1
M

º .
12341 132

. . . .
Defining predefined fretboards for other instruments
Predefined fret diagrams can be added for new instruments in addition to the standards used
for guitar. This file shows how this is done by defining a new string tuning and a few predefined
fretboards for the Venezuelan cuatro.
This file also shows how fingerings can be included in the chords used as reference points for
the chord lookup, and displayed in the fret diagram and the TabStaff, but not the music.
These fretboards are not transposable because they contain string information. This is
planned to be corrected in the future.
% add FretBoards for the Cuatro
% Note: This section could be put into a separate file
% predefined-cuatro-fretboards.ly
% and \included into each of your compositions

cuatroTuning = #`(,(ly:make-pitch 0 6 0)
,(ly:make-pitch 1 3 SHARP)
,(ly:make-pitch 1 1 0)
,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))

dSix = { <a\4 b\1 d\3 fis\2> }

dMajor = { <a\4 d\1 d\3 fis \2> }
aMajSeven = { <a\4 cis\1 e\3 g\2> }
dMajSeven = { <a\4 c\1 d\3 fis\2> }
gMajor = { <b\4 b\1 d\3 g\2> }

\storePredefinedDiagram #default-fret-table \dSix

#cuatroTuning
"o;o;o;o;"
\storePredefinedDiagram #default-fret-table \dMajor
#cuatroTuning
"o;o;o;3-3;"
\storePredefinedDiagram #default-fret-table \aMajSeven
#cuatroTuning
"o;2-2;1-1;2-3;"
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 458

\storePredefinedDiagram #default-fret-table \dMajSeven

#cuatroTuning
"o;o;o;1-1;"
\storePredefinedDiagram #default-fret-table \gMajor
#cuatroTuning
"2-2;o;1-1;o;"

% end of potential include file /predefined-cuatro-fretboards.ly

#(set-global-staff-size 16)

primerosNames = \chordmode {
d:6 d a:maj7 d:maj7
g
}
primeros = {
\dSix \dMajor \aMajSeven \dMajSeven
\gMajor
}

\score {
<<
\new ChordNames {
\set chordChanges = ##t
\primerosNames
}

\new Staff {
\new Voice \with {
\remove "New_fingering_engraver"
}
\relative c'' {
\primeros
}
}

\new FretBoards {
\set Staff.stringTunings = #cuatroTuning
% \override FretBoard
% #'(fret-diagram-details string-count) = 4
\override FretBoard.fret-diagram-details.finger-code = #'in-dot
\primeros
}

\new TabStaff \relative c'' {

\set TabStaff.stringTunings = #cuatroTuning
\primeros
}

>>
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 459

\layout {
\context {
\Score
\override SpacingSpanner.base-shortest-duration =
\musicLength 16
}
}
\midi { }
}

 Dhh hDhh  Ahhh  hDhh G

h
6

 hh h h h hhh
º

OOOO OOO O OOO O O

1 1 1
2 3 2
3

/ 0
0
0
3
0
0
2
1
2
1
0
0
0
1
0
0 0 0 0 2

ChordChanges for FretBoards

FretBoards can be set to display only when the chord changes or at the beginning of a new line.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"

\paper { tagline = ##f }

myChords = \chordmode {
c1 c1 \break
\set chordChanges = ##t
c1 c1 \break
c1 c1
}

<<
\new ChordNames { \myChords }
\new FretBoards { \myChords }
\new Staff { \myChords }
>>

X
C
O O X
C O O

 º ..
32 1 32 1

.
. ..
X
C O O

3 32 1

 .. ..
. .
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 460

X
C O O

5 32 1

 .. ..
. .
Fretboards alternate tables
Alternate fretboard tables can be created. These would be used in order to have alternate
fretboards for a given chord.
In order to use an alternate fretboard table, the table must first be created. Fretboards are
then added to the table.
The created fretboard table can be blank, or it can be copied from an existing table.
The table to be used in displaying predefined fretboards is selected by the property
\predefinedDiagramTable.
\include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"

% Make a blank new fretboard table

#(define custom-fretboard-table-one
(make-fretboard-table))

% Make a new fretboard table as a copy of default-fret-table

#(define custom-fretboard-table-two
(make-fretboard-table default-fret-table))

% Add a chord to custom-fretboard-table-one

\storePredefinedDiagram #custom-fretboard-table-one
\chordmode {c}
#guitar-tuning
"3-(;3;5;5;5;3-);"

% Add a chord to custom-fretboard-table-two

\storePredefinedDiagram #custom-fretboard-table-two
\chordmode {c}
#guitar-tuning
"x;3;5;5;5;o;"

<<
\chords {
c1 | d1 |
c1 | d1 |
c1 | d1 |
}
\new FretBoards {
\chordmode {
\set predefinedDiagramTable = #default-fret-table
c1 | d1 |
\set predefinedDiagramTable = #custom-fretboard-table-one
c1 | d1 |
\set predefinedDiagramTable = #custom-fretboard-table-two
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 461

c1 | d1 |
}
}
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
<<
\chordmode {
c1 | d1 |
c1 | d1 |
c1 | d1 |
}
{
s1_\markup "Default table" | s1 |
s1_\markup \column {"New table" "from empty"} | s1 |
s1_\markup \column {"New table" "from default"} | s1 |
}
>>
}
>>

X
C O O
D
X X O
C D C D
X X O
X X X X O
3fr 5fr 3fr

..  ... ..  ... ..  ...

32 1 132 132

 .
º . .
8 Default table New table New table
from empty from default
See also
Notation Reference: Section 12.1.4 [Custom tablatures], page 437, Section 12.1.7 [Automatic
fret diagrams], page 461, Section 15.1.1 [Chord mode overview], page 492, Section B.4 [Prede-
fined fretboard diagrams], page 858.
Installed Files: ly/predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly,
ly/predefined-guitar-ninth-fretboards.ly,
ly/predefined-ukulele-fretboards.ly,
ly/predefined-mandolin-fretboards.ly.
Snippets: Section “Fretted strings” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “fret-diagram-interface” in Internals Reference.

12.1.7 Automatic fret diagrams

Fret diagrams can be automatically created from entered notes using the FretBoards context.
If no predefined diagram is available for the entered notes in the active stringTunings, this
context calculates strings and frets that can be used to play the notes.
<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
f1 g
}
}
\new FretBoards {
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 462

<f, c f a c' f'>1

<g,\6 b, d g b g'>1
}
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
<f, c f a c' f'>1
<g, b, d g b g'>1
}
>>

F G
OOO

.. .
º ..
.
..
..
8 . .
As no predefined diagrams are loaded by default, automatic calculation of fret diagrams is
the default behavior. Once default diagrams are loaded, automatic calculation can be enabled
and disabled with predefined commands:
\storePredefinedDiagram #default-fret-table
<c e g c' e'>
#guitar-tuning
"x;3-1-(;5-2;5-3;5-4;3-1-1-);"
<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
c1 c c
}
}
\new FretBoards {
<c e g c' e'>1
\predefinedFretboardsOff
<c e g c' e'>1
\predefinedFretboardsOn
<c e g c' e'>1
}
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
<c e g c' e'>1
<c e g c' e'>1
<c e g c' e'>1
}
>>

C X
CO O
C
X X
3fr 3fr

.. .. ..
º
12341 12341

.. .. ..
8
. . .
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 463

Sometimes the fretboard calculator will be unable to find an acceptable diagram. This can
often be remedied by manually assigning a note to a string. In many cases, only one note need
be manually placed on a string; the rest of the notes will then be placed appropriately by the
FretBoards context.
Fingerings can be added to FretBoard fret diagrams.
<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
c1 d:m
}
}
\new FretBoards {
<c-3 e-2 g c'-1 e'>1
<d a-2 d'-3 f'-1>1
}
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
<c e g c' e'>1
<d a d' f'>1
}
>>

X
C O O
Dm
X X O

. ..
 º ....
32 1 231

.
.
8

The minimum fret to be used in calculating strings and frets for the FretBoard context can
be set with the minimumFret property.
<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
d1:m d:m
}
}
\new FretBoards {
<d a d' f'>1
\set FretBoards.minimumFret = 5
<d a d' f'>1
}
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
<d a d' f'>1
<d a d' f'>1
}
>>
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 464

Dm
X X O X
Dm X
5fr

.. ..
º
 .. ..
8

The strings and frets for the FretBoards context depend on the stringTunings property,
which has the same meaning as in the TabStaff context. See Section 12.1.4 [Custom tablatures],
page 437, for information on the stringTunings property.
The graphical layout of a fret diagram can be customized according to user preference through
the properties of the fret-diagram-interface. Details are found at Section “fret-diagram-
interface” in Internals Reference; see Section “Fret diagrams explained and developed” in Snip-
pets for an exhaustive example. For a FretBoards fret diagram, the interface properties belong
to FretBoards.FretBoard.

Predefined commands
\predefinedFretboardsOff, \predefinedFretboardsOn.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 12.1.4 [Custom tablatures], page 437.
Snippets: Section “Fretted strings” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “fret-diagram-interface” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Automatic fretboard calculations do not work properly for instruments with non-monotonic
tunings.

12.1.8 Right-hand fingerings

Right-hand fingerings p-i-m-a must be entered using \rightHandFinger followed by a number.
☛ ✟
Note: If the number is entered in Scheme notation, remember to ap-
pend a space before following it with a closing > or similar.
✡ ✠
\clef "treble_8"
c4\rightHandFinger 1
e\rightHandFinger 2
g\rightHandFinger 3
c'\rightHandFinger 4
<c\rightHandFinger 1 e\rightHandFinger 2
g\rightHandFinger 3 c'\rightHandFinger 4 >1

º h h h ...
h .
a a
m m
i i
p p
8

For convenience, \rightHandFinger may be abbreviated to something shorter, for example

\RH, by adding the appropriate definition at the source file’s top level:
RH = \rightHandFinger \etc
Most behaviors of right-hand fingerings (namely, the StrokeFinger object) may be set in
the same way as ordinary fingerings: see Section 7.1.2 [Fingering instructions], page 272.
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 465

Selected Snippets
Placement of right-hand fingerings
It is possible to exercise greater control over the placement of right-hand fingerings by setting a
specific property, as demonstrated in the following example.
#(define RH rightHandFinger)

\relative c {
\clef "treble_8"

\set strokeFingerOrientations = #'(up down)

<c\RH 1 e\RH 2 g\RH 3 c\RH 4 >4

\set strokeFingerOrientations = #'(up right down)

<c\RH 1 e\RH 2 g\RH 3 c\RH 4 >4

\set strokeFingerOrientations = #'(left)

<c\RH 1 e\RH 2 g\RH 3 c\RH 4 >2

\set strokeFingerOrientations = #'(right)

c\RH 1
}
a

 º hhhh hh NN
m
a

hh NN N
a
mm
i i
p p
8 i p
p

Fingerings, string indications, and right-hand fingerings

This example combines left-hand fingering, string indications, and right-hand fingering.
#(define RH rightHandFinger)

\relative c {
\clef "treble_8"
<c-3\5\RH 1 >4
<e-2\4\RH 2 >4
<g-0\3\RH 3 >4
<c-1\2\RH 4 >4
}

5 4 3 2

º h h h h
 ! 
a
m
i
p
8

See also
Notation Reference: Section 7.1.2 [Fingering instructions], page 272.
Snippets: Section “Fretted strings” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “StrokeFinger” in Internals Reference.
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 466

12.2 Guitar
Most of the notational issues associated with guitar music are covered sufficiently in the general
fretted strings section, but there are a few more worth covering here. Occasionally users want
to create songbook-type documents having only lyrics with chord indications above them. Since
LilyPond is a music typesetter, it is not recommended for documents that have no music notation
in them. A better alternative is a word processor, text editor, or, for experienced users, a
typesetter like GuitarTeX.

12.2.1 Indicating position and barring

This example demonstrates how to include guitar position and barring indications using a barré
line.
\relative {
\clef "treble_8"
b,16 d g b e
\once \override TextSpanner.bound-details.left.text =
\markup {"XII" \hspace #0.4 }
\once \override TextSpanner.bound-details.right.text =
\markup \draw-line #'(0 . -.5)
\once \override TextSpanner.bound-details.right.padding = -0.65
\once \override TextSpanner.dash-fraction = 0.4
\once \override TextSpanner.dash-period = 1.3
g16\startTextSpan
b16 e g e b g\stopTextSpan
e16 b g d
}

h hh XII

h hh hhh
º hhh hh
h
8
h
A more sophisticated solution can be found in LSR snippet 952 (https://lsr.di.unimi.
it/LSR/Item?id=952).

See also
Notation Reference: Section 8.1.3 [Text spanners], page 302.
Snippets: Section “Fretted strings” in Snippets, Section “Expressive marks” in Snippets.

12.2.2 Indicating harmonics and dampened notes

Special note heads can be used to indicate dampened notes or harmonics. Harmonics are nor-
mally further explained with a text markup.
\relative {
\clef "treble_8"
\override NoteHead.style = #'harmonic-mixed
d'8^\markup { \italic \fontsize #-2 "harm. 12" } <g b>4
}

nn harm. 12

n
º T
8
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 467

Dampened notes (also called dead notes) are supported within normal and tablature staves.
In the following example, such notes are shown with pitches in the normal staff, indicating the
frets where they are dampened. An alternative notation is to use empty strings instead. In
tablature notation, however, it doesn’t make a difference.
music = \relative c' {
\omit StringNumber

<a \deadNote cis a'>4

<b\3 \deadNote dis b'>
<c\3 \deadNote e\2 c'>
\deadNotesOn
\tuplet 3/2 { g8 b e }
\deadNotesOff
<a, c e>1
}

\new StaffGroup <<

\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
\music
}
\new TabStaff {
\music
}

h  hj hj
>>

7 j .
 º  jh h  h j j ..
j8 j j j
8 3
j5 j7
/
0
1
2 4 5 2

6
Another playing technique (especially used on electric guitars) is called palm mute. The
string is hereby partly muted by the palm of the striking hand (hence the name). LilyPond
supports the notation of palm mute-style notes by changing the note head to a triangle shape.
\relative c, {
\clef "G_8"
\palmMuteOn
e8^\markup { \musicglyph "noteheads.s2do" = palm mute }
<e b' e> e
\palmMuteOff
e e \palmMute e e e |
e8 \palmMute { e e e } e e e e |
<\palmMute e b' e>8 \palmMute { e e e } <\palmMute e b' e>2
}
l = palm mute
º l hh NN
8
l
lllhhlhh hlllhhhh llllR
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 468

See also
Snippets: Section “Fretted strings” in Snippets.
Notation Reference: Section 1.4.1 [Special note heads], page 43, Section B.9 [Note head
styles], page 886.

12.2.3 Indicating power chords

Power chords and their symbols can be engraved in chord mode or as chord constructs. As
an exception, the fifth is specified in these chord names, whereas it is usually left out in other
chords (e.g., major or minor triads).
ChordsAndSymbols = {
\chordmode {
e,,1:5
a,,:5.8
\set TabStaff.restrainOpenStrings = ##t
\set minimumFret = 8
c,:5
f,:5.8
}
\set minimumFret = 2
\set restrainOpenStrings = ##f
<a, e> <a cis' e'>
<g d' g'>
}
\score {
<<
\new ChordNames {
\ChordsAndSymbols
}
\new Staff {
\clef "treble_8"
\ChordsAndSymbols
}
\new TabStaff {
\ChordsAndSymbols
}
>>
}

.. .
 ...
E5 A5 C5 F5 A5 5

.
A G
 º .. .. . .. .
. .
8
.
/
0 3
2 3
2 10 2 0
2 10 2
2 0 10 8 0
0 8

See also
Music Glossary: Section “power chord” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 15.1.3 [Extended and altered chords], page 494, Section 15.2.1
[Printing chord names], page 497.
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 469

Snippets: Section “Fretted strings” in Snippets.

12.3 Banjo
12.3.1 Banjo tablatures
LilyPond has basic support for the five-string banjo. When making tablatures for five-string
banjo, use the banjo tablature format function to get correct fret numbers for the fifth string:
music = {
g8 d' g'\5 a b g e d' |
g4 d''8\5 b' a'\2 g'\5 e'\2 d' |
g4
}

<<
\new Staff \with { \omit StringNumber }
{ \clef "treble_8" \music }
\new TabStaff \with {
tablatureFormat = #fret-number-tablature-format-banjo
stringTunings = #banjo-open-g-tuning
}
{ \music }
>>

h hhhh
hh
 º hh hhhhh h h
8

/
0 0 9 0
0 10 5
0 2 0 0 0
2
0 12 0

A number of common tunings for the five-string banjo are predefined: banjo-open-g-
tuning (gDGBD), banjo-c-tuning (gCGBD), banjo-modal-tuning (gDGCD), banjo-
open-d-tuning (aDF#AD), banjo-open-dm-tuning (aDFAD), banjo-double-c-tuning
(gCGCD) and banjo-double-d-tuning (aDGDE).
These may be converted to four-string tunings using the four-string-banjo function:
\set TabStaff.stringTunings = #(four-string-banjo banjo-c-tuning)

See also
Installed Files: ly/string-tunings-init.ly.
Snippets: Section “Fretted strings” in Snippets.
Chapter 12: Fretted string instruments 470

12.4 Lute
12.4.1 Lute tablatures
LilyPond supports tablature for lute.
To get additional bass strings use additionalBassStrings, where the pitches of those strings
are set. They will be printed below lowest line as: a, /a, //a, ///a, 4, 5, etc.
fret-letter-tablature-format for tablatureFormat should be used, probably also
fretLabels for further customizing.
m = { f'4 d' a f d a, g, fis, e, d, c, \bar "|." }

\score {
<<
\new Staff { \clef bass \cadenzaOn \m }
\new TabStaff \m
>>
\layout {
\context {
\Score
tablatureFormat = #fret-letter-tablature-format
}
\context {
\TabStaff
stringTunings = \stringTuning <a, d f a d' f'>
additionalBassStrings = \stringTuning <c, d, e, fis, g,>
fretLabels = #'("a" "b" "r" "d" "e" "f" "g" "h" "i" "k")
}
}
}
hh
 º hh
hhh
h h h h
/
a
a
a
a
a
a
a /a //a ///a 4

Known issues and warnings

Using FretBoards with additionalBassStrings is not supported and will yield unsatisfying
results.
 471

13 Percussion

13.1 Common notation for percussion

Rhythmic music is primarily used for percussion and drum notation, but it can also be used to
show the rhythms of melodies.

13.1.1 References for percussion

• Some percussion may be notated on a rhythmic staff; this is discussed in Section 2.3.7
[Showing melody rhythms], page 95, and Section 6.1.1 [Instantiating new staves], page 233.
• MIDI output is discussed in a separate section; please see Chapter 24 [Creating MIDI
output], page 626.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 2.3.7 [Showing melody rhythms], page 95, Section 6.1.1 [Instanti-
ating new staves], page 233, Chapter 24 [Creating MIDI output], page 626.
Snippets: Section “Percussion” in Snippets.

13.1.2 Basic percussion notation

Percussion notes may be entered in \drummode mode, which is similar to the standard mode
for entering notes. The simplest way to enter percussion notes is to use the \drums command,
which creates the correct context and entry mode for percussion:
\drums {
hihat4 hh bassdrum bd
}

º j jh h
This is shorthand for:
\new DrumStaff \drummode {
hihat4 hh bassdrum bd
}

º j jh h
Each piece of percussion has a full name and an abbreviated name, and both can be used
in input files. The full list of percussion note names may be found in Section B.15 [Percussion
notes], page 895.
Note that the normal notation of pitches (such as cis4) in a DrumStaff context will cause
an error message. Percussion clefs are added automatically to a DrumStaff context but they
can also be set explicitly. Other clefs may be used as well.
\drums {
\clef percussion
bd4 4 4 4
\clef treble
hh4 4 4 4
}

 º h h h h j j j j
Chapter 13: Percussion 472

There are a few issues concerning MIDI support for percussion instruments; for details please
see Chapter 24 [Creating MIDI output], page 626.

See also
Notation Reference: Chapter 24 [Creating MIDI output], page 626, Section B.15 [Percussion
notes], page 895.
Installed Files: ly/drumpitch-init.ly.
Snippets: Section “Percussion” in Snippets.

13.1.3 Drum rolls

Drum rolls are indicated with three slashes across the stem. For quarter notes or longer the
three slashes are shown explicitly, eighth notes are shown with two slashes (the beam being the
third), and drum rolls shorter than eighths have one stem slash to supplement the beams. This
is achieved with the tremolo notation, as described in Section 4.2.2 [Tremolo repeats], page 203.
\drums {
\time 2/4
sn16 8 16 8 8:32 ~
8 8 4:32 ~
4 8 16 16
4 r4
}

 42 h h h h h h h h h h hh h 
Sticking can be indicated by placing a markup for "R" or "L" above or below notes, as
discussed in Section 36.1 [Direction and placement], page 746. The staff-padding property
may be overridden to achieve a pleasing baseline.
\drums {
\repeat unfold 2 {
sn16^"L" 16^"R" 16^"L" 16^"L" 16^"R" 16^"L" 16^"R" 16^"R"
\stemUp
sn16_"L" 16_"R" 16_"L" 16_"L" 16_"R" 16_"L" 16_"R" 16_"R"
}
}
LRLLRLRR
 º hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh
LRLLRLRR

LRLLRLRR LRLLRLRR
See also
Notation Reference: Section 4.2.2 [Tremolo repeats], page 203.
Snippets: Section “Percussion” in Snippets.

13.1.4 Pitched percussion

Certain pitched percussion instruments (e.g., xylophone, vibraphone, and timpani) are written
using normal staves. This is covered in other sections of the manual.

See also
Notation Reference: Chapter 24 [Creating MIDI output], page 626.
Snippets: Section “Percussion” in Snippets.
Chapter 13: Percussion 473

13.1.5 Percussion staves

A percussion part for more than one instrument typically uses a multi-line staff where each
position in the staff refers to one piece of percussion. To typeset the music, the notes must be
interpreted in DrumStaff and DrumVoice context.
up = \drummode {
crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat
}
down = \drummode {
bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4
}
\new DrumStaff <<
\new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
\new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
>>
b
ƒ j ƒ j j jh j
 º h hh h
¢
T
The above example shows verbose polyphonic notation. The short polyphonic notation,
described in Section “I’m hearing voices” in Learning Manual, can also be used. For example,
\new DrumStaff <<
\drummode {
bd4 sn4 bd4 sn4
<< {
\repeat unfold 16 hh16
} \\ {
bd4 sn4 bd4 sn4
} >>
}
>>

º h h h h j j j j jh j j j j j j j jh j j j
h h
There are also other layout possibilities. To use these, set the property drumStyleTable in
context DrumVoice. The following variables have been predefined:
drums-style
This is the default. It typesets a typical drum kit on a five-line staff:
ƒ k j

cymc cyms cymr

 j jq jb ƒ
j jb
hh hhc hho hhho hhp hhs
Chapter 13: Percussion 474

‚ ‚ h j
 h

 h
cb hc bd sn ss
h h h h h
tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl
The drum scheme supports six different toms. When there are fewer toms, simply
select the toms that produce the desired result. For example, to get toms on the
three middle lines you use tommh, tomml, and tomfh.
agostini-drums-style
Invented by the French percussionist Dante Agostini in 1965, this notation is com-
monly employed in France but also elsewhere.
j k j

cymc cyms cymr
j j ƒ ƒ

j ƒ
hh hhc hho hhho hhp hhs
‚
 ‚ h j
h
 h h h
cb hc bd sn ss

h h h
tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl
weinberg-drums-style
Based on the work of Norman Weinberg, published in his Guidelines for Drumset
Notation.
j j j
 j

jY
cymc cymr cymra cymch
j jq jb

j jb
k
hh hhc hho hhho hhp hhs
 ‚ h
j h
h
cb bd bda ss sn rb

 h h h h h h
tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl
Chapter 13: Percussion 475

timbales-style
This typesets timbales on a two line staff:

 h j ‚
h j
timh ssh timl ssl cb
congas-style
This typesets congas on a two line staff:

 h hb hq j h
h
b
h
q
j
cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl
bongos-style
This typesets bongos on a two line staff:

 h hb hq j h h
b
h
q
j
boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl
percussion-style
To typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one-line staves:

 j jb jq h hp hr
tri trio trim gui guis guil
 ‚ h h j h h
cb cl tamb cab mar hc
Custom percussion styles may also be defined, as explained in Section 13.1.6 [Custom per-
cussion staves], page 475.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “I’m hearing voices” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 13.1.6 [Custom percussion staves], page 475.
Installed Files: ly/drumpitch-init.ly.
Snippets: Section “Percussion” in Snippets.

13.1.6 Custom percussion staves

Custom percussion styles may be defined, to which the drumStyleTable property may then
be set. Existing notations may be redefined as an association list where each entry has to
be comprised of four items: a name, the note head style (or ‘()’ to indicate the default), an
articulation sign if needed (or #f if not), and the note head’s position on the staff. That list
must then be converted into a Scheme hash table, using the alist->hash-table function.
The entry for an articulation can either be a script name symbol or a pair, with the first
element the script name symbol and the second a forced-direction indicator for the script.
[In the following example, note the use of the quasi-quotation shorthand (‘`’) at the beginning
of the Scheme expression instead of the standard quotation shorthand (‘'’), which enables the
unquote shorthand (‘,’) to evaluate the element it precedes.]
#(define mydrums `(
Chapter 13: Percussion 476

(bassdrum () #f -1)
(snare () #f 0)
(hihat cross #f 1)
(halfopenhihat cross halfopen 1)
(pedalhihat xcircle stopped 2)
(splashhihat xcircle (open . ,DOWN) 2)
(lowtom diamond #f 3)))

up = \drummode { hh8 hh hhho hhho hhp4 hhs }

down = \drummode { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }

\new DrumStaff \with { drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums) }

<<
\new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
\new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
>>
Y Y q
 º jh j jh j ƒh kƒ k
b
New names may also be added to these custom notations through the drumPitchNames
variable, that may be redefined as an association list (or augmented by appending a new list
to its existing value, as demonstrated below), but also through its individual entries. This also
makes it possible to define aliases: alternate input shorthand for some notations.
drumPitchNames =
#(append
'((leftsnap . sidestick)
(rightsnap . ridecymbal))
drumPitchNames)

drumPitchNames.ls = #'sidestick
drumPitchNames.rs = #'ridecymbal

\drums {
leftsnap4. rightsnap8 leftsnap4 rightsnap
ls8 rs ls rs ls4 rs
}

j P jj j j jj jj j
º T
In a similar manner, the drumPitchTable property associates a specific pitch (meaning a
different instrument sound, as provided by available MIDI sound fonts) to each notation. That
property needs to be defined as a hash table, which is again converted from an association list
(stored by default as the midiDrumPitches variable). Redefining these associations is achieved
as explained above, either by defining an entire association list or through individual entries.
The following example demonstrates how to create a whole notation set with its own input
syntax, custom notations and corresponding MIDI output.
drumPitchNames.dbass = #'dbass
drumPitchNames.dba = #'dbass % 'db is in use already
drumPitchNames.dbassmute = #'dbassmute
Chapter 13: Percussion 477

drumPitchNames.dbm = #'dbassmute
drumPitchNames.do = #'dopen
drumPitchNames.dopenmute = #'dopenmute
drumPitchNames.dom = #'dopenmute
drumPitchNames.dslap = #'dslap
drumPitchNames.ds = #'dslap
drumPitchNames.dslapmute = #'dslapmute
drumPitchNames.dsm = #'dslapmute

#(define djembe-style
'((dbass () #f -2)
(dbassmute () stopped -2)
(dopen () #f 0)
(dopenmute () stopped 0)
(dslap () #f 2)
(dslapmute () stopped 2)))

midiDrumPitches.dbass = g
midiDrumPitches.dbassmute = fis
midiDrumPitches.dopen = a
midiDrumPitches.dopenmute = gis
midiDrumPitches.dslap = b
midiDrumPitches.dslapmute = ais

test = \drummode { dba4 do ds dbm dom dsm }

\score {
\new DrumStaff \with {
\override StaffSymbol.line-count = 3
instrumentName = "Djembé "
drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table djembe-style)
drumPitchTable = #(alist->hash-table midiDrumPitches)
} {
\time 3/4
\test
}
\layout {}
\midi {}
}

q q q
Djembé  3 h h
h h h h
4
See also
Installed Files: ly/drumpitch-init.ly.

Snippets: Section “Percussion” in Snippets.

Internals Reference: Section “DrumStaff” in Internals Reference, Section “DrumVoice” in

Internals Reference.
Chapter 13: Percussion 478

13.1.7 Ghost notes

Also known as dead, muted, silenced or false notes; ghost notes can be created using the
\parenthesize command, see Section 7.1.8 [Parentheses], page 285.
\new DrumStaff <<
\new DrumVoice = "1" { s1 }
\new DrumVoice = "2" { s1 }
\drummode {
<<
{
hh8[ 8] <hh sn> hh16
\parenthesize sn hh
\parenthesize sn hh8 <hh sn> hh
} \\
{
bd4 r4 bd8 8 r8 bd
}
>>
}
>>

 º jh j hj j  h  jh  h  jh jh jh
 ¢
T
See also
Notation Reference: Section 7.1.8 [Parentheses], page 285.
Snippets: Section “Percussion” in Snippets.
 479

14 Wind instruments

hhr hhp hhp hhp hhp h h p

h h h hh hp r  h hhr
Œ
ph p hp p hp p hp h hh hh h
Moderato assai
7  2
h
h hh h hh h hh h h h  hh
Flauto I,II  4 ­
2
p mf p p sf mf
 2 2­ h p
hr h h h h h h p p h hr
Œ
p h h hp h
Flauto III
6  4 hp hp hp hp hp hp h h h r
p sf mf
mf
Gr.Fl.

This section includes elements of music notation that arise when writing specifically for wind
instruments.

14.1 Common notation for wind instruments

This section discusses notation common to most wind instruments.

14.1.1 References for wind instruments

Many notation issues for wind instruments pertain to breathing and tonguing:
• Breathing can be specified by rests or Section 3.2.3 [Breath marks], page 169.
• Legato playing is indicated by Section 3.2.1 [Slurs], page 164.
• Different types of tonguings, ranging from legato to non-legato to staccato are usually shown
by articulation marks, sometimes combined with slurs, see Section 3.1.1 [Articulations and
ornamentations], page 149, and Section B.13 [List of articulations], page 892.
• Flutter tonguing is usually indicated by placing a tremolo mark and a text markup on the
note. See Section 4.2.2 [Tremolo repeats], page 203.

Other aspects of musical notation that can apply to wind instruments:

• Many wind instruments are transposing instruments, see Section 1.3.4 [Instrument transpo-
sitions], page 29.
• Slide glissandi are characteristic of the trombone, but other winds may perform keyed or
valved glissandi. See Section 3.3.1 [Glissando], page 170.
• Harmonic series glissandi, which are possible on all brass instruments but common for
French Horns, are usually written out as Section 2.6.1 [Grace notes], page 141.
• Pitch inflections at the end of a note are discussed in Section 3.2.4 [Falls and doits], page 170.
• Key slaps or valve slaps are often shown by the cross style of Section 1.4.1 [Special note
heads], page 43.
• Woodwinds can overblow low notes to sound harmonics. These are shown by the flageolet
articulation. See Section B.13 [List of articulations], page 892.
• The use of brass mutes is usually indicated by a text markup, but where there are many
rapid changes it is better to use the stopped and open articulations. See Section 3.1.1 [Artic-
ulations and ornamentations], page 149, and Section B.13 [List of articulations], page 892.
• Stopped horns are indicated by the stopped articulation. See Section 3.1.1 [Articulations
and ornamentations], page 149.
Chapter 14: Wind instruments 480

See also
Notation Reference: Section 3.2.3 [Breath marks], page 169, Section 3.2.1 [Slurs], page 164,
Section 3.1.1 [Articulations and ornamentations], page 149, Section B.13 [List of articula-
tions], page 892, Section 4.2.2 [Tremolo repeats], page 203, Section 1.3.4 [Instrument trans-
positions], page 29, Section 3.3.1 [Glissando], page 170, Section 2.6.1 [Grace notes], page 141,
Section 3.2.4 [Falls and doits], page 170, Section 1.4.1 [Special note heads], page 43.
Snippets: Section “Winds” in Snippets.

14.1.2 Fingerings
All wind instruments other than the trombone require the use of several fingers to produce each
pitch. Some fingering examples are shown in the snippets below.
Woodwind diagrams can be produced and are described in Section 14.3.1 [Woodwind dia-
grams], page 483.

Selected Snippets
Fingering symbols for wind instruments
Special symbols can be achieved by combining existing glyphs, which is useful for wind instru-
ments.
lineup =
\tweak outside-staff-padding #0
\tweak staff-padding #0
\tweak padding #0.2
\tweak parent-alignment-X #CENTER
\tweak self-alignment-X #CENTER
\etc

\relative c' {
g\open
g\lineup ^\markup \combine
\musicglyph "scripts.open"
\musicglyph "scripts.tenuto"
g\lineup ^\markup \combine
\musicglyph "scripts.open"
\musicglyph "scripts.stopped"
g\stopped
}
b br bq q
º
h h h h
Recorder fingering chart
The following example demonstrates how fingering charts for wind instruments can be realized.
% range chart for paetzold contrabass recorder

centermarkup = {
\once \override TextScript.self-alignment-X = #CENTER
\once \override TextScript.X-offset = #(lambda (g)
(+ (ly:self-alignment-interface::centered-on-x-parent g)
Chapter 14: Wind instruments 481

(ly:self-alignment-interface::x-aligned-on-self g)))
}

\score {
\new Staff \with {
\remove "Time_signature_engraver"
\omit Stem
\omit Flag
\consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
}
{
\clef bass
\set Score.timing = ##f
f,1*1/4 \glissando
\clef violin
gis'1*1/4
\stemDown a'4^\markup "1)"
\centermarkup
\once \override TextScript.padding = 2
bes'1*1/4_\markup \override #'(baseline-skip . 1.7) \column
{ \fontsize #-5 \slashed-digit #0 \finger 1 \finger 2
\finger 3 \finger 4 \finger 5 \finger 6 \finger 7 }
b'1*1/4
c''4^\markup "1)"
\centermarkup
\once \override TextScript.padding = 2
cis''1*1/4
deh''1*1/4
\centermarkup
\once \override TextScript.padding = 2
\once \override Staff.HorizontalBracket.direction = #UP
e''1*1/4_\markup \override #'(baseline-skip . 1.7) \column
{ \fontsize #-5 \slashed-digit #0 \finger 1 \finger 2
\finger 4 \finger 5}\startGroup
f''1*1/4^\markup "2)"\stopGroup
}
}

 h  . . . .
2)
 . .
1) 1)

.  . h
 
 
 




See also
Notation Reference: Section 14.3.1 [Woodwind diagrams], page 483.
Snippets: Section “Winds” in Snippets.
Chapter 14: Wind instruments 482

14.2 Bagpipes
This section discusses notation common bagpipes.

14.2.1 Bagpipe definitions

LilyPond contains special definitions for Scottish, Highland Bagpipe music; to use them, add
\include "bagpipe.ly"
to the top of your input file. This lets you add the special grace notes common to bagpipe music
with short commands. For example, you could write \taor instead of
\grace { \small G32[ d G e] }
bagpipe.ly also contains pitch definitions for the bagpipe notes in the appropriate octaves,
so you do not need to worry about \relative or \transpose.
\include "bagpipe.ly"
{ \grg G4 \grg a \grg b \grg c \grg d \grg e \grg f \grA g A }
‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
h h h h h h h h h
h
h h h
 h h h  h

Bagpipe music nominally uses the key of D Major (even though that isn’t really true). How-
ever, since that is the only key that can be used, the key signature is normally not written out.
To set this up correctly, always start your music with \hideKeySignature. If you for some
reason want to show the key signature, you can use \showKeySignature instead.
Some modern music use cross-fingering on c and f to flatten those notes. This can be indicated
by c-flat or f-flat. Similarly, the Piobaireachd high g can be written g-flat when it occurs
in light music.

See also
Snippets: Section “Winds” in Snippets.

14.2.2 Bagpipe example

This is what the well known tune Amazing Grace looks like in bagpipe notation.
\include "bagpipe.ly"
\layout {
indent = 0.0\cm
\context { \Score \remove Bar_number_engraver }
}

\header {
title = "Amazing Grace"
meter = "Hymn"
arranger = "Trad. arr."
}

{
\hideKeySignature
\time 3/4
\grg \partial 4 a8. d16
\slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
\grg f2 \grg f8 e
Chapter 14: Wind instruments 483

\thrwd d2 \grg b4
\grG a2 \grg a8. d16
\slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
\grg f2 \grg e8. f16
\dblA A2 \grg A4
\grg A2 f8. A16
\grg A2 \hdblf f8[ e32 d16.]
\grg f2 \grg f8 e
\thrwd d2 \grg b4
\grG a2 \grg a8. d16
\slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
\grg f2 e4
\thrwd d2.
\slurd d2
\bar "|."
}

Amazing Grace
Hymn Trad. arr.
‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
h h N h hhP h N h h hhN
hP h
h h h h h ‡ h
3
 4 hP h h h h N
‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
h hhP h N hhP h hhN hh h N hP h h N hhh
h
h N
h hhP
 h
‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡
h N hh h hhN
h
h h N h P h hh N h h h P N h
‡ h h h h
hhNP h N
h
 h h h

See also
Snippets: Section “Winds” in Snippets.

14.3 Woodwinds
This section discusses notation specifically for woodwind instruments.

14.3.1 Woodwind diagrams

Woodwind diagrams can be used to indicate the fingering to be used for specific notes and are
available for the following instruments:
• piccolo
• flute
• oboe
• clarinet
• bass clarinet
• saxophone
• bassoon
Chapter 14: Wind instruments 484

• contrabassoon
Woodwind diagrams are created as markups:
c''1^\markup {
\woodwind-diagram #'piccolo #'((lh . (gis))
(cc . (one three))
(rh . (ees)))
}

º .
Keys can be open, partially-covered, ring-depressed, or fully covered. The angle of partially-
covered keys can be specified:
\markup \override #'(baseline-skip . 22) \column {
\override #'(baseline-skip . 2.5) \fill-line {
""
\raise #1.2 \center-column { "one" "quarter" }
\raise #1.2 \center-column { "one" "half" }
\raise #1.2 \center-column { "three" "quarter" }
"ring"
"full"
\raise #1.2 \center-column { "one half," "vertical" }
""
}
\fill-line {
""
\woodwind-diagram #'flute #'((cc . (one1q))
(lh . ())
(rh . ()))
\woodwind-diagram #'flute #'((cc . (one1h))
(lh . ())
(rh . ()))
\woodwind-diagram #'flute #'((cc . (one3q))
(lh . ())
(rh . ()))
\woodwind-diagram #'flute #'((cc . (oneR))
(lh . ())
(rh . ()))
\woodwind-diagram #'flute #'((cc . (oneF two))
(lh . ())
(rh . ()))
\override #'(woodwind-diagram-details . ((fill-angle . 90)))
\woodwind-diagram #'flute #'((cc . (one1h))
(lh . ())
Chapter 14: Wind instruments 485

(rh . ()))
""
}
}

one one three one half,

ring full
quarter half quarter vertical

Trills are indicated as shaded keys, or in non-graphical mode, as either circled (the default)
or shaded text:

\markup {
\override #'(baseline-skip . 20)
\override #'(line-width . 50)
\column {
\fill-line {
""
"standard"
"circled"
"shaded"
""
}
\fill-line {
""
\woodwind-diagram #'bass-clarinet
#'((cc . (threeT four))
(lh . ())
(rh . (b fis)))
\override #'(graphical . #f)
\woodwind-diagram #'bass-clarinet
#'((cc . (threeT four))
(lh . ())
(rh . (b fisT)))
\override #'(graphical . #f)
\override #'(woodwind-diagram-details
. ((text-trill-circled . #f)))
\woodwind-diagram #'bass-clarinet
#'((cc . (threeT four))
(lh . ())
(rh . (b fisT)))
""
}
}
}
Chapter 14: Wind instruments 486

standard circled shaded

F F

A variety of trills can be displayed:

\markup {
\override #'(baseline-skip . 22)
\column {
\override #'(baseline-skip . 2.5) \fill-line {
""
\center-column { "one quarter" "to ring" }
\center-column { "ring" "to shut" }
\center-column { "ring" "to open" }
\center-column { "open" "to shut" }
\center-column { "one quarter to" "three quarters" }
""
}
\fill-line {
""
\woodwind-diagram #'flute #'((cc . (one1qTR))
(lh . ())
(rh . ()))
\woodwind-diagram #'flute #'((cc . (oneTR))
(lh . ())
(rh . ()))
\woodwind-diagram #'flute #'((cc . (oneRT))
(lh . ())
(rh . ()))
\woodwind-diagram #'flute #'((cc . (oneT))
(lh . ())
(rh . ()))
\woodwind-diagram #'flute #'((cc . (one1qT3q))
(lh . ())
(rh . ()))
""
}
}
}
Chapter 14: Wind instruments 487

one quarter ring ring open one quarter to

to ring to shut to open to shut three quarters

The list of all possible keys and settings for a given instrument can be displayed on the
console using #(print-keys-verbose 'flute) or in the log file using #(print-keys-verbose
'flute (current-error-port)), although they will not show up in the music output.
Creating new diagrams is possible, although this will require Scheme ability and may not
be accessible to all users. The patterns for the diagrams are in files scm/define-woodwind-
diagrams.scm and scm/display-woodwind-diagrams.scm.

Selected Snippets
Woodwind diagrams listing
The following music shows all of the woodwind diagrams currently defined in LilyPond.
\layout {
indent = 0
}

\relative c' {
\textLengthOn
c1^
\markup {
\center-column {
'tin-whistle
" "
\woodwind-diagram
#'tin-whistle
#'()
}
}

c1^
\markup {
\center-column {
'piccolo
" "
\woodwind-diagram
#'piccolo
#'()
}
}

c1^
\markup {
\center-column {
Chapter 14: Wind instruments 488

'flute
" "
\woodwind-diagram
#'flute
#'()
}
}
c1^\markup {
\center-column {
'oboe
" "
\woodwind-diagram
#'oboe
#'()
}
}

c1^\markup {
\center-column {
'clarinet
" "
\woodwind-diagram
#'clarinet
#'()
}
}

c1^\markup {
\center-column {
'bass-clarinet
" "
\woodwind-diagram
#'bass-clarinet
#'()
}
}

c1^\markup {
\center-column {
'saxophone
" "
\woodwind-diagram
#'saxophone
#'()
}
}

c1^\markup {
\center-column {
'bassoon
" "
\woodwind-diagram
Chapter 14: Wind instruments 489

#'bassoon
#'()
}
}

c1^\markup {
\center-column {
'contrabassoon
" "
\woodwind-diagram
#'contrabassoon
#'()
}
}
}

'flute 'oboe 'clarinet

'piccolo

'tin-whistle

º . . . . .
'bass-clarinet 'bassoon 'contrabassoon
'saxophone


. . . .
Graphical and text woodwind diagrams
In many cases, the keys other than the central column can be displayed by key name as well as
by graphical means.
\relative c'' {
\textLengthOn
c1^\markup
\woodwind-diagram
#'piccolo
Chapter 14: Wind instruments 490

#'((cc . (one three))

(lh . (gis))
(rh . (ees)))

c^\markup
\override #'(graphical . #f) {
\woodwind-diagram
#'piccolo
#'((cc . (one three))
(lh . (gis))
(rh . (ees)))
}
}

G

E
º . .

Changing the size of woodwind diagrams

The size and thickness of woodwind diagrams can be changed.

\relative c'' {
\textLengthOn
c1^\markup
\woodwind-diagram
#'piccolo
#'()

c^\markup
\override #'(size . 1.5) {
\woodwind-diagram
#'piccolo
#'()
}
c^\markup
\override #'(thickness . 0.15) {
\woodwind-diagram
#'piccolo
#'()
}
}
Chapter 14: Wind instruments 491

º . . .

Woodwind diagrams key lists

The snippet below produces a list of all possible keys and key settings for woodwind diagrams
as defined in scm/define-woodwind-diagrams.scm. The list will be displayed in the log file,
but not in the music. If output to the console is wanted, omit the (current-error-port) from
the commands.
#(print-keys-verbose 'piccolo (current-error-port))
#(print-keys-verbose 'flute (current-error-port))
#(print-keys-verbose 'flute-b-extension (current-error-port))
#(print-keys-verbose 'tin-whistle (current-error-port))
#(print-keys-verbose 'oboe (current-error-port))
#(print-keys-verbose 'clarinet (current-error-port))
#(print-keys-verbose 'bass-clarinet (current-error-port))
#(print-keys-verbose 'low-bass-clarinet (current-error-port))
#(print-keys-verbose 'saxophone (current-error-port))
#(print-keys-verbose 'soprano-saxophone (current-error-port))
#(print-keys-verbose 'alto-saxophone (current-error-port))
#(print-keys-verbose 'tenor-saxophone (current-error-port))
#(print-keys-verbose 'baritone-saxophone (current-error-port))
#(print-keys-verbose 'bassoon (current-error-port))
#(print-keys-verbose 'contrabassoon (current-error-port))

\score {c''1}

º .
See also
Installed Files: scm/define-woodwind-diagrams.scm,
scm/display-woodwind-diagrams.scm.
Snippets: Section “Winds” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “TextScript” in Internals Reference, Section “instrument-
specific-markup-interface” in Internals Reference.
 492

15 Chord notation

F C F F C F
  ¹ NN hh hh hh hh NN hh PP hh hh  hh hh hh NN
1. Fair is the sun - shine, Fair - er the moon - light

hh PP h h h h h N
2. Fair are the mead - ows, Fair - er the wood - land,
 ¹ NN hh hh h h NN h h h N
 h h T h h
F B  F C7 F C
h h
  NN h h NN hh hh N
N NN ..
And all the stars in heav'n a bove;
h h h hh NN N .
Robed in the flow ers of bloom ing spring;
  NN NN h N
h h .
Chords can be entered either as normal notes or in chord mode and displayed using a variety
of traditional European chord naming conventions. Chord names and figured bass notation can
also be displayed.

15.1 Chord mode

Chord mode is used to enter chords using an indicator of the chord structure, rather than the
chord pitches.

15.1.1 Chord mode overview

Chords can be entered as simultaneous music, as discussed in Section 5.1.1 [Chorded notes],
page 207.
Chords can also be entered in “chord mode”, which is an input mode that focuses on the
structures of chords in traditional European music, rather than on specific pitches. This is con-
venient for those who are familiar with using chord names to describe chords. More information
on different input modes can be found at Chapter 19 [Input modes], page 565.
\chordmode { c1 g a g c }

 º .. ...  ... ... ..

. .
Chords entered using chord mode are music elements, and can be transposed just like chords
entered using simultaneous music. \chordmode is absolute, as \relative has no effect on
chordmode blocks. However, in \chordmode the absolute pitches are one octave higher than in
note mode.
Chord mode and note mode can be mixed in sequential music:
\relative {
<c' e g>2 <g b d>
Chapter 15: Chord notation 493

\chordmode { c2 f }
<c e g>2 <g' b d>
\chordmode { f2 g }
}

 º NN N N
NNN NN NN NNN NNN NNN
N NN N
See also
Music Glossary: Section “chord” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 5.1.1 [Chorded notes], page 207, Chapter 19 [Input modes],
page 565.
Snippets: Section “Chords” in Snippets.

Known issues and warnings

Predefined shorthands for articulations and ornaments cannot be used on notes in chord mode,
see Section 3.1.1 [Articulations and ornamentations], page 149.

15.1.2 Common chords

Major triads are entered by including the root and an optional duration:
\chordmode { c2 f4 g }

 º NN hhh hhh
N
Minor, augmented, and diminished triads are entered by placing : and a quality modifier
string after the duration:
\chordmode { c2:m f4:aug g:dim }

 º  NN  hhh   hhh
N
Seventh chords can be created:
\chordmode { c1:7 c:m7 c:maj7 c:dim7 c:aug7 }

 º  .... 
 .... ...
.   ...  ...
. .
The table below shows the actions of the quality modifiers on triads and seventh chords. The
default seventh step added to chords is a minor or flatted seventh, which makes the dominant
seventh the basic seventh chord. All alterations are relative to the dominant seventh. A more
complete table of modifier usage is found at Section B.2 [Common chord modifiers], page 854.

Modifier Action Example

 ..
None The default action; produces a ma-
jor triad.
.
Chapter 15: Chord notation 494

  .. .
m, m7 The minor chord. This modifier low- .  ...
ers the 3rd.

   ..  ...
dim, dim7 The diminished chord. This mod-
ifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if
. .
present) the 7th step.

  ..
aug The augmented chord. This modi-
fier raises the 5th step.
.

 ... ..
..
maj, maj7 The major 7th chord. This modi-
fier adds a raised 7th step. The 7
.
following maj is optional. Do NOT
use this modifier to create a major
triad.

See also
Notation Reference: Section B.2 [Common chord modifiers], page 854, Section 15.1.3 [Ex-
tended and altered chords], page 494.
Snippets: Section “Chords” in Snippets.

Known issues and warnings

Only one quality modifier should be used per chord, typically on the highest step present in the
chord. Chords with more than quality modifier will be parsed without an error or warning, but
the results are unpredictable. Chords that cannot be achieved with a single quality modifier
should be altered by individual pitches, as described in Section 15.1.3 [Extended and altered
chords], page 494.

15.1.3 Extended and altered chords

Chord structures of arbitrary complexity can be created in chord mode. The modifier string
can be used to extend a chord, add or remove chord steps, raise or lower chord steps, and add
a bass note or create an inversion.
The first number following the : is taken to be the extent of the chord. The chord is
constructed by sequentially adding thirds to the root until the specified number has been reached.
Note that the seventh step added as part of an extended chord will be the minor or flatted seventh,
not the major seventh. If the extent is not a third (e.g., 6), thirds are added up to the highest
third below the extent, and then the step of the extent is added. The largest possible value for
the extent is 13. Any larger value is interpreted as 13.
\chordmode {
c1:2 c:3 c:4 c:5
c1:6 c:7 c:8 c:9
c1:10 c:11 c:12 c:13
c1:14
}

º . . ...  ...  ...  ...

. .. ... . . . .. ..
Chapter 15: Chord notation 495

. . . .. ..
  ....  ....  ....  ...  ...
9

. . . . .
As a special exception, c:5 produces a ‘power chord’ only consisting of root and fifth.
Since an unaltered 11 does not sound good when combined with an unaltered 13, the 11 is
removed from a :13 chord (unless it is added explicitly).
\chordmode {
c1:13 c:13.11 c:m13
}
.. ... ..
 º  ....  ...  ...
.  ..
Individual steps can be added to a chord. Additions follow the extent and are prefixed by a
dot (.). The basic seventh step added to a chord is the minor or flatted seventh, rather than
the major seventh.
\chordmode {
c1:3.5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13
}
.
º ....  .... ..
.
Added steps can be as high as desired.
\chordmode {
c4:3.5.15 c:3.5.20 c:3.5.25 c:3.5.30
}
h
h
h
h
 º hh hh hh hhh
h h h
Added chord steps can be altered by suffixing a - or + sign to the number. To alter a step
that is automatically included as part of the basic chord structure, add it as an altered step.
\chordmode {
c1:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7-
}

 º ....   ...   ...

.
Following any steps to be added, a series of steps to be removed is introduced in a modifier
string with a prefix of ^. If more than one step is to be removed, the steps to be removed are
separated by . following the initial ^.
\chordmode {
Chapter 15: Chord notation 496

c1^3 c:7^5 c:9^3 c:9^3.5 c:13.11^3.7

}

...
º . .  ...  .. .
. .. . . .
The modifier sus can be added to the modifier string to create suspended chords. This
removes the 3rd step from the chord. Append either 2 or 4 to add the 2nd or 4th step to the
chord. When sus is followed by either a 2nd or 4th step, it is equivalent to ^3, otherwise to
sus4, namely 5.4.
\chordmode {
c1:sus c:sus2 c:sus4 c:5.4
}

 º .. .. . ...
. . ..
Added bass notes (putting a pitch other than the root on the bottom of the chord) can be
specified by appending /pitch to the chord.
\chordmode {
c'1 c'/e c'/f
}

... .. ...
 º . .
If the added pitch is already part of the chord, this may be used to print chord inversions, in
which case the pitch is not added but merely moved to the bottom of the chord. It may however
be treated as an added note (and thus printed twice), by using the syntax /+pitch.
\chordmode {
c'1 c'/g c'/+e
}

... .. ...
 º . .
Automatic chord inversions and voicings are demonstrated in Section 15.1.4 [Chord inversions
and specific voicings], page 497.
Chord modifiers that can be used to produce a variety of standard chords are shown in
Section B.2 [Common chord modifiers], page 854.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 15.1.4 [Chord inversions and specific voicings], page 497, Sec-
tion B.2 [Common chord modifiers], page 854.
Snippets: Section “Chords” in Snippets.
Chapter 15: Chord notation 497

Known issues and warnings

Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following simply produces the augmented
chord, since 5+ is interpreted last.
\chordmode { c1:3.5.5-.5+ }

 º  ..
.
15.1.4 Chord inversions and specific voicings
In addition to chord modifiers and added bass notes, various functions may be used to automat-
ically print chords in a specific inversion or voicing – for example the so-called ‘drop 2’ voicing
commonly used in jazz music.
\chordmode {
\dropNote 2 {
c2:maj7 d:m7
}
\invertChords 1 d1:maj7
}

 º NN NNN  ....
NN N
Unlike added bass notes shown in Section 15.1.3 [Extended and altered chords], page 494,
this only affects the way chords are printed on a staff, and not chord names written with letters.
Furthermore, these functions may be used not only in chord mode but also with <...> chords
constructs explained in Section 5.1.1 [Chorded notes], page 207.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 15.1.3 [Extended and altered chords], page 494, Section 5.1.1
[Chorded notes], page 207.
Snippets: Section “Chords” in Snippets.

15.2 Displaying chords

Chords can be displayed by name, in addition to the standard display as notes on a staff.

15.2.1 Printing chord names

Chord names are printed in the ChordNames context:
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
c2 f4. g8
}
}

C F G
Chords can be entered as simultaneous notes or through the use of chord mode. The displayed
chord name will be the same, regardless of the mode of entry, unless there are inversions or added
bass notes:
chordmusic = \relative {
Chapter 15: Chord notation 498

<c' e g>2 <f bes c>

<f c' e g>1
\chordmode {
c2 f:sus4 c1:/f
}
}
<<
\new ChordNames {
\chordmusic
}
{
\chordmusic
}
>>

..
C Fsus4 F 9
C Fsus4 C/F
 NNN N ..
º  NN NNN  NNN ...
.
When passed to a ChordNames context, rests (including multi-measure rests) cause the text
“N.C.” (No Chord ) to be displayed.
myChords = \chordmode {
c1
r1
g1
R1
c1
}

<<
\new ChordNames \myChords
\new Staff \myChords
>>

” ... ”
 º ...
C N.C. G N.C. C
...
\chords { ... } is a shortcut notation for \new ChordNames \chordmode { ... }.
\chords {
c2 f4.:m g8:maj7
}

C Fm G
\new ChordNames {
\chordmode {
c2 f4.:m g8:maj7
}
}

C Fm G
Chapter 15: Chord notation 499

Selected Snippets
Showing chords at changes
By default, every chord entered is printed; this behavior can be modified so that chord names
are printed only at the start of lines and when the chord changes.
harmonies = \chordmode {
c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
}

<<
\new ChordNames {
\set chordChanges = ##t
\harmonies
}
\new Staff {
\relative c' { \harmonies }
}
>>

 º  ...
Cm
 ...
3 Cm D
  ...  ...  ...
Simple lead sheet
When put together, chord names, a melody, and lyrics form a lead sheet:
<<
\chords { c2 g:sus4 f e }
\new Staff \relative c'' {
a4 e c8 e r4
b2 c4( d)
}
\addlyrics { One day this shall be free __ }
>>

C Gsus4 F E
º h h h h N h h
One day this shall be free
Customizing the no-chord symbol
By default, rests in a ChordNames context cause the “N.C.” symbol to be printed. This markup
can be customized.
<<
\chords {
R1
\set noChordSymbol = "---"
Chapter 15: Chord notation 500

R1
\set noChordSymbol = \markup \italic "Ssh!"
R1
}
{
R1*3
}
>>

” ” ”
º
N.C. — Ssh!

See also
Music Glossary: Section “chord” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 5.2.6 [Writing music in parallel], page 230.
Snippets: Section “Chords” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “ChordNames” in Internals Reference, Section “ChordName”
in Internals Reference, Section “Chord name engraver” in Internals Reference, Section
“Volta engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “Bar engraver” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Chords containing inversions or altered bass notes are not named properly if entered using
simultaneous music.

15.2.2 Customizing chord names

There is no unique system for naming chords. Different musical traditions use different names
for the same set of chords. There are also different symbols displayed for a given chord name.
The names and symbols displayed for chord names are customizable.
The basic chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by Klaus Ignatzek
(see Section “Literature list” in Essay). (Other chord naming systems may be implemented
through Scheme functions, as demonstrated by the “Chord names alternative” snippet in Sec-
tion “Chords” in Snippets.) A list of common jazz chords notations may be found on the chart
in Section B.1 [Chord name chart], page 854.
The default naming system may be tweaked easily in a number of ways. To begin with,
predefined commands allow to use different languages for the root pitch. These include
\germanChords, \semiGermanChords, \italianChords and \frenchChords:
  B /B 

default E/D Cm B/B B /B


E/d Cm H/h H /his B/b
B /b
german

 
E/d Cm H/h H /his
Si /Si Si  /Si 
semi-german

 
Si /Si Si  /Si 
italian Mi/Re Do m Si/Si
Mi/Ré Do m .
 Si/Si
 .

.. ..
 º  ....  ...
french

. . .
German songbooks may indicate minor chords as lowercase letters, without any m suffix.
This can be obtained by setting the chordNameLowercaseMinor property:
\chords {
Chapter 15: Chord notation 501

\set chordNameLowercaseMinor = ##t

c2 d:m e:m f
}

C d e F
The chord name display can also be tuned through the following properties.
chordRootNamer
The chord name is usually printed as a letter for the root with an optional alteration.
The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this function. Special note names
(for example, the German ‘H’ for a B-chord) can be produced by storing a new
function in this property.
majorSevenSymbol
This property contains the markup object used to follow the output of
chordRootNamer to identify a major 7 chord. Predefined options are
whiteTriangleMarkup and blackTriangleMarkup.
additionalPitchPrefix
When the chord name contains additional pitches, they can optionally be prefixed
with some text. The default is no prefix, in order to avoid too much visual clutter,
but for small numbers of additional pitches this can be visually effective.
\new ChordNames {
<c e g d'> % add9
\set additionalPitchPrefix = "add"
<c e g d'> % add9
}

C9 Cadd9
chordNoteNamer
When the chord name contains additional pitches other than the root (e.g., an added
bass note), this function is used to print the additional pitch. By default the pitch
is printed using chordRootNamer. The chordNoteNamer property can be set to a
specialized function to change this behavior. For example, the bass note can be
printed in lower case.
chordNameSeparator
Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a small amount of hori-
zontal space. By setting chordNameSeparator, you can use any desired markup for
a separator. This does not affect the separator between a chord and its bass note;
to customize that, use slashChordSeparator.
\chords {
c4:7.9- c:7.9-/g
\set chordNameSeparator = \markup { "/" }
\break
c4:7.9- c:7.9-/g
}

C7
9 C7 9/G
 
C7/ 9 C7/ 9/G
slashChordSeparator
Chords can be played over a bass note other than the conventional root of the
chord. These are known as “inversions” or “slash chords”, because the default way
Chapter 15: Chord notation 502

of notating them is with a forward slash between the main chord and the bass note.
Therefore the value of slashChordSeparator defaults to a forward slash, but you
can change it to any markup you choose.
\chords {
c4:7.9- c:7.9-/g
\set slashChordSeparator = \markup { " over " }
\break
c4:7.9- c:7.9-/g
}

C7
9 C7 9/G
 
C7 9 C7 9 over G
chordNameExceptions
This property is a list of pairs. The first item in each pair is a set of pitches used
to identify the steps present in the chord. The second item is a markup that will
follow the chordRootNamer output to create the chord name.
minorChordModifier
Minor chords are often denoted via a ‘m’ suffix to the right of the root of the chord.
However some idioms prefer other suffices, such as a minus sign.
\chords {
c4:min f:min7
\set minorChordModifier = \markup { "-" }
\break
c4:min f:min7
}

Cm Fm7

C- F-7
chordPrefixSpacer
The modifier for minor chords as determined by minorChordModifier is usually
printed immediately to the right of the root of the chord. A spacer can be placed
between the root and the modifier by setting chordPrefixSpacer. The spacer is
not used when the root is altered.

Predefined commands
\whiteTriangleMarkup, \blackTriangleMarkup, \germanChords, \semiGermanChords,
\italianChords, \frenchChords.

Selected Snippets
Chord name exceptions
The property chordNameExceptions can be used to store a list of special notations for specific
chords.
% modify maj9 and 6(add9)
% Exception music is chords with markups
chExceptionMusic = {
<c e g b d'>1-\markup { \super "maj9" }
Chapter 15: Chord notation 503

<c e g a d'>1-\markup { \super "6(add9)" }

}

% Convert music to list and prepend to existing exceptions.

chExceptions = #(append
(sequential-music-to-chord-exceptions chExceptionMusic #t)
ignatzekExceptions)

theMusic = \chordmode {
g1:maj9 g1:6.9
\set chordNameExceptions = #chExceptions
g1:maj9 g1:6.9
}

\layout {
ragged-right = ##t
}

<<
\new ChordNames \theMusic
\new Voice \theMusic
>>

. . .  .... .
9 69 maj9 6(add9)

... ...
G G G G
 º ... . . .
chord name major7
The layout of the major 7 can be tuned with majorSevenSymbol.
\chords {
c:7+
\set majorSevenSymbol = \markup { j7 }
c:7+
}

C Cj7
Adding bar lines to ChordNames context
To add bar line indications in the ChordNames context, add the Bar_engraver.
\new ChordNames \with {
\override BarLine.bar-extent = #'(-2 . 2)
\consists "Bar_engraver"
}

\chordmode {
f1:maj7 f:7 bes:7
}

F F7 B 7
Chapter 15: Chord notation 504

Volta below chords

By adding the Volta_engraver to the relevant staff, volte can be put under chords.
\score {
<<
\chords {
c1
c1
}
\new Staff \with {
\consists "Volta_engraver"
}
{
\repeat volta 2 { c'1 }
\alternative { c' }
}
>>
\layout {
\context {
\Score
\remove "Volta_engraver"
}
}
}

C C
. .
º . PP
.
Changing chord separator
The separator between different parts of a chord name can be set to any markup.
\chords {
c:7sus4
\set chordNameSeparator
= \markup { \typewriter | }
c:7sus4
}

C7 sus4 C7|sus4
See also
Notation Reference: Section B.1 [Chord name chart], page 854, Section B.2 [Common chord
modifiers], page 854.
Essay on automated music engraving: Section “Literature list” in Essay.
Installed Files: scm/chords-ignatzek-names.scm, scm/chord-entry.scm,
ly/chord-modifiers-init.ly.
Snippets: Section “Chords” in Snippets.
Chapter 15: Chord notation 505

Known issues and warnings

Chord names are determined from both the pitches that are present in the chord and the infor-
mation on the chord structure that may have been entered in \chordmode. If the simultaneous
pitches method of entering chords is used, undesired names result from inversions or bass notes.
myChords = \relative c' {
\chordmode { c1 c/g c/f }
<c e g>1 <g c e> <f c' e g>
}
<<
\new ChordNames { \myChords }
\new Staff { \myChords }
>>

G6 sus4 F 9

 º ...
C C/G C/F C
.. ... .
.. .. ...
. . . .
15.2.3 Chord grids
In some European countries, particularly France, jazz musicians use so-called ‘chord grids’, which
notate chords visually by placing them in squares.

Em7/D
7 PP
7
G Am
Em7 Cm7
7 11
E

B m7
B A7/C 
Although they are omitted in the rest of this section for brevity, it is recommended to use
the following \paper settings for chord grids:
\paper {
indent = 0
ragged-right = ##f
}
indent = 0 ensures that the first line is not indented as it would normally be (see Sec-
tion 26.5.3 [\paper variables for shifts and indents], page 650). ragged-right = ##f is necessary
for single-line grids to ensure they span the whole page; see Section 26.5.1 [\paper variables for
widths and margins], page 648.
In order to create a chord grid, instantiate a ChordGrid context.
\new ChordGrid \chordmode { c1 d1:m e1:7 f1:7+ }

C Dm E7 F

Each square is automatically subdivided.

\new ChordGrid \chordmode {
c1
d2 c2
Chapter 15: Chord notation 506

e2. c4
}

D
C E C
C

Chords spanning a complete measure are centered within their square. Chords lasting half
a measure take half the square, and those lasting a quarter of a measure take a quarter of the
square. This summary picture shows the default rules for subdividing the square:

N1 h2 N1
.1 h1 h3
N2 N3 h2

h2
h1 h4 NP 1 h2 h1 NP 2
h3

The \medianChordGridStyle changes the default display of squares with particular measure
divisions to use the style recommended by Philippe Baudoin in his book Jazz, mode d’emploi
(“Jazz, user instructions”).

\layout {
\context {
\ChordGrid
\medianChordGridStyle
}
}
Chapter 15: Chord notation 507

Default style \medianChordGridStyle

N1 N1
h3
h2 h2 h3
h2 h1 h2
h1
N3 N3
NP 1
NP 1 h2
h2
h1
h1 NP 2
NP 2
h2 h1 h2
h1 h4
h3 h3 h4
In chord grids, rests cause the noChordSymbol to be printed, just like in a regular ChordNames
context (see Section 15.2.1 [Printing chord names], page 497).

\new ChordGrid \chordmode { c1 r2 c2 R1 }

N.C.
C N.C.
C

Skips cause blank space. They can occupy part of a square.

\new ChordGrid \chordmode { c1 s2 c2 s1 }

Chapter 15: Chord notation 508

C
C

Selected Snippets
Customizing the chord grid style
Custom divisions of chord squares can be defined through the measure-division-lines-alist
and measure-division-chord-placement-alist properties of ChordSquare. These are both
alists. Their keys are measure divisions, namely lists which give the fraction of the measure that
each chord (or rest, or skip) represents. More precisely, a measure division alist is made of posi-
tive, exact numbers adding up to 1, for example: '(1/2 1/4 1/4). The exactness requirement
means that, e.g., 1/2 is valid but not 0.5.
The values in measure-division-lines-alist are lists of lines, which are represented as
(x1 y1 x2 y2). The line starts at the point (x1 . y1) and ends at (x2 . y2). Coordinates are
expressed in the [-1, 1] scale relative to the extent of the square.
The values in measure-division-chord-placement-alist are lists of (x . y) pairs giving
the placement of the respective chords.
This example defines a peculiar chord grid style that has a rule for measures divided in three
equal parts.
\paper {
line-width = 10\cm
ragged-right = ##f
}

\new ChordGrid \with {

\override ChordSquare.measure-division-lines-alist =
#'(((1) . ())
((1/3 1/3 1/3) . ((-1 -0.4 0 1) (0 -1 1 0.4))))
\override ChordSquare.measure-division-chord-placement-alist =
#'(((1) . ((0 . 0)))
((1/3 1/3 1/3) . ((-0.7 . 0.5) (0 . 0) (0.7 . -0.5))))
}
\chordmode {
\time 3/4
c2.
c4 c4 c4
}

C
C C
C

See also
Music Glossary: Section “chord grid” in Music Glossary.
Chapter 15: Chord notation 509

Internals Reference: Section “ChordGrid” in Internals Reference, Section “ChordGrid-

Score” in Internals Reference, Section “GridChordName” in Internals Reference, Section
“ChordSquare” in Internals Reference, Section “Grid chord name engraver” in Internals Ref-
erence, Section “Chord square engraver” in Internals Reference.

15.3 Figured bass

h h
D
7 †P h
h h h h h h h hP h h ¢ h h
Adagio
Violino I.  º ¥ h hP T
º ¥ † ¢ h h h hP h h ¢ h h
Violino II.  h hP h h h h

 º ¥h h h h hhh h h
Violone,
6 h h h
e Cembalo. U      
#

D


73 h h hhh h h h hP h h h h h h h hh
 T T T
h h P  h
h hhh h h
h h h h hP h hh
 hP T
h h h h h h h h h h h h hh

6 T h
    


D


75 h h hP h h h h h h h hP h h h h
 h h h h hP h h h ¢ T
T T
h
h h h h
h h h h h h h h h h h h hP h h h ¢ h
 T h T T
h
 h h h h h hh h h h h h h ¢ T
6 T h T h h h h
         
       
Figured bass notation can be displayed.

15.3.1 Introduction to figured bass

LilyPond has support for figured bass, also called thorough bass or basso continuo.
<<
\new Voice { \clef bass dis4 c d ais g fis}
\new FiguredBass {
\figuremode {
<6>4 <7\+>8 <6+ [_!]> <6>4 <6 5 [3+]> |
<_>4 <6 5/>4
Chapter 15: Chord notation 510

}
}
>>

 º h h h h h h
 +    


The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input mode, introduced by
\figuremode, that accepts entry of bass figures, and there is a context named FiguredBass
that takes care of displaying BassFigure objects. Figured bass can also be displayed in Staff
contexts.
\figures { ... } is a shortcut notation for \new FiguredBass \figuremode { ... }.
Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord support, it is much
simpler. \figuremode mode simply stores the figures and the FiguredBass context prints them
as entered. There is no conversion to pitches.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “figured bass” in Music Glossary.
Snippets: Section “Chords” in Snippets.

15.3.2 Entering figured bass

\figuremode is used to switch the input mode to figure mode. See Chapter 19 [Input modes],
page 565, for more information on different input modes.
In figure mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by ‘<’ and ‘>’. The duration is entered
after the ‘>’.
\new FiguredBass {
\figuremode {
<6 4>2
}
}


Accidentals (including naturals) may be used for modifying scale steps. These are entered
by appending ‘+’ (for sharps), ‘-’ (for flats) or ‘!’ (for naturals) after the number. For double
accidentals the modifier is applied twice. For the modification of the third step the number is
often omitted, which can be achieved by using ‘_’ instead of a number.
\figures {
<7! 6+ 4-> <5++> <3--> <_+> <7 _!>
}


  
 

If used without accidental, ‘_’ creates an empty figure which nevertheless takes up space.
This can be used for controlling the stacking of bass figures.
<<
{
\clef bass
Chapter 15: Chord notation 511

g2 c4
}
\figures {
<_ 5 4>4 <8 _ 3>8 <7>
}
>>

º N h

 
Augmented and diminished steps can be indicated.
\figures {
<6\+ 5/> <7/> <7 _\+>
}

+
+  

A backward slash through a figure is also available.

\figures {
<5> <5\\>
}

For some figures, special backward slash glyphs are provided.

\figures {
<8 6\\> <9 7\\> <9\\ 7>
}
 $
& % 
Brackets can be added around accidentals, figures, and consecutive groups of figures.
\figures {
<9[-] 8 [7-] 5 [4[!] 2+]>
}




Any text markup can be inserted as a figure.
\figures {
<\markup { \fontsize #-5 \number 6 \teeny \super (1) } 5>
}

 (1)

Continuation lines can be used to indicate repeated figures.

<<
{
\clef bass
Chapter 15: Chord notation 512

e4 d c b,
e4 d c b,
}
\figures {
\bassFigureExtendersOn
<6 4>4 <6 3> <7 3> <7 3>
\bassFigureExtendersOff
<6 4>4 <6 3> <7 3> <7 3>
}
>>

º h h h h h h h
h
     
     
In this case, the extender lines replace existing figures, unless the continuation lines have been
explicitly terminated with \!.
<<
\figures {
\bassFigureExtendersOn
<6 4>4 <6 4> <6\! 4\!> <6 4>
}
{
\clef bass
d4 d c c
}
>>
 
º h h h h
 

The table below summarizes the figure modifiers available.

modifier purpose example



+, -, ! accidentals 

+ 
\+, / augmented and diminished steps

\\ raised by a semitone & % $

 
º h h h h  

\! end of continuation line

Predefined commands
\bassFigureExtendersOn, \bassFigureExtendersOff.
Chapter 15: Chord notation 513

Selected Snippets
Changing the positions of figured bass alterations
Accidentals and plus signs can appear before or after the numbers, depending on the
figuredBassAlterationDirection and figuredBassPlusDirection properties.
If plus signs appear after the number, specially designed glyphs are provided for some figures.
\figures {
<5\+> <5+ 4\+> <6 4- 2\+> r
\set figuredBassAlterationDirection = #RIGHT
<5\+> <5+ 4\+> <6 4- 2\+> r
\set figuredBassPlusDirection = #RIGHT
<5\+> <5+ 4\+> <6 4- 2\+> r
\set figuredBassAlterationDirection = #LEFT
<5\+> <5+ 4\+> <6 4- 2\+> r
}

+   +   "   "  
+  +  #  # 
+ + ' '
Adjusting figured bass alteration glyphs
In figured bass, specially designed glyphs for 6\\, 7\\, and 9\\ are used by default. Similarly,
specially designed glyphs for symbols 2\+, 4\+, and 5\+ are used by default if plus signs appear
after the number.
To change that, pass an alist to figuredBassPlusStrokedAlist and set the glyph in question
to #f (or omit it).
\figures {
\set figuredBassPlusDirection = #RIGHT
<6\\> <7\\> <9\\> r
<2\+> <4\+> <5\+> r

\set figuredBassPlusStrokedAlist =
#'((2 . "figbass.twoplus")
;; (4 . "figbass.fourplus")
;; (5 . "figbass.fiveplus")
(6 . "figbass.sixstroked")
;; (7 . "figbass.sevenstroked")
;; (9 . "figbass.ninestroked")
)
<6\\> <7\\> <9\\> r
<2\+> <4\+> <5\+> r
}

& % $ ' # " &   ' + +

See also
Snippets: Section “Chords” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “BassFigure” in Internals Reference, Section “BassFigure-
Alignment” in Internals Reference, Section “BassFigureLine” in Internals Reference, Section
“BassFigureBracket” in Internals Reference, Section “BassFigureContinuation” in Internals
Reference, Section “FiguredBass” in Internals Reference.
Chapter 15: Chord notation 514

15.3.3 Displaying figured bass

Figured bass can be displayed using the FiguredBass context, or in most staff contexts.
When displayed in a FiguredBass context, the vertical location of the figures is independent
of the notes on the staff.
<<
\relative {
c''4 c'8 r8 c,4 c'
}
\new FiguredBass {
\figuremode {
<4>4 <10 6>8 s8
<6 4>4 <6 4>
}
}
>>
h h
º h T¢h
   
  
In the example above, the FiguredBass context must be explicitly instantiated to avoid creating
a second (empty) staff.
Figured bass can also be added to Staff contexts directly. In this case, the vertical position
of the figures is adjusted automatically.
<<
\new Staff = "myStaff"
\figuremode {
<4>4 <10 6>8 s8
<6 4>4 <6 4>
}
%% Put notes on same Staff as figures
\context Staff = "myStaff" {
\clef bass
c4 c'8 r8 c4 c'
}
>>

h  h
  

º h T¢h
 

When added in a Staff context, figured bass can be displayed above or below the staff.
<<
\new Staff = "myStaff"
\figuremode {
<4>4 <10 6>8 s8
\bassFigureStaffAlignmentDown
<6 4>4 <6 4>
}
%% Put notes on same Staff as figures
Chapter 15: Chord notation 515

\context Staff = "myStaff" {

\clef bass
c4 c'8 r8 c4 c'
}
>>

h h


º h T¢h
 

 
 
The horizontal alignment of numbers in a figured bass stack that have more than a single
digit can be controlled with the context property figuredBassLargeNumberAlignment.
<<
\new Voice {
\clef bass
r2 d | d d | a2
}
\new FiguredBass \figuremode {
s2 <10+ 8> |
\set figuredBassLargeNumberAlignment = #RIGHT
<11 9>2
\set figuredBassLargeNumberAlignment = #LEFT
<10+ 9>2 |
<_+>2
}
>>

º ˜ N N N N
   
 
The vertical distance of figured bass elements can be controlled with subproperties minimum-
distance and padding of staff-staff-spacing.
<<
{ \clef bass g,2 c, }
\figures {
\once \override BassFigureLine
.staff-staff-spacing.minimum-distance = 3
<7 _-> <7- _->
}
>>
º
N N
 


Predefined commands
\bassFigureStaffAlignmentDown, \bassFigureStaffAlignmentUp,
\bassFigureStaffAlignmentNeutral.
Chapter 15: Chord notation 516

See also
Snippets: Section “Chords” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “BassFigure” in Internals Reference, Section “BassFigure-
Alignment” in Internals Reference, Section “BassFigureLine” in Internals Reference, Section
“BassFigureBracket” in Internals Reference, Section “BassFigureContinuation” in Internals
Reference, Section “FiguredBass” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

To ensure that continuation lines work properly, it is safest to use the same rhythm in the figure
line as in the bass line.
<<
{
\clef bass
\repeat unfold 4 { f16. g32 } f8. es16 d8 es
}
\figures {
\bassFigureExtendersOn
% The extenders are correct here,
% with the same rhythm as the bass.
\repeat unfold 4 { <6 4->16. <6 4->32 }
<5>8. r16 <6>8 <6\! 5->
}
>>
<<
{
\clef bass
\repeat unfold 4 { f16. g32 } f8. es16 d8 es
}
\figures {
\bassFigureExtendersOn
% The extenders are incorrect here,
% even though the timing is the same.
<6 4->4 <6 4->4
<5>8. r16 <6>8 <6\! 5->
}
>>

 º hP h hP h hP h hP h hP h h h
  

 º hP h hP h hP h hP h hP h h h
 

  
 
 517

16 Contemporary music
From the beginning of the 20th Century there has been a massive expansion of compositional
style and technique. New harmonic and rhythmic developments, an expansion of the pitch
spectrum and the development of a wide range of new instrumental techniques have been accom-
panied by a parallel evolution and expansion of musical notation. The purpose of this section is
to provide references and information relevant to working with these new notational techniques.

16.1 Pitch and harmony in contemporary music

This section highlights issues that are relevant to notating pitch and harmony in contemporary
music.

16.1.1 References for pitch and harmony in contemporary music

• Standard quarter tone notation is addressed in Section 1.1.4 [Note names in other languages],
page 10.
• Non-standard key signatures are addressed in Section 1.3.2 [Key signature], page 23.
• Contemporary practices in displaying accidentals are addressed in Section 1.3.5 [Automatic
accidentals], page 31.

16.1.2 Microtonal notation

16.1.3 Contemporary key signatures and harmony

16.2 Contemporary approaches to rhythm

This section highlights issues that are relevant to the notation of rhythm in contemporary music.

16.2.1 References for contemporary approaches to rhythm

• Compound time signatures are addressed in Section 2.3.1 [Time signature], page 76.
• Basic polymetric notation is addressed in Section 2.3.5 [Polymetric notation], page 89.
• Feathered beams are addressed in Section 2.4.4 [Feathered beams], page 113.
• Mensurstriche bar lines (bar lines between staves only) are addressed in Section 6.1.2 [Group-
ing staves], page 234.

16.2.2 Tuplets in contemporary music

16.2.3 Contemporary time signatures
16.2.4 Extended polymetric notation
16.2.5 Beams in contemporary music
16.2.6 Bar lines in contemporary music

16.3 Graphical notation

Rhythmic items may be continued by a duration line, which gets represented by a DurationLine
grob. Possible styles are 'beam, 'line, 'dashed-line, 'dotted-line, 'zigzag, 'trill and
'none. The duration line may end with a hook (beam-style only) or an arrow.
\layout {
\context {
Chapter 16: Contemporary music 518

\Voice
\consists Duration_line_engraver
\omit Stem
\omit Flag
\omit Beam
\override NoteHead.duration-log = 2
}
}

{
a'1\- s2 r
\once \override DurationLine.style = #'line
a'1\- s2 r
\once \override DurationLine.style = #'dashed-line
\once \override DurationLine.dash-period = 2
a'1\- s2 r
\once \override DurationLine.style = #'dotted-line
\once \override DurationLine.dash-period = 1
\once \override DurationLine.bound-details.right.padding = 1
a'1\- s2 r
\once \override DurationLine.thickness = 2
\once \override DurationLine.style = #'zigzag
a'1\- s2 r
\once \override DurationLine.style = #'trill
a'1\- s2 r
\once \override DurationLine.style = #'none
a'1\- s2 r
\once \override DurationLine.bound-details.right.end-style = #'arrow
a'1\- s2 r
\override DurationLine.bound-details.right.end-style = #'hook
a'1\- s2 r
\override DurationLine.details.hook-direction = #DOWN
a'1\- s2 r
\bar "|."
}

º h ˜ h ˜ h ˜ h ˜ h ˜

 hvvvvvv ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
11

h h h h
DurationLine may avoid mid-line items from BreakAlignGroup.
\layout {
\context {
\Voice
\consists "Duration_line_engraver"
}
}

<<
Chapter 16: Contemporary music 519

\new Staff {
g'1\- s \clef "alto" g'
}
\new Staff {
\override DurationLine.bound-details.right.end-on-break-align-group = ##t
g'1\- s \clef "alto" g' \bar "|."
}
>>

º .  .
.
º . 

16.4 Contemporary scoring techniques

16.5 New instrumental techniques

16.6 Further reading and scores of interest

This section suggests books, musical examples and other resources useful in studying contempo-
rary musical notation.

16.6.1 Books and articles on contemporary musical notation

• Music Notation in the Twentieth Century: A Practical Guidebook by Kurt Stone [W. W.
Norton, 1980]
• Music Notation: A Manual of Modern Practice by Gardner Read [Taplinger, 1979]
• Instrumentation and Orchestration by Alfred Blatter [Schirmer, 2nd ed. 1997]

16.6.2 Scores and musical examples

 520

17 Ancient notation

7 ° ¹ °° ° ° ° ° µ ° °° µ
° °°° ° °° ° °
° ° ° ¹
· °°° ° µ
® M
Sal - ve, Re - gí - na, mater mi se - ri cór - di - ae: Ad te cla - má mus, éx su - les,

7 ° ° ° ¹ ° ¶¸ ° °
µ ° µ
°° ° ° ® ° ° ªª ° ° µ ·¹ ° °° M
fi li - i He vae. Ad te su spi - rá - mus, ge - mén - tes et flen - tes in hac la - cri - má -

7° ¨ ° ° ° °°¹· ° ° ° ° µ
´ ¹ ° ·¹ ° ¶¸ ° ° ° ªª ° ° ° ° ·¹ ° M
rum val - le. E- ia er - go, Ad vo - cá - ta no stra, il los tu - os mi se ri - cór - des ó - cu -

7 M
° ªª ¹· ° ¨´ ¹ ° ° ° ·¹ ° ·¹ °° ° ° ° ° ¨´ ° °° ¹ ®µ
los ad nos con - vér - te. Et Je - sum, be - ne - díc tum fruc tum ven tris tu - i, no -

7 %° ° ° ªª ° ° ° ¹
°° ° ° ° ° °°°² ° ªª ° ¹·²¹ °° °° ·¹ °°° ª
° ° °° ªª° N
- bis post hoc ex sí - li - um os tén de. O cle mens: O pi - a: O

7 ¹·¨´ ¹·
·¹ ° ° ° °°°°°°
dul cis Vir go Ma rí a.

Support for ancient notation includes features for mensural notation, Gregorian chant notation,
and Kievan square notation. These features can be accessed either by modifying style properties
of graphical objects such as note heads and rests, or by using one of the predefined contexts for
these styles.
Many graphical objects, such as note heads and flags, accidentals, time signatures, and rests,
provide a style property, which can be changed to emulate several different styles of ancient
notation. See
• Section 17.3.4 [Mensural note heads], page 526,
• Section 17.3.7 [Mensural accidentals and key signatures], page 528,
• Section 17.3.6 [Mensural rests], page 528,
• Section 17.3.2 [Mensural clefs], page 525,
• Section 17.4.2 [Gregorian clefs], page 532,
• Section 17.3.5 [Mensural flags], page 527,
• Section 17.3.3 [Mensural time signatures], page 526.
Some notational concepts are introduced specifically for ancient notation,
• Section 17.2.3 [Custodes], page 523,
• Section 17.4.4 [Divisiones], page 533,
• Section 17.2.2 [Ligatures], page 522.
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 521

See also
Music Glossary: Section “custos” in Music Glossary, Section “ligature” in Music Glossary,
Section “mensural notation” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 17.3.4 [Mensural note heads], page 526, Section 17.3.7 [Men-
sural accidentals and key signatures], page 528, Section 17.3.6 [Mensural rests], page 528, Sec-
tion 17.4.2 [Gregorian clefs], page 532, Section 17.3.5 [Mensural flags], page 527, Section 17.3.3
[Mensural time signatures], page 526, Section 17.2.3 [Custodes], page 523, Section 17.4.4 [Divi-
siones], page 533, Section 17.2.2 [Ligatures], page 522.

17.1 Overview of the supported styles

Three styles are available for typesetting Gregorian chant:
• Editio Vaticana is a complete style for Gregorian chant, following the appearance of the
Solesmes editions, the official chant books of the Vatican since 1904. LilyPond has support
for all the notational signs used in this style, including ligatures, custodes, and special signs
such as the quilisma and the oriscus.
• The Editio Medicaea style offers certain features used in the Medicaea (or Ratisbona) edi-
tions which were used prior to the Solesmes editions. The most significant differences from
the Vaticana style are the clefs, which have downward-slanted strokes, and the note heads,
which are square and regular.
• The Hufnagel (“horseshoe nail”) or Gothic style mimics the writing style in chant manu-
scripts from Germany and Central Europe during the middle ages. It is named after the
basic note shape (the virga), which looks like a small nail.
Three styles emulate the appearance of late-medieval and Renaissance manuscripts and prints
of mensural music:
• The Mensural style most closely resembles the writing style used in late-medieval and early
Renaissance manuscripts, with its small and narrow, diamond-shaped note heads and its
rests which approach a hand-drawn style.
• The Neomensural style is a modernized and stylized version of the former: the note heads
are broader and the rests are made up of straight lines. This style is particularly suited,
e.g., for incipits of transcribed pieces of mensural music.
• The Petrucci style is named after Ottaviano Petrucci (1466-1539), the first printer to use
movable type for music (in his Harmonice musices odhecaton, 1501). The style uses larger
note heads than the other mensural styles.
Baroque and classical are not complete styles but differ from the default style only in some
details: certain note heads (Baroque) and the quarter rest (classical).
Only the mensural style has alternatives for all aspects of the notation. Thus, there are no
rests or flags in the Gregorian styles, since these signs are not used in plainchant notation, and
the Petrucci style has no flags or accidentals of its own.
Each element of the notation can be changed independently of the others, so that one can
use mensural flags, Petrucci note heads, classical rests and Vaticana clefs in the same piece, if
one wishes.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “mensural notation” in Music Glossary, Section “flag” in Music
Glossary.
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 522

17.2 Ancient notation – common features

17.2.1 Predefined contexts
For Gregorian chant and mensural notation, there are predefined voice, staff, and score con-
texts available, which set all the various notation signs to values suitable for these styles.
If one is satisfied with these defaults, one can proceed directly with note entry without
worrying about the details on how to customize a context. See one of the predefined
contexts VaticanaScore, VaticanaVoice, VaticanaStaff, MensuralVoice, MensuralStaff,
PetrucciStaff, PetrucciVoice, KievanVoice, and KievanStaff.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “mensural notation” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 17.4.1 [Gregorian chant contexts], page 531, Section 17.3.1
[Mensural contexts], page 524, Section 17.5.1 [Kievan contexts], page 541.

17.2.2 Ligatures
A ligature is a graphical symbol that represents at least two distinct notes. Ligatures originally
appeared in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation to denote ascending or descending
sequences of notes on the same syllable. They are also used in mensural notation.
Ligatures are entered by enclosing them in \[ and \]. Some ligature styles may need addi-
tional input syntax specific for this particular type of ligature. By default, the LigatureBracket
engraver just puts a square bracket above the ligature.
\relative {
\[ g' c, a' f d' \]
a g f
\[ e f a g \]
}

º h hh hh h h h h h h
h
Three other ligature styles are available: ‘Vaticana’ for Gregorian chant, ‘Mensural’ for mensu-
ral music (only white mensural ligatures are supported for mensural music, and with certain lim-
itations), and ‘Kievan’ for Kievan melismata. To use any of these styles, the default Ligature_
bracket_engraver has to be replaced with one of the specialized ligature engravers in the
Voice context. For more information, see Section 17.3.9 [White mensural ligatures], page 529,
Section 17.4.7 [Gregorian square neume ligatures], page 535, and Section 17.5.6 [Kievan melis-
mata], page 543.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “ligature” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 17.3.9 [White mensural ligatures], page 529, Section 17.4.7
[Gregorian square neume ligatures], page 535.

Known issues and warnings

Spacing required for ligatures is not currently implemented and, as a result, there may end up
being too much space between them. Line breaking may also be unsatisfactory.
Lyrics might not align as expected when using ligatures.
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 523

Accidentals must not be printed within a ligature, but instead be collected and printed in
front of it.
The syntax still uses the deprecated “infix” style \[ music expr \]. For consistency reasons,
it will eventually be changed to “postfix” style note\[ ... note\].

17.2.3 Custodes
A custos (plural: custodes; Latin word for “guard”) is a symbol that appears at the end of a
staff. It anticipates the pitch of the first note of the following line, thus helping the performer
to manage line breaks during performance.
Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the seventeenth century. Nowadays,
they have survived only in a few particular forms of musical notation such as contemporary
editions of Gregorian chant like the Editio Vaticana. There are different custos glyphs used in
different flavors of notational style.
For typesetting custodes, just put a Custos_engraver into the Staff context when declaring
the \layout block, and change the style of the custos with an \override if desired, as shown
in the following example:
\score {
\relative {
a'1
\break
g
}
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
\consists Custos_engraver
\override Custos.style = #'mensural
}
}
}

º . H
2

 .
The custos glyph is selected by the style property. The styles supported are vaticana,
medicaea, hufnagel, and mensural.
\new Lyrics \lyricmode {
\markup { \column {
\typewriter "vaticana "
\line { " " \musicglyph "custodes.vaticana.u0" }
} }
\markup { \column {
\typewriter "medicaea "
\line { " " \musicglyph "custodes.medicaea.u0" }
}}
\markup { \column {
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 524

\typewriter "hufnagel "

\line { " " \musicglyph "custodes.hufnagel.u0" }
}}
\markup { \column {
\typewriter "mensural "
\line { " " \musicglyph "custodes.mensural.u0" }
}}
}

vaticana medicaea hufnagel mensural

M A ; G
See also
Music Glossary: Section “custos” in Music Glossary.
Snippets: Section “Ancient notation” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Custos” in Internals Reference.

17.3 Typesetting mensural music

17.3.1 Mensural contexts
The predefined MensuralVoice and MensuralStaff contexts can be used to engrave a piece in
mensural style. These contexts initialize all relevant context properties and grob properties to
proper values, so you can immediately go ahead entering the chant, as the following excerpt
demonstrates:
\score {
<<
\new MensuralVoice = "discantus" \relative {
\hide Score.BarNumber {
c''1\melisma bes a g\melismaEnd
f\breve
\[ f1\melisma a c\breve d\melismaEnd \]
c\longa
c\breve\melisma a1 g1\melismaEnd
fis\longa^\signumcongruentiae
}
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "discantus" {
San -- ctus, San -- ctus, San -- ctus
}
>>
}

 ¿ = = = = š šš šˆ ( š G
San ctus, San ctus, San

†
 = = á
ctus
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 525

See also
Music Glossary: Section “mensural notation” in Music Glossary.

17.3.2 Mensural clefs

Mensural clefs are supported using the \clef command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph,
but differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such cases, a trailing number in
the name is used to enumerate these clefs, numbered from the lowest to the highest line.
\new MensuralStaff {
\clef "mensural-c1" c'1
}

¿ =
\new MensuralStaff {
\override NoteHead.style = #'blackmensural
\clef "blackmensural-c2" c'1
}

¿ /
\new MensuralStaff {
\override NoteHead.style = #'neomensural
\clef "neomensural-c3" c'1
}

¿ B
\new PetrucciStaff {
\clef "petrucci-c4" c'1
}

'¿ C
It is possible to manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an arbitrary line, see Section 1.3.1
[Clef], page 19. For the complete range of possible clefs, see Section B.11 [Clef styles], page 887.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “mensural notation” in Music Glossary, Section “clef” in Music
Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 17.4.2 [Gregorian clefs], page 532, Section 1.3.1 [Clef],
page 19.
Installed Files: scm/parser-clef.scm.
Snippets: Section “Pitches” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Clef engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “Clef” in In-
ternals Reference, Section “ClefModifier” in Internals Reference, Section “clef-interface” in
Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

The Mensural g clef is mapped to the Petrucci g clef.
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 526

17.3.3 Mensural time signatures

There is limited support for mensuration signs (which are similar to but not exactly the same
as time signatures). The glyphs are hard-wired to particular time fractions. In other words, to
get a particular mensuration sign with the \time n/m command, n and m have to be chosen
according to the following table.

\time 4/4 \time 2/2 \time 6/4 \time 6/8

Ê Æ Ì Í
\time 3/2 \time 3/4 \time 9/4 \time 9/8
È É Ï Ð
\time 4/8 \time 2/4
Ë Ç
Use the style property of grob TimeSignature to select ancient time signatures. Supported
styles are neomensural and mensural. The above table uses the neomensural style. The
following examples show the differences in style:
default numbered mensural neomensural single-number
¹ 2 » Æ 2
2
See Section 2.3.1 [Time signature], page 76, for a general introduction to the use of time
signatures.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “mensural notation” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 2.3.1 [Time signature], page 76.

Known issues and warnings

Ratios of note durations cannot change with the time signature, as those are not constant. For
example, the ratio of 1 breve = 3 semibreves (tempus perfectum) can be made by hand, by
setting
breveTP = #(ly:make-duration -1 0 3/2)
...
{ c\breveTP f1 }
This sets breveTP to 3/2 times 2 = 3 times a whole note.
The mensural68alt and neomensural68alt symbols (alternate symbols for 6/8) are not
addressable with \time. Use \markup {\musicglyph "timesig.mensural68alt" } instead.

17.3.4 Mensural note heads

For ancient notation, a note head style other than the default style may be chosen. This is
accomplished by setting the style property of the NoteHead object to baroque, neomensural,
mensural, petrucci, blackpetrucci or semipetrucci.
The baroque style differs from the default style by:
• Providing a maxima note head, and
• Using a square shape for \breve note heads.
The neomensural, mensural, and petrucci styles differ from the baroque style by:
• Using rhomboidal heads for semibreves and all smaller durations, and
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 527

• Centering the stems on the note heads.

The blackpetrucci style produces note heads usable in black mensural notation or coloratio
sections in white mensural notation. Because note head style does not influence flag count, in
this style a semiminima should be notated as a8*2, not a4, otherwise it will look like a minima.
The multiplier can be different if coloratio is used, e.g., to notate triplets.
Use semipetrucci style to draw half-colored note heads (breves, longas and maximas).
The following example demonstrates the petrucci style:
\compressEmptyMeasures
\autoBeamOff
\override NoteHead.style = #'petrucci
a'\maxima a'\longa a'\breve a'1 a'2 a'4 a'8 a'16 a'
\override NoteHead.style = #'semipetrucci
a'\breve*5/6
\override NoteHead.style = #'blackpetrucci
a'8*4/3 a'
\override NoteHead.style = #'petrucci
a'\longa
††
º ä á š C _ z zzz Š ii á
Section B.9 [Note head styles], page 886, gives an overview of all available note head styles.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “mensural notation” in Music Glossary, Section “note head” in
Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section B.9 [Note head styles], page 886.

17.3.5 Mensural flags

Use the style property of grob Flag to select ancient flags. Besides the default flag style, only
the mensural style is supported.
\relative c' {
\override Flag.style = #'mensural
\override Stem.thickness = 1.0
\override NoteHead.style = #'mensural
\autoBeamOff
c8 d e f c16 d e f c32 d e f s8
c'8 d e f c16 d e f c32 d e f
}

º l h l h m i m i jjjj

s s s s s s s s ssss
2
s s s s̀ s s s s s s s s
 \ ` \ ] a ] a ^ ^ ^ ^
Note that the innermost flare of each mensural flag is vertically aligned with a staff line.
There is no particular flag style for neo-mensural or Petrucci notation. There are no flags in
Gregorian chant notation.
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 528

See also
Music Glossary: Section “mensural notation” in Music Glossary, Section “flag” in Music
Glossary.

Known issues and warnings

Vertically aligning each flag with a staff line assumes that stems always end either exactly on or
exactly in the middle of two staff lines. This may not always be true when using advanced layout
features of classical notation (which however are typically out of scope for mensural notation).

17.3.6 Mensural rests

Use the style property of grob Rest to select ancient rests. Supported ancient styles are
neomensural, and mensural.
The following example demonstrates these styles:
\compressEmptyMeasures
\override Rest.style = #'mensural
r\longa^"mensural" r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 s \break
\override Rest.style = #'neomensural
r\longa^"neomensural" r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16

•
º ² ® š Ÿ £ ¦
mensural

 ³ ¯ – › ¤ §
9 neomensural

There are no 32nd and 64th rests specifically for the mensural or neo-mensural styles. Rests
from the default style are used.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “mensural notation” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 2.2.1 [Rests], page 66.
Snippets: Section “Ancient notation” in Snippets.

Known issues and warnings

The glyph for the maxima rest in mensural style is actually a perfect longa rest; use two (or
three) longa rests to print a maxima rest. Longa rests are not grouped automatically, so have
to be done manually by using pitched rests.

17.3.7 Mensural accidentals and key signatures

The mensural style provides a sharp and a flat sign different from the default style. Mensural
notation rarely used a natural sign: instead the appropriate sharp or flat is used. For example, a
B natural in the key of F major would be indicated with a sharp. However, if specifically called
for, the natural sign is taken from the vaticana style.

 
mensural

The way to use this style is covered in Section 1.3.6 [Alternate accidental glyphs], page 38.
It is the default in the MensuralStaff context.
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 529

See also
Music Glossary: Section “mensural notation” in Music Glossary, Section “Pitch names” in
Music Glossary, Section “accidental” in Music Glossary, Section “key signature” in Music
Glossary.
Notation Reference: Chapter 1 [Pitches], page 3, Section 1.1.3 [Accidentals], page 8,
Section 1.3.5 [Automatic accidentals], page 31, Section 1.3.6 [Alternate accidental glyphs],
page 38, Section B.10 [Accidental glyph sets], page 886, Section 1.3.2 [Key signature], page 23.
Internals Reference: Section “KeySignature” in Internals Reference.

17.3.8 Annotational accidentals (musica ficta )

In European music from before about 1600, singers were expected to chromatically alter notes
at their own initiative according to certain rules. This is called musica ficta. In modern tran-
scriptions, these accidentals are usually printed over the note.
Support for such suggested accidentals is included, and can be switched on by setting
suggestAccidentals to #t.
\relative {
fis' gis
\set suggestAccidentals = ##t
ais bis
}
 
 º h h h h
This will treat every subsequent accidental as musica ficta until it is unset with \set
suggestAccidentals = ##f. A more practical way is to use \once \set suggestAccidentals
= ##t, which can even be defined as a convenient shorthand:
ficta = { \once \set suggestAccidentals = ##t }
\score { \relative
\new MensuralVoice {
\once \set suggestAccidentals = ##t
bes'4 a2 g2 \ficta fis8 \ficta e! fis2 g1
}
}

 h $l
 ¿ s Y Y s s Y =
See also
Internals Reference: Section “Accidental engraver” in Internals Reference, Section
“AccidentalSuggestion” in Internals Reference.

17.3.9 White mensural ligatures

There is limited support for white mensural ligatures.
To engrave white mensural ligatures, replace the Ligature_bracket_engraver with the
Mensural_ligature_engraver in the Voice context’s layout block:
\layout {
\context {
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 530

\Voice
\remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
\consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
}
}
In the following, we use a PetrucciStaff context, which does this replacement, among other
settings, approximating the mensural typesetting of Ottaviano Petrucci’s Harmonices Musices
Odhecaton (Venice, 1501). The accompanying voice context is called PetrucciVoice.
There is no additional input language to describe the shape of a white mensural ligature;
instead, the shape is determined solely from the pitches and durations of the enclosed notes.
While this approach may take a new user a while to get accustomed to, it has the great advantage
that the full musical information of the ligature is known internally. This is not only required
for correct MIDI output, but also allows for automatic transcription of the ligatures.
At certain places two consecutive notes can be represented either as two squares or as an
oblique parallelogram (a flexa shape). In such cases the default is the two squares, but a flexa
can be required by setting the ligature-flexa property of the second note head. The width
of a flexa can be set by the note head property flexa-width.
For example,
\new PetrucciStaff \relative {
\[ c''\maxima g \]
\[ d'\longa
\tweak ligature-flexa ##t
\tweak flexa-width #3.2 c\breve f e d \]
\[ c\maxima d\longa \]
\[ e1 a, g\breve \]
}

ˆ Ÿ š
- ¿ Ÿ
Without replacing Ligature_bracket_engraver with Mensural_ligature_engraver, the same
music looks as follows:

! ˆ š ˆ ! C
-¿ + Þ š + C ˆ
There are also cases where a stem is not required to unambiguously encode the note length,
but is also not forbidden:
• an initial breve (with a lower pitch than the next note) may or may not have a downward
left stem;
• a maxima may or may not have a downward right stem;
• a final longa (with a lower pitch than the previous note) may or may not have a right stem.
Here is an example that demonstrates this tweaking.
\new PetrucciStaff \relative {
\clef "petrucci-c4"
\[ \tweak left-down-stem ##t a\breve b
\tweak right-down-stem ##t g\longa \]
\[ \tweak right-down-stem ##t b\maxima
\tweak right-up-stem ##t g\longa \]
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 531

' ¿ ˆš Ÿš
Without tweaking the same ligatures look as follows.
\new PetrucciStaff \relative {
\clef "petrucci-c4"
\[ a\breve b g\longa \]
\[ b\maxima g\longa \]
}

' ¿ ˆšš Ÿš
See also
Music Glossary: Section “ligature” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 17.4.7 [Gregorian square neume ligatures], page 535, Sec-
tion 17.2.2 [Ligatures], page 522.

Known issues and warnings

Horizontal spacing of ligatures may be poor.
Accidentals may collide with previous notes.

17.4 Typesetting Gregorian chant

When typesetting a piece in Gregorian chant notation, the Vaticana_ligature_engraver auto-
matically selects the proper note heads, so there is no need to explicitly set the note head style.
Still, the note head style can be set, e.g., to vaticana.punctum to produce punctum neumes.
Similarly, the Mensural_ligature_engraver automatically assembles mensural ligatures.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “ligature” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 17.3.9 [White mensural ligatures], page 529, Section 17.2.2
[Ligatures], page 522.

17.4.1 Gregorian chant contexts

The predefined contexts VaticanaScore, VaticanaVoice, VaticanaStaff, and
VaticanaLyrics can be used to engrave a piece of Gregorian chant in the style of the Editio
Vaticana. These contexts initialize all relevant context and grob properties to proper values;
you can immediately go ahead entering the chant, as the following excerpt demonstrates.
\new VaticanaScore {
<<
\new VaticanaVoice = "cantus" {
\[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \]
\[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \]
f \divisioMinima
\[ f\melisma \pes a c' c' \pes d'\melismaEnd \]
c' \divisioMinima \break
\[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \]
\[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \] f \divisioMinima
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 532

}
\new VaticanaLyrics \lyricsto "cantus" {
San -- ctus, San -- ctus, San -- ctus
}
>>
}

\layout {
indent = 0
ragged-last = ##t
}

7 ° °° ¨´ ° µ°·¹ ° N
®
San ctus, San ctus,

7 ° °° ¨´ °
San ctus

17.4.2 Gregorian clefs

The following table shows all Gregorian clefs that are supported via the \clef command. Some
of the clefs use the same glyph, but differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In
such cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs, numbered from the
lowest to the highest line. Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an arbitrary
line, as described in Section 1.3.1 [Clef], page 19. The note printed to the right side of each clef
in the example column denotes the c' with respect to that clef.
Description Supported Clefs Example

Editio Vaticana style do clef vaticana-do1, vaticana-do2,

7 °
9 °
vaticana-do3

Editio Vaticana style fa clef vaticana-fa1, vaticana-fa2

Editio Medicaea style do clef medicaea-do1, medicaea-do2,

 –
 –
medicaea-do3

Editio Medicaea style fa clef medicaea-fa1, medicaea-fa2

Hufnagel style do clef hufnagel-do1, hufnagel-do2,

“
 “
hufnagel-do3

Hufnagel style fa clef hufnagel-fa1, hufnagel-fa2

“
Hufnagel style combined do/fa clef hufnagel-do-fa

See also
Music Glossary: Section “clef” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 1.3.1 [Clef], page 19.
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 533

17.4.3 Gregorian accidentals and key signatures

Accidentals for the three different Gregorian styles are available:

% $ 
vaticana medicaea hufnagel

As shown, not all accidentals are supported by each style. When trying to access an unsup-
ported accidental, LilyPond will switch to a different style.
How to switch between styles is covered in Section 1.3.6 [Alternate accidental glyphs], page 38.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “accidental” in Music Glossary, Section “key signature” in Music
Glossary.
Notation Reference: Chapter 1 [Pitches], page 3, Section 1.1.3 [Accidentals], page 8,
Section 1.3.5 [Automatic accidentals], page 31, Section 1.3.6 [Alternate accidental glyphs],
page 38, Section 1.3.2 [Key signature], page 23.
Internals Reference: Section “KeySignature” in Internals Reference.

17.4.4 Divisiones
There are no rests in Gregorian chant notation; instead, it uses Section 17.4.4 [Divisiones],
page 533.
A divisio (plural: divisiones; Latin word for ‘division’) is a staff-context symbol indicating
the phrase and section structure of Gregorian music. The musical meaning of divisio minima,
divisio maior, and divisio maxima can be characterized as short, medium, and long pause. The
finalis sign not only marks the end of a chant, but is also frequently used within a single
antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
Some editions use virgula or caesura instead of divisio minima; the predefined staff contexts
for Gregorian chant configure \caesura to produce an ancient caesura mark.

divisio minima divisio maior divisio maxima

7 °°° °°° °°° M
finalis virgula caesura
7 °°° i k
°°° °°° °°°
Predefined commands
\virgula, \caesura, \divisioMinima, \divisioMaior, \divisioMaxima, \finalis.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “caesura” in Music Glossary, Section “divisio” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 3.2.3 [Breath marks], page 169.

17.4.5 Gregorian articulation signs

In addition to the standard articulation signs described in section Section 3.1.1 [Articulations
and ornamentations], page 149, articulation signs specifically designed for use with notation in
Editio Vaticana style are provided.
\new VaticanaScore {
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 534

\new VaticanaVoice {
\override Script.padding = -0.1
a\ictus_"ictus " \break
a\circulus_"circulus " \break
a\semicirculus_"semicirculus " \break
a\accentus_"accentus " \break
\[ a_"episema" \episemInitium \pes b
\flexa a b \episemFinis \flexa a \]
}
}

\layout {
indent = 0
ragged-last = ##t
}
7 °\ N
ictus
7 °B N
circulus
7 °P N
semicirculus
7 °x N
accentus
7 °°° °°
episema
See also
Notation Reference: Section 3.1.1 [Articulations and ornamentations], page 149.
Snippets: Section “Ancient notation” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Episema” in Internals Reference, Section “EpisemaEvent” in
Internals Reference, Section “Episema engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “Script” in
Internals Reference, Section “ScriptEvent” in Internals Reference, Section “Script engraver”
in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Some articulations are vertically placed too closely to the corresponding note heads.

17.4.6 Augmentum dots (morae )

Augmentum dots, also called morae, are added with the music function \augmentum. Note that
\augmentum is implemented as a unary music function rather than as head prefix. It applies
to the immediately following music expression only. That is, \augmentum \virga c will have
no visible effect. Instead, say \virga \augmentum c or \augmentum {\virga c}. Also note that
you can say \augmentum {a g} as a shortcut for \augmentum a \augmentum g.
\new VaticanaScore {
\new VaticanaVoice {
\[ \augmentum a \flexa \augmentum g \]
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 535

\augmentum g
}
}

7 °° RR °R
See also
Notation Reference: Section 3.2.3 [Breath marks], page 169.
Internals Reference: Section “Divisio” in Internals Reference.
Snippets: Section “Ancient notation” in Snippets.

17.4.7 Gregorian square neume ligatures

There is limited support for Gregorian square neumes notation (following the style of the Editio
Vaticana). Core ligatures can already be typeset, but essential issues for serious typesetting are
still lacking, such as (among others) horizontal alignment of multiple ligatures, lyrics alignment,
and proper handling of accidentals.
Note heads can be modified and/or joined.
• The shape of the note head can be modified by prefixing the note name with any of the fol-
lowing commands: \virga, \stropha, \inclinatum, \auctum, \descendens, \ascendens,
\oriscus, \quilisma, \deminutum, \cavum, \linea.
• Ligatures, properly speaking (i.e., notes joined together), are produced by placing one of
the joining commands \pes or \flexa, for upwards and downwards movement, respectively,
between the notes to be joined.

A note name without any qualifiers will produce a punctum. All other neumes, including
the single-note neumes with a different shape such as the virga, are in principle considered as
ligatures and should therefore be placed between \[...\].

Single-note neumes
• The punctum is the basic note shape (in the Vaticana style: a square with some curvation
for typographical finesse). In addition to the regular punctum, there is also the oblique
punctum inclinatum, produced with the prefix \inclinatum. The regular punctum can be
modified with \cavum, which produces a hollow note, and \linea, which draws vertical
lines on either side of the note.
• The virga has a descending stem on the right side. It is produced by the modifier \virga.

Ligatures
Unlike most other neumes notation systems, the typographical appearance of ligatures is not
directly dictated by the input commands, but follows certain conventions dependent on musical
meaning. For example, a three-note ligature with the musical shape low-high-low, such as \[ a
\pes b \flexa g \], produces a Torculus consisting of three Punctum heads, while the shape
high-low-high, such as \[ a \flexa g \pes b \], produces a Porrectus with a curved flexa shape
and only a single Punctum head. There is no command to explicitly typeset the curved flexa
shape; the decision of when to typeset a curved flexa shape is based on the musical input. The
idea of this approach is to separate the musical aspects of the input from the notation style of
the output. This way, the same input can be reused to typeset the same music in a different
style of Gregorian chant notation.
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 536

Liquescent neumes
Another main category of notes in Gregorian chant is the so-called liquescent neumes. They
are used under certain circumstances at the end of a syllable which ends in a ‘liquescent’ letter,
i.e., the sounding consonants that can hold a tone (the nasals, l, r, v, j, and their diphthong
equivalents). Thus, the liquescent neumes are never used alone (although some of them can be
produced), and they always fall at the end of a ligature.
Liquescent neumes are represented graphically in two different, more or less interchangeable
ways: with a smaller note or by ‘twisting’ the main note upwards or downwards. The first is
produced by making a regular pes or flexa and modifying the shape of the second note: \[ a
\pes \deminutum b \] , the second by modifying the shape of a single-note neume with \auctum
and one of the direction markers \descendens or \ascendens, e.g., \[ \auctum \descendens
a \] .

Special signs
A third category of signs is made up of a small number of signs with a special meaning (which,
incidentally, in most cases is only vaguely known): the quilisma, the oriscus, and the strophicus.
These are all produced by prefixing a note name with the corresponding modifier, \quilisma,
\oriscus, or \stropha.
Virtually, within the ligature delimiters \[ and \], any number of heads may be accumulated
to form a single ligature, and head prefixes like \pes, \flexa, \virga, \inclinatum, etc., may
be mixed in as desired. The use of the set of rules that underlies the construction of the ligatures
in the above table is accordingly extrapolated. This way, infinitely many different ligatures can
be created.
Note that the use of these signs in the music itself follows certain rules, which are not checked
by LilyPond. E.g., the quilisma is always the middle note of an ascending ligature, and usually
falls on a half-tone step, but it is perfectly possible, although incorrect, to make a single-note
quilisma.
In addition to the note signs, LilyPond also defines the commands \versus, \responsum,
\ij, \iij, \IJ, and \IIJ, that will produce the corresponding characters, e.g., for use in lyrics,
as section markers, etc. These commands use special Unicode characters and will only work if
a font is used which supports them.
The following table shows a limited, but still representative pool of Gregorian ligatures,
together with the code fragments that produce the ligatures. The table is based on the extended
neumes table of the 2nd volume of the Antiphonale Romanum (Liber Hymnarius), published
1983 by the monks of Solesmes. The first column gives the name of the ligature, with the main
form in boldface and the liquescent forms in italics. The third column shows the code fragment
that produces this ligature, using g, a, and b as example pitches.

Single-note neumes
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 537

Basic and Liquescent forms Output LilyPond code

Punctum
° \[ b \]

± \[ \cavum b \]

¬ \[ \linea b \]

Punctum Auctum Ascendens

¡ \[ \auctum \ascendens b \]

Punctum Auctum Descendens

¢ \[ \auctum \descendens b \]

Punctum inclinatum
ª \[ \inclinatum b \]

Punctum Inclinatum Auctum

£ \[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]

Punctum Inclinatum Parvum

¤ \[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]

Virga
° \[ \virga b' \]

Two-note ligatures
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 538

Clivis vel Flexa

°° \[ b \flexa g \]

Clivis Aucta Descendens

°¢ \[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]

Clivis Aucta Ascendens

°¡ \[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]

Cephalicus
¨³ \[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]

Podatus/Pes
µ® \[ g \pes b \]

Pes Auctus Descendens °¢ \[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]

Pes Auctus Ascendens °¡ \[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]

Epiphonus ©¯ \[ g \pes \deminutum b \]

Pes Initio Debilis ³° \[ \deminutum g \pes b \]

Pes Auctus Descendens ³¢ \[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum

Initio Debilis \descendens b \]

Multi-note ligatures
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 539

Torculus °°° \[ a \pes b \flexa g \]

Torculus Auctus Descendens °°¢ \[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum

\descendens g \]

Torculus Deminutus °«³ \[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]

Torculus Initio Debilis ³°° \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]

Torculus Auctus Descendens ³°¢ \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum

Initio Debilis \descendens g \]

Torculus Deminutus ³«³ \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa

Initio Debilis \deminutum g \]

Porrectus
µ \[ a \flexa g \pes b \]

Porrectus Auctus Descendens

¢ \[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum
\descendens b \]

Porrectus Deminutus
¯ \[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]

Climacus
° ªª \[ \virga b \inclinatum a
\inclinatum g \]

Climacus Auctus
° ª£ \[ \virga b \inclinatum a
\inclinatum \auctum g \]

Climacus Deminutus
° ª¤ \[ \virga b \inclinatum a
\inclinatum \deminutum g \]

Scandicus ·¹° \[ g \pes a \virga b \]

Scandicus Auctus Descendens °°¢ \[ g \pes a \pes

\auctum \descendens b \]
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 540

Scandicus Deminutus °¶¸ \[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]

Special signs

Quilisma °¹² \[ g \pes \quilisma a \pes b \]

Quilisma Pes Auctus Descen- °²¢ \[ g \quilisma a \pes \auctum

dens \descendens b \]

Oriscus
¥ \[ \oriscus b \]

Pes Quassus ¥° \[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]

Pes Quassus Auctus Descen- ¥¢ \[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum

dens \descendens b \]

Salicus °¥° \[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]

Salicus Auctus Descendens °¥¢ \[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum

\descendens b \]

(Apo)stropha
¦ \[ \stropha b \]

Stropha Aucta
§ \[ \stropha \auctum b \]

Bistropha
¦¦ \[ \stropha b \stropha b \]

Tristropha
¦¦¦ \[ \stropha b \stropha b
\stropha b \]

Trigonus
¦ ¦¦ \[ \stropha b \stropha b
\stropha a \]

Predefined commands
The following head prefixes are supported: \virga, \stropha, \inclinatum, \auctum,
\descendens, \ascendens, \oriscus, \quilisma, \deminutum, \cavum, \linea.
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 541

Head prefixes can be accumulated, though restrictions apply. For example, either
\descendens or \ascendens can be applied to a head, but not both to the same head.
Two adjacent heads can be tied together with the \pes and \flexa infix commands for a
rising and falling line of melody, respectively.
Use the unary music function \augmentum to add augmentum dots.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “ligature” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 17.4.7 [Gregorian square neume ligatures], page 535, Sec-
tion 17.3.9 [White mensural ligatures], page 529, Section 17.2.2 [Ligatures], page 522.

Known issues and warnings

When an \augmentum dot appears at the end of the last staff within a ligature, it is sometimes
vertically placed wrong. As a workaround, add an additional skip note (e.g., s8) as last note of
the staff.
\augmentum should be implemented as a head prefix rather than a unary music function,
such that \augmentum can be intermixed with head prefixes in arbitrary order.

17.5 Typesetting Kievan square notation

17.5.1 Kievan contexts
As with Mensural and Gregorian notation, the predefined KievanVoice and KievanStaff con-
texts can be used to engrave a piece in square notation. These contexts initialize all relevant
context properties and grob properties to proper values, so you can immediately go ahead enter-
ing the chant:
% Font settings for Cyrillic
\paper {
property-defaults.fonts.serif = "Linux Libertine O,serif"
}

\score {
<<
\new KievanVoice = "melody" \relative c' {
c4 c c c c2 b\longa \fine
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
Ãî -- ñïî -- äè ïî -- ìè -- ëóé.
}
>>
}

     T Π?
Го спо ди по ми луй.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “Kievan notation” in Music Glossary.
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 542

Known issues and warnings

LilyPond supports Kievan notation of the Synodal style, as used in the corpus of chant books
printed by the Russian Holy Synod in the 1910’s and recently reprinted by the Moscow Patri-
archate Publishing House. LilyPond does not support the older (less common) forms of Kievan
notation that were used in Galicia to notate Rusyn plainchant.

17.5.2 Kievan clefs

There is only one clef used in Kievan notation (the Tse-fa-ut Clef). It is used to indicate the
position of c:
\clef "kievan-do"
\kievanOn
c'

 
See also
Music Glossary: Section “Kievan notation” in Music Glossary, Section “clef” in Music Glos-
sary.
Notation Reference: Section 1.3.1 [Clef], page 19.

17.5.3 Kievan notes

For Kievan square notation, the appropriate note head style needs to be chosen and the flags
and stems need to be turned off. This is accomplished by calling the \kievanOn function, which
sets the appropriate properties of the note head, stems, and flags. Once Kievan note heads are
not needed, these properties can be reverted by calling the \kievanOff function.
The Kievan final note, which usually comes at the end of a piece of music, may be selected
by setting the duration to \longa. The Kievan recitative mark, used to indicate the chanting of
several syllables on one note, may be selected by setting the duration to \breve. The following
example demonstrates the various Kievan note heads:
\cadenzaOn
\kievanOn
b'1 b'2 b'4 b'8 b'\breve b'\longa
\kievanOff
b'2

º 8 T  ‡ Œ N
See also
Music Glossary: Section “Kievan notation” in Music Glossary, Section “note head” in Music
Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section B.9 [Note head styles], page 886.

Known issues and warnings

LilyPond automatically determines if the stem up or stem down form of a note is drawn. When
setting chant in square notation, however, it is customary to have the stems point in the same
direction within a single melisma. This can be done manually by setting the direction property
of the Stem object.
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 543

17.5.4 Kievan accidentals

The kievan style provides a sharp and a flat sign different from the default style. There is no
natural sign in Kievan notation. The sharp sign is not used in Synodal music but may occur in
earlier manuscripts. It has been included primarily for the sake of compatibility.
\clef "kievan-do"
\set Staff.alterationGlyphs =
#alteration-kievan-glyph-name-alist
bes' dis'

h
 h
See also
Music Glossary: Section “Kievan notation” in Music Glossary, Section “accidental” in Music
Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 1.1.3 [Accidentals], page 8, Section 1.3.5 [Automatic acciden-
tals], page 31, Section 1.3.6 [Alternate accidental glyphs], page 38, Section B.8 [The Emmen-
taler font], page 871.

17.5.5 Kievan bar lines

In a KievanStaff, there are no measures, but the \caesura command creates a phrase bar line,
and the \section and \fine commands create a special section bar line.
\new KievanStaff {
c'4 4 4 4 4 4 \caesura % \bar "."
d'4 4 4 4 4 4 \section % \bar "k"
e'4 4 4 4 4 4 \fine
}

             ?      ?
See also
Notation Reference: Section 2.5 [Bars], page 115, Section B.8 [The Emmentaler font],
page 871.

17.5.6 Kievan melismata

Notes within a Kievan melisma are usually placed close to each other and the melismata sepa-
rated by whitespace. This is done to allow the chanter to quickly identify the melodic structures
of Znamenny chant. In LilyPond, melismata are treated as ligatures and the spacing is imple-
mented by the Kievan_ligature_engraver.
When the KievanVoice and KievanStaff contexts are used, the Kievan_ligature_
engraver is enabled by default. In other contexts, it can be invoked by replacing the
Ligature_bracket_engraver with the Kievan_ligature_engraver in the layout block:
\layout {
\context {
\Voice
\remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
\consists Kievan_ligature_engraver
}
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 544

}
The spacing between the notes within a Kievan ligature can be controlled by setting the
padding property of the KievanLigature.
The following example demonstrates the use of Kievan ligatures:
% Font settings for Cyrillic
\paper {
property-defaults.fonts.serif = "Linux Libertine O,serif"
}

\score {
<<
\new KievanVoice = "melody" \relative c' {
e2 \[ e4( d4 ) \] \[ c4( d e d) \] e1 \fine
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
Ãà -- âði -- è -- ëó
}
>>
}

 T   8 ?
Га врі и лу
See also
Music Glossary: Section “ligature” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 17.3.9 [White mensural ligatures], page 529, Section 17.4.7
[Gregorian square neume ligatures], page 535, Section 17.2.2 [Ligatures], page 522.

Known issues and warnings

Horizontal spacing of ligatures is poor.

17.6 Working with ancient music – scenarios and solutions

Working with ancient music frequently involves particular tasks which differ considerably from
the modern notation for which LilyPond is designed. In the rest of this section, a number of
typical scenarios are outlined, with suggestions of solutions. These involve:
• how to make incipits (i.e., prefatory material to indicate what the original has looked like)
to modern transcriptions of mensural music;
• how to achieve the Mensurstriche layout frequently used for modern transcriptions of poly-
phonic music;
• how to transcribe Gregorian chant in modern notation;
• how to generate both ancient and modern notation from the same source.

17.6.1 Incipits
It is customary when transcribing mensural music into modern notation to place an indication
of how the initial rests and note or notes of the original version appeared – including the original
clefs. This is called an incipit. The \incipit command uses the indent of the main staff to set
the width occupied by the incipit, and incipit-width to set the width of the incipit staff.
\score {
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 545

\new Staff <<

\new Voice = Tenor {
\set Staff.instrumentName = "Tenor"
\override Staff.InstrumentName.self-alignment-X = #RIGHT
\incipit { \clef "mensural-c4" \key f \major r\breve r1 c'1 }
\clef "treble_8"
\key f \major
R1 r2 c'2 |
a4. c'8
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto Tenor { Cyn -- thia your }
>>
\layout
{
indent = 5\cm
incipit-width = 3\cm
}
}

¿ ® • = º ” ˜ N hP h
T
Tenor
8
Cyn thia your
By default, LilyPond uses a ‘MensuralStaff’ context for typesetting an incipit. Other
contexts can be used by directly writing \incipit \new contexttype ...; in this case a
‘MensuralStaff’ wrapper is only used when it can contain the specified context.

Known issues and warnings

Note that instrumentName must be set in the music for the incipit to be produced. If no
instrument name is required then use \set Staff.instrumentName = "".

17.6.2 Mensurstriche layout

Mensurstriche (‘mensuration lines’) is the accepted term for bar lines that are drawn between
the staves of a system but not through the staves themselves. It is a common way to preserve
the rhythmic appearance of the original, i.e., not having to break syncopated notes at bar lines,
while still providing the orientation aids that bar lines give.
Mensurstriche, bar lines between but not through staves, can be printed by setting
measureBarType to "-span|" and using a grouping context that allows span bars, such as
StaffGroup.
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
measureBarType = "-span|"
}
}

music = \fixed c'' {

c1
d2 \section e2
f1 \fine
}
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 546

\new StaffGroup <<

\new Staff \music
\new Staff \music
>>

7 N N .
º .
N N .
º .
6
17.6.3 Transcribing Gregorian chant
Gregorian chant can be transcribed into modern notation with a number of simple tweaks.
Stems. The GregorianTranscriptionVoice context does not create stems. You can extend
this behavior to other contexts by removing Stem_engraver:
\layout {
...
\context {
\Voice
\remove Stem_engraver
}
}
Timing. For unmetered chant, there are several alternatives.
The Time signature engraver can be removed from the Staff context without any negative
side effects. The alternative, to make it transparent, will leave an empty space in the score, since
the invisible signature will still take up space.
In many cases, \set Score.timing = ##f will give good results. An alternative is to use
\cadenzaOn and \cadenzaOff.
The predefined staff contexts for ancient music do not create measure bar lines. You can
extend this behavior to all other contexts with \set Score.measureBarType = #'() or to par-
ticular staves with \set Staff.measureBarType = #'().
The predefined staff contexts for ancient music allow line breaks without bar lines. You can
extend this behavior to all other contexts with \set Score.forbidBreakBetweenBarLines =
##f or to particular staves with \set Staff.forbidBreakBetweenBarLines = ##f.
A common type of transcription is recitativic chant where the repeated notes are indicated
with a single breve. The text to the recitation tone can be dealt with in two different ways:
either set as a single, left-aligned syllable:
chant = \relative {
\clef "G_8"
c'\breve c4 b4 a c2 c4 \divisioMaior
c\breve c4 c f, f \finalis
}

words = \lyricmode {
\tweak self-alignment-X #LEFT "Noctem quietam et"
fi -- nem per -- fec -- tum
\tweak self-alignment-X #LEFT "concedat nobis Dominus"
om -- ni -- po -- tens.
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 547

\score {
\new GregorianTranscriptionStaff <<
\new GregorianTranscriptionVoice = "melody" {
\chant
}
\new GregorianTranscriptionLyrics = "one" {
\lyricsto "melody" \words
}
>>
}

 „ h h h N h „
8
Noctem quietam et fi nem per fec tum concedat nobis Dominus

 h hh h
8
om ni po tens.
This works fine, as long as the text doesn’t span a line break. If that is the case, an alternative
is to add hidden notes to the score, as below.
In some transcription styles, stems are used occasionally, for example to indicate the tran-
sition from a single-tone recitative to a fixed melodic gesture. In these cases, one can use the
Stem_engraver and manually \omit Stem and \undo \omit Stem.
chant = \relative {
\clef "G_8"
\omit Stem
\omit Flag
c'\breve*1/16 \hide NoteHead c8 c c c c
\undo \hide NoteHead
\undo \omit Stem \stemUp c4 b4 a
\omit Stem c2 c4 \divisioMaior
c\breve*1/16 \hide NoteHead c8 c c c c c c
\undo \hide NoteHead c4 c f, f \finalis
}

verba = \lyricmode {
No -- ctem qui -- e -- tam et fi -- nem per -- fec -- tum
con -- ce -- dat no -- bis Do -- mi -- nus om -- ni -- po -- tens.
}

\score {
\new GregorianTranscriptionStaff <<
\new GregorianTranscriptionVoice = "melody" {
\chant
}
\new GregorianTranscriptionLyrics = "one" {
\lyricsto "melody" \verba
}
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 548

>>
\layout {
\context {
\GregorianTranscriptionVoice
\consists Stem_engraver
}
}
}

 „ h h h N h „
8
No ctem qui e tam et fi nem per fec tum con ce dat no bis

 h h h h
8
Do mi nus om ni po tens.
Another common situation is transcription of neumatic or melismatic chants, i.e., chants
with a varying number of notes to each syllable. In this case, one would want to set the syllable
groups clearly apart, usually also the subdivisions of a longer melisma. One way to achieve this
is to use a fixed \time, e.g., 1/4, and let each syllable or note group fill one of these measures,
with the help of tuplets or shorter durations. If the bar lines and all other rhythmical indications
are made transparent, and the space around the bar lines is increased, this will give a fairly good
representation in modern notation of the original.
To avoid that syllables of different width (such as “-ri” and “-rum”) spread the syllable note
groups unevenly apart, the X-extent property of the LyricText object may be set to a fixed
value. Another, more cumbersome way would be to add the syllables as \markup elements. If
further adjustments are necessary, this can be easily done with s ‘notes’.
spiritus = \relative {
\time 1/4
d'4 \tuplet 3/2 { f8 a g } g a a4 g f8 e
d4 f8 g g8 d f g a g f4 g8 a a4 s
\tuplet 3/2 { g8 f d } e f g a g4
}

spirLyr = \lyricmode {
\override Lyrics.LyricText.X-extent = #'(0 . 3)
Spi -- ri -- _ _ tus _ Do -- mi -- ni _
re -- ple -- _ vit _ or -- _ bem _ ter -- ra -- _ rum,
al -- _ _ le -- _ lu -- _ ia.
}
\score {
\new GregorianTranscriptionStaff <<
\new GregorianTranscriptionVoice = "chant" {
\spiritus
}
\new GregorianTranscriptionLyrics = "one" {
\lyricsto "chant" \spirLyr
}
>>
\layout {
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 549

\context {
\GregorianTranscriptionStaff
measureBarType = ""
\override BarLine.X-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
\hide TupletNumber
\hide TupletBracket
}
}
}

 h hhh hh h h hh h hh hh h
Spi ri tus Do mi ni re ple vit or

 h hh h hh h hhh hh hh h
bem ter ra rum, al le lu ia.
17.6.4 Ancient and modern from one source
Using tags to produce mensural and modern music from the same
source
Using tags, it is possible to produce both mensural and modern notation from the same music.
In this snippet, a function \menrest is introduced, allowing mensural rests to be pitched as in
the original, but with modern rests in the standard staff position.
Tags can also be used where other differences are needed: for example using “whole mea-
sure rests” (R1, R\breve, etc.) in modern music, but normal rests (r1, r\breve, etc.) in the
mensural version. Converting mensural music to its modern equivalent is usually referred to as
transcription.
The call c4.\Be c8 c\Am is the same as c4.[ c8 c]. However, it suppresses warnings
if it starts on a note that can’t hold a beam but needs it anyway due to the use of
Completion_heads_engraver.
[The slightly shortened line length of the mensural staff avoids cropping of the custos glyph
while LilyPond generates clipped images.]
menrest = #(define-music-function (note) (ly:music?)
#{
\tag #'mens $(make-music 'RestEvent note)
\tag #'mod $(make-music 'RestEvent note 'pitch '())
#})
Be = \tag #'mod
#(begin
(ly:expect-warning (G_ "stem does not fit in beam"))
(ly:expect-warning (G_ "beam was started here"))
(make-span-event 'BeamEvent START))
Am = \tag #'mod ]

MenStyle = {
\override Score.BarNumber.transparent = ##t
\override Stem.neutral-direction = #up
\omit Slur
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 550

\omit Beam
}

finalis = \section

Music = \relative c'' {

\key f \major
g1 d'2 \menrest bes4 bes a2 \menrest r4 g4 fis4.
fis8 fis4 fis g e f4.([ g8] a4[ g8 f]
g2.\Be fis8 e\Am fis2) g\breve \finalis
}

MenLyr = \lyricmode {
So farre, deere life, deare life,
from thy bright beames ab- en- ted,
}
ModLyr = \lyricmode {
So far, dear life, dear life,
from your bright beams ab -- sen -- ted, __
}

\score {
\keepWithTag #'mens {
<<
\new PetrucciStaff {
\new PetrucciVoice = "Cantus" {
\clef "petrucci-c1" \time 4/4 \MenStyle \Music
}
}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "Cantus" \MenLyr
>>
}
\layout {
line-width = 155\mm

\context {
\PetrucciVoice
% No longer necessary starting with version 2.25.23.
\override Flag.style = #'mensural
}
}
}

\score {
\keepWithTag #'mod {
\new ChoirStaff <<
\new Staff {
\new Voice = "Sop" \with {
\remove "Note_heads_engraver"
\consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
\remove "Rest_engraver"
\consists "Completion_rest_engraver"
Chapter 17: Ancient notation 551

} \shiftDurations 1 0 { \time 2/4 \autoBeamOff \Music }

}
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "Sop" \ModLyr
>>
}
\layout {
line-width = 157\mm
}
}

\paper {
ragged-last = ##t
}

\header { tagline = ##f }

h
¿ C _ Ÿ z _ Ÿ z  z P zl z z z z zP G
z
!
So farre, deere life, deare life, from thy bright beames ab- ſen-

 z zh zl _ P  zl zh _ ˆ
!
ted,

h ¢ h h ¢ h †
  42 N hP h h h h h hP h
T
So far, dear life, dear life, from your bright beams ab sen

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6

h h h h N N
ted,
 552

18 World music
The purpose of this section is to highlight musical notation issues that are relevant to traditions
outside the Western tradition.

18.1 Common notation for non-Western music

This section discusses how to enter and print music scores that do not belong to the Western
classical tradition, also referred to as Common Practice Period.

18.1.1 Extending notation and tuning systems

Standard classical notation (also known as Common Practice Period notation) is commonly
used in all sorts of music, not limited to ‘classical’ Western music. This notation is discussed in
Section 1.1 [Writing pitches], page 3, and the various note names that may be used are explained
in Section 1.1.4 [Note names in other languages], page 10.
Some types of non-Western music and folk/traditional music often employ alternative or
extended tuning systems that do not fit easily into standard, classical notation.
Standard notation is still used but with pitch differences being implicit. For example, Arabic
music is notated with semi and quarter tone accidentals but with precise pitch alterations being
determined by context. In the case of Arabic music, the init file arabic.ly provides a suitable
set of macros and definitions that extend the standard notation using Italian note names. For
more details see Section 18.2 [Arabic music], page 552.
Other types of music require extended or unique notations, for example, Turkish classical
music (also known as Ottoman classical music) employs melodic forms known as makamlar
where intervals are based on 1/9 divisions of the whole tone. Standard, Western staff notes
are still used, but with special accidentals uniquely defined in the files turkish-makam.ly. For
more information on Turkish classical music and makamlar see Section 18.3 [Turkish classical
music], page 558.
Other, related init files are also available; hel-arabic.ly and makam.ly.
To locate these init files on your system, see Section “Other sources of information” in
Learning Manual.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “Common Practice Period” in Music Glossary, Section “makamlar”
in Music Glossary.
Learning Manual: Section “Other sources of information” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 1.1 [Writing pitches], page 3, Section 1.1.4 [Note names in
other languages], page 10, Section 18.2 [Arabic music], page 552, Section 18.3 [Turkish classi-
cal music], page 558, Section 18.4 [Persian classical music], page 560.

18.2 Arabic music

This section highlights issues that are relevant to notating Arabic music.

18.2.1 References for Arabic music

Arabic music so far has been mainly an oral tradition. When music is transcribed, it is usually
in a sketch format, on which performers are expected to improvise significantly. Increasingly,
Western notation, with a few variations, is adopted in order to communicate and preserve Arabic
music.
Some elements of Western musical notation such as the transcription of chords or independent
parts, are not required to typeset the more traditional Arabic pieces. There are however some
Chapter 18: World music 553

different issues, such as the need to indicate medium intervals that are somewhere between a
semi-tone and a tone, in addition to the minor and major intervals that are used in Western
music. There is also the need to group and indicate a large number of different maqams (modes)
that are part of Arabic music.
In general, Arabic music notation does not attempt to precisely indicate microtonal elements
that are present in musical practice.
Several issues that are relevant to Arabic music are covered elsewhere:
• Note names and accidentals (including quarter tones) can be tailored as discussed in Sec-
tion 18.1 [Common notation for non-Western music], page 552.
• Additional key signatures can also be tailored as described in Section 1.3.2 [Key signature],
page 23.
• Complex time signatures may require that notes be grouped manually as described in Sec-
tion 2.4.3 [Manual beams], page 110.
• Takasim which are rhythmically free improvisations may be written down omitting bar lines
as described in Section 2.3.4 [Unmetered music], page 88.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 18.1 [Common notation for non-Western music], page 552, Sec-
tion 1.3.2 [Key signature], page 23, Section 2.4.3 [Manual beams], page 110.
Snippets: Section “World music” in Snippets.

18.2.2 Arabic note names

Traditional Arabic note names (like ‘rast’, ‘dukah’, ‘sikah’, etc.) can be quite long and so may
not always be suitable for the purpose of music writing.
Include the file arabic.ly to write Arabic sheet music. The following example demonstrates
how to write a ‘rast’ scale:
\include "arabic.ly"
\relative {
\key do \rast
do' re misb fa | sol la sisb do | sib la sol fa | misb re do
}


 º h h h h h h h h h h h h h
h h
The file arabic.ly sets the note language to Italian (or Solfege), since that is the modern
standard in Arabic music and is widely adopted among Arabic musicians. If you prefer to write
sheet music in another language, simply change the language to your preferred language directly
after including the file arabic.ly. This is a ‘rast’ scale with English note names:
\include "arabic.ly"
\language "english"
\relative {
\key c \rast
c' d eqf f | g a bqf c | bf a g f | eqf d c
}

 h h h h h h h h
 º h h h
h h h h
Chapter 18: World music 554

“Rast” is a heptatonic scale that uses quarter tone intervals and is considered the most important
and central scale of the “Arabic Maqamat”. For the full list of supported Arabic scales, see
Section 18.2.3 [Arabic key signatures], page 554.
The use of standard Western notation to notate non-Western music is discussed in Sec-
tion 18.1 [Common notation for non-Western music], page 552. Also see Section 1.1.4 [Note
names in other languages], page 10.
The symbol for semi-flat does not match the symbol which is used in Arabic notation. The
\dwn symbol defined in arabic.ly may be used preceding a flat symbol as a work around if it is
important to use the specific Arabic semi-flat symbol. The appearance of the semi-flat symbol
in the key signature cannot be altered by using this method.
\include "arabic.ly"
\relative {
\set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
dod' dob dosd \dwn dob dobsb dodsd do do
}

º Œ
 h  h  h h  h h  h h
See also
Notation Reference: Section 1.1.4 [Note names in other languages], page 10, Section 18.1
[Common notation for non-Western music], page 552, Section 22.1 [Including LilyPond files],
page 603.
Installed Files: ly/arabic.ly
Snippets: Section “World music” in Snippets.

18.2.3 Arabic key signatures

In addition to the minor and major key signatures, LilyPond provides the most common Arabic
key signatures in the file arabic.ly. With that being said LilyPond is not aiming at providing
a full suite of all possible maqams. It rather defines the most common ones that are frequently
used and offers key signatures by grouping maqams together. In general, a maqam uses the key
signature of its family, or a neighboring family, and varying accidentals are marked throughout
the music. When forming key signatures neighboring maqam families are grouped together. For
example, maqam saba seldom occurs outside of the context of maqam bayati and adds only a
single alteration. Although both maqams come from different maqam families they are inside
the same key signature group. Arabic maqams only allow for limited modulations, due to the
nature of Arabic musical instruments.
Here is an example of the key signature for a “maqam muhayer” piece of music:
\key re \bayati
Here re is the default pitch of the muhayer maqam, and bayati is the name of the base maqam
in the group.
While the key signature indicates the group, it is common for the title to indicate the more
specific maqam, so in this example, the name of “maqam muhayer” should also appear in the
title.
Other maqams in the same bayati group, as shown in the table below (e.g., bayati, hussaini,
saba, and ushaq) can be indicated in the same way. These are all variations of the base and
most common maqam in the group, which is bayati. They usually differ from the base maqam
in their upper tetrachords, or certain flow details that do not change their fundamental nature,
as siblings.
Chapter 18: World music 555

The other maqam in the same group (nawa) is related to bayati by modulation and is shown
in the table in parentheses for those that are modulations of their base maqam. Nawa, for
example, can be indicated as follows:
\key sol \bayati
In Arabic music, the same term, for example bayati, that is used to indicate a maqam family,
is also a maqam that is usually the most important in the family so can also be thought of as a
base maqam.
Here is the grouping that maps the more common maqams to key signatures as defined in
the file arabic.ly:
maqam group key finalis Other maqams in group (finalis)
ajam major sib jaharka (fa)
bayati bayati re hussaini, muhayer, saba, ushaq, nawa (sol)
hijaz hijaz re zanjaran (do)
hijaz kar do
hijaz_kar shahnaz, shad arban (sol)
huzam huzam misb -
iraq iraq sisb -
kurd kurd re hijazkar kurd (do)
nahawand minor do busalik (re), farah faza (sol)
nakriz nakriz do nawa athar, hisar (re)
rast rast do mahur, yakah (sol)
sikah sikah misb -
In case you are missing a specific maqam, you can define it yourself in your sheet music before
using it. The following example defines and then uses the zanjaran maqam.
\include "arabic.ly"

% For example on do: do reb mi fa sol la sib do

% reb and sib are FLAT
% You can also use SHARP, SEMI-FLAT, SEMI-SHARP
zanjaran = #`(
(0 . ,NATURAL)
(1 . ,FLAT)
(2 . ,NATURAL)
(3 . ,NATURAL)
(4 . ,NATURAL)
(5 . ,NATURAL)
(6 . ,FLAT)
)

\relative {
\key do \zanjaran
do' reb mi fa sol la sib do
}

  º h h h h h h
h h
For special cases, rare maqams are defined in the hel-arabic.ly file. Please refer to the file
included with LilyPond for a full list of the provided maqams.
Chapter 18: World music 556

Selected Snippets
Non-traditional key signatures
The commonly used \key command sets the keyAlterations property, in the Staff context.
To create non-standard key signatures, set this property directly. The format of this command
is a list:
\set Staff.keyAlterations =
#`(((octave . step) . alter) ((octave . step) . alter) ...)
where, for each element in the list, octave specifies the octave (0 being the octave from
middle C to the B above), step specifies the note within the octave (0 means C and 6 means
B), and alter is ,SHARP ,FLAT ,DOUBLE-SHARP etc.
Alternatively, using the more concise format for each item in the list (step . alter) specifies
the same alteration holds in all octaves.
For microtonal scales where a “sharp” is not 100 cents, alter refers to the alteration as a
proportion of a 200-cent whole tone.
\include "arabic.ly"
\relative do' {
\set Staff.keyAlterations = #`((0 . ,SEMI-FLAT)
(1 . ,SEMI-FLAT)
(2 . ,FLAT)
(5 . ,FLAT)
(6 . ,SEMI-FLAT))
%\set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
re reb \dwn reb resd
dod dob dosd \dwn dob |
dobsb dodsd do do |
}


     º  h  h h  h h  h  h Œ h  h h  h h

See also
Music Glossary: Section “maqam” in Music Glossary, Section “bayati” in Music Glossary,
Section “rast” in Music Glossary, Section “sikah” in Music Glossary, Section “iraq” in Music
Glossary, Section “kurd” in Music Glossary.
Learning Manual: Section “Pitches and key signatures” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 1.3.2 [Key signature], page 23.
Installed Files: ly/arabic.ly ly/hel-arabic.ly
Snippets: Section “World music” in Snippets, Section “Pitches” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “KeySignature” in Internals Reference.

18.2.4 Arabic time signatures

Some Arabic and Turkish music classical forms such as Semai use unusual time signatures such
as 10/8. This may lead to an automatic grouping of notes that is quite different from existing
typeset music, where notes may not be grouped on the beat, but in a manner that is difficult to
match by adjusting automatic beaming. The alternative is to switch off automatic beaming and
beam the notes manually. Even if a match to existing typeset music is not required, it may still
be desirable to adjust the automatic beaming behavior and/or use compound time signatures.
Chapter 18: World music 557

Selected Snippets
Arabic improvisation
For improvisations or taqasim which are temporarily free, the time signature can be omitted and
\cadenzaOn can be used. Adjusting the accidental style might be required, since the absence of
bar lines will cause the accidental to be marked only once. Here is an example of what could be
the start of a hijaz improvisation:
\include "arabic.ly"

\relative sol' {
\key re \kurd
\accidentalStyle forget
\cadenzaOn
sol4 sol sol sol fad mib sol1 fad8 mib re4. r8 mib1 fad sol
}


  º h h h h h h .  h h h P ¢ . . .
See also
Music Glossary: Section “semai” in Music Glossary, Section “taqasim” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 2.4.3 [Manual beams], page 110, Section 2.4.1 [Automatic
beams], page 98, Section 2.3.4 [Unmetered music], page 88, Section 1.3.5 [Automatic acciden-
tals], page 31, Section 2.4.2 [Setting automatic beam behavior], page 101, Section 2.3.1 [Time
signature], page 76.
Installed Files: ly/arabic.ly
Snippets: Section “World music” in Snippets.

18.2.5 Arabic music example

Here is a template that also uses the start of a Turkish Semai that is familiar in Arabic music
education in order to illustrate some of the peculiarities of Arabic music notation, such as
medium intervals and unusual modes that are discussed in this section.
\include "arabic.ly"
\score {
\header {
title = "Semai Muhayer"
composer = "Jamil Bek"
}
\relative {
\set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
\set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
\key re \bayati
\time 10/8

re'4 re'8 re16 [misb re do] sisb [la sisb do] re4 r8
re16 [misb do re] sisb [do] la [sisb sol8] la [sisb] do [re] misb
fa4 fa16 [misb] misb8. [re16] re8 [misb] re [do] sisb
do4 sisb8 misb16 [re do sisb] la [do sisb la] la4 r8
}
Chapter 18: World music 558

 h h h h h  h h h h h ¢ h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
  108 h T T
3
  h h h hP h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h ¢

T T
See also
Installed Files: ly/arabic.ly
Snippets: Section “World music” in Snippets.

18.2.6 Further reading for Arabic music

There are some variations in the details of how maqams are grouped, despite agreement of
grouping maqams related through common lower tetra chords or by modulation. There are also
some inconsistencies, even within the same texts, on how key signatures for a particular maqam
should be specified. However, it is common to use a key signature per ‘group’ of maqams instead
of individual key signatures for each maqam separately.
• The music of the Arabs by Habib Hassan Touma [Amadeus Press, 1996], contains a discus-
sion of maqams and their method of groupings.
• There are also some web sites that explain maqams and even provide audio examples:
• https://www.maqamworld.com/
• https://www.turath.org/
• Method books by the following authors for the oud (the Arabic lute) contain examples of
mainly Turkish and Arabic compositions.
• Charbel Rouhana
• George Farah
• Ibrahim Ali Darwish Al-masri

18.3 Turkish classical music

This section highlights issues that are relevant to notating Turkish classical music.

18.3.1 References for Turkish classical music

Turkish classical music developed in the Ottoman Empire at roughly the same time as classical
music in Europe, and has continued on into the 20th and 21st centuries as a vibrant and distinct
tradition with its own compositional forms, theory and performance styles. Among its striking
features is the use of microtonal intervals based on ‘commas’ of 1/9 of a tone, from which are
constructed the melodic forms known as makam (plural makamlar) are constructed.
Some issues relevant to Turkish classical music are covered elsewhere. Special note names and
accidentals are explained in Section 18.1 [Common notation for non-Western music], page 552.

18.3.2 Turkish note names

Pitches in Turkish classical music traditionally have unique names and the basis of pitch on
1/9-tone divisions means that makamlar employ a completely different set of intervals compared
to Western scales and modes:
From a modern, notational point of view it is convenient to use standard, Western staff notes
(c, d, e, etc.) but with custom accidentals that raise or lower notes by intervals of 1/9, 4/9, 5/9
or 8/9 of a tone.
Chapter 18: World music 559

These custom accidentals are defined in the file turkish-makam.ly.

For a more general explanation of non-Western music notation, see Section 18.1 [Common
notation for non-Western music], page 552.

See also
Music Glossary: Section “makam” in Music Glossary, Section “makamlar” in Music Glossary.
Notation Reference: Section 18.1 [Common notation for non-Western music], page 552.

18.3.3 Turkish key signatures

LilyPond supports over 200 makam key signature definitions – well beyond what is used in
Turkish classical music – with each makam having its own specific tonic / finalis pitch (known
as ‘karar’ in Turkish).
It is important to be aware of the finalis of each makam. Here is an example where g is the
default tonic and rast is the name of the makam.
\key g \rast
The correct accidentals, koma flat (b1) and koma sharp (f4), (both in relation to the tonic g),
will be displayed automatically.

Selected Snippets
Turkish Makam example
This template uses the start of a well-known Turkish Saz Semai that is familiar in the repertoire
in order to illustrate some of the elements of Turkish music notation.
\paper { tagline = ##f }

% Initialize makam settings

\include "turkish-makam.ly"

\header {
title = "Hüseyni Saz Semaisi"
composer = "Lavtacı Andon"
}

\relative {
\set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
\set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f

\key a \huseyni
\time 10/8

a'4 g'16 [fb] e8. [d16] d [c d e] c [d c8] bfc |

a16 [bfc a8] bfc c16 [d c8] d16 [e d8] e4 fb8 |
d4 a'8 a16 [g fb e] fb8 [g] a8. [b16] a16 [g] |
g4 g16 [fb] fb8. [e16] e [g fb e] e4 r8 |
}

Hüseyni Saz Semaisi

 h h hP h h h h hh h h hh h h
Lavtacı Andon


 8 10 h h h h h h h h h h
T T T
Chapter 18: World music 560

 h h h h h h h h hP h h h h h h hP h h h h h h
 ¢
3

T
18.3.4 Further reading for Turkish music
• Turk Musikisi Nazariyati ve Usulleri: Kudum Velveleleri by Ismail Hakki Ozkan [(Kultur
serisi, 41) (Turkish) Paperback – 1986]
contains information about the theory of makams and usul.
• Music of the Ottoman Court by Walter Feldman [VWB Hardback – 1996]
contains information about the history of Ottoman court music.
• Turkish Music Makam Guide by Murat Aydemir [Pan Paperback – 2010]
contains information in English regarding Turkish makam including two CDs.

18.4 Persian classical music

This section highlights issues that are relevant to notating Persian classical music.

18.4.1 Persian music notation

The notation for Persian classical music commonly uses two accidentals for microtones, sori and
koron. Invented by Ali-Naqi Vaziri around 1935, they indicate raising and lowering a pitch by
(approximately) a quarter tone, respectively.

# 
sori koron

The file persian.ly1 provides support for koron and sori; they can be obtained by appending
‘k’ (koron) and ‘o’ (sori) to the English note symbols.
LilyPond supports tunings for all major Persian modes in all keys, sufficient to notate the
gushehs (central nuclear melodies) of all dastgahs (musical modal systems).
The note immediately following a koron is sometimes2 lowered by about 20 cents. This is not
notated but considered part of the tuning. However, for getting better MIDI support you can
make a sound flat by appending ‘v’ to the note name (‘v lat’). This note should actually also get
a strong vibrato, and the vibrato and low tuning are perceptually integrated (serialism). This
is just for MIDI and has no effect on the notation itself.
There are no further tuning issues in Persian music. Since the music is monophonic, the
difference between just intonation (for example) and equal temperament is merely academic –
there are no chords where out-of-tune intervals would be noticeable.
The following suffixes to English note names are provided.
ff double-flat
f flat
k koron (about quarter flat, -3/10 of whole tone, 60 cents)
o sori (about quarter sharp, 2/10 of whole tone, 40 cents)
s sharp
x double-sharp
1
There exists another, older support file for Persian classical music also called persian.ly (written by Kees
van den Doel) that no longer works with the current LilyPond version; while note names are compatible, the
selection of key signatures is not.
2
If the interval defined by the note before the koron and after the koron is a minor third. The same is true for
the note below the finalis in the ‘Esfahan’ dastgah according to some (but not all) Persian musicians.
Chapter 18: World music 561

v 20 cent flat-tuned note (“vlat”, not notated)

fv flat, tuned 20 cents down (notated as a normal flat)
sv sharp, tuned 20 cents down (notated as a normal sharp; does never
occur in traditional Persian music)

18.4.2 Persian tunings

Dastgahs can have many tunings; it has become common to name tunings after representative
dastgahs featuring them. The following Persian tunings are provided to be used as the second
argument of the \key command. Note that in practice not all tunings are used in all keys.
\shur ‘Shur’ gushehs with natural 5th degree
\shurk ‘Shur’ gushehs with koron 5th degree
\esfahan
\mokhalefsegah
\chahargah
\mahur the same as \major but used in a completely differ-
ent context
\delkashMahur
In dastgah ‘Shur’, the 5th degree can either be natural or koron, so two tunings are provided
(\shur, \shurk). Secondary dastgahs ‘Dashti’, ‘Abuata’, and ‘Bayat-e-tork’ use \shur, the
derived dastgah ‘Afshari’ uses \shurk. ‘Nava’ on G is like ‘Shur’ on D (a 4th apart). The
tuning of ‘Segah’ is \shurk. Other tunings are \esfahan (‘Homayoun’ on C is like ‘Esfahan’
on G, a 5th apart), \chahargah, and \mokhalefsegah. For dastgahs ‘Mahur’ and ‘Rast-panjgah’
the same tuning \mahur can be used.
All the various modulatory gushehs in all dastgahs can be notated with these tunings, with
the exception of ‘Delkash’ in ‘Mahur’, but traditionally the peculiar accidentals there are notated
explicitly (however, persian.ly also defines a tuning \delkashMahur).
As an example, Chahargah in D can be input with the following.
\include "persian.ly"

\relative c' {
\key d \chahargah
bk'8 a gs fo r g ak g |
fs ek d c d ef16 d c4 |
}


   º h h h #h ¢ h h h h h h
h h h h h
18.4.3 Persian key signatures
By default, the order of accidentals in Persian key signatures is flats followed by korons, then
sharps followed by soris (then double flats, then double sharps).
An alternative key order, similar to the one used in turkish-makam.ly, can be selected.
Here, the order is flats or korons (or double flats), then sharps or soris (or double sharps). In
other words, korons and soris are handled equal to flats and sharps, respectively.
\include "persian.ly"

{
\key b \chahargah b'1 |
\set Staff.keyAlterationOrder = \persianAltKeyAlterationOrder
Chapter 18: World music 562

\key b \chahargah b'1 |

}

 ## º . ##
   .
18.4.4 Further reading on Persian music
• Traditional Persian Art Music by Dariush Tala’i [Bibliotheca Persica, Costa Mesa CA, 2000]
The provided Persian tunings closely follow this book.
• The Dastgah Concept in Persian Music by Hormoz Farhat [Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1990]
• Le répertoire-modèle de la musique iranienne by Jean During (in French) [Sourush, Tehran,
1995]
This book contains measurements of the intervals in actual practice, consistent with the
tunings of persian.ly.
• Armoni-e Musiqi-e Iran by Ali-Naqi Vaziri (in Persian) [1935]
• Scales and Modes Around the World by Herman Rechberger [Fennica Gehrman, 2018, ISBN
978-952-5489-07-1]
General input and output
 565

19 Input modes
The way in which the notation contained within an input file is interpreted is determined by
the current input mode. In general, there are two ways of specifying the mode: a long form, e.g.
\chordmode, and a short form, e.g. \chords. The long form is typically used when supplying
input to a variable or when entering input directly into an explicitly created context. The short
form implicitly creates a context of the correct type for the input and passes the input directly to
it. It is useful in simple situations when there is no requirement to explicitly create the receiving
context.

Chord mode
This is activated with the \chordmode command, and causes input to be interpreted with the
syntax of chord notation, see Chapter 15 [Chord notation], page 492. Music in chord mode is
rendered as chords on a staff when entered into a Staff context, as chord names when entered
into a ChordNames context or as fretboards when entered into a FretBoards context.
Chord mode is also activated with the \chords command. This also causes the following
input to be interpreted with the syntax of chord notation but in addition it implicitly creates
a new ChordNames context and renders the input into it as chord names, see Section 15.2.1
[Printing chord names], page 497.

Drum mode
This is activated with the \drummode command, and causes input to be interpreted with the
syntax of drum notation, see Section 13.1.2 [Basic percussion notation], page 471. Music in
drum mode is rendered as percussion notes when entered into a DrumStaff context.
Drum mode is also activated with the \drums command. This also causes the following input
to be interpreted with the syntax of drum notation but in addition it implicitly creates a new
DrumStaff context and renders the input into it as percussion notes, see Section 13.1.2 [Basic
percussion notation], page 471.

Figure mode
This is activated with the \figuremode command, and causes input to be interpreted with the
syntax of figured bass, see Section 15.3.2 [Entering figured bass], page 510. Music in figure mode
is rendered as figured bass when entered into a FiguredBass context or a Staff context.
Figure mode is also activated with the \figures command. This also causes the following
input to be interpreted with the figured bass syntax but in addition it implicitly creates a
new FiguredBass context and renders the input into it as figured bass, see Section 15.3.1
[Introduction to figured bass], page 509.

Fret and tab modes

There are no special input modes for entering fret and tab symbols.
To create tab diagrams, enter notes or chords in note mode and render them in a TabStaff
context, see Section 12.1.3 [Default tablatures], page 419.
To create fret diagrams above a staff, enter notes or chords in either note mode or chord
mode and render them in a FretBoards context, see Section 12.1.7 [Automatic fret diagrams],
page 461. Alternatively, fret diagrams can be entered as markup above the notes using the
\fret-diagram command, see Section 12.1.5 [Fret diagram markups], page 441.

Lyrics mode
This is activated with the \lyricmode command, and causes input to be interpreted as lyric
syllables with optional durations and associated lyric modifiers, see Chapter 9 [Vocal music],
page 335. Input in lyric mode is rendered as lyric syllables when entered into a Lyrics context.
Chapter 19: Input modes 566

Lyric mode is also activated with the \lyrics command. This also causes the following input
to be interpreted as lyric syllables but in addition it implicitly creates a new Lyrics context
and renders the input into it as lyric syllables.

Lyric mode is also activated with the \addlyrics command. This also implicitly creates a
new Lyrics context and in addition it adds an implicit \lyricsto command which associates
the following lyrics with the preceding music, see Section 9.1.4 [Automatic syllable durations],
page 339.

Markup mode
This is activated with the \markup command, and causes input to be interpreted with the syntax
of markup, see Section A.1 [Text markup commands], page 777.

Note mode
This is the default mode or it may be activated with the \notemode command. Input is inter-
preted as pitches, durations, markup, etc and typeset as musical notation on a staff.

It is not normally necessary to specify note mode explicitly, but it may be useful to do so
in certain situations, for example if you are in lyric mode, chord mode or any other mode and
want to insert something that only can be done with note mode syntax.

% This ...

<<
\chords { g1:m }
{ f'1 }
\lyrics { foo1 }
\drums { sn1 }
\figures { <6 4>1 }
>>

% ... is equivalent to

<<
\new ChordNames \chordmode { g1:m }
\new Voice \notemode { f'1 }
\new Lyrics \lyricmode { foo1 }
\new DrumStaff \drummode { sn1 }
\new FiguredBass \figuremode { <6 4>1 }
>>

º .
Gm

foo
 º .


Chapter 19: Input modes 567

º .
Gm

foo
 º .


 568

20 Input structure
The main format of input for LilyPond are text files. By convention, these files end with .ly.

20.1 Structure of a score

A \score block must contain a single music expression delimited by curly brackets. 1
\score {
...
}
☛ ✟
Note: There must be only one outer music expression in a \score
block, and it must be surrounded by curly brackets.
✡ ✠
This single music expression may be of any size, and may contain other music expressions to
any complexity. All of these examples are music expressions:
{ c'4 c' c' c' }
{
{ c'4 c' c' c' }
{ d'4 d' d' d' }
}

º
h h h h h h h h
<<
\new Staff { c'4 c' c' c' }
\new Staff { d'4 d' d' d' }
>>

º
h h h h
º h h h h
{
\new GrandStaff <<
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff { \flute }
\new Staff { \oboe }
>>
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff { \violinI }
\new Staff { \violinII }
>>
>>
}
1
Note that there also exists a markup command called \score, see [Scores within markup], page 826.
Chapter 20: Input structure 569

Comments are one exception to this general rule. (For others, see Section 20.5 [File structure],
page 572.) Both single-line comments and comments delimited by %{ ... %} may be placed
anywhere within an input file. They may be placed inside or outside a \score block, and inside
or outside the single music expression within a \score block.
Remember that even in a file containing only a \score block, it is implicitly enclosed in
a \book block. A \book block in a source file produces at least one output file, and by
default the name of the output file produced is derived from the name of the input file, so
fandangoforelephants.ly will produce fandangoforelephants.pdf.
(For more details about \book blocks, see Section 20.2 [Multiple scores in a book], page 569,
Section 20.3 [Multiple output files from one input file], page 571, Section 20.5 [File structure],
page 572.)

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Working on input files” in Learning Manual, Section “Music ex-
pressions explained” in Learning Manual, Section “A score is a (single) compound musical
expression” in Learning Manual.

20.2 Multiple scores in a book

A document may contain multiple pieces of music and text. Examples of these are an etude
book, or an orchestral part with multiple movements. Each movement is entered with a \score
block,
\score {
...music...
}
and texts are entered with a \markup block,
\markup {
...text...
}
All the movements and texts which appear in the same .ly file will normally be typeset in
the form of a single output file.
\score {
...
}
\markup {
...
}
\score {
...
}
One important exception is within lilypond-book documents, where you explicitly have to
add a \book block, otherwise only the first \score or \markup will appear in the output.
The header for each piece of music can be put inside the \score block. The piece name
from the header will be printed before each movement. The title for the entire book can be put
inside the \book, but if it is not present, the \header which is at the top of the file is inserted.
\header {
title = "Eight miniatures"
composer = "Igor Stravinsky"
}
\score {
Chapter 20: Input structure 570

\header { piece = "Romanze" }

...
}
\markup {
...text of second verse...
}
\markup {
...text of third verse...
}
\score {
\header { piece = "Menuetto" }
...
}
Pieces of music may be grouped into book parts using \bookpart blocks. Book parts are
separated by a page break, and can start with a title, like the book itself, by specifying a \header
block.
\bookpart {
\header {
title = "Book title"
subtitle = "First part"
}
\score { ... }
...
}
\bookpart {
\header {
subtitle = "Second part"
}
\score { ... }
...
}
By design, you cannot define variables within a \book or \bookpart block (the same is true
for \score, by the way); this is especially relevant if you want to use multiple files to set up your
music with variables that should be ‘local’ to single files. You can use the following structure
for such situations.
% movement1.ly
variableI = { ... }
bookpartI = \bookpart { \score { ... use \variableI ... } }

% movement2.ly
variableII = { ... }
bookpartII = \bookpart { \score { ... use \variableII ... } }

% main.ly
\include "movement1.ly"
\include "movement2.ly"
\book {
\bookpart { \bookpartI }
\bookpart { \bookpartII }
}
Chapter 20: Input structure 571

Similarly, you can’t directly have a \layout block within \book or \bookpart. Put it into a
\score block instead that is included by \book or \bookpart.

20.3 Multiple output files from one input file

LilyPond creates one output file for each \book block. If there is no explicit \book block in the
input file, LilyPond implicitly treats the whole file as a single \book block, see Section 20.5 [File
structure], page 572.
By default, LilyPond names the output file using the input file name and, if necessary, suffixes
it with an increasing number – i.e., if an output file with the same name has already been created
during the run. The default behavior is to append a version number suffix for each name that
may clash, so
\book {
\score { ... }
\paper { ... }
}
\book {
\score { ... }
\paper { ... }
}
\book {
\score { ... }
\paper { ... }
}
in source file eightminiatures.ly produces
eightminiatures.pdf
eightminiatures-1.pdf
eightminiatures-2.pdf
as output files.

20.4 Output file names

It is possible to override both the output file name and the suffix appended to the basic file
name in \paper blocks.
\paper {
output-filename = "my_special_output"
}

\book {
\paper {
output-suffix = "menuetto"
}
...
}
\book {
\paper {
output-suffix = "scherzo"
}
...
}
Chapter 20: Input structure 572

The result are two output files named my_special_output-menuetto.pdf and

my_special_output-scherzo.pdf. Be careful to select values for output-filename and
output-suffix that are valid for file names on your operating system!
If this output file name already exists (this can happen, for example, if both output-filename
and output-suffix are set in the global \paper block and not in any \book blocks), LilyPond
appends an additional suffix with an increasing number.
Note that predefined \paper variables (see Section 26.1 [The \paper block], page 643) must
be placed before the output-filename and output-suffix assignments, for example
bigMargin = \paper { top-margin = 10\cm }

\book {
\paper {
\bigMargin % must come first
output-filename = "foo"
}
}

20.5 File structure

A .ly file may contain any number of top-level expressions, where a top-level expression is one
of the following:
• An output definition, such as \paper, \midi, and \layout. Such a definition at the top-
level changes the default book-wide settings. If more than one such definition of the same
type is entered at the top level the definitions are combined, but in conflicting situations
the later definitions take precedence. For details of how this affects the \layout block see
Section 27.1 [The \layout block], page 655.
• A direct Scheme expression, such as #(set-default-paper-size "a7" 'landscape) or
#(ly:set-option 'point-and-click #f).
• A \header block. This sets the global (i.e., the top of file) header block. This is the block
containing the default settings of titling fields like composer, title, etc., for all books within
the file (see Section 21.1.1 [Titles explained], page 575).
• A \score block. This score will be collected with other top-level scores, and
combined as a single \book. This behavior can be changed by setting the variable
toplevel-score-handler at top level. (The default handler is defined in the file
../scm/lily-library.scm and set in the file ../ly/declarations-init.ly.)
• A \book block logically combines multiple movements (i.e., multiple \score blocks) in one
document. If there are a number of \scores, one output file will be created for each \book
block, in which all corresponding movements are concatenated. The only reason to explicitly
specify \book blocks in a .ly file is if you wish to create multiple output files from a single
input file. One exception is within lilypond-book documents, where you explicitly have to
add a \book block if you want more than a single \score or \markup in the same example.
This behavior can be changed by setting the variable toplevel-book-handler at top level.
The default handler is defined in the init file ../scm/lily.scm.
• A \bookpart block. A book may be divided into several parts, using \bookpart blocks, in
order to ease the page breaking, or to use different \paper settings in different parts.
• A compound music expression, such as
{ c'4 d' e'2 }
This will add the piece in a \score and format it in a single book together with all other
top-level \scores and music expressions. In other words, a file containing only the above
music expression will be translated into
Chapter 20: Input structure 573

\book {
\score {
\new Staff {
\new Voice {
{ c'4 d' e'2 }
}
}
\layout { }
}
\paper { }
\header { }
}
This behavior can be changed by setting the variable toplevel-music-handler at top level.
The default handler is defined in the init file ../scm/lily.scm.
• A markup text, a verse for example
\markup {
2. The first line verse two.
}
Markup texts are rendered above, between or below the scores or music expressions, wher-
ever they appear.
• A variable, such as
foo = { c4 d e d }
This can be used later on in the file by entering \foo. The name of a variable should not
contain (ASCII) numbers, multiple underscores, multiple dashes or space characters. All
other characters Unicode provides are allowed, for example Latin, Greek, Chinese or Cyrillic.
Non-adjacent single underscores and dashes are allowed, too. In other words, variable names
like HornIII or αβγXII work.
Any combination of characters is allowed if the variable name is enclosed in double quotation
marks. In this case backslashes and double quotation marks need to be escaped with
backslashes (not that you actually should use them). Examples: "foo bar", "a-b-c",
"Horn 3".
The following example shows three things that may be entered at top level.
\layout {
% Don't justify the output
ragged-right = ##t
}

\header {
title = "Do-re-mi"
}

{ c'4 d' e2 }
At any point in a file, any of the following lexical instructions can be entered:
• \version
• \include
• \sourcefilename
• \sourcefileline
• A single-line comment, introduced by a leading % sign.
Chapter 20: Input structure 574

• A multi-line comment delimited by %{ ... %}.

Whitespace between items in the input stream is generally ignored, and may be freely omitted
or extended to enhance readability. However, whitespace should always be used in the following
circumstances to avoid errors:
• Around every opening and closing curly bracket.
• After every command or variable, i.e., every item that begins with a \ sign.
• After every item that is to be interpreted as a Scheme expression, i.e., every item that
begins with a ‘#’ sign.
• To separate all elements of a Scheme expression.
• In lyricmode before and after \set and \override commands.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “How LilyPond input files work” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 21.1.1 [Titles explained], page 575, Section 27.1 [The \layout
block], page 655.
 575

21 Titles and headers

Almost all printed music includes a title and the composer’s name; some pieces include a lot
more information.

21.1 Creating titles, headers, and footers

21.1.1 Titles explained
Each \book block in a single input file produces a separate output file, see Section 20.5 [File
structure], page 572. Within each output file three types of titling areas are provided: book
titles at the beginning of each book, bookpart titles at the beginning of each bookpart, and
score titles at the beginning of each score.
Values of titling fields such as title and composer are set in \header blocks. (For the
syntax of \header blocks and a complete list of the fields available by default, see Section 21.1.2
[Default layout of bookpart and score titles], page 578). Book titles, bookpart titles, and score
titles can all contain the same fields, although by default the fields in score titles are limited to
piece and opus.
\header blocks may be placed in four different places to form a descending hierarchy.
• At the top of the input file, before all \book, \bookpart, and \score blocks.
• Within a \book block but outside all the \bookpart and \score blocks within that book.
• Within a \bookpart block but outside all \score blocks within that bookpart.
• Within a \score block.
The values of the fields filter down this hierarchy, with the values set higher in the hierarchy
persisting unless they are overridden by a value set lower in the hierarchy.
• A book title is derived from fields set at the top of the input file, modified by fields set in the
\book block. The resulting fields are used to print the book title for that book, providing
that there is other material that generates a page at the start of the book, before the first
bookpart. A single \pageBreak suffices.
• A bookpart title is derived from fields set at the top of the input file, modified by fields set
in the \book block, and further modified by fields set in the \bookpart block. The resulting
values are used to print the bookpart title for that bookpart.
• A score title is derived from fields set at the top of the input file, modified by fields set in
the \book block, further modified by fields set in the \bookpart block and finally modified
by fields set in the \score block. The resulting values are used to print the score title for
that score. Note, though, that only piece and opus fields are printed by default in score
titles unless the \paper variable print-all-headers is set to #t.
It is not necessary to provide \header blocks in all four places: any or even all of them may
be omitted. Similarly, simple input files may omit the \book and \bookpart blocks, leaving
them to be created implicitly.
If the book has only a single score, the \header block should normally be placed at the top
of the file so that just a bookpart title is produced, making all the titling fields available for use.
If the book has multiple scores a number of different arrangements of \header blocks are
possible, corresponding to the various types of musical publications. For example, if the publica-
tion contains several pieces by the same composer, a \header block placed at the top of the file
specifying the book title and the composer with \header blocks in each \score block specifying
the piece and/or opus would be most suitable, as here:
\header {
title = "SUITE I."
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 576

composer = "J. S. Bach."

}

\score {
\header {
piece = "Prélude."
}
\new Staff \relative {
\clef bass
\key g \major
\repeat unfold 2 { g,16( d' b') a b d, b' d, } |
\repeat unfold 2 { g,16( e' c') b c e, c' e, } |
}
}

\score {
\header {
piece = "Allemande."
}
\new Staff \relative {
\clef bass
\key g \major
\partial 16 b16 |
<g, d' b'~>4 b'16 a( g fis) g( d e fis) g( a b c) |
d16( b g fis) g( e d c) b(c d e) fis( g a b) |
}
}

SUITE I.
J. S. Bach.
Prélude.

  º h h h hh hh h h h hh hh h h h hh hh h h h hh hh
h h h h
Allemande.

h
  º hU hh h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
h h
More complicated arrangements are possible. For example, text fields from the \header block
in a book can be displayed in all score titles, with some fields overridden and some manually
suppressed:
\book {
\paper {
print-all-headers = ##t
}
\header {
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 577

title = "DAS WOHLTEMPERIRTE CLAVIER"

subtitle = "TEIL I"
% Do not display the default LilyPond footer for this book
tagline = ##f
}
\markup { \vspace #1 }
\score {
\header {
title = "PRAELUDIUM I"
opus = "BWV 846"
% Do not display the subtitle for this score
subtitle = ##f
}
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff { s1 }
\new Staff { \clef "bass" s1 }
>>
}
\score {
\header {
title = "FUGA I"
subsubtitle = "A 4 VOCI"
opus = "BWV 846"
% Do not display the subtitle for this score
subtitle = ##f
}
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff { s1 }
\new Staff { \clef "bass" s1 }
>>
}
}
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 578

DAS WOHLTEMPERIRTE CLAVIER

TEIL I

PRAELUDIUM I

X
BWV 846

 º
º

FUGA I
A 4 VOCI

X
BWV 846

 º
º
See also
Notation Reference: Section 20.5 [File structure], page 572, Section 21.1.2 [Default layout of
bookpart and score titles], page 578, Section 21.2.2 [Custom layout for titles], page 583.

21.1.2 Default layout of bookpart and score titles

The next example demonstrates all printed \header variables. Note that the vertical spacing
between the various header elements in the default layout is optimized for single-line entries. If
you need multi-line elements, say, a two-line composer entry, try to append \vspace to the field
if necessary to adjust the vertical spacing. An alternative is to define your own, custom layout,
see Section 21.2.2 [Custom layout for titles], page 583.
\book {
\header {
% The following fields are centered
dedication = "Dedication"
title = "Title"
subtitle = "Subtitle"
subsubtitle = "Subsubtitle"

% The following fields are evenly spread on one line;

% the field "instrument" also appears on following pages
instrument = \markup \with-color #green "Instrument"
poet = "Poet"
composer = "Composer"
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 579

% The following fields are placed at opposite ends

%of the same line
meter = "Meter"
arranger = "Arranger"

% The following fields are centered at the bottom

tagline = "The tagline goes at the bottom of the last page"
copyright = "The copyright goes at the bottom of the first page"
}
\score {
\header {
% The following fields are placed at opposite ends
% of the same line
piece = "Piece 1"
opus = "Opus 1"
}
{ s1 }
}
\score {
\header {
% The following fields are placed at opposite ends
% of the same line
piece = "Piece 2 on the same page"
opus = "Opus 2"
}
{ s1 }
}
\pageBreak
\score {
\header {
% The following fields are placed at opposite ends
% of the same line
piece = "Piece 3 on a new page"
opus = "Opus 3"
}
{ s1 }
}
}
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 580

Dedication
Title
Subtitle
Subsubtitle
Poet Instrument Composer
Meter Arranger
Piece 1 Opus 1

º

Piece 2 on the same page Opus 2

º
The copyright goes at the bottom of the first page

2 Instrument
Piece 3 on a new page Opus 3

º

The tagline goes at the bottom of the last page

Note that
• the instrument name is repeated on every page,
• only piece and opus are printed in a \score when the paper variable print-all-headers
is set to #f (the default),
• text fields left unset in a \header block produce no output so that the space is not wasted,
• the default settings for scoreTitleMarkup place the piece and opus text fields at opposite
ends of the same line.
To change the default layout, see Section 21.2.2 [Custom layout for titles], page 583.
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 581

If a \book block starts immediately with a \bookpart block, no book title gets printed, as
there is no page on which to print it. If a book title is required, begin the \book block with
some markup material or a \pageBreak command.
Use the breakbefore variable inside a \header block that is itself in a \score block, to
make the higher-level \header block titles appear on the first page on their own, with the music
(defined in the \score block) starting on the next page.
\book {
\header {
title = "This is my Title"
subtitle = "This is my Subtitle"
copyright = "This is the bottom of the first page"
}
\score {
\header {
piece = "This is the Music"
breakbefore = ##t
}
\repeat unfold 4 { e'' e'' e'' e'' }
}
}

This is my Title
This is my Subtitle

This is the bottom of the first page

This is the Music

hhhh hhhh hhhh hhhh

º

LilyPond v2.25.27
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 582

See also
Learning Manual: Section “How LilyPond input files work” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 21.2.2 [Custom layout for titles], page 583, Section 20.5 [File
structure], page 572.
Installed Files: ly/titling-init.ly.

21.1.3 Default layout of headers and footers

Headers and footers are lines of text appearing at the top and bottom of pages, separate from
the main text of a book. They are controlled by the following \paper variables:
• oddHeaderMarkup
• evenHeaderMarkup
• oddFooterMarkup
• evenFooterMarkup
These markup variables are defined in ly/titling-init.ly and do the following by default.
• Page numbers are automatically placed on the top far left (if even) or top far right (if odd),
starting from the second page.
• The instrument header field is placed in the center of every page, starting from the second
page.
• The copyright header field is centered on the bottom of the first page.
• The tagline header field is centered on the bottom of the last page, and below the
copyright field if there is only a single page.
The following shows an example how to change the tag line.
\book {
\header {
tagline = "... music notation for Everyone"
}
\score {
\relative {
c'4 d e f
}
}
}

º
h h h h

... music notation for Everyone

Set tagline to #f if you don’t want a tag line.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 21.2.3 [Custom layout for headers and footers], page 586.
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 583

21.2 Custom titles, headers, and footers

21.2.1 Custom text formatting for titles
Standard \markup commands can be used to customize any header, footer, or title text within
the \header block.
\score {
\header {
piece = \markup { \fontsize #4 \bold "PRAELUDIUM I" }
opus = \markup { \italic "BWV 846" }
}
{ s1 }
}

PRAELUDIUM I BWV 846

º
See also
Notation Reference: Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310.

21.2.2 Custom layout for titles

\markup commands in the \header block are useful for simple text formatting, but they do not
allow precise control over the placement of titles. To customize the placement of the text fields,
change either or both of the following \paper variables:
• bookTitleMarkup
• scoreTitleMarkup
See Section 21.1.2 [Default layout of bookpart and score titles], page 578, for the placement
of titles when using the default values of these \markup variables.
The default setting for scoreTitleMarkup defined in ly/titling-init.ly is as follows.
scoreTitleMarkup = \markup \column {
\if \should-print-all-headers { \bookTitleMarkup \hspace #1 }
\fill-line {
\fromproperty #'header:piece
\fromproperty #'header:opus
}
}
This places the piece and opus text fields at opposite ends of the same line.
\score {
\header {
piece = "PRAELUDIUM I"
opus = "BWV 846"
}
{ s1 }
}

PRAELUDIUM I BWV 846

Chapter 21: Titles and headers 584

º
The next example redefines scoreTitleMarkup so that the piece text field is centered, using
a large, bold font.
\book {
\paper {
indent = 0\mm
scoreTitleMarkup = \markup {
\fill-line {
\null
\fontsize #4 \bold \fromproperty #'header:piece
\fromproperty #'header:opus
}
}
}
\header { tagline = ##f }
\score {
\header {
piece = "PRAELUDIUM I"
opus = "BWV 846"
}
{ s1 }
}
}

PRAELUDIUM I BWV 846

º
Text fields not normally effective in score \header blocks can be printed in the score title
area if print-all-headers is placed inside the \paper block. A disadvantage of using this
method is that text fields intended specifically for the bookpart title area need to be manually
suppressed in every \score block. See Section 21.1.1 [Titles explained], page 575.
To avoid this, add the desired text field to the scoreTitleMarkup definition. In the following
example, the composer text field (normally associated with bookTitleMarkup) is added to
scoreTitleMarkup, allowing each score to list a different composer.
\book {
\paper {
indent = 0\mm
scoreTitleMarkup = \markup {
\fill-line {
\null
\fontsize #4 \bold \fromproperty #'header:piece
\fromproperty #'header:composer
}
}
}
\header { tagline = ##f }
\score {
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 585

\header {
piece = "MENUET"
composer = "Christian Petzold"
}
{ s1 }
}
\score {
\header {
piece = "RONDEAU"
composer = "François Couperin"
}
{ s1 }
}
}

MENUET Christian Petzold

º

RONDEAU François Couperin

º
It is also possible to create your own custom text fields and refer to them in the markup
definition.
\book {
\paper {
indent = 0\mm
scoreTitleMarkup = \markup {
\fill-line {
\null
\override #`(direction . ,UP)
\dir-column {
\center-align \fontsize #-1 \bold
\fromproperty #'header:mycustomtext %% User-defined field
\center-align \fontsize #4 \bold
\fromproperty #'header:piece
}
\fromproperty #'header:opus
}
}
}
\header { tagline = ##f }
\score {
\header {
piece = "FUGA I"
mycustomtext = "A 4 VOCI" %% User-defined field
opus = "BWV 846"
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 586

}
{ s1 }
}
}

FUGA I
A 4 VOCI BWV 846

º
See also
Notation Reference: Section 21.1.1 [Titles explained], page 575.

21.2.3 Custom layout for headers and footers

\markup commands in the \header block are useful for simple text formatting, but they do not
allow precise control over the placement of headers and footers. To customize the placement of
the text fields, use one or more of the following \paper variables.
• oddHeaderMarkup
• evenHeaderMarkup
• oddFooterMarkup
• evenFooterMarkup
The \markup command \if can be used to add markup conditionally to header and footer
text defined within the \paper block, using the following syntax within \markup:
\if condition argument
The condition is tested each time the markup is interpreted. The resulting markup is argument
if the condition is true, but empty if false. Typical conditions include tests for page numbers
(first page, last page, specific page, . . . ). To test for the condition being false, replace \if with
\unless.
The following example centers page numbers at the bottom of every page. First, the de-
fault settings for oddHeaderMarkup and evenHeaderMarkup are removed by assigning #f. Then,
oddFooterMarkup is redefined with the page number centered. Finally, evenFooterMarkup is
given the same layout by defining it as \oddFooterMarkup:
\book {
\paper {
print-page-number = ##t
print-first-page-number = ##t
oddHeaderMarkup = ##f
evenHeaderMarkup = ##f
oddFooterMarkup = \markup {
\fill-line {
\if \should-print-page-number
\fromproperty #'page:page-number-string
}
}
evenFooterMarkup = \oddFooterMarkup
}
\score {
\new Staff { s1 \break s1 \break s1 }
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 587

}
}

º
2


3

1
Here is a list of all predefined procedures available for use with \if and \unless.

Syntax Condition tested

\on-first-page First page in the book?
\on-last-page Last page in the book?
\on-first-page-of-part First page in the book part?
\on-last-page-of-part Last page in the book part?
\on-page n On page number n?
\single-page Does the book fit on just one page?
\should-print-page-numbers-global Print page numbers in the book?1
\should-print-page-number Print the number of the current page?
\should-print-all-headers Is print-all-headers true?

See also
Notation Reference: Section 21.1.1 [Titles explained], page 575, Section 21.1.2 [Default layout
of bookpart and score titles], page 578, Section A.1.5 [Conditional markup], page 829.
Installed Files: ../ly/titling-init.ly.

21.3 Creating output file metadata

In addition to being shown in the printed output, \header variables are also used to set metadata
for output files. For example, with PDF files, this metadata could be displayed by PDF readers
as the properties of the PDF file. For each type of output file, only the \header definitions of
blocks that define separate files of that type, and blocks higher in the block hierarchy, will be
consulted. Therefore, for PDF files, only the \book level and the top level \header definitions
affect the document-wide PDF metadata, whereas for MIDI files, all headers above or at the
\score level are used.
For example, setting the title property of the header block to ‘Symphony I’ will also give
this title to the PDF document, and use it as the sequence name of the MIDI file.
\header {
1
\should-print-page-numbers-global can differ from \should-print-page-number for the first page in the
book, depending on the print-first-page-number setting of the \paper block.
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 588

title = "Symphony I"

}
If you want to set the title of the printed output to one value, but have the title property of
the PDF to have a different value, you can use pdftitle, as below.
\header {
title = "Symphony I"
pdftitle = "Symphony I by Beethoven"
}
The variables title, subject, keywords, subtitle, composer, arranger, poet, author and
copyright all set PDF properties and can all be prefixed with ‘pdf’ to set a PDF property to
a value different from the printed output.
The PDF property Creator is automatically set to ‘LilyPond’ plus the current LilyPond
version, and CreationDate and ModDate are both set to the current date and time. ModDate
can be overridden by setting the header variable moddate (or pdfmoddate) to a valid PDF date
string.
The title variable sets also the sequence name for MIDI. The midititle variable can be
used to set the sequence name independently of the value used for typeset output.

21.4 Creating footnotes

Footnotes may be used in many different situations. In all cases, a ‘footnote mark’ is placed
as a reference in text or music, and the corresponding ‘footnote text’ appears at the bottom of
the same page, separated from the music by a horizontal line. The appearance of this separator
can be changed by setting the paper variable footnote-separator-markup, see Section 26.6.4
[\paper variables concerning headers and markups], page 653.
Footnotes within music expressions and footnotes in stand-alone text outside music expres-
sions are created in different ways.

21.4.1 Footnotes in music expressions

Music footnotes overview
Footnotes in music expressions fall into two categories:
Event-based footnotes
are attached to a particular event. Examples for such events are single notes, artic-
ulations (like fingering indications, accents, dynamics), and post-events (like slurs
and manual beams). The general form for event-based footnotes is as follows:
[direction] \footnote [mark] offset footnote music
Time-based footnotes
are bound to a particular point of time in a musical context. Some commands like
\time and \clef don’t actually use events for creating objects like time signatures
and clefs. Neither does a chord create an event of its own: its stem or flag is created
at the end of a time step (nominally through one of the note events inside). Exactly
which of a chord’s multiple note events will be deemed the root cause of a stem or
flag is undefined. So for annotating those, time-based footnotes are preferable as
well.
A time-based footnote allows such layout objects to be annotated without referring
to an event. The general form for time-based footnotes is:
\footnote [mark] offset footnote [Context].GrobName
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 589

The elements for both forms are:

direction If (and only if) the \footnote is being applied to a post-event or articulation, it
must be preceded with a direction indicator (‘-’, ‘_’, ‘^’) in order to attach music
(with a footnote mark) to the preceding note or rest.

mark is a markup or string specifying the footnote mark which is used for marking both the
reference point and the footnote itself at the bottom of the page. It may be omitted
(or equivalently replaced with \default) in which case a number in sequence will be
generated automatically. By default, such numerical sequences restart on each page
containing a footnote. Footnotes may be numbered consecutively across page beaks
by setting the variable reset-footnotes-on-new-page to #f, see Section 26.6.4
[\paper variables concerning headers and markups], page 653.

offset is a number pair such as ‘#(2 . 1)’ specifying the X and Y offsets in units of staff
spaces from the boundary of the object where the mark should be placed. Positive
values of the offsets are taken from the right/top edge, negative values from the
left/bottom edge and zero implies the mark is centered on the edge.

Context is the context in which the grob being footnoted is created. It may be omitted if
the grob is in a bottom context, e.g., a Voice context.

GrobName
specifies a type of grob to mark (like ‘Flag’). If it is specified, the footnote is not
attached to a music expression in particular, but rather to all grobs of the type
specified which occur at that moment of musical time.

footnote is the markup or string specifying the footnote text to use at the bottom of the
page.

music is the music event or post-event or articulation that is being annotated.

Event-based footnotes
A footnote may be attached to a layout object directly caused by the event corresponding to
music with the syntax:

\footnote [mark] offset footnote music

\book {
\header { tagline = ##f }
\markup "event-based footnotes"
\markup \null
\relative c'' {
\footnote #'(-1 . 3) "A note." a4
a4
\footnote #'(2 . 2) "A rest." r4
a4
}
}
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 590

event-based footnotes
2

º h h  h
1

1
A note.
2
A rest.
If a chord is marked with an event-based footnote, each chord note gets a separate but
identical footnote, which is undesired normally. However, it is possible to create footnotes for
individual notes inside of a chord.
\book {
\header { tagline = ##f }
\markup "event-based footnotes"
\markup \null
\relative c'' {
\footnote #'(1 . 3) "A chord." <a-3 c-5>2
<a-3 \footnote #'(3 . 0.5) "A note in a chord." c-5>4
}
}

event-based footnotes
1

 º NN hh
2
3

 

1
A chord.
2
A chord.
3
A note in a chord.
If the footnote is to be attached to a post-event or articulation the \footnote command must
be preceded by a direction indicator (‘-’, ‘_’, ‘^’), and followed by the post-event or articulation
to be annotated as the music argument. In this form the \footnote can be considered to be
simply a copy of its last argument with a footnote mark attached to it. The syntax is:
direction \footnote [mark] offset footnote music
\book {
\header { tagline = ##f }
\markup "event-based footnotes"
\markup \null
\relative {
a'4_\footnote #'(0 . -1) "A slur forced down." (
b8^\footnote #'(1 . 0.5) "A manual beam forced up." [
b8 ]
c4 )
c-\footnote #'(1 . 1) "Tenuto." --
}
}
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 591

event-based footnotes

h hr
2

º
 h h h
3

1
A slur forced down.
2
A manual beam forced up.
3Tenuto.

Time-based footnotes
If the layout object being footmarked is indirectly caused by an event (like an Accidental or
Stem caused by a NoteHead event), the GrobName of the layout object is required after the
footnote text instead of music:
\book {
\header { tagline = ##f }
\markup "time-based footnotes"
\markup \null
\relative c'' {
\footnote #'(-1 . -3) "A flat." Accidental
aes4 c
\footnote #'(-1 . 0.5) "Another flat." Accidental
ees
\footnote #'(1 . -2) "A stem." Stem
aes
}
}

time-based footnotes

h
2
h
 º h h
3
1

1
A flat.
2
Another flat.
3
A stem.
Note, however, that when a GrobName is specified, a footnote is attached to all grobs of that
type at the current time step:
\book {
\header { tagline = ##f }
\markup "time-based footnotes"
\markup \null
\markup \null
\relative c' {
\footnote #'(-1 . 3) "A flat." Accidental
<ees ges bes>4
\footnote #'(2 . 0.5) "Articulation." Script
c'->-.
}
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 592

time-based footnotes
mp
1
2
h
4

º  h
3

   hh
5

1
A flat.
2
A flat.
3
A flat.
4
Articulation.
5
Articulation.
A note inside of a chord can be given an individual (event-based) footnote. A ‘NoteHead’ is
the only grob directly caused from a chord note, so an event-based footnote command is only
suitable for adding a footnote to the ‘NoteHead’ within a chord. All other chord note grobs
are indirectly caused. The \footnote command itself offers no syntax for specifying both a
particular grob type as well as a particular event to attach to. However, one can use a time-
based \footnote command for specifying the grob type, and then prefix this command with
\single in order to have it applied to just the following event:
\book {
\header { tagline = ##f }
\markup "time-based footnotes"
\markup \null
\relative c'' {
< \footnote #'(1 . -2) "An A." a
\single \footnote #'(-1 . -1) "A sharp." Accidental
cis
\single \footnote #'(0.5 . 0.5) "A flat." Accidental
ees fis
>2
}
}

time-based footnotes

º 
1
 NNN
 N
2
3

1
A flat.
2
A sharp.
3
An A.
☛ ✟
Note: When footnotes are attached to several musical elements at the
same musical moment, as they are in the example above, the footnotes
are numbered from the higher to the lower elements as they appear in
the printed output, not in the order in which they are written in the
input stream.
✡ ✠
Layout objects like clefs and key change signatures are mostly caused as a consequence of
changed properties rather than actual events. Others, like bar lines and bar numbers, are a
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 593

direct consequence of timing. For this reason, footnotes on such objects have to be based on
their musical timing. Time-based footnotes are also preferable when marking features like stems
and beams on chords: while such per-chord features are nominally assigned to one event inside
the chord, relying on a particular choice would be imprudent.
The layout object in question must always be explicitly specified for time-based footnotes,
and the appropriate context must be specified if the grob is created in a context other than the
bottom context.
\book {
\header { tagline = ##f }
\markup "time-based footnotes"
\relative c'' {
r1 |
\footnote #'(-0.5 . -1) "Meter change." Staff.TimeSignature
\time 3/4
\footnote #'(1 . -1) "Chord stem." Stem
<c e g>4 q q
\footnote #'(-0.5 . 2) "Bar line." Staff.BarLine
q q
\footnote #'(0.5 . -1) "Key change." Staff.KeySignature
\key c \minor
q
}
}

h h h hh hh   hh
time-based footnotes
” h h h
3

 º 3 h h h h h  h
4 4
1
2

1
Meter change.
2
Chord stem.
3
Bar line.
4
Key change.
Custom marks can be used as alternatives to numerical marks, and the annotation line joining
the marked object to the mark can be suppressed:
\book {
\header { tagline = ##f }
\markup "footnotes with custom marks"
\markup \null
\relative c' {
\footnote "*" #'(0.5 . -2) \markup { \italic "* The first note" }
a'4 b8
\footnote \markup { \super "$" } #'(0.5 . 1)
\markup { \super "$" \italic " The second note." } e
c4
\once \override Score.Footnote.annotation-line = ##f
b-\footnote \markup \tiny "+" #'(0.1 . 0.1)
\markup { \super "+" \italic " Editorial." } \p
}
}
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 594

footnotes with custom marks

h
º h h h h
$

* p+
* The first note
$
The second note.
+
Editorial.

More examples of custom marks are shown in Section 21.4.2 [Footnotes in stand-alone text],
page 594.

21.4.2 Footnotes in stand-alone text

These are for use in markup outside of music expressions. They do not have a line drawn to
their point of reference: their marks simply follow the referenced markup. Marks can be inserted
automatically, in which case they are numerical. Alternatively, custom marks can be provided
manually.

Footnotes to stand-alone text with automatic and custom marks are created in different ways.

Footnotes in stand-alone text with automatic marks

The syntax of a footnote in stand-alone text with automatic marks is

\markup { ... \auto-footnote text footnote ... }

The elements are:

text the markup or string to be marked,

footnote the markup or string specifying the footnote text to use at the bottom of the page.

For example:

\book {
\header { tagline = ##f }
\markup {
"A simple"
\auto-footnote "tune" \italic " By me."
"is shown below. It is a"
\auto-footnote "recent" \italic " Aug 2012."
"composition."
}
\relative {
a'4 b8 e c4 d
}
}
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 595

A simple tune1 is shown below. It is a recent2 composition.

h
º h h h h

1 By me.
2
Aug 2012.

Footnotes in stand-alone text with custom marks

The syntax of a footnote in stand-alone text with custom marks is

\markup { ... \footnote mark footnote ... }

The elements are:

mark is a markup or string specifying the footnote mark which is used for marking the ref-
erence point. Note that this mark is not inserted automatically before the footnote
itself.

footnote is the markup or string specifying the footnote text to use at the bottom of the page,
preceded by the mark.

Any easy to type character such as ‘*’ or ‘+’ may be used as a mark, as shown in Section 21.4.1
[Footnotes in music expressions], page 588. Alternatively, ASCII aliases may be used (see
Section 22.4.3 [ASCII aliases], page 620):

\book {
\paper { #(include-special-characters) }
\header { tagline = ##f }
\markup {
"A simple tune"
\footnote "*" \italic "* By me."
"is shown below. It is a recent"
\footnote \super &dagger; \concat {
\super &dagger; \italic " Aug 2012."
}
"composition."
}
\relative {
a'4 b8 e c4 d
}
}
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 596

A simple tune * is shown below. It is a recent † composition.

h
º h h h h

* By me.
†
Aug 2012.

Unicode character codes may also be used to specify marks (see Section 22.4.2 [Unicode],
page 619):
\book {
\header { tagline = ##f }
\markup {
"A simple tune"
\footnote \super \char##x00a7 \concat {
\super \char##x00a7 \italic " By me."
}
"is shown below. It is a recent"
\footnote \super \char##x00b6 \concat {
\super \char##x00b6 \italic " Aug 2012."
}
"composition."
}
\relative {
a'4 b8 e c4 d
}
}

A simple tune § is shown below. It is a recent ¶ composition.

h
º h h h h

§
By me.
¶
Aug 2012.
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 597

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Objects and interfaces” in Learning Manual.

Notation Reference: Section 22.4.3 [ASCII aliases], page 620, Section 7.2.2 [Balloon help],
page 290, Section B.12 [List of special characters], page 891, Section 8.1.5 [Text marks],
page 304, Section 8.1.2 [Text scripts], page 300, Section 22.4.2 [Unicode], page 619.

Internals Reference: Section “FootnoteEvent” in Internals Reference, Section “Footnote” in

Internals Reference, Section “Footnote engraver” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Multiple footnotes for the same page can only be stacked, one above the other; they cannot be
printed on the same line.

Footnote marks may collide with staves, \markup objects, other footnote marks and annota-
tion lines.

21.5 Creating in-notes

In-notes function like footnotes in that they serve to annotate music, but are different in that
they are typeset either above or below the system to which the grob being annotated belongs.

To create an in-note, set the footnote property of the Footnote grob to #f. The distance
between two in-notes can be controlled with the paper variable in-note-padding, the distance
between the in-note and its associated system by in-note-system-padding. If you want in-
notes positioned below its associated system, set paper variable in-note-direction to DOWN.

music = { a4 b8 e c4 d }

\book {
\relative c'' {
\override Score.Footnote.footnote = ##f

\repeat unfold 5 \music

\footnote #'(1 . 1) "An in-note." NoteHead
<>-> \repeat unfold 4 \music
\footnote "" #'(0 . 0) "An in-note without number." NoteHead
<>-> \repeat unfold 2 \music
\footnote "" #'(0 . 0) "Another numberless in-note." NoteHead
<>-> \music
}

\paper {
in-note-system-padding = 5
in-note-padding = 2
tagline = ##f
}
}
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 598

h h h h h h
º h h h h h h h h h
1
An in-note.

h h 1 h
 h h h h h h h h hm h h
h
4

h h h h hh h h h hh h
 h h h
7

An in-note without number.

Another numberless in-note.

h h h h hh h h h hh h
 hm h h
10

m
21.6 Reference to page numbers
A particular place of a score can be marked using the \label command, either at top level or
inside music. This label can then be referred to in a markup, to get the number of the page
where the marked point is placed, using the \page-ref markup command.
\header { tagline = ##f }
\book {
\label #'firstScore
\score {
{
c'1
\pageBreak \mark A \label #'markA
c'1
}
}
\markup { The first score begins on page \page-ref #'firstScore "0" "?" }
\markup { Mark A is on page \page-ref #'markA "0" "?" }
}

º .
2
2 A
 .

The first score begins on page 1

Mark A is on page 2
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 599

The \page-ref markup command takes three arguments:

1. the label, a Scheme symbol, for example #'firstScore;
2. a markup that will be used as a gauge to estimate the dimensions of the markup;
3. a markup that will be used in place of the page number if the label is not known.
The reason why a gauge is needed is that, at the time markups are interpreted, the page
breaking has not yet occurred, so the page numbers are not yet known. To work around this
issue, the actual markup interpretation is delayed to a later time; however, the dimensions of
the markup have to be known before, so a gauge is used to decide these dimensions. If the book
has between 10 and 99 pages, it may be “00”, i.e., a two digit number.
If the size of the final text is different from the gauge, it could be useful to configure the
horizontal alignment relative to the gauge with the property x-align. The default is right-
aligned.
\markup {
\box
\page-ref #'foo "???" "?" " right-aligned (default)"
}
\markup {
\box
\override #`(x-align . ,LEFT)
\page-ref #'foo "???" "?" " left-aligned"
}
\markup {
\box
\override #'(x-align . -2.5)
\page-ref #'foo "???" "?" " left outside"
}

? right-aligned (default)

? left-aligned

? left outside
In the example the gauge ‘???’ is wider than the replacement text ‘?’. The replacement is
used because the label #'foo does not exist. The property x-align can be set with any numbers.
The predefined symbols LEFT, CENTER or RIGHT can also be used to set the alignment to left,
center or right relative to the gauge.

Predefined commands
\label, \page-ref.

21.7 Table of contents

A table of contents is included using the \markuplist \table-of-contents command. The
elements which should appear in the table of contents are entered with the \tocItem command,
which may be used either at top level, or inside a music expression.
\markuplist \table-of-contents
\pageBreak

\tocItem \markup "First score"

\score {
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 600

{
c'4 % ...
\tocItem \markup "Some particular point in the first score"
d'4 % ...
}
}

\tocItem \markup "Second score"

\score {
{
e'4 % ...
\tocItem actI \markup "Act I"
f'4 % ...
\tocItem actI.sceneI \markup "Scene 1"
g'4 % ...
\tocItem actI.sceneI.recitativo \markup "Recit."
a'4 % ...
}
}
Optionally, a label can be associated with a particular item, or a hierarchical list of existing
labels, finishing with that item’s label. That latter case allows to mark the item as a ‘child’ of
the preceding labeled items, thus making the score’s structure apparent in the table of contents.
Markups used for formatting the table of contents are defined in the \paper block. There
are three ‘predefined’ markups already available;
• tocTitleMarkup
Used for formatting the title of the table of contents.
tocTitleMarkup = \markup \huge \column {
\fill-line { \null "Table of Contents" \null }
\null
}
• tocItemMarkup
Used for formatting the elements within the table of contents.
tocItemMarkup = \markup \fill-line {
\fromproperty #'toc:text \fromproperty #'toc:page
}
• tocFormatMarkup
How the table’s top level entries will be formatted (if there are several hierarchical levels).
This is actually a procedure, as explained in Section “Markup construction in Scheme” in
Extending.
tocFormatMarkup = #make-bold-markup
• tocIndentMarkup
Used to define how the outline’s hierarchy will be made apparent. This markup is printed
zero, one or several times depending on the level of each entry.
tocIndentMarkup = \markup \hspace #4
Any of these variables can be changed.
Here is an example translating the table of contents’ title into French:
\paper {
tocTitleMarkup = \markup \huge \column {
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 601

\fill-line { \null "Table des matières" \null }

\hspace #1
}
Here is an example changing the font size of the elements in the table of contents:
tocItemMarkup = \markup \large \fill-line {
\fromproperty #'toc:text \fromproperty #'toc:page
}
Note how the element text and page numbers are referred to in the tocItemMarkup definition.
The \tocItemWithDotsMarkup command can be included within the tocItemMarkup to fill
the line, between a table of contents item and its corresponding page number, with dots:
\header { tagline = ##f }
\paper {
tocItemMarkup = \tocItemWithDotsMarkup
}

\book {
\markuplist \table-of-contents
\tocItem \markup { Allegro }
\tocItem \markup { Largo }
\markup \null
}

Table of Contents
Allegro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Largo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

In addition to the built-in outline mechanism, custom commands can also be defined to build
a more personalized table of contents with different markups In the following example, a new
style is defined for entering act and scenes in the table of contents of an opera:
A new markup variable (called tocActMarkup) is defined in the \paper block:
\paper {
tocActMarkup = \markup \large \column {
\hspace #1
\fill-line { \null \italic \fromproperty #'toc:text \null }
\hspace #1
}
}
A custom music function (tocAct) is then created – which uses the new tocActMarkup markup
definition, and allows to specify a label for each act.
tocAct =
#(define-music-function (label text) (symbol? markup?)
(add-toc-item! 'tocActMarkup text label))
Using these custom definitions and modifying some of the existing definitions, the source file
could then be written as follows:
Chapter 21: Titles and headers 602

Table of Contents

Atto Primo

Coro. Viva il nostro Alcide . . . . . . . . . . 1

Cesare. Presti omai l'Egizia terra . . . . . . 1
Recit. Curio, Cesare venne, e vide, e vinse. . 1

Atto Secondo

Sinfonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Cleopatra. V'adoro, pupille, saette d'Amore . . 1

The previous example also demonstrates how to use the \fill-with-pattern markup command
within the context of a table of contents.

See also
Installed Files: ly/toc-init.ly.

Predefined commands
\table-of-contents, \tocItem, tocItemMarkup, tocTitleMarkup, tocFormatMarkup,
tocIndentMarkup.
 603

22 Working with input files

22.1 Including LilyPond files

A large project may be split up into separate files. To refer to another file, use
\include "otherfile.ly"
The line \include "otherfile.ly" is equivalent to pasting the contents of otherfile.ly
into the current file at the place where the \include appears. For example, in a large project
you might write separate files for each instrument part and create a “full score” file which
brings together the individual instrument files. Normally the included file will define a number
of variables which then become available for use in the full score file. Tagged sections can
be marked in included files to assist in making them usable in different places in a score, see
Section 22.2 [Different editions from one source], page 604.
Files in the current working directory may be referenced by specifying just the file name
after the \include command. Files in other locations may be included by giving either a full
path reference or a relative path reference (but use the UNIX forward slash, /, rather than the
DOS/Windows back slash, \, as the directory separator.) For example, if stuff.ly is located
one directory higher than the current working directory, use
\include "../stuff.ly"
or if the included orchestral parts files are all located in a subdirectory called parts within the
current directory, use
\include "parts/VI.ly"
\include "parts/VII.ly"
... etc
Files which are to be included can also contain \include statements of their own. These
second-level \include statements are then interpreted relatively to the path of the file containing
that command, which is convenient for multiple files located in the same subdirectory. For
example, a general library, ‘libA’, may itself use subfiles which are \included by the entry file
of that library, like this:
libA/
libA.ly
A1.ly
A2.ly
...
then the entry file, libA.ly, will contain
\include "A1.ly"
\include "A2.ly"
...
Any .ly file can then include the entire library simply with
\include "~/libA/libA.ly"
However, that behavior can be changed globally by passing the command-line option
-drelative-includes=#f, or by adding #(ly:set-option 'relative-includes #f) at the
top of the main input file. In that case, each file will be included relatively to the location of
the main file, regardless of where its \include statement is located. Complex file structures,
that require to \include both files relative to the main directory and files relative to some
other directory, may even be devised by setting relative-includes to #f or #t at appropriate
places in the files.
Files can also be included from a directory in a search path specified as an option when
invoking LilyPond from the command line. The included files are then specified using just their
Chapter 22: Working with input files 604

file name. For example, to compile main.ly which includes files located in a subdirectory called
parts by this method, change to the directory containing main.ly and enter
lilypond --include=parts main.ly
and in main.ly write
\include "VI.ly"
\include "VII.ly"
... etc
Files which are to be included in many scores may be placed in the LilyPond directory
../ly. (The location of this directory is installation-dependent – see Section “Other sources of
information” in Learning Manual). These files can then be included simply by naming them on
an \include statement. This is how the language-dependent files like english.ly are included.
LilyPond includes a number of files by default when you start the program. These includes
are not apparent to the user, but the files may be identified by running lilypond --verbose
from the command line. This will display a list of paths and files that LilyPond uses, along with
much other information. Alternatively, the more important of these files are discussed in Section
“Other sources of information” in Learning Manual. These files may be edited, but changes to
them will be lost on installing a new version of LilyPond.
Some simple examples of using \include are shown in Section “Scores and parts” in Learning
Manual.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Other sources of information” in Learning Manual, Section
“Scores and parts” in Learning Manual.

Known issues and warnings

If an included file is given a name which is the same as one in LilyPond’s installation files,
LilyPond’s file from the installation files takes precedence.

22.2 Different editions from one source

Several methods can be used to generate different versions of a score from the same music source.
Variables are perhaps the most useful for combining lengthy sections of music and/or annotation.
Tags are more useful for selecting one section from several alternative shorter sections of music,
and can also be used for splicing pieces of music together at different points.
Whichever method is used, separating the notation from the structure of the score will make
it easier to change the structure while leaving the notation untouched.

22.2.1 Using variables

If sections of the music are defined in variables they can be reused in different parts of the score,
see Section “Organizing pieces with variables” in Learning Manual. For example, an a cappella
vocal score frequently includes a piano reduction of the parts for rehearsal purposes which is
identical to the vocal music, so the music need be entered only once. Music from two variables
may be combined on one staff, see Section 5.2.5 [Automatic part combining], page 224. Here is
an example:
sopranoMusic = \relative { a'4 b c b8( a) }
altoMusic = \relative { e'4 e e f }
tenorMusic = \relative { c'4 b e d8( c) }
bassMusic = \relative { a4 gis a d, }
allLyrics = \lyricmode { King of glo -- ry }
<<
Chapter 22: Working with input files 605

\new Staff = "Soprano" \sopranoMusic

\new Lyrics \allLyrics
\new Staff = "Alto" \altoMusic
\new Lyrics \allLyrics
\new Staff = "Tenor" {
\clef "treble_8"
\tenorMusic
}
\new Lyrics \allLyrics
\new Staff = "Bass" {
\clef "bass"
\bassMusic
}
\new Lyrics \allLyrics
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff = "RH" {
\partCombine \sopranoMusic \altoMusic
}
\new Staff = "LH" {
\clef "bass"
\partCombine \tenorMusic \bassMusic
}
>>
>>

 º h h h hh
King of glo ry

 º h h h h
King of glo ry
h hh
 º h h

 º h h h h
8
King of glo ry

King of glo ry

d
 º hh h h hh h
h h
hh h h
 º hh  hh h
Separate scores showing just the vocal parts or just the piano part can be produced by
changing just the structural statements, leaving the musical notation unchanged.
For lengthy scores, the variable definitions may be placed in separate files which are then
included, see Section 22.1 [Including LilyPond files], page 603.
Chapter 22: Working with input files 606

22.2.2 Using tags

The \tag #'partA command marks a music expression with the name partA. Expressions
tagged in this way can be selected or filtered out by name later, using either \keepWithTag
#'name or \removeWithTag #'name. The result of applying these filters to tagged music is as
follows:
Filter Result

Tagged music preceded by Untagged music and music tagged

\keepWithTag #'name with any of the given tag names is in-
or cluded; music tagged with any other
\keepWithTag #'(name1 name2...) tag name is excluded.

Tagged music preceded by Untagged music and music not tagged

\removeWithTag #'name with any of the given tag names is in-
or cluded; music tagged with any of the
\removeWithTag #'(name1 name2...) given tag names is excluded.

Tagged music not preceded by either All tagged and untagged music is
\keepWithTag or \removeWithTag included.
The arguments of the \tag, \keepWithTag and \removeWithTag commands should be a
symbol or list of symbols (such as #'score or #'(violinI violinII), followed by a music
expression. If and only if the symbols are valid LilyPond identifiers (alphabetic characters only,
no numbers, underscores, or dashes) which cannot be confused with notes, the #' may be omitted
and, as a shorthand, a list of symbols can use the comma separator: i.e., \tag #'(violinI
violinII) can be written \tag violinI,violinII. The same applies to \keepWithTag and
\removeWithTag. Tagging commands are music functions, thus they cannot be used to filter
items that are not music expressions, such as \book or \score blocks.
In the following example, we see two versions of a piece of music, one showing trills with the
usual notation, and one with trills explicitly expanded:
music = \relative {
g'8. c32 d
\tag #'trills { d8.\trill }
\tag #'expand { \repeat unfold 3 { e32 d } }
c32 d
}

\score {
\keepWithTag #'trills \music
}
\score {
\keepWithTag #'expand \music
}

h h huP h h
º
 hP

h h h
 º hP h h h h h h h
Chapter 22: Working with input files 607

Alternatively, it is sometimes easier to exclude sections of music:

music = \relative {
g'8. c32 d
\tag #'trills { d8.\trill }
\tag #'expand { \repeat unfold 3 { e32 d } }
c32 d
}

\score {
\removeWithTag #'expand
\music
}
\score {
\removeWithTag #'trills
\music
}

º P h h hu P h h
 h
h h h
 º hP h h h h h h h
If tags mark alternatives that have non-zero duration, the alternatives are often conceptually
simultaneous, in which case it is best to put the alternatives in a simultaneous music expression
so that the music expression has the same duration no matter which tags are retained. This is
especially important if you are using tags in combination with commands like \cueDuring.
outputTypeTag = "isScore"

firstInstrument = \relative c' {

<<
\tag #'isPart {
\cueDuring "quoteSecondInstrument" #UP { r2 } }
\tag #'isScore { r2 }
>>
e4 f |
g4 a b c |
}

secondInstrument= \relative c'' {

c4 c r2 |
\cueDuring "quoteFirstInstrument" #DOWN { r2 }
c4 c |
}

\addQuote quoteFirstInstrument \firstInstrument

\addQuote quoteSecondInstrument \secondInstrument

\new Staff {
\keepWithTag \outputTypeTag \firstInstrument
Chapter 22: Working with input files 608

\new Staff {
\keepWithTag \outputTypeTag \secondInstrument
}

º ˜ h h h h h h

º h h ˜ ˜ h h
 h h

Tagged filtering can be applied to articulations, texts, etc., by prepending

-\tag #'your-tag
to an articulation. For example, this would define a note with a conditional fingering indica-
tion and a note with a conditional annotation:
c1-\tag #'finger ^4
c1-\tag #'warn ^"Watch!"
Multiple tags may be placed on expressions with multiple \tag entries, or by combining
multiple tags into one symbol list:
music = \relative c'' {
\tag #'a \tag #'both { a4 a a a }
\tag #'(b both) { b4 b b b }
}
<<
\keepWithTag #'a \music
\keepWithTag #'b \music
\keepWithTag #'both \music
>>

º h h h h

º h h h h

º h h h h h h h h
Multiple \removeWithTag filters may be applied to a single music expression to remove
several differently named tagged sections. Alternatively, you can use a single \removeWithTag
with a list of tags.
music = \relative c'' {
\tag #'A { a4 a a a }
\tag #'B { b4 b b b }
\tag #'C { c4 c c c }
\tag #'D { d4 d d d }
}
Chapter 22: Working with input files 609

\new Voice {
\removeWithTag #'B
\removeWithTag #'C
\music
\removeWithTag #'(B C)
\music
}

º h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
Using two or more \keepWithTag filters on a single music expression will cause all of the
tagged sections to be removed. The first filter will remove all except the one named and any
subsequent filters will remove the rest. Using one \keepWithTag command with a list of multiple
tags will only remove tagged sections that are not specified in that list.
music = \relative c'' {
\tag #'violinI { a4 a a a }
\tag #'violinII { b4 b b b }
\tag #'viola { c4 c c c }
\tag #'cello { d4 d d d }
}

\new Staff {
\keepWithTag #'(violinI violinII)
\music
}

º h h h h h h h h
will print \tags violinI and violinII but not viola or cello.
While \keepWithTag is convenient when dealing with one set of alternatives, the removal of
music tagged with unrelated tags is problematic when using them for more than one purpose.
In that case ‘groups’ of tags can be declared:
\tagGroup #'(violinI violinII viola cello)
Now all the different tags belong to a single ‘tag group’. Note that individual tags cannot be
members of more than one tag group.
\keepWithTag #'violinI ...
will now only show music tagged from violinI’s tag group and any music tagged with one of
the other tags will removed.
music = \relative {
\tagGroup #'(violinI violinII)
\tagGroup #'(viola cello)
\tag #'violinI { c''4^"violinI" c c c }
\tag #'violinII { a2 a }
\tag #'viola { e8 e e2. }
\tag #'cello { d'2 d4 d }
\tag #'other { f^"other" f f f }
R1^"untagged"
}
Chapter 22: Working with input files 610

\new Voice {
\keepWithTag #'violinI
\music
}

N h h h h h h untagged
”
 º h h h h h h NP
violinI other

When using the \keepWithTag command, only tags from the tag groups of the tags given in
the command are visible.
Sometimes you want to splice some music at a particular place in an existing music expression.
You can use \pushToTag and \appendToTag for adding material at the front or end of various
music constructs. The supported places are
Sequential and simultaneous music
If you tagged an entire {...} or <<...>> construct, you can add music expressions
at its front or back.
Chords If you tagged a chord <...>, you can either add notes at its front or back, or
articulations for the whole chord.
Notes and rests
If you tagged a note (also inside of a chord) or a rest, you can add articulations to
the front or back of its existing articulations. Note that to add other notes, you
rather have to put the note inside of a chord and tag the chord. Also note that you
cannot tag a single articulation and add to it since it isn’t inherently a list. Instead,
tag the note.
music = { \tag #'here { \tag #'here <<c''>> } }

{
\pushToTag #'here c'
\pushToTag #'here e'
\pushToTag #'here g' \music
\appendToTag #'here c'
\appendToTag #'here e'
\appendToTag #'here g' \music
}

º h hh hh h
h h hh hh h h
Both commands get a tag, the material to splice in at every occurrence of the tag, and the
tagged expression.
The \tag command can also be used in \markup environments. The commands
\keep-with-tag, \remove-with-tag, \push-to-tag and \append-to-tag are also available
and behave like their corresponding commands for music expressions.
test = \markup {
\tag #'a a
\tag #'b b
\tag #'c c
}
Chapter 22: Working with input files 611

\markup { \keep-with-tag #'b \test }

\markup { \remove-with-tag #'b \test }
\markup { \push-to-tag #'c pre \test }
\markup { \append-to-tag #'c post \test }

ac

a b pre c

a b c post
Music commands like \keepWithTag and \removeWithTag filter tags in \markup parts in the
related music, too.
music = \relative {
c'4^\markup { \tag #'one first \tag #'two second part } c c c
}

{
\keepWithTag #'one \music
\removeWithTag #'one \music
}

º h h h h h h h h
first part second part

It is also possible to push and append something to the \markup of musical objects. We
cannot use \pushToTag and \appendToTag because they only insert some music, so we need
\pushToTagMarkup and \appendToTagMarkup to insert markup.
music = \relative {
c'4^\markup { \tag #'part part } c c c
}

{
\pushToTagMarkup #'part "great" \music
\appendToTagMarkup #'part \markup { is also great } \music
}

º h h h h h h h h
great part part is also great

The filtering of tags also works for music embedded within \score blocks in markup com-
mands.
music = \relative {
c'2^\markup { \tag #'first first \tag #'second second } c
\tag #'first { d d }
\tag #'second { f f }
}
Chapter 22: Working with input files 612

\markup {
\keep-with-tag #'first \score { \music }
\remove-with-tag #'first \score { \music }
}

º º
first second

N N N N N N N N
Be careful with the usage of tags with lists of markup. The filter functions work as expected
\markup {
\remove-with-tag #'test { a \tag #'test { b c } d }
}

ad

but commands like \push-to-tag and \append-to-tag have problems.

\markup {
\push-to-tag #'test "twice" { a \tag #'test { b c } d }
}

a twice b twice c d

The reason for this behavior is that LilyPond changes

\tag #'test { b c }
internally to
\tag #'test b
\tag #'test c
and thus the given text is inserted twice. For tagging a list to insert or append something before
or after the whole list the command \tag-list should be used.
\markup {
\push-to-tag #'test "once" { a \tag-list #'test { b c } d }
}

a once b c d

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Organizing pieces with variables” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 5.2.5 [Automatic part combining], page 224, Section 22.1 [In-
cluding LilyPond files], page 603.

Known issues and warnings

Calling \relative on a music expression obtained by filtering music through \keepWithTag or
\removeWithTag might cause the octave relations to change, as only the pitches actually remain-
ing in the filtered expression will be considered. Applying \relative first, before \keepWithTag
or \removeWithTag, avoids this danger as \relative then acts on all the pitches as input.
Chapter 22: Working with input files 613

22.2.3 Using global settings

Global settings can be included from a separate file:
lilypond -dinclude-settings=MY_SETTINGS.ly MY_SCORE.ly
Groups of settings such as page size, font or type face can be stored in separate files and
loaded with several -dinclude-settings options. This allows different editions from the same
score as well as standard settings to be applied to many scores, simply by specifying the proper
settings file.
This technique also works well with the use of style sheets, as discussed in Section “Style
sheets” in Learning Manual.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Organizing pieces with variables” in Learning Manual, Section
“Style sheets” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 22.1 [Including LilyPond files], page 603.

22.3 Using music functions

Where tweaks need to be reused with different music expressions, it is often convenient to make
the tweak part of a music function. In this section, we discuss only substitution functions, where
the object is to substitute a variable into a piece of LilyPond input code. Other more complex
functions are described in Section “Music functions” in Extending.

22.3.1 Substitution function syntax

Making a function that substitutes a variable into LilyPond code is easy. The general form of
these functions is
function =
#(define-music-function
(arg1 arg2 ...)
(type1? type2? ...)
#{
...music...
#})
where
argN The nth argument.

typeN? A Scheme type predicate for which argN must return #t.

...music... Normal LilyPond input, using ‘$’ (in places where only Lily-
Pond constructs are allowed) or ‘#’ (to use it as a Scheme
value or music function argument or music inside of music
lists) to reference arguments (e.g., ‘#arg1’).
The list of type predicates is required. Some of the most common type predicates used in
music functions are:
boolean?
cheap-list? (use instead of ‘list?’ for faster processing)
ly:duration?
ly:music?
ly:pitch?
Chapter 22: Working with input files 614

markup?
number?
pair?
string?
symbol?
For a list of available type predicates, see Section B.24 [Predefined type predicates], page 932.
User-defined type predicates are also allowed.

See also
Notation Reference: Section B.24 [Predefined type predicates], page 932.
Extending LilyPond: Section “Music functions” in Extending.
Installed Files: lily/music-scheme.cc, scm/c++.scm, scm/lily.scm.

22.3.2 Substitution function examples

This section introduces some substitution function examples. These are not intended to be
exhaustive, but rather to demonstrate some of the possibilities of simple substitution functions.
In the first example, a function is defined that simplifies setting the padding of a TextScript
grob:
padText =
#(define-music-function
(padding)
(number?)
#{
\once \override TextScript.padding = #padding
#})

\relative {
c''4^"piu mosso" b a b
\padText 1.8
c4^"piu mosso" b a b
\padText 2.6
c4^"piu mosso" b a b
}

piu mosso piu mosso

º h h h h h h h h h h h h
piu mosso

In addition to numbers, we can use music expressions such as notes for arguments to music
functions:
custosNote =
#(define-music-function
(note)
(ly:music?)
#{
\tweak NoteHead.stencil #ly:text-interface::print
\tweak NoteHead.text
\markup \musicglyph "custodes.mensural.u0"
\tweak Stem.stencil ##f
Chapter 22: Working with input files 615

#note
#})

\relative { c'4 d e f \custosNote g }

º G
h h h h
Both of those functions are simple single expressions where only the last element of a function
call or override is missing. For those particular function definitions, there is a simpler alternative
syntax, namely just writing out the constant part of the expression and replacing its final missing
element with \etc:
padText =
\once \override TextScript.padding = \etc

\relative {
c''4^"piu mosso" b a b
\padText 1.8
c4^"piu mosso" b a b
\padText 2.6
c4^"piu mosso" b a b
}

piu mosso piu mosso

º h h h h h h h h h h h h
piu mosso

custosNote =
\tweak NoteHead.stencil #ly:text-interface::print
\tweak NoteHead.text
\markup \musicglyph "custodes.mensural.u0"
\tweak Stem.stencil ##f
\etc

\relative { c'4 d e f \custosNote g }

º G
h h h h
Substitution functions with multiple arguments can be defined:
tempoPadded =
#(define-music-function
(padding tempotext)
(number? markup?)
#{
\once \override Score.MetronomeMark.padding = #padding
\tempo \markup { \bold #tempotext }
#})

\relative {
\tempo \markup { "Low tempo" }
Chapter 22: Working with input files 616

c''4 d e f g1
\tempoPadded 4.0 "High tempo"
g4 f e d c1
}

High tempo

h h h h . h h h h
.
Low tempo
º
22.3.3 How to prevent sharing of music expressions
When writing music functions, it is important to abide by a rule: the same music expressions
must not be shared in several places. As an example, here is a problematic function:
simpleAccompaniment =
#(define-music-function
(bass-1 bass-2 chord) (ly:music? ly:music? ly:music?)
#{
#bass-1 #chord #bass-2 #chord
#})

{
\clef bass
\simpleAccompaniment c g, <e g>
\simpleAccompaniment d g, <f g>
}

 º h hh hh h hh hh
h h
The problem with this function becomes clear if the result is transposed:
simpleAccompaniment =
#(define-music-function
(bass-1 bass-2 chord) (ly:music? ly:music? ly:music?)
#{
#bass-1 #chord #bass-2 #chord
#})

\transpose c e {
\clef bass
\simpleAccompaniment c g, <e g>
\simpleAccompaniment d g, <f g>
}

  hh hh   hh hh
º h h h h
While the bass notes are correct, the chord is not transposed properly – in fact, it is being
transposed twice. The reason for this is that the music expression chord was used twice in the
result of the function, without copying it. Functions such as \transpose modify the music
object directly (in the case of \transpose, the pitches are changed). If the same music object
Chapter 22: Working with input files 617

is reused, modifications made in one place where it is used affect both places, since they hold
the same object. In this case, \transpose encounters the object twice and transposes it twice.
One way to fix this function is to use ‘$’ instead of ‘#’ to reference the variables, which makes
a copy. The difference between ‘#’ and ‘$’ is detailed in Section “LilyPond Scheme syntax” in
Extending.
simpleAccompaniment =
#(define-music-function
(bass-1 bass-2 chord) (ly:music? ly:music? ly:music?)
#{
$bass-1 $chord $bass-2 $chord
#})

\transpose c e {
\clef bass
\simpleAccompaniment c g, <e g>
\simpleAccompaniment d g, <f g>
}

 º h  hh hh  h hh hh
h h
22.3.4 Substitution functions and relative octave entry
When \relative is applied to a music expression, it traverses it searching for pitched notes, and
modifies the pitches in the order they are found, changing the octave of each pitch according to
its octave marks (‘'’ and ‘,’) and the previous pitch. When writing substitution functions, this
may lead to the situation that a music expression is ‘relativized’ in a surprising way because the
output of the function uses the parameters several times and/or in a different order. Consider
this function and how its output reacts to \relative:
simpleAccompaniment =
#(define-music-function
(bass-1 bass-2 chord) (ly:music? ly:music? ly:music?)
#{
$bass-1 $chord $bass-2 $chord
#})

\relative {
\clef bass
\simpleAccompaniment c g <e' g>
\simpleAccompaniment d g, <f' g>
}
hh hh
hh h h
hh h
º h
In this example, the output is the same as that of
\relative {
\clef bass
c <e' g> g <e' g>
Chapter 22: Working with input files 618

d <f' g> g, <f' g>

}
hh hh
hh h h
hh h
º h
However, this is not the desired output when using the \simpleAccompaniment function.
The pitch g, is relative to the first note of the chord that precedes it, <e' g>, although it comes
after c in the input. Clearly, the pitches should be made relative according to the order in
which they are input when using the function, not in the order they appear in the output of the
function. This can be achieved using the make-relative Scheme macro. Its arguments are: a
list of variables, a reference expression, and a main music expression. The reference expression
is intended to be a mock-up of how the variables were entered in the input. Most of the time, it
can be a simple expression made with #{ ... #} containing the variables in order. Beware not
to make copies in the reference expression (in particular, use ‘#’, not ‘$’). The example above
can be fixed using make-relative in this way:
simpleAccompaniment =
#(define-music-function
(bass-1 bass-2 chord) (ly:music? ly:music? ly:music?)
(make-relative
(bass-1 bass-2 chord)
#{ #bass-1 #bass-2 #chord #}
#{ $bass-1 $chord $bass-2 $chord #}))

\relative {
\clef bass
\simpleAccompaniment c g <e' g>
\simpleAccompaniment d g, <f' g>
}

 º h hh hh h hh hh
h h
22.4 Special characters
22.4.1 Text encoding
LilyPond uses the character repertoire defined by the Unicode consortium and ISO/IEC 10646.
This defines a unique name and code point for the character sets used in virtually all modern
languages and many others too. Unicode can be implemented using several different encodings.
LilyPond uses the UTF-8 encoding (UTF stands for Unicode Transformation Format) which
represents all common Latin characters in one byte, and represents other characters using a
variable length format of up to four bytes.
The actual appearance of the characters is determined by the glyphs defined in the particular
fonts available – a font defines the mapping of a subset of the Unicode code points to glyphs.
LilyPond uses the Pango library to layout and render multi-lingual texts.
LilyPond does not perform any input encoding conversions. This means that any text, be
it title, lyric text, or musical instruction containing non-ASCII characters, must be encoded
Chapter 22: Working with input files 619

in UTF-8. The easiest way to enter such text is by using a Unicode-aware editor and saving
the file with UTF-8 encoding. Most popular modern editors have UTF-8 support, for example,
vim, Emacs, jEdit, and Gedit do. All MS Windows systems later than NT use Unicode as their
native character encoding, so even Notepad can edit and save a file in UTF-8 format. A more
functional alternative for Windows is BabelPad.
If a LilyPond input file containing a non-ASCII character is not saved in UTF-8 format the
error message
FT_Get_Glyph_Name () error: invalid argument
will be generated.
Here is an example showing Cyrillic, Hebrew and Portuguese text:

º N N N N N N
N
Жълтата дюля беше щастлива, че пухът, който
‫זה‬ ‫סתם כיף‬ ‫קרפד תנצח איך לשמוע‬
à vo cê uma can ção legal
22.4.2 Unicode
To enter a single character for which the Unicode code point is known but which is not available
in the editor being used, use either \char ##xhhhh or \char #dddd within a \markup block,
where hhhh is the hexadecimal code for the character required and dddd is the corresponding
decimal value. Leading zeroes may be omitted, but it is usual to specify all four characters in
the hexadecimal representation. (Note that the UTF-8 encoding of the code point should not
be used after \char, as UTF-8 encodings contain extra bits indicating the number of octets.)
Unicode code charts and a character name index giving the code point in hexadecimal for any
character can be found on the Unicode Consortium website, https://www.unicode.org/.
For example, \char ##x03BE and \char #958 would both enter the Unicode U+03BE char-
acter, which has the Unicode name “Greek Small Letter Xi”.
Any Unicode code point may be entered in this way and if all special characters are entered
in this format it is not necessary to save the input file in UTF-8 format. Of course, a font
containing all such encoded characters must be installed and available to LilyPond.
The following example shows Unicode hexadecimal values being entered in four places – in a
text mark, as articulation text, in lyrics and as stand-alone text below the score:
\score {
\relative {
c''1
\textMark \markup { \char ##x03A8 }
c1_\markup { \tiny { \char ##x03B1 " to " \char ##x03C9 } }
}
\addlyrics { O \markup { \concat { Ph \char ##x0153 be! } } }
}
\markup { "Copyright 2008--2023" \char ##x00A9 }

º . .
Ψ

α to ω
O Phœbe!
Copyright 2008--2023 ©
Chapter 22: Working with input files 620

To enter the copyright sign in the copyright notice use:

\header {
copyright = \markup { \char ##x00A9 "2008" }
}

22.4.3 ASCII aliases

A list of ASCII aliases for special characters can be included:
\paper {
#(include-special-characters)
}

\markup "&flqq; &ndash; &OE;uvre incomplète&hellip; &frqq;"

\score {
\new Staff { \repeat unfold 9 a'4 }
\addlyrics {
This is al -- so wor -- kin'~in ly -- rics: &ndash;_&OE;&hellip;
}
}

\markup \column {
"The replacement can be disabled:"
"&ndash; &OE; &hellip;"
\override #'(replacement-alist . ()) "&ndash; &OE; &hellip;"
}

« – Œuvre incomplète… »

º h h h h h h h h h
·
This is al so wor kin' in ly rics: – Œ…
The replacement can be disabled:
–Œ…
&ndash; &OE; &hellip;
You can also make your own aliases, either globally:
\paper {
#(add-text-replacements!
'(("100" . "hundred")
("dpi" . "dots per inch")))
}
\markup "A 100 dpi."

A hundred dots per inch.

or locally:
\markup \replace #'(("100" . "hundred")
("dpi" . "dots per inch")) "A 100 dpi."

A hundred dots per inch.

Chapter 22: Working with input files 621

The replacement is not necessarily a string; it can be an arbitrary markup. On the syntax
level, this requires using Scheme quasi-quoting syntax, with a backtick ‘`’ instead of a quote ‘'’
to write the alist.
\markup \replace
#`(("2nd" . ,#{ \markup \concat { 2 \super nd } #})) "2nd time"

2nd time
Aliases themselves are not further processed for replacements.

See also
Notation Reference: Section B.12 [List of special characters], page 891.
Installed Files: ly/text-replacements.ly.
 622

23 Controlling output

23.1 Extracting fragments of music

It is possible to output one or more fragments of a score. To do so, use the clip-regions
variable within the \layout or \paper block to define a list of explicit location of the music to
be extracted, then execute lilypond with the -dclip-systems option.
\layout {
clip-regions
= #(list (cons (make-rhythmic-location 5 1 2)
(make-rhythmic-location 7 3 4)))
}
This example extracts a single fragment of the input file starting after a half note duration
in fifth measure (5 1 2) and ending after the third quarter note in the seventh measure (7 3 4).
Additional fragments can be extracted by adding more pairs of make-rhythmic-location
entries to the clip-regions list.
If system starts and ends are included, they include extents of the System grob, e.g., instru-
ment names.
Grace notes at the end point of the region are not included.
Each music fragment gets written as a separate file. The extracted music is output as if it
had been literally ‘cut’ from the original printed score, so if a fragment runs over one or more
lines, a separate output file for each line is generated. Assuming that the above example covers
two lines in the PDF output of input file foo.ly, the output files for the music fragments would
be called foo-from-5.1.2-to-7.3.4-clip.pdf and foo-from-5.1.2-to-7.3.4-clip-1.pdf.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 27.1 [The \layout block], page 655.
Application Usage: Section “Command-line usage” in Application Usage.

23.2 Skipping corrected music

When entering or copying music, usually only the music near the end (where new notes are being
added) is interesting to view and correct. To speed up this correction process, it is possible to
skip typesetting of all but the last few measures. This is achieved by defining a special variable
at the source file’s top level, as follows:
showLastLength = R1*5
\score { ... }
In this instance, nothing will be rendered but the last five measures (assuming 4/4 time signature)
of every \score in the input file. For longer pieces, rendering only a small part is often an order
of magnitude quicker than rendering it completely. When working on the beginning of a score
that has already been typeset (for example to add a new part), the showFirstLength property
may be useful as well.
Skipping parts of a score can be controlled in a more fine-grained fashion with the property
Score.skipTypesetting. When it is set, no typesetting is performed at all. As a property of
the Score context, it affects all voices and staves; see Section 33.1.2 [Score – the master of all
contexts], page 708.
This property is also used to control output to the MIDI file. If some event in the skipped
section alters some of its context properties, for example a tempo or instrument change, then
Chapter 23: Controlling output 623

that new setting will take effect only at the point in time where skipTypesetting is disabled
again:
\relative c' {
c4 c c c
\set Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
d4 d d d
\tempo 4 = 80
e4 e e e
\set Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
f4 f f f
}

h = 80
º h h PPP h h h h
h h
Predefined commands
showLastLength, showFirstLength.

See also
Notation Reference: Chapter 33 [Interpretation contexts], page 708, Section 33.1.2 [Score –
the master of all contexts], page 708.
Internals Reference: Section “Tunable context properties” in Internals Reference.

23.3 Alternative output formats

The default output formats for the printed score are Portable Document Format (PDF) and
PostScript (PS). Portable Network Graphics (PNG), Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) and En-
capsulated PostScript (EPS) output formats are available through command-line options, see
Section “Basic command-line options for LilyPond” in Application Usage.

23.3.1 SVG Output

SVG output can optionally contain metadata for graphical objects (grobs) like note heads, rests,
etc. This metadata can be standard SVG attributes like id and class, or non-standard custom
attributes. Specify the attributes and their values by overriding a grob’s output-attributes
property with a Scheme association list (alist). The values can be numbers, strings, or symbols.
For example:
{
\once \override NoteHead.output-attributes =
#'((id . 123)
(class . "this that")
(data-whatever . something))
c
}
The input above will produce the following <g> (group) tag in the SVG file:
<g id="123" class="this that" data-whatever="something">
...NoteHead grob SVG elements...
</g>
The <g> tag contains all of the SVG elements for a given grob. (Some grobs generate multiple
SVG elements.) In SVG syntax the data- prefix is used for non-standard custom metadata
attributes.
Chapter 23: Controlling output 624

23.4 Embedding files in PDF output

Command-line option -dembed-source-code makes LilyPond embed all (user) source files
needed for compilation in the final output PDF (see Section “Advanced command-line options
for LilyPond” in Application Usage); a PDF viewer can then extract these attachments for
further use.
In a similar vein it is possible to embed arbitrary files in the PDF output with function
ly:note-extra-source-file (see Section “Scheme functions” in Internals Reference).

23.5 Replacing the notation font

Gonville is an alternative set of glyphs to Feta – part of the Emmentaler font – and used in
LilyPond. They can be downloaded from:
http://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/gonville/ (http://www.chiark.
greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/gonville/ )
Here are a few sample bars of music set in Gonville:

Here are a few sample bars of music set in LilyPond’s Feta glyphs:

Installation Instructions
• Download and extract the font files.
• Copy1 the files
gonville-11.otf
1
Currently it is necessary to repeat these steps after installing a new LilyPond version. If you are running the
lilypond binary directly from the build directory, see Section “Replacing the notation fonts in development
versions” in Contributor’s Guide for more information.
Chapter 23: Controlling output 625

gonville-13.otf
gonville-14.otf
gonville-16.otf
gonville-18.otf
gonville-20.otf
gonville-23.otf
gonville-26.otf
gonville-brace.otf
to directory .../share/lilypond/X.Y.Z/fonts/otf.
• If you have gonville-*.svg files, copy them to directory .../share/lilypond/X.Y.Z/
fonts/svg.
For more information, see Section “Other sources of information” in Learning Manual.
Note: gonville-*.otf files are for the ps and cairo backend (for PDF and PostScript
outputs, as well as all output formats when using the Cairo backend). gonville-*.svg files are
for the svg backend. For more information, see Section “Advanced command-line options for
LilyPond” in Application Usage.
The following code changes the notation font to the Gonville font.
\paper {
property-defaults.fonts.music = "gonville"
}
For more information, see Section 8.3.4 [Changing fonts], page 330.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Other sources of information” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section B.8 [The Emmentaler font], page 871, Section 8.3.4 [Changing
fonts], page 330.

Known issues and warnings

Gonville cannot be used to typeset ‘Ancient Music’ notation and it is likely newer glyphs in
later releases of LilyPond may not exist in the Gonville font family. Please refer to the author’s
website for more information on these and other specifics, including licensing of Gonville.

Other notation fonts

If you have other notation fonts like fontname-*.otf and fontname-*.svg, you can use them
in the same way as Gonville.
That is, copy the fontname-*.otf files to .../share/lilypond/X.Y.Z/fonts/otf. If you
have fontname-*.svg files, copy them to .../share/lilypond/X.Y.Z/fonts/svg.
Note: At the moment, LilyPond expects the font file names to have the following suffixes,
all of which must be present in the above installation folder(s) to work properly: -11, -13, -14,
-16, -18, -20, -23, -26, -brace. For example, emmentaler-11.otf, emmentaler-20.svg, etc.
The following code changes the notation font to the fontname font.
\paper {
% font file name without suffix and extension
property-defaults.fonts.music = "fontname"
}
 626

24 Creating MIDI output

LilyPond can produce files that conform to the MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)
standard and so allow for the checking of the music output aurally (with the help of an application
or device that understands MIDI). Listening to MIDI output may also help in spotting errors
such as notes that have been entered incorrectly or are missing accidentals and so on.
MIDI files do not contain sound (like AAC, MP3 or Vorbis files) but require additional
software to produce sound from them.

24.1 Supported notation for MIDI

The following musical notation can be used with LilyPond’s default capabilities to produce MIDI
output;
• Breath marks
• Chords entered as chord names
• Crescendi, decrescendi over multiple notes. The volume is altered linearly between the two
extremes
• Dynamic markings from ppppp to fffff, including mp, mf and sf
• Lyrics
• Markers: rehearsal marks, segni, coda marks, and section labels
• Microtones but not microtonal chords. A MIDI player that supports pitch bending will also
be required.
• Pitches
• Rhythms entered as note durations, including tuplets
• ‘Simple’ articulations; staccato, staccatissimo, accent, marcato and portato
• Tempo changes using the \tempo function, including for fractional metronome values
• Ties
• Tremolos that are not entered with a ‘:[number]’ value

Panning, balance, expression, reverb and chorus effects can also be controlled by setting
context properties, see Section 24.8 [Context properties for MIDI effects], page 636.
When combined with the articulate script the following, additional musical notation can
be output to MIDI;
• Appoggiaturas. These are made to take half the value of the note following (without taking
dots into account). For example;
\appoggiatura c8 d2.
The c will take the value of a crotchet.
• Ornaments (i.e., mordents, trills and turns et al.)
• Rallentando, accelerando, ritardando and a tempo
• Slurs, including phrasing slurs
• Tenuto

See Section 24.9 [Enhancing MIDI output], page 637.

Chapter 24: Creating MIDI output 627

24.2 Unsupported notation for MIDI

The following items of musical notation cannot be output to MIDI;
• Articulations other than staccato, staccatissimo, accent, marcato and portato
• Crescendi and decrescendi over a single note
• Fermata
• Figured bass
• Glissandi
• Falls and doits
• Microtonal chords
• Rhythms entered as annotations, e.g., swing
• Tempo changes without \tempo (e.g., entered as annotations)
• Tremolos that are entered with a ‘:[number]’ value

24.3 The MIDI block

To create a MIDI output file from a LilyPond input file, insert a \midi block, which can be
empty, within the \score block.1
\score {
... music ...
\layout { }
\midi { }
}
☛ ✟
Note: A \score block that contains music and a \midi block but no
\layout block produces a MIDI output file only. No notation gets
printed.
A \midi block at the top level can be used to change MIDI settings
globally; however, the generation of an actual MIDI file only happens
when a \midi block is part of a \score block.
Similarly, a \layout block at the top level affects layout settings glob-
ally but does not influence whether printed output is produced or not.
✡ ✠
The default output file extension (.midi) can be changed by using the -dmidi-extension
option with the lilypond command:
lilypond -dmidi-extension=mid MyFile.ly
Alternatively, add the following Scheme expression before the start of either the \book,
\bookpart or \score blocks. See Section 20.5 [File structure], page 572.
#(ly:set-option 'midi-extension "mid")

See also
Notation Reference: Section 20.5 [File structure], page 572, Section 21.3 [Creating output file
metadata], page 587.
Installed Files: scm/midi.scm.
1
Note that there also exists a markup command called \score that doesn’t produce MIDI output, even if a
\midi block is present. See [Scores within markup], page 826.
Chapter 24: Creating MIDI output 628

Known issues and warnings

There are fifteen MIDI channels available and one additional channel (#10) for drums. Staves
are assigned to channels in sequence, so a score that contains more than fifteen staves will result
in the extra staves sharing (but not overwriting) the same MIDI channel. This may be a problem
if the sharing staves have conflicting, channel-based, MIDI properties – such as different MIDI
instruments – set.

24.4 Controlling MIDI dynamics

It is possible to control the overall MIDI volume, the relative volume of dynamic markings and
the relative volume of different instruments.
Dynamic marks translate automatically into volume levels in the available MIDI volume
range whereas crescendi and decrescendi vary the volume linearly between their two extremes.
It is possible to control the relative volume of dynamic markings, and the overall volume levels
of different instruments.

24.4.1 Dynamic marks in MIDI

Only the dynamic markings from ppppp to fffff, including mp, mf and sf have values assigned
to them. This value is then applied to the value of the overall MIDI volume range to obtain
the final volume included in the MIDI output for that particular dynamic marking. The default
fractions range from 0.25 for ppppp to 0.95 for fffff . The complete set of dynamic marks and
their associated fractions can be found in ly/midi-init.ly.

Selected Snippets
Creating custom dynamics in MIDI output
The following example shows how to create a dynamic marking, not included in the default list,
and assign a specific value to it so that it affects MIDI output.
The dynamic mark \rfz gets value 0.9.
#(define (myDynamics dynamic)
(if (equal? dynamic "rfz")
0.9
(default-dynamic-absolute-volume dynamic)))

\score {
\new Staff {
\set Staff.midiInstrument = "cello"
\set Score.dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction = #myDynamics
\new Voice {
\relative {
a'4\pp b c-\rfz
}
}
}
\layout {}
\midi {}
}

º h h h
pp rfz
Chapter 24: Creating MIDI output 629

Installed Files: ly/script-init.ly scm/midi.scm.

Snippets: Section “MIDI” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Dynamic performer” in Internals Reference.

24.4.2 Setting MIDI volume

The minimum and maximum overall volume of MIDI dynamic markings is controlled by setting
the properties midiMinimumVolume and midiMaximumVolume at the Score level. These proper-
ties have an effect only at the start of a voice and on dynamic marks. The fraction corresponding
to each dynamic mark is modified with this formula
midiMinimumVolume + (midiMaximumVolume - midiMinimumVolume) * fraction
In the following example the dynamic range of the overall MIDI volume is limited to the
range 0.2–0.5.
\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\set Staff.midiInstrument = "flute"
... music ...
}
\new Staff {
\set Staff.midiInstrument = "clarinet"
... music ...
}
>>
\midi {
\context {
\Score
midiMinimumVolume = 0.2
midiMaximumVolume = 0.5
}
}
}
Simple MIDI instrument equalization can be achieved by setting midiMinimumVolume and
midiMaximumVolume properties within the Staff context.
\score {
\new Staff {
\set Staff.midiInstrument = "flute"
\set Staff.midiMinimumVolume = 0.7
\set Staff.midiMaximumVolume = 0.9
... music ...
}
\midi { }
}
For scores with multiple staves and multiple MIDI instruments, the relative volumes of each
instrument can be set individually;
\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\set Staff.midiInstrument = "flute"
\set Staff.midiMinimumVolume = 0.7
\set Staff.midiMaximumVolume = 0.9
Chapter 24: Creating MIDI output 630

... music ...

}
\new Staff {
\set Staff.midiInstrument = "clarinet"
\set Staff.midiMinimumVolume = 0.3
\set Staff.midiMaximumVolume = 0.6
... music ...
}
>>
\midi { }
}
In this example the volume of the clarinet is reduced relative to the volume of the flute.
If these volumes properties are not set then LilyPond still applies a ‘small degree’ of equal-
ization to certain instruments. See scm/midi.scm.
Installed Files: scm/midi.scm.

See also
Notation Reference: Chapter 27 [Score layout], page 655.
Internals Reference: Section “Dynamic performer” in Internals Reference.

Selected Snippets
Replacing default MIDI instrument equalization
The default MIDI instrument equalizer can be replaced by setting the instrumentEqualizer
property in the Score context to a user-defined Scheme procedure that uses a MIDI instrument
name as its argument along with a pair of fractions indicating the minimum and maximum
volumes respectively to be applied to that specific instrument.
The following example sets the minimum and maximum volumes for flute and clarinet re-
spectively."
#(define my-instrument-equalizer-alist '())

#(set! my-instrument-equalizer-alist
(append
'(
("flute" . (0.7 . 0.9))
("clarinet" . (0.3 . 0.6)))
my-instrument-equalizer-alist))

#(define (my-instrument-equalizer s)
(let ((entry (assoc s my-instrument-equalizer-alist)))
(if entry
(cdr entry))))

\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\key g \major
\time 2/2
\set Score.instrumentEqualizer = #my-instrument-equalizer
\set Staff.midiInstrument = "flute"
Chapter 24: Creating MIDI output 631

\new Voice \relative {

r2 g''\mp g fis~
4 g8 fis e2~
4 d8 cis d2
}
}
\new Staff {
\key g \major
\set Staff.midiInstrument = "clarinet"
\new Voice \relative {
b'1\p a2. b8 a
g2. fis8 e
fis2 r
}
}
>>
\layout { }
\midi { }
}

¹ ˜ N N N h hhN h h h N

mp
¹ .
 NP h h NP hh N ˜
p
Known issues and warnings
Changes in the MIDI volume take place only on starting a note, so crescendi and decrescendi
cannot affect the volume of a single note.

24.4.3 Setting MIDI block properties

The \midi block can contain context rearrangements, new context definitions or code that sets
the values of certain properties.
\score {
... music ...
\midi {
\tempo 4 = 72
}
}
Here the tempo is set to 72 quarter note beats per minute. The tempo mark in the \midi
block will not appear in the printed score. Although any other \tempo indications specified
within the \score block will also be reflected in the MIDI output.
In a \midi block the \tempo command is setting properties during the interpretation of
the music and in the context of output definitions; so it is interpreted as if it were a context
modification.
Context definitions follow the same syntax as those in a \layout block;
\score {
... music ...
\midi {
Chapter 24: Creating MIDI output 632

\context {
\Voice
\remove Dynamic_performer
}
}
}
This example removes the effect of dynamics from the MIDI output. Note: LilyPond’s
translation modules used for sound are called ‘performers’.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Other sources of information” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Chapter 3 [Expressive marks], page 149, Chapter 27 [Score layout],
page 655.
Installed Files: ly/performer-init.ly.
Snippets: Section “MIDI” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Dynamic performer” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Some MIDI players do not always correctly handle tempo changes in the midi output.
Changes to the midiInstrument, as well as some MIDI options, at the beginning of a staff
may appear twice in the MIDI output.

24.5 Using MIDI instruments

MIDI instruments are set using the midiInstrument property within a Staff context.
\score {
\new Staff {
\set Staff.midiInstrument = "glockenspiel"
... music ...
}
\midi { }
}
or
\score {
\new Staff \with {midiInstrument = "cello"} {
... music ...
}
\midi { }
}
If the instrument name does not match any of the instruments listed in the ‘MIDI instru-
ments’ section, the acoustic grand instrument will be used instead. See Section B.6 [MIDI
instruments], page 865.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Other sources of information” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section B.6 [MIDI instruments], page 865, Chapter 27 [Score layout],
page 655.
Installed Files: scm/midi.scm.
Chapter 24: Creating MIDI output 633

Known issues and warnings

Percussion instruments that are notated in a DrumStaff context will be output, correctly, to
MIDI channel 10 but some pitched, percussion instruments like the xylophone, marimba, vibra-
phone or timpani, are treated as “normal” instruments so the music for these should be entered
in a Staff (not DrumStaff) context to obtain correct MIDI output. A full list of channel 10
drum-kits entries can be found in scm/midi.scm. See Section “Other sources of information”
in Learning Manual.

24.6 Using repeats with MIDI

Repeats can be represented in the MIDI output by applying the \unfoldRepeats command.
\score {
\unfoldRepeats {
\repeat tremolo 8 { c'32 e' }
\repeat percent 2 { c''8 d'' }
\repeat volta 2 { c'4 d' e' f' }
\alternative {
\volta 1 { g' a' a' g' }
\volta 2 { f' e' d' c' }
}
}
\midi { }
}
In order to restrict the effect of \unfoldRepeats to the MIDI output only, while also gener-
ating printable scores, it is necessary to make two \score blocks; one for MIDI (with unfolded
repeats) and one for the notation (with volta, tremolo, and percent repeats);
\score {
... music ...
\layout { }
}
\score {
\unfoldRepeats {
... music ...
}
\midi { }
}
When using multiple voices, each of the voices must contain completely unfolded repeats for
correct MIDI output.

See also
Notation Reference: Chapter 4 [Repeats], page 181.

24.7 MIDI channel mapping

When generating a MIDI file from a score, LilyPond will automatically assign every note in the
score to a MIDI channel, the one on which it should be played when it is sent to a MIDI device.
A MIDI channel has a number of controls available to select, for example, the instrument to be
used to play the notes on that channel, or to request the MIDI device to apply various effects
to the sound produced on the channel. At all times, every control on a MIDI channel can have
only a single value assigned to it (which can be modified, however, for example, to switch to
another instrument in the middle of a score).
Chapter 24: Creating MIDI output 634

The MIDI standard supports only 16 channels per MIDI device. This limit on the number of
channels also limits the number of different instruments which can be played at the same time.
LilyPond creates separate MIDI tracks for each staff, (or discrete instrument or voice, de-
pending on the value of Score.midiChannelMapping), and also for each lyrics context. There
is no limit to the number of tracks.
To work around the limited number of MIDI channels, LilyPond supports a number of differ-
ent modes for MIDI channel allocation, selected using the Score.midiChannelMapping context
property. In each case, if more MIDI channels than the limit are required, the allocated channel
numbers wrap around back to 0, possibly causing the incorrect assignment of instruments to
some notes. This context property can be set to one of the following values:
'staff
Allocate a separate MIDI channel to each staff in the score (this is the default). All
notes in all voices contained within each staff will share the MIDI channel of their
enclosing staff, and all are encoded in the same MIDI track.
The limit of 16 channels is applied to the total number of staff and lyrics contexts,
even though MIDI lyrics do not take up a MIDI channel.
'instrument
Allocate a separate MIDI channel to each distinct MIDI instrument specified in the
score. This means that all the notes played with the same MIDI instrument will
share the same MIDI channel (and track), even if the notes come from different
voices or staves.
In this case the lyrics contexts do not count towards the MIDI channel limit of 16
(as they will not be assigned to a MIDI instrument), so this setting may allow a
better allocation of MIDI channels when the number of staves and lyrics contexts
in a score exceeds 16.
'voice
Allocate a separate MIDI channel to each voice in the score that has a unique name
among the voices in its enclosing staff. Voices in different staves are always assigned
separate MIDI channels, but any two voices contained within the same staff will
share the same MIDI channel if they have the same name. Because midiInstrument
and the several MIDI controls for effects are properties of the staff context, they
cannot be set separately for each voice. The first voice will be played with the
instrument and effects specified for the staff, and voices with a different name from
the first will be assigned the default instrument and effects.
Note: different instruments and/or effects can be assigned to several voices on the
same staff by moving the Staff_performer from the Staff to the Voice context,
and leaving midiChannelMapping to default to 'staff or set to 'instrument; see
the snippet below.
For example, the default MIDI channel mapping of a score can be changed to the 'instrument
setting as shown:
\score {
...music...
\midi {
\context {
\Score
midiChannelMapping = #'instrument
}
}
}
Chapter 24: Creating MIDI output 635

Selected Snippets
Changing MIDI output to one channel per voice
When outputting MIDI, the default behavior is for each staff to represent one MIDI channel,
with all the voices on a staff amalgamated. This minimizes the risk of running out of MIDI
channels, since there are only 16 available per track.

However, by moving the Staff_performer to the Voice context, each voice on a staff can
have its own MIDI channel, as is demonstrated by the following example: despite being on the
same staff, two MIDI channels are created, each with a different midiInstrument.

\score {
\new Staff <<
\new Voice \relative c''' {
\set midiInstrument = "flute"
\voiceOne
\key g \major
\time 2/2
r2 g-"Flute" ~
g fis ~
fis4 g8 fis e2 ~
e4 d8 cis d2
}
\new Voice \relative c'' {
\set midiInstrument = "clarinet"
\voiceTwo
b1-"Clarinet"
a2. b8 a
g2. fis8 e
fis2 r
}
>>
\layout { }
\midi {
\context {
\Staff
\remove "Staff_performer"
}
\context {
\Voice
\consists "Staff_performer"
}
\tempo 2 = 72
}
}

 ¹ ˜. N N N h hhN
Flute

NP h h NP h h h N
 hh N ˜
Clarinet
Chapter 24: Creating MIDI output 636

24.8 Context properties for MIDI effects

The following context properties can be used to apply various MIDI effects to notes played on
the MIDI channel associated with the current staff, MIDI instrument or voice (depending on
the value of the Score.midiChannelMapping context property and the context in which the
Staff_performer is located; see Section 24.7 [MIDI channel mapping], page 633).
Changing these context properties will affect all notes played on the channel after the change,
however some of the effects may even apply also to notes which are already playing (depending
on the implementation of the MIDI output device).
The following context properties are supported:
Staff.midiPanPosition
The pan position controls how the sound on a MIDI channel is distributed between
left and right stereo outputs. The context property accepts a number between -1.0
(#LEFT) and 1.0 (#RIGHT); the value -1.0 will put all sound power to the left stereo
output (keeping the right output silent), the value 0.0 (#CENTER) will distribute the
sound evenly between the left and right stereo outputs, and the value 1.0 will move
all sound to the right stereo output. Values between -1.0 and 1.0 can be used to
obtain mixed distributions between left and right stereo outputs.
Staff.midiBalance
The stereo balance of a MIDI channel. Similarly to the pan position, this context
property accepts a number between -1.0 (#LEFT) and 1.0 (#RIGHT). It varies the
relative volume sent to the two stereo speakers without affecting the distribution of
the stereo signals.
Staff.midiExpression
Expression level (as a fraction of the maximum available level) to apply to a MIDI
channel. A MIDI device combines the MIDI channel’s expression level with a voice’s
current dynamic level (controlled using constructs such as \p or \ff) to obtain the
total volume of each note within the voice. The expression control could be used, for
example, to implement crescendo or decrescendo effects over single sustained notes
(not supported automatically by LilyPond).
The expression level ranges from 0.0 (no expression, meaning zero volume) to 1.0
(full expression).
Staff.midiReverbLevel
Reverb level (as a fraction of the maximum available level) to apply to a MIDI
channel. This property accepts numbers between 0.0 (no reverb) and 1.0 (full effect).
Staff.midiChorusLevel
Chorus level (as a fraction of the maximum available level) to apply to a MIDI
channel. This property accepts numbers between 0.0 (no chorus effect) and 1.0 (full
effect).

Known issues and warnings

As MIDI files do not contain any actual audio data, changes in these context properties translate
only to requests for changing MIDI channel controls in the outputted MIDI files. Whether a
particular MIDI device (such as a software MIDI player) can actually handle any of these requests
in a MIDI file is entirely up to the implementation of the device: a device may choose to ignore
some or all of these requests. Also, how a MIDI device will interpret different values for these
controls (generally, the MIDI standard fixes the behavior only at the endpoints of the value
range available for each control), and whether a change in the value of a control will affect notes
already playing on that MIDI channel or not, is also specific to the MIDI device implementation.
Chapter 24: Creating MIDI output 637

When generating MIDI files, LilyPond will simply transform the fractional values within each
range linearly into values in a corresponding (7-bit, or 14-bit for MIDI channel controls which
support fine resolution) integer range (0-127 or 0-16383, respectively), rounding fractional values
towards the nearest integer away from zero. The converted integer values are stored as-is in the
generated MIDI file. Please consult the documentation of your MIDI device for information
about how the device interprets these values.

24.9 Enhancing MIDI output

The default MIDI output is basic but can be improved by setting MIDI instruments and various
\midi block properties.
Additional scripts allow to fine-tune the way dynamics, articulations and rhythm are rendered
in MIDI: the articulate script and the swing script.

24.9.1 The articulate script

To use the articulate script add the appropriate \include command at the top of the input
file;
\include "articulate.ly"
The script creates MIDI output into appropriately ‘time-scaled’ notes to match many articu-
lation and tempo indications. Engraved output however, will also be altered to literally match
the MIDI output.
\score {
\articulate <<
... music ...
>>
\midi { }
}
The \articulate command enables abbreviatures (such as trills and turns) to be processed.
A full list of supported items can be found in the script itself. See ly/articulate.ly.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Other sources of information” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Chapter 27 [Score layout], page 655.
Installed Files: ly/articulate.ly.
☛ ✟
Note: The articulate script may shorten chords, which might not
be appropriate for some types of instrument, such as organ music.
Notes that do not have any articulations attached to them may also
be shortened; so to allow for this, restrict the use of the \articulate
function to shorter segments of music, or modify the values of the
variables defined in the articulate script to compensate for the note-
shortening behavior.
✡ ✠

24.9.2 The swing script

The swing script provides additional functions allowing for regular durations to be played with
an unequal rhythm. The most obvious example is ‘swing’ interpretation commonly found in
jazz music where binary eighth notes should be played in a ternary fashion; however additional
interpretations are also supported.
Chapter 24: Creating MIDI output 638

This script has to be \include-d at the beginning of the input file:

\include "swing.ly"
Three commands are provided:
•
\tripletFeel creates a triplet-feel swing. It takes two arguments: the durations that
should be affected by it (typically 8 for eighth notes), and then the music expression to
which it should be applied.
•
\applySwing takes an additional argument prior to the music expression: a ‘weight list’ of
n number ratios expressing the way regular notes should be played: for example, #'(2 1)
indicates that every other note should be played twice as long as the following note (in fact,
\tripletFeel duration {music} is actually a shortcut for \applySwing duration #'(2
1) {music}). Smoother swung eighths may be obtained with a weight list of #'(3 2), or
other values depending on taste.
That list may include more than two values, which allows for longer and more sophisticated
groove patterns; for example, a samba feel for sixteenth notes may be obtained as follows:
\score {
\applySwing 16 #'(3 2 2 3) {
... music ...
}
\midi { }
}
•
\applySwingWithOffset adds yet another argument between the ‘weight list’ and the music
expression: an offset length. This command should be used when the music expression has
to start off-beat, with a partial swing cycle.
☛ ✟
Note: As with the articulate script, all swing commands are also ren-
dered in the engraved output, which results in irregular note spacing.
This can be avoided by using them only in a \score block dedicated
to MIDI output, rather than to printed music.
✡ ✠
Additional help and information is included in the script file: see ly/swing.ly.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Other sources of information” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Chapter 2 [Rhythms], page 51.
Installed Files: ly/swing.ly.

Known issues and warnings

• \repeat constructs in music (even \repeat unfold) are not taken into consideration when
determining note timing. This will lead to problems unless the durations of all repeated
parts are integer multiples of the swing cycle duration.
• These functions are oblivious to time signatures and measures. That is why offsets need to
be supplied by using \applySwingWithOffset if music starts off-beat.
• Grace notes are ignored and simply left unaffected; so are tuplets.
 639

25 Extracting musical information

In addition to creating graphical output and MIDI, LilyPond can display musical information
as text.

25.1 Displaying LilyPond notation

Displaying a music expression in LilyPond notation can be done with the music function
\displayLilyMusic. To see the output, you will typically want to call LilyPond using the
command line. For example,
{
\displayLilyMusic \transpose c a, { c4 e g a bes }
}
will display
{ a,4 cis4 e4 fis4 g4 }
By default, LilyPond will print these messages to the console along with all the other LilyPond
compilation messages. To split up these messages and save the results of \displayLilyMusic,
redirect the output to a file.
lilypond file.ly >display.txt
Note that LilyPond does not just display the music expression, but also interprets it (since
\displayLilyMusic returns it in addition to displaying it). Just insert \displayLilyMusic
into the existing music in order to get information about it.
To interpret and display a music section in the console but, at the same time, remove it from
the output file use the \void command.
{
\void \displayLilyMusic \transpose c a, { c4 e g a bes }
c1
}

25.2 Displaying Scheme music expressions

See Section “Displaying music expressions” in Extending.

25.3 Saving music events to a file

Music events can be saved to a file on a per-staff basis by including a file in your main score.
\include "event-listener.ly"
This creates file(s) called FILENAME-STAFFNAME.notes or FILENAME-unnamed-staff.notes
for each staff. Note that if you have multiple unnamed staves, the events for all staves are mixed
together in the same file. The output looks like this:
0.000 note 57 4 p-c 2 12
0.000 dynamic f
0.250 note 62 4 p-c 7 12
0.500 note 66 8 p-c 9 12
0.625 note 69 8 p-c 14 12
0.750 rest 4
0.750 breathe
The syntax is a tab-delimited line, with two fixed fields on each line followed by optional
parameters.
time type ...params...
Chapter 25: Extracting musical information 640

This information can easily be read into other programs such as python scripts, and can be
very useful for researchers wishing to perform musical analysis or playback experiments with
LilyPond.

Known issues and warnings

Not all lilypond music events are supported by event-listener.ly. It is intended to be a
well-crafted “proof of concept”. If some events that you want to see are not included, copy
event-listener.ly into your lilypond directory and modify the file so that it outputs the
information you want.
Spacing issues
 643

26 Page layout
The global paper layout is determined by three factors: the page layout, the line breaks, and
the spacing. These all influence each other. The choice of spacing determines how densely each
system of music is set. This influences where line breaks are chosen, and thus ultimately, how
many pages a piece of music takes.
Globally speaking, this procedure happens in four steps: first, flexible distances (‘springs’)
are chosen, based on durations. All possible line breaking combinations are tried, and a ‘badness’
score is calculated for each. Then the height of each possible system is estimated. Finally, a
page breaking and line breaking combination is chosen so that neither the horizontal nor the
vertical spacing is too cramped or stretched.
Two types of blocks can contain layout settings: \paper {...} and \layout {...}. The
\paper block contains page layout settings that are expected to be the same for all scores in
a book or book part, such as the paper height, or whether to print page numbers, etc. See
Chapter 26 [Page layout], page 643. The \layout block contains score layout settings, such as
the number of systems to use, or the space between staff groups, etc. See Chapter 27 [Score
layout], page 655.

26.1 The \paper block

\paper blocks may be placed in three different places to form a descending hierarchy of \paper
blocks:
• At the top of the input file, before all \book, \bookpart, and \score blocks.
• Within a \book block but outside all the \bookpart and \score blocks within that book.
• Within a \bookpart block but outside all \score blocks within that book part.
A \paper block cannot be placed within a \score block.
The values of the fields filter down this hierarchy, with the values set higher in the hierarchy
persisting unless they are overridden by a value set lower in the hierarchy.
Several \paper blocks can appear at each of the levels, for example as parts of several
\included files. If so, the fields at each level are merged, with values encountered last taking
precedence if duplicated fields appear.
Settings that can appear in a \paper block include:
• the set-paper-size Scheme function,
• \paper variables used for customizing page layout, and
• markup definitions used for customizing the layout of headers, footers, and titles.
The set-paper-size function is discussed in the next section, Section 26.2 [Paper size and
automatic scaling], page 644. The \paper variables that deal with page layout are discussed in
later sections. The markup definitions that deal with headers, footers, and titles are discussed
in Section 21.2 [Custom titles, headers, and footers], page 583.
Most \paper variables will only work in a \paper block. The few that will also work in a
\layout block are listed in Section 27.1 [The \layout block], page 655.
Except when specified otherwise, all \paper variables that correspond to distances on the
page are measured in millimeters, unless a different unit is specified by the user. For example,
the following declaration sets top-margin to ten millimeters:
\paper {
top-margin = 10
}
Chapter 26: Page layout 644

To set it to 0.5 inches, use the \in unit suffix:

\paper {
top-margin = 0.5\in
}
The available unit suffixes are \mm, \cm, \in, \pt, and \bp. These units are simple values for
converting from millimeters; they are defined in ly/paper-defaults-init.ly. For the sake of
clarity, when using millimeters, the \mm is typically included in the code, even though it is not
technically necessary.
It is also possible to define \paper values using Scheme. The Scheme equivalent of the above
example is:
\paper {
#(define top-margin (* 0.5 in))
}
Finally, you can also predefine paper variables.
bigMargin = \paper { top-margin = 10\cm }

\paper {
\bigMargin
indent = 0\mm
}

See also
Notation Reference: Section 26.2 [Paper size and automatic scaling], page 644, Section 21.2
[Custom titles, headers, and footers], page 583, Section 27.1 [The \layout block], page 655.
Installed Files: ly/paper-defaults-init.ly.

26.2 Paper size and automatic scaling

26.2.1 Setting the paper size
‘A4’ is the default value when no explicit paper size is set. However, there are two functions
that can be used to change it:
set-default-paper-size
#(set-default-paper-size "quarto")
which must always be placed at the top-level scope, and
set-paper-size
\paper {
#(set-paper-size "tabloid")
}
which must always be placed in a \paper block.
If the set-default-paper-size function is used in the top-level scope, it must come before
any \paper block. set-default-paper-size sets the paper size for all pages, whereas set-
paper-size only sets the paper size for the pages that the \paper block applies to. For example,
if the \paper block is at the top of the file, then it applies the paper size to all pages. If the
\paper block is inside a \book, then the paper size applies only to that book.
When the set-paper-size function is used, it must be placed before any other functions used
within the same \paper block. See Section 26.2.2 [Automatic scaling to paper size], page 645.
Paper sizes are defined in file scm/paper.scm; see Section B.5 [Predefined paper sizes],
page 863, for a complete list.
Chapter 26: Page layout 645

Both set-default-paper-size and set-paper-size also accept a quoted number pair as

its argument to set a custom paper size. For example,
#(set-default-paper-size '(cons (* 100 mm) (* 50 mm)))
sets the paper width and height to 100 mm and 50 mm, respectively.
Possible units are in (inches), cm (centimeters), mm (millimeters), pt (points), and bp (big
points).
If the symbol 'landscape is added to the paper size function as a second argument, pages
are rotated by 90 degrees, and wider line widths are set accordingly.
#(set-default-paper-size "a6" 'landscape)
Swapping the paper dimensions without having the print rotated (like when printing to
postcard size, or creating graphics for inclusion rather than a stand-alone document) can be
achieved by appending ‘landscape’ to the name of the paper size itself:
#(set-default-paper-size "a6landscape")
When the paper size ends with an explicit ‘landscape’ or ‘portrait’, the presence of a
'landscape symbol only affects print orientation, not the paper dimensions used for layout.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 26.2.2 [Automatic scaling to paper size], page 645, Section B.5
[Predefined paper sizes], page 863.
Installed Files: scm/paper.scm.

26.2.2 Automatic scaling to paper size

If the paper size is changed with one of the Scheme functions (set-default-paper-size or
set-paper-size), the values of several \paper variables are automatically scaled to the new
size. To bypass the automatic scaling for a particular variable, set the variable after setting the
paper size. Note that the automatic scaling is not triggered by setting the paper-height or
paper-width variables, even though paper-width can influence other values (this is separate
from scaling and is discussed below). The set-default-paper-size and set-paper-size
functions are described in Section 26.2.1 [Setting the paper size], page 644.
The vertical dimensions affected by automatic scaling are top-margin and bottom-margin
(see Section 26.3 [Fixed vertical spacing \paper variables], page 645). The horizontal dimensions
affected by automatic scaling are left-margin, right-margin, inner-margin, outer-margin,
binding-offset, indent, and short-indent (see Section 26.5 [Horizontal spacing \paper vari-
ables], page 648).
The default values for these dimensions are set in ly/paper-defaults-init.ly, using inter-
nal variables named top-margin-default, bottom-margin-default, etc. These are the values
that result at the default paper size a4. For reference, with a4 paper the paper-height is
297\mm and the paper-width is 210\mm.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 26.3 [Fixed vertical spacing \paper variables], page 645, Sec-
tion 26.5 [Horizontal spacing \paper variables], page 648.
Installed Files: ly/paper-defaults-init.ly, scm/paper.scm.

26.3 Fixed vertical spacing \paper variables

Chapter 26: Page layout 646

☛ ✟
Note: Some \paper dimensions are automatically scaled to the pa-
per size, which may lead to unexpected behavior. See Section 26.2.2
[Automatic scaling to paper size], page 645.
✡ ✠
Default values (before scaling) are defined in file ly/paper-defaults-init.ly.
paper-height
The height of the page, unset by default. Note that the automatic scaling of some
vertical dimensions is not affected by this.
top-margin
The margin between the top of the page and the top of the printable area. If the
paper size is modified, this dimension’s default value is scaled accordingly.
bottom-margin
The margin between the bottom of the printable area and the bottom of the page.
If the paper size is modified, this dimension’s default value is scaled accordingly.
ragged-bottom
If this is set to #t, systems will be set at their natural spacing, neither compressed
nor stretched vertically to fit the page.
ragged-last-bottom
If this is set to #f, then the last page, and the last page in each section created with
a \bookpart block, will be vertically justified in the same way as the earlier pages.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 26.2.2 [Automatic scaling to paper size], page 645.
Installed Files: ly/paper-defaults-init.ly.
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.

Known issues and warnings

The titles (from the \header block) are treated as a system, so ragged-bottom and
ragged-last-bottom will add space between the titles and the first system of the score.
Explicitly defined paper sizes will override any user-defined top or bottom margin settings.

26.4 Flexible vertical spacing \paper variables

In most cases, it is preferable for the vertical distances between certain items (such as margins,
titles, systems, and separate scores) to be flexible, so that they stretch and compress nicely
according to each situation. A number of \paper variables (listed below) are available to fine-
tune the stretching behavior of these dimensions.
Note that the \paper variables discussed in this section do not control the spacing of staves
within individual systems. Within-system spacing is controlled by grob properties, with set-
tings typically entered inside a \score or \layout block, and not inside a \paper block. See
Section 29.1 [Flexible vertical spacing within systems], page 669.

26.4.1 Structure of flexible vertical spacing alists

Each of the flexible vertical spacing \paper variables is an alist (association list) containing four
keys:
• basic-distance – the vertical distance, measured in staff spaces, between the reference
points of the two items, when no collisions would result, and no stretching or compressing
Chapter 26: Page layout 647

is in effect. The reference point of a (title or top-level) markup is its highest point, and
the reference point of a system is the vertical center of the nearest StaffSymbol – even if
a non-staff line (such as a Lyrics context) is in the way. Values for basic-distance that
are less than either padding or minimum-distance are not meaningful, since the resulting
distance will never be less than either padding or minimum-distance.
• minimum-distance – the smallest allowable vertical distance, measured in staff spaces, be-
tween the reference points of the two items, when compressing is in effect. Values for
minimum-distance that are less than padding are not meaningful, since the resulting dis-
tance will never be less than padding.
• padding – the minimum required amount of unobstructed vertical whitespace between the
bounding boxes (or skylines) of the two items, measured in staff spaces.
• stretchability – a unitless measure of the dimension’s relative propensity to stretch.
If zero, the distance will not stretch (unless collisions would result). When positive, the
significance of a particular dimension’s stretchability value lies only in its relation to
the stretchability values of the other dimensions. For example, if one dimension has
twice the stretchability of another, it will stretch twice as easily. Values should be non-
negative and finite. The value +inf.0 triggers a programming_error and is ignored, but
1.0e7 can be used for an almost infinitely stretchable spring. If unset, the default value
is set to basic-distance. Note that the dimension’s propensity to compress cannot be
directly set by the user and is equal to (basic-distance − minimum-distance).
If a page has a ragged bottom, the resulting distance is the largest of:
• basic-distance,
• minimum-distance, and
• padding plus the smallest distance necessary to eliminate collisions.
For multi-page scores with a ragged bottom on the last page, the last page uses the same
spacing as the preceding page, provided there is enough space for that.
Specific methods for modifying alists are discussed in Section 35.8 [Modifying alists], page 743.
The following example demonstrates the two ways these alists can be modified. The first decla-
ration updates one key value individually, and the second completely redefines the variable:
\paper {
system-system-spacing.basic-distance = 8
score-system-spacing =
#'((basic-distance . 12)
(minimum-distance . 6)
(padding . 1)
(stretchability . 12))
}

26.4.2 List of flexible vertical spacing \paper variables

The names of these variables follow the format upper-lower-spacing, where upper and lower
are the items to be spaced. Each distance is measured between the reference points of the two
items (see the description of the alist structure above). Note that in these variable names, the
term ‘markup’ refers to both title markups (bookTitleMarkup or scoreTitleMarkup) and top-
level markups (see Section 20.5 [File structure], page 572). All distances are measured in staff
spaces.
Default settings are defined in ly/paper-defaults-init.ly.
markup-system-spacing
the distance between a (title or top-level) markup and the system that follows it.
Chapter 26: Page layout 648

score-markup-spacing
the distance between the last system of a score and the (title or top-level) markup
that follows it.
score-system-spacing
the distance between the last system of a score and the first system of the score that
follows it, when no (title or top-level) markup exists between them.
system-system-spacing
the distance between two systems in the same score.
markup-markup-spacing
the distance between two (title or top-level) markups.
last-bottom-spacing
the distance from the last system or top-level markup on a page to the bottom of
the printable area (i.e., the top of the bottom margin).
top-system-spacing
the distance from the top of the printable area (i.e., the bottom of the top margin)
to the first system on a page, when there is no (title or top-level) markup between
the two.
top-markup-spacing
the distance from the top of the printable area (i.e., the bottom of the top margin)
to the first (title or top-level) markup on a page, when there is no system between
the two.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 29.1 [Flexible vertical spacing within systems], page 669.
Installed Files: ly/paper-defaults-init.ly.
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.

26.5 Horizontal spacing \paper variables

☛ ✟
Note: Some \paper dimensions are automatically scaled to the pa-
per size, which may lead to unexpected behavior. See Section 26.2.2
[Automatic scaling to paper size], page 645.
✡ ✠

26.5.1 \paper variables for widths and margins

Default values (before scaling) that are not listed here are defined in file ly/
paper-defaults-init.ly.
paper-width
The width of the page, unset by default. While paper-width has no effect on the
automatic scaling of some horizontal dimensions, it does influence the line-width
variable. If both paper-width and line-width are set, then left-margin and
right-margin will also be updated. Also see check-consistency.
line-width
When specified in a \paper block this defines the horizontal extent available for
the staff lines in unindented systems. If left unspecified, the paper’s line-width is
determined from (paper-width − left-margin − right-margin). If the paper’s
line-width is specified, and both left-margin and right-margin are not, then
Chapter 26: Page layout 649

the margins will be updated to center the systems on the page automatically. Also
see check-consistency.
line-widths for individual scores can be specified in the scores’ \layout blocks.
These values control the width of the lines produced on a score-by-score basis. If
line-width is not specified for a score, it defaults to the paper’s line-width. Set-
ting a score’s line-width has no effect on the paper margins. Staff lines, of a length
determined by the score’s line-width, are left-aligned within the paper area defined
by the paper’s line-width. If the score and paper line-widths are equal, the staff
lines will extend exactly from the left margin to the right margin, but if the score’s
line-width is greater than the paper’s line-width the staff lines will run over into
the right margin.
left-margin
The margin between the left edge of the page and the start of the staff
lines in unindented systems. If the paper size is modified, this dimen-
sion’s default value is scaled accordingly. If left-margin is unset, and
both line-width and right-margin are set, then left-margin is set to
(paper-width − line-width − right-margin). If only line-width is set, then
both margins are set to ((paper-width − line-width) / 2), and the systems
are consequently centered on the page. Also see check-consistency.
right-margin
The margin between the right edge of the page and the end of the staff
lines in non-ragged systems. If the paper size is modified, this dimen-
sion’s default value is scaled accordingly. If right-margin is unset, and
both line-width and left-margin are set, then right-margin is set to
(paper-width − line-width − left-margin). If only line-width is set, then
both margins are set to ((paper-width − line-width) / 2), and the systems
are consequently centered on the page. Also see check-consistency.
check-consistency
If this is true (the default value), print a warning if left-margin, line-width,
and right-margin do not exactly add up to paper-width, and replace each of
these (except paper-width) with their default values (scaled to the paper size if
necessary). If set to #f, ignore any inconsistencies and allow systems to run off the
edge of the page.
ragged-right
If set to #t, systems will not fill the line width. Instead, systems end at their natural
horizontal length. Default: #t for scores with only one system, and #f for scores
with two or more systems. This variable can also be set in a \layout block.
ragged-last
If set to #t, the last system in the score will not fill the line width. Instead the last
system ends at its natural horizontal length. Default: #f. This variable can also be
set in a \layout block.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 26.2.2 [Automatic scaling to paper size], page 645.
Installed Files: ly/paper-defaults-init.ly.

Known issues and warnings

Explicitly defined paper sizes will override any user-defined left or right margin settings.
Chapter 26: Page layout 650

26.5.2 \paper variables for two-sided mode

Default values (before scaling) are defined in ly/paper-defaults-init.ly.
two-sided
If set to #t, use inner-margin, outer-margin and binding-offset to determine
margins depending on whether the page number is odd or even. This overrides
left-margin and right-margin.
inner-margin
The margin all pages have at the inner side if they are part of a book. If the paper
size is modified, this dimension’s default value is scaled accordingly. Works only
with two-sided set to #t.
outer-margin
The margin all pages have at the outer side if they are part of a book. If the paper
size is modified, this dimension’s default value is scaled accordingly. Works only
with two-sided set to #t.
binding-offset
The amount inner-margin is increased to make sure nothing will be hidden by
the binding. If the paper size is modified, this dimension’s default value is scaled
accordingly. Works only with two-sided set to #t.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 26.2.2 [Automatic scaling to paper size], page 645.
Installed Files: ly/paper-defaults-init.ly.

26.5.3 \paper variables for shifts and indents

Default values (before scaling) that are not listed here are defined in ly/paper-defaults-
init.ly.
horizontal-shift
The amount that all systems (including titles and system separators) are shifted to
the right. Default: 0.0\mm.
indent
The level of indentation for the first system in a score. If the paper size is modified,
this dimension’s default value is scaled accordingly. The space within line-width
available for the first system is reduced by this amount. indent may also be specified
in \layout blocks to set indents on a score-by-score basis.
short-indent
The level of indentation for all systems in a score besides the first system. If the
paper size is modified, this dimension’s default value is scaled accordingly. The
space within line-width available for systems other than the first is reduced by
this amount. short-indent may also be specified in \layout blocks to set short
indents on a score-by-score basis.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 26.2.2 [Automatic scaling to paper size], page 645.
Installed Files: ly/paper-defaults-init.ly.
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.
Chapter 26: Page layout 651

26.6 Other \paper variables

26.6.1 \paper variables for line breaking
max-systems-per-page
The maximum number of systems that will be placed on a page. This is currently
supported only by the ly:optimal-breaking algorithm. Default: unset.
min-systems-per-page
The minimum number of systems that will be placed on a page. This may cause
pages to be overfilled if it is made too large. This is currently supported only by
the ly:optimal-breaking algorithm. Default: unset.
systems-per-page
The number of systems that should be placed on each page. This is currently
supported only by the ly:optimal-breaking algorithm. Default: unset.
system-count
The number of systems to be used for a score. Default: unset. This variable can
also be set in a \layout block.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 28.1 [Line breaking], page 661.

26.6.2 \paper variables for page breaking

Default values not listed here are defined in ly/paper-defaults-init.ly
page-breaking
The page breaking algorithm to use. Choices are ly:minimal-breaking, ly:
page-turn-breaking, ly:one-page-breaking, ly:one-line-breaking, ly:one-
line-auto-height-breaking, and ly:optimal-breaking. Default: ly:optimal-
breaking.
page-breaking-system-system-spacing
Tricks the page breaker into thinking that system-system-spacing is set to some-
thing different than it really is. For example, if page-breaking-system-system-
spacing.padding is set to something substantially larger than system-system-
spacing.padding, then the page breaker will put fewer systems on each page. De-
fault: unset.
page-count
The number of pages to be used for a score. Default: unset.
page-spacing-weight
When using the ly:optimal-breaking algorithm for page breaking, LilyPond has
to make trade-offs between horizontal and vertical stretching so that the overall
spacing is more acceptable. This parameter controls the relative importance of page
(vertical) spacing and line (horizontal) spacing. High values will make page spacing
more important. Default: 10.
The following variables are effective only when page-breaking is set to ly:page-turn-
breaking. Page breaks are then chosen to minimize the number of page turns. Since page
turns are required on moving from an odd-numbered page to an even-numbered one, a layout
in which the last page is odd-numbered will usually be favored. Places where page turns are
preferred can be indicated manually by inserting \allowPageTurn or automatically by including
the Page_turn_engraver (see Section 28.2.7 [Optimal page turning], page 667).
Chapter 26: Page layout 652

If there are insufficient choices available for making suitable page turns, LilyPond may insert
a blank page either within a score, between scores (if there are two or more scores), or by ending
a score on an even-numbered page. The values of the following three variables may be increased
to make these actions less likely.
The values are penalties, i.e., the higher the value the less likely will be the associated action
relative to other choices.
blank-page-penalty
The penalty for having a blank page in the middle of a score. If blank-page-
penalty is large and ly:page-turn-breaking is selected, then LilyPond will be
less likely to insert a page in the middle of a score. Instead, it will space out the
music further to fill the blank page and the following one. Default: 5.
blank-last-page-penalty
The penalty for ending the score on an even-numbered page. If blank-last-page-
penalty is large and ly:page-turn-breaking is selected, then LilyPond will be
less likely to produce a score in which the last page is even-numbered. Instead, it
will adjust the spacing in order to use one page more or one page less. Default: 0.
blank-after-score-page-penalty
The penalty for having a blank page after the end of one score and before the next.
By default, this is smaller than blank-page-penalty, so that blank pages after
scores are inserted in preference to blank pages within a score. Default: 2.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 28.2 [Page breaking], page 665, Section 28.2.2 [Optimal page
breaking], page 666, Section 28.2.7 [Optimal page turning], page 667, Section 28.2.3 [Minimal
page breaking], page 666, Section 28.2.4 [One-page page breaking], page 666, Section 28.2.5
[One-line page breaking], page 667, Section 28.2.6 [One-line-auto-height page breaking],
page 667.
Installed Files: ly/paper-defaults-init.ly.

26.6.3 \paper variables for page numbering

Default values not listed here are defined in ly/paper-defaults-init.ly
auto-first-page-number
The page breaking algorithm is affected by the first page number being odd or even.
If set to #t, the page breaking algorithm will decide whether to start with an odd
or even number. This will result in the first page number remaining as is or being
increased by one. Default: #f.
first-page-number
The value of the page number on the first page.
print-first-page-number
If set to #t, a page number is printed on the first page.
print-page-number
If set to #f, page numbers are not printed.
page-number-type
The type of numerals used for page numbers. Choices include 'arabic,
'roman-ij-lower, 'roman-ij-upper, 'roman-lower, and 'roman-upper. Default:
'arabic.
Chapter 26: Page layout 653

bookpart-level-page-numbering
If set to #t, each book part has its independent sequence of page numbers, starting
at first-page-number (1 by default).
This may also be used for one book part only. The typical use case is numbering
pages of the first book part independently and in roman numerals, as may be wished
for an analytical introduction to the work being published.
\book {
\bookpart {
\paper {
bookpart-level-page-numbering = ##t
page-number-type = #'roman-lower
}
\markuplist \wordwrap-lines {
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet.
}
}
\bookpart {
...
}
}

See also
Installed Files: ly/paper-defaults-init.ly.

Known issues and warnings

Odd page numbers are always on the right. If you want the music to start on page 1 there must
be a blank page on the back of the cover page so that page 1 is on the right-hand side.

26.6.4 \paper variables concerning headers and markups

print-all-headers
If set to #t, this will print all headers for each \score in the output. Normally
only the piece and opus header variables are printed. For use cases see Chapter 21
[Titles and headers], page 575. Default: #f.
reset-footnotes-on-new-page
If set to #t, footnote numbers are reset on each page break. For footnotes numbered
consecutively across page breaks, set to #f. Default: #t.
system-separator-markup
A markup object that is inserted between systems, often used for orchestral scores.
Default: unset. The \slashSeparator markup, defined in ly/titling-init.ly, is
provided as a sensible default, for example:
#(set-default-paper-size "a8")

\book {
\paper {
system-separator-markup = \slashSeparator
}
\header {
tagline = ##f
}
\score {
Chapter 26: Page layout 654

\relative { c''1 \break c1 \break c1 }

}
}

º .

 .
2

 .
3

footnote-separator-markup
A markup object that is inserted above the footnote texts at the bottom of the page.
Default: a centered horizontal line, defined in ly/paper-defaults-init.ly.

See also
Installed Files: ly/titling-init.ly, ly/paper-defaults-init.ly.
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.

Known issues and warnings

The default page header puts the page number and the instrument field from the \header
block on a line.

26.6.5 \paper variables for debugging

The variables debug-beam-scoring, debug-slur-scoring and debug-tie-scoring allow to
print debugging output for beam, slur and tie scoring. See Section “Debugging scoring algo-
rithms” in Contributor’s Guide for a detailed explanation, what these variables do.
 655

27 Score layout
This section discusses score layout options for the \layout block.

27.1 The \layout block

While the \paper block contains settings that relate to the page formatting of the whole docu-
ment, the \layout block contains settings for score-specific layout. To set score layout options
globally, enter them in a top-level \layout block. To set layout options for an individual score,
enter them in a \layout block inside the \score block, after the music. Settings that can appear
in a \layout block include:
• the layout-set-staff-size Scheme function,
• context modifications in \context blocks, and
• \paper variables that affect score layout.
The layout-set-staff-size function is discussed in the next section, Section 27.2 [Setting
the staff size], page 657. Context modifications are discussed in a separate chapter; see Sec-
tion 33.4 [Modifying context plug-ins], page 717, and Section 33.5 [Changing context default
settings], page 718.
The \paper variables that can appear in a \layout block are as follows.
• line-width, ragged-right and ragged-last (see Section 26.5.1 [\paper variables for
widths and margins], page 648)
• indent and short-indent (see Section 26.5.3 [\paper variables for shifts and indents],
page 650)
• system-count (see Section 26.6.1 [\paper variables for line breaking], page 651)
The default values of the above variables are taken from the \paper block.
Here is an example \layout block:
\layout {
indent = 2\cm
\context {
\StaffGroup
\override StaffGrouper.staff-staff-spacing.basic-distance = 8
}
\context {
\Voice
\override TextScript.padding = 1
\override Glissando.thickness = 3
}
}
Multiple \layout blocks can be entered as top-level expressions. This can, for example,
be useful if different settings are stored in separate files and included optionally. Internally,
when a \layout block is evaluated, a copy of the current \layout configuration is made, then
any changes defined within the block are applied and the result is saved as the new current
configuration. From the user’s perspective the \layout blocks are combined, but in conflicting
situations (when the same property is changed in different blocks) the later definitions take
precedence.
For example, if this block
\layout {
\context {
\Voice
Chapter 27: Score layout 656

\override TextScript.color = #magenta

\override Glissando.thickness = 1.5
}
}
is placed after the one from the preceding example the padding and color overrides for
TextScript are combined, but the later thickness override for Glissando replaces (or hides)
the earlier one.
\layout blocks may be assigned to variables for reuse later, but the way this works is slightly
but significantly different from writing them literally.
If a variable is defined like this
layoutVariable = \layout {
\context {
\Voice
\override NoteHead.font-size = 4
}
}
it holds the current \layout configuration with the NoteHead.font-size override added, but
this combination is not saved as the new current configuration. Be aware that the ‘current
configuration’ is read when the variable is defined and not when it is used, so the content of the
variable is dependent on its position in the source.
The variable can then be used inside another \layout block, for example:
\layout {
\layoutVariable
\context {
\Voice
\override NoteHead.color = #red
}
}
A \layout block containing a variable, as in the example above, does not copy the current
configuration but instead uses the content of \layoutVariable as the base configuration for
further additions. This means that any changes defined between the definition and the use of
the variable are lost.
If layoutVariable is defined (or \included) immediately before being used, its content is
just the current configuration plus the overrides defined within it. So in the example above
showing the use of \layoutVariable the final \layout block would consist of
TextScript.padding = 1
TextScript.color = #magenta
Glissando.thickness = 1.5
NoteHead.font-size = 4
NoteHead.color = #red
plus the indent and the StaffGrouper overrides.
However, if the variable had already been defined before the first \layout block the current
configuration would now contain only the following.
NoteHead.font-size = 4 % written in the variable definition
NoteHead.color = #red % added after the use of the variable
If carefully planned, \layout variables can be a valuable tool to structure the layout design
of sources, and also to reset the \layout configuration to a known state.
Chapter 27: Score layout 657

See also
Notation Reference: Section 33.5 [Changing context default settings], page 718.
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.

27.2 Setting the staff size

The default staff size is 20 points, which corresponds to a staff height of 7.03 mm (one point is
equal to 100/7227 of an inch, or 2540/7227 mm). The staff size may be changed in three ways:
1.
To set the staff size globally for all scores in a file, use set-global-staff-size.
#(set-global-staff-size 14)
The above example sets the global default staff size to 14 pt (4.92 mm) and scales all fonts
accordingly.
The function can also be used to set various staff sizes for different \book blocks:
#(set-global-staff-size 30)
\book {
{ c' }
}

#(set-global-staff-size 10)
\book {
{ c' }
}
2.
To set the staff size for a single score within a book, use layout-set-staff-size inside
that score’s \layout block:
\score {
...
\layout {
#(layout-set-staff-size 14)
}
}
3. To set the staff size for a single staff within a system, use the \magnifyStaff command. For
example, traditionally engraved chamber music scores with piano often used 7 mm piano
staves while the other staves were typically between 3/5 and 5/7 as large (between 60% and
71%). To achieve the 5/7 proportion, use:
\score {
<<
\new Staff \with {
\magnifyStaff #5/7
} { ... }
\new PianoStaff { ... }
>>
}
If you happen to know which fontSize you wish to use, you could use the following form:
\score {
<<
\new Staff \with {
\magnifyStaff #(magstep -3)
Chapter 27: Score layout 658

} { ... }
\new PianoStaff { ... }
>>
}
To emulate the look of traditional engraving, it is best to avoid reducing the thickness of
the staff lines.

Automatic font weight at different sizes

The Emmentaler font provides the set of Feta musical glyphs in eight different sizes; each one
tuned for a different staff size. The smaller the glyph size, the “heavier” it becomes, so as to
match the relatively thicker staff lines. Recommended glyphs sizes are listed in the following
table:
font name staff height (pt) staff height (mm) use
feta11 11.22 3.9 pocket scores
feta13 12.60 4.4
feta14 14.14 5.0
feta16 15.87 5.6
feta18 17.82 6.3 song books
feta20 20 7.0 standard parts
feta23 22.45 7.9
feta26 25.2 8.9

See also
Notation Reference: Section 7.1.1 [Selecting notation font size], page 268, Section B.8 [The
Emmentaler font], page 871.
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.

Known issues and warnings

When using \magnifyStaff only for some staves in a StaffGroup, BarLine grobs do not align
any more, due to the changed BarLine properties thick-thickness, hair-thickness and kern.
\new StaffGroup
<<
\new Staff \with { \magnifyStaff #1/2 } { b1 \bar "|." }
\new Staff { b }
>>

7 º
.

º
6 .
You may want to cancel magnifying BarLine grobs, mimic them on the other staves or apply
intermediate values for every Staff.
#(define bar-line-props
'((BarLine thick-thickness)
(BarLine hair-thickness)
(BarLine kern)))

mus = { b1 \bar "|."}

Chapter 27: Score layout 659

\markup "Cancel \\magnifyStaff for bar lines:"

\new StaffGroup
<<
\new Staff
\with {
\magnifyStaff #1/2
#(revert-props 'magnifyStaff 0 bar-line-props)
}
\mus
\new Staff
\mus
>>

\markup "Mimic \\magnifyStaff on other staves:"

\new StaffGroup
<<
\new Staff
\with { \magnifyStaff #1/2 }
\mus
\new Staff
\with {
#(scale-props 'magnifyStaff 1/2 #t bar-line-props)
}
\mus
>>

\markup "Apply an intermediate value to all staves:"

\new StaffGroup
<<
\new Staff
\with {
\magnifyStaff #1/2
#(scale-props 'magnifyStaff 3/2 #t bar-line-props)
}
\mus
\new Staff
\with {
#(scale-props 'magnifyStaff 3/4 #t bar-line-props)
}
\mus
>>

Cancel \magnifyStaff for bar lines:

7 º
.

º
6 .
Mimic \magnifyStaff on other staves:
Chapter 27: Score layout 660

7 º
.

º
6 .
Apply an intermediate value to all staves:

7 º
.

º
6 .
 661

28 Breaks

28.1 Line breaking

Line breaks are normally determined automatically. They are chosen so that lines look neither
cramped nor loose, and consecutive lines have similar density.
To manually force a line break at a bar line, use the \break command:
\relative c'' {
c4 c c c | \break
c4 c c c |
}

º h h h h

 h h h h
2

By default, breaks are only allowed at bar lines. There are also a few other factors that can
prevent a break from being allowed at a certain bar line:
• a note head or rest continuing over the bar line,
• the presence of an ‘unbreakable’ spanner, such as a beam or a glissando, crossing the bar
line.
The \break command forces a break in all cases, regardless of the presence of a bar line or
any other factor. It is also possible to bypass all these factors using the \allowBreak command.
In the following example, breaks are allowed everywhere, even in the middle of a measure, and
despite the presence of beams.
\repeat unfold 56 { c'8 \allowBreak }

\paper {
indent = 0
line-width = 140\mm
}

º
h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
If you find yourself using \allowBreak often, you may want to prevent some of the factors
mentioned above from disabling breaks.
• Bar_engraver forbids breaks between bar lines when forbidBreakBetweenBarLines is set
to #t. To inhibit this, set the property to #f.
\fixed c' {
Chapter 28: Breaks 662

c8 d e f g a b c'
}

\layout {
\context {
\Score
forbidBreakBetweenBarLines = ##f
}
}

\paper {
indent = 0
line-width = 30\mm
}

º
h h
 h h h

 h h h
• Note heads and rests extending over bar lines can be made not to suppress breaks by
removing the Forbid_line_break_engraver from the Voice context.
\new Voice \with {
\remove Forbid_line_break_engraver
} \relative {
c''2. \tuplet 3/2 { c4 c c } c2.
}

\paper {
indent = 0
line-width = 35\mm
}

 º NP hh
3

h NP
2


3
• The presence of beams and other unbreakable spanners over bar lines is ignored if their
breakable property is set to #t.
\relative c'' {
\override Beam.breakable = ##t
c2. c8[ c |
Chapter 28: Breaks 663

c8 c] c2. |
}

\paper {
indent = 0
line-width = 35\mm
}

 º NP h h

 h h NP
2

The \noBreak command will prevent a line break at the bar line where it is inserted.
Within a score, automatic line breaking is prevented within music lying between
\autoLineBreaksOff and \autoLineBreaksOn commands. If automatic page breaks should
also be prevented, the commands \autoBreaksOff and \autoBreaksOn should be used.
Manual breaks are unaffected by these commands. Note that inhibiting automatic line breaks
may cause music to run over the right margin if it cannot all be contained within one line.
Automatic line breaks (but not page breaks) may be enabled at single bar lines by using
\once \autoLineBreaksOn at a bar line. This identifies a permitted rather than a forced line
break.
The most basic settings influencing line spacing are indent and line-width. They are set
in the \layout block. They control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of
the lines.
If ragged-right is set to #t in the \layout block, then systems end at their natural hori-
zontal length, instead of being spread horizontally to fill the whole line. This is useful for short
fragments, and for checking how tight the natural spacing is.
The option ragged-last is similar to ragged-right, but affects only the last line of the
piece.
\layout {
indent = 0\mm
line-width = 150\mm
ragged-last = ##t
}
For line breaks at regular intervals use \break separated by skips and repeated with \repeat.
For example, this would cause the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) to be broken every
4 measures, and only there:
<<
\repeat unfold 7 {
s1 \noBreak s1 \noBreak
s1 \noBreak s1 \break
}
{ the actual music... }
>>
Chapter 28: Breaks 664

Predefined commands
\break, \allowBreak, \noBreak, \autoBreaksOff, \autoBreaksOn, \autoLineBreaksOff,
\autoLineBreaksOn.

Selected Snippets
Using an extra voice for breaks
Often it is easier to manage line and page-breaking information by keeping it separate from the
music by introducing an extra voice containing only skips along with the \break, pageBreak
and other layout information.
This pattern becomes especially helpful when overriding line-break-system-details and
the other useful but long properties of NonMusicalPaperColumnGrob.
\paper { tagline = ##f }

music = \relative c'' { c4 c c c }

\score {
\new Staff <<
\new Voice {
s1 * 2 \break
s1 * 3 \break
s1 * 6 \break
s1 * 5 \break
}
\new Voice {
\repeat unfold 2 { \music }
\repeat unfold 3 { \music }
\repeat unfold 6 { \music }
\repeat unfold 5 { \music }
}
>>
}

º h h h h h h h h

 h h h h h h h h h h h h
3

 h h h h h h h h h h h h
6

 h h h h h h h h h h h h
9

 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
12
Chapter 28: Breaks 665

See also
Notation Reference: Section 26.6.1 [\paper variables for line breaking], page 651, Section 27.1
[The \layout block], page 655.
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “LineBreakEvent” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

Placing \autoLineBreaksOff or \autoBreaksOff before any music will cause error messages
to appear. Always place these commands after some music.

28.2 Page breaking

This section describes the different page breaking methods, and how to modify them.

28.2.1 Manual page breaking

The default page breaking may be overridden by inserting \pageBreak or \noPageBreak com-
mands. These commands are analogous to \break and \noBreak. They should be inserted at
a bar line. These commands force and forbid a page break from happening at that bar line. Of
course, the \pageBreak command also forces a line break.
The \pageBreak and \noPageBreak commands may also be inserted at top-level, between
scores and top-level markups.
Within a score, automatic page breaks are prevented within music lying between
\autoPageBreaksOff and \autoPageBreaksOn commands. Manual page breaks are unaffected
by these commands.
There are also analogous settings to ragged-right and ragged-last which have the same
effect on vertical spacing. If ragged-bottom is set to #t the systems will not be justified vertically.
When ragged-last-bottom is set to #t, as it is by default, empty space is allowed at the bottom
of the final page (or the final page in each \bookpart). See Section 26.3 [Fixed vertical spacing
\paper variables], page 645.
Page breaks are computed by the page-breaking function. LilyPond provides several algo-
rithms for computing page breaks, including ly:optimal-breaking, ly:page-turn-breaking
and ly:minimal-breaking. The default is ly:optimal-breaking, but the value can be changed
in the \paper block:
\paper {
page-breaking = #ly:page-turn-breaking
}
When a book has many scores and pages, the page breaking problem may be difficult to solve,
requiring large processing time and memory. To ease the page breaking process, \bookpart
blocks are used to divide the book into several parts: the page breaking occurs separately on
each part. Different page breaking functions may also be used in different book parts.
\bookpart {
\header {
subtitle = "Preface"
}
\paper {
%% In a part consisting mostly of text,
%% ly:minimal-breaking may be preferred
page-breaking = #ly:minimal-breaking
}
\markup { ... }
Chapter 28: Breaks 666

...
}
\bookpart {
%% In this part, consisting of music, the default optimal
%% page breaking function is used.
\header {
subtitle = "First movement"
}
\score { ... }
...
}

Predefined commands
\pageBreak, \noPageBreak, \autoPageBreaksOn, \autoPageBreaksOff.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 26.6.2 [\paper variables for page breaking], page 651.
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.

Known issues and warnings

The \once prefix is ineffective with \autoPageBreaksOn and \autoPageBreaksOff. If automatic
page breaking is off and is then turned on to permit a page break, it must remain on for a few bars
(the precise number of bars depends on the score) before being turned off, else the opportunity
to break the page will not be taken.

28.2.2 Optimal page breaking

The ly:optimal-breaking function is LilyPond’s default method of determining page breaks.
It attempts to find a page breaking that minimizes cramping and stretching, both horizontally
and vertically. Unlike ly:page-turn-breaking, it has no concept of page turns.

See also
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.

28.2.3 Minimal page breaking

The ly:minimal-breaking function performs minimal computations to calculate the page break-
ing: it fills a page with as many systems as possible before moving to the next one. Thus, it
may be preferred for scores with many pages, where the other page breaking functions could be
too slow or memory demanding, or a lot of texts. It is enabled using:
\paper {
page-breaking = #ly:minimal-breaking
}

See also
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.

28.2.4 One-page page breaking

The ly:one-page-breaking function is a special-purpose page breaking algorithm that auto-
matically adjusts the page height to fit the music, so that everything fits on a single page. The
paper-height variable in the paper block is ignored, but other settings work as usual. In partic-
ular, the spacing between the last system (or top level markup) and the footer can be customized
Chapter 28: Breaks 667

with last-bottom-spacing in the paper block. The width of the page is left unmodified by
default but can be set with paper-width in the paper block.

Known issues and warnings

ly:one-page-breaking is not currently compatible with \bookpart.

28.2.5 One-line page breaking

The ly:one-line-breaking function is a special-purpose page breaking algorithm that puts
each score on its own page, and on a single line. No titles or margins are typeset; only the score
is displayed.
The page width is adjusted so that the longest score fits on one line. In particular,
paper-width, line-width and indent variables in the \paper block are ignored, although
left-margin and right-margin are still honored. The height of the page is left unmodified.

28.2.6 One-line-auto-height page breaking

The ly:one-line-auto-height-breaking function works just like ly:one-line-breaking ex-
cept the page height is automatically modified to fit the height of the music. Specifically, the
paper-height variable in the \paper block is set so that it spans the height of the tallest score
plus the top-margin and bottom-margin.
Note that the top-system-spacing setting will affect the vertical position of the music. Set
it to #f in a paper block to simply place the music between the top and bottom margins.

28.2.7 Optimal page turning

Often it is necessary to find a page breaking configuration so that there is a rest at the end of
every second page. This way, the musician can turn the page without having to miss notes. The
ly:page-turn-breaking function attempts to find a page breaking minimizing cramping and
stretching, but with the additional restriction that it is only allowed to introduce page turns in
specified places.
There are two steps to using this page breaking function. First, you must enable it in the
\paper block, as explained in Section 28.2 [Page breaking], page 665. Then you must tell the
function where you would like to allow page breaks.
There are two ways to achieve the second step. First, you can specify each potential page
turn manually, by inserting \allowPageTurn into your input file at the appropriate places.
If this is too tedious, you can add a Page_turn_engraver to a Staff or Voice context. The
Page_turn_engraver will scan the context for sections without notes (note that it does not scan
for rests; it scans for the absence of notes. This is so that single-staff polyphony with rests in
one of the parts does not throw off the Page_turn_engraver). When it finds a sufficiently long
section without notes, the Page_turn_engraver will insert an \allowPageTurn at the final bar
line in that section, unless there is a ‘special’ bar line (such as a double bar), in which case the
\allowPageTurn will be inserted at the final ‘special’ bar line in the section.
The Page_turn_engraver reads the context property pageTurnMinimumRestLength to de-
termine how long a note-free section must be before a page turn is considered. The default value
for pageTurnMinimumRestLength is 1. If you want to disable page turns, set it to something
‘very large’.
\new Staff \with { \consists Page_turn_engraver }
{
a4 b c d |
R1 | % a page turn will be allowed here
a4 b c d |
\set Staff.pageTurnMinimumRestLength = #5/2
Chapter 28: Breaks 668

R1 | % a page turn will not be allowed here

a4 b r2 |
R1*2 | % a page turn will be allowed here
a1
}
When using volta repeats, the Page_turn_engraver will only allow a page turn during the
repeat if there is enough time at the beginning and end of the repeat to turn the page back.
If the repeat is too short then the Page_turn_engraver can be used to disable page turns by
setting an appropriate value for the context property pageTurnMinimumRepeatLength. In this
case the Page_turn_engraver will only allow turns in repeats whose duration is longer than the
value specified.
The page turning commands, \pageTurn, \noPageTurn and \allowPageTurn, may also be
used at top-level, in top-level markups and between scores.

Predefined commands
\pageTurn, \noPageTurn, \allowPageTurn.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 26.6.1 [\paper variables for line breaking], page 651.
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.

Known issues and warnings

Use only one Page_turn_engraver per score. If there are more, they will interfere with each
other.

See also
Notation Reference: Chapter 29 [Vertical spacing], page 669.
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.
 669

29 Vertical spacing
Vertical spacing is controlled by three things: the amount of space available (i.e., paper size and
margins), the amount of space between systems, and the amount of space between staves inside
a system.

29.1 Flexible vertical spacing within systems

Three separate mechanisms control the flexible vertical spacing within systems, one for each of
the following categories:
• ungrouped staves,
• grouped staves (staves within a staff group such as ChoirStaff, etc.), and
• non-staff lines (such as Lyrics, ChordNames, etc.).
The height of each system is determined in two steps. First, all of the staves are spaced
according to the amount of space available. Then, the non-staff lines are distributed between
the staves.
Note that the spacing mechanisms discussed in this section only control the vertical spacing
of staves and non-staff lines within individual systems. The vertical spacing between separate
systems, scores, markups, and margins is controlled by \paper variables, which are discussed in
Section 26.4 [Flexible vertical spacing \paper variables], page 646.

29.1.1 Within-system spacing properties

The within-system vertical spacing mechanisms are controlled by two sets of grob properties.
The first set is associated with the VerticalAxisGroup grob, which is created by all staves and
non-staff lines. The second set is associated with the StaffGrouper grob, which can be created
by staff groups, but only if explicitly called. These properties are described individually at the
end of this section.
The names of these properties (except for staff-affinity) follow the format item1-item2-
spacing, where item1 and item2 are the items to be spaced. Note that item2 is not necessarily
below item1; for example, nonstaff-relatedstaff-spacing will measure upwards from the
non-staff line if staff-affinity is UP.
Each distance is measured between the reference points 1 of the two items. The reference
point for a staff is the vertical center of its StaffSymbol (i.e., the middle line if line-count is
odd; the middle space if line-count is even). The reference points for individual non-staff lines
are given in the following table:
Non-staff line Reference point
ChordNames baseline
NoteNames baseline
Lyrics baseline
Dynamics mid-height of ‘m’
FiguredBass baseline of topmost element
FretBoards top line
In the following image, horizontal lines indicate the positions of these reference points:

ChordNames NoteNames Lyrics

baseline g g ghijk
1
This is a sloppy formulation. For contexts, the positions of grobs along the x-axis are computed by LilyPond’s
spacing algorithm (using PaperColumn objects and the like for alignment); this means that the only relevant
information here is the vertical position. In other words, a reference ‘point’ of a context is the y-coordinate
position to which other grobs are aligned to.
Chapter 29: Vertical spacing 670

Dynamics
mid-height mp fp
FiguredBass
top baseline 


FretBoards
top line O OO

231

Each of the vertical spacing grob properties (except staff-affinity) uses the same alist
structure as the \paper spacing variables discussed in Section 26.4 [Flexible vertical spacing
\paper variables], page 646. Specific methods for modifying alists are discussed in Section 35.8
[Modifying alists], page 743. Grob properties should be adjusted with an \override inside a
\score or \layout block, and not inside a \paper block.
The following example demonstrates the two ways these alists can be modified. The first
declaration updates one key value individually, and the second completely redefines the property:
\new Staff \with {
\override VerticalAxisGroup
.default-staff-staff-spacing.basic-distance = 10
} { ... }

\new Staff \with {

\override VerticalAxisGroup.default-staff-staff-spacing =
#'((basic-distance . 10)
(minimum-distance . 9)
(padding . 1)
(stretchability . 10))
} { ... }
To change any spacing settings globally, put them in the \layout block:
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
\override VerticalAxisGroup
.default-staff-staff-spacing
.basic-distance = 10
}
}
Standard settings for the vertical spacing grob properties are listed in Section “Vertical-
AxisGroup” in Internals Reference and Section “StaffGrouper” in Internals Reference. Default
overrides for specific types of non-staff lines are listed in the relevant context descriptions in
Section “Contexts” in Internals Reference.

Properties of the VerticalAxisGroup grob

VerticalAxisGroup properties are typically adjusted with an \override at the Staff level (or
equivalent).
staff-staff-spacing
Used to determine the distance between the current staff and the staff just below it
in the same system, even if one or more non-staff lines (such as Lyrics) are placed
between the two staves. Does not apply to the bottom staff of a system.
Chapter 29: Vertical spacing 671

Initially, the staff-staff-spacing of a VerticalAxisGroup is a Scheme function

that applies the properties of the StaffGrouper if the staff is part of a group,
or the default-staff-staff-spacing of the staff otherwise. This allows staves
to be spaced differently when they are grouped. For uniform spacing regardless
of grouping, this function may be replaced by a flexible-spacing alist, using the
complete-redefinition form of override shown above. If only some values are specified
in an override, missing values will be taken from default-staff-staff-spacing
(if it has values for them).
default-staff-staff-spacing
A flexible-spacing alist defining the staff-staff-spacing used for ungrouped
staves, unless staff-staff-spacing has been explicitly set with an \override.
staff-affinity
The direction of the staff to use for spacing the current non-staff line. Choices are UP,
DOWN, and CENTER. If CENTER, the non-staff line will be placed equidistant between
the two nearest staves on either side, unless collisions or other spacing constraints
prevent this. Adjacent non-staff lines should have non-increasing staff-affinity
from top to bottom, e.g., a non-staff line set to UP should not immediately follow
one that is set to DOWN. Non-staff lines at the top of a system should use DOWN; those
at the bottom should use UP. Setting staff-affinity for a staff causes it to be
treated as a non-staff line. Setting staff-affinity to #f causes a non-staff line to
be treated as a staff. Setting staff-affinity to UP, CENTER, or DOWN causes a staff
to be spaced as a non-staff line.
nonstaff-relatedstaff-spacing
The distance between the current non-staff line and the nearest staff in the
direction of staff-affinity, if there are no non-staff lines between the two,
and staff-affinity is either UP or DOWN. If staff-affinity is CENTER, then
nonstaff-relatedstaff-spacing is used for the nearest staves on both sides, even
if other non-staff lines appear between the current one and either of the staves. This
means that the placement of a non-staff line depends on both the surrounding staves
and the surrounding non-staff lines. Setting the stretchability of one of these
types of spacing to a small value will make that spacing dominate. Setting the
stretchability to a large value will make that spacing have little effect.
nonstaff-nonstaff-spacing
The distance between the current non-staff line and the next non-staff line in the
direction of staff-affinity, if both are on the same side of the related staff, and
staff-affinity is either UP or DOWN.
nonstaff-unrelatedstaff-spacing
The distance between the current non-staff line and the staff in the opposite direction
from staff-affinity, if there are no other non-staff lines between the two, and
staff-affinity is either UP or DOWN. This can be used, for example, to require a
minimum amount of padding between a Lyrics line and the staff to which it does
not belong.

Properties of the StaffGrouper grob

StaffGrouper properties are typically adjusted with an \override at the StaffGroup level (or
equivalent).
staff-staff-spacing
The distance between consecutive staves within the current staff group. The
staff-staff-spacing property of an individual staff’s VerticalAxisGroup grob
can be overridden with different spacing settings for that staff.
Chapter 29: Vertical spacing 672

staffgroup-staff-spacing
The distance between the last staff of the current staff group and the staff just
below it in the same system, even if one or more non-staff lines (such as Lyrics)
exist between the two staves. Does not apply to the bottom staff of a system. The
staff-staff-spacing property of an individual staff’s VerticalAxisGroup grob
can be overridden with different spacing settings for that staff.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 26.4 [Flexible vertical spacing \paper variables], page 646, Sec-
tion 35.8 [Modifying alists], page 743.
Installed Files: ly/engraver-init.ly, scm/define-grobs.scm.
Internals Reference: Section “Contexts” in Internals Reference, Section “VerticalAxis-
Group” in Internals Reference, Section “StaffGrouper” in Internals Reference.

29.1.2 Spacing of ungrouped staves

Staves (such as Staff, DrumStaff, TabStaff, etc.) are contexts that can contain one or more
voice contexts, but cannot contain any other staves.
The following properties affect the spacing of ungrouped staves:
• VerticalAxisGroup properties:
• default-staff-staff-spacing
• staff-staff-spacing
These grob properties are described individually above; see Section 29.1.1 [Within-system
spacing properties], page 669.
Additional properties are involved for staves that are part of a staff group; see Section 29.1.3
[Spacing of grouped staves], page 673.
The following example shows how the default-staff-staff-spacing property can affect
the spacing of ungrouped staves. The same overrides applied to staff-staff-spacing would
have the same effect, but would also apply in cases where the staves are combined in a group or
groups.
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
\override VerticalAxisGroup.default-staff-staff-spacing =
#'((basic-distance . 8)
(minimum-distance . 7)
(padding . 1))
}
}

<<
% The very low note here needs more room than 'basic-distance
% can provide, so the distance between this staff and the next
% is determined by 'padding.
\new Staff { b,2 r | }

% Here, 'basic-distance provides enough room, and there is no

% need to compress the space (towards 'minimum-distance) to make
% room for anything else on the page, so the distance between
% this staff and the next is determined by 'basic-distance.
Chapter 29: Vertical spacing 673

\new Staff { \clef bass g2 r | }

% By setting 'padding to a negative value, staves can be made to

% collide. The lowest acceptable value for 'basic-distance is 0.
\new Staff \with {
\override VerticalAxisGroup.default-staff-staff-spacing =
#'((basic-distance . 3.5)
(padding . -10))
} { \clef bass g2 r | }
\new Staff { \clef bass g2 r | }
>>

 º ˜
N
º N ˜
º N ˜
º N ˜

See also
Installed Files: scm/define-grobs.scm.
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “VerticalAxisGroup” in Internals Reference.

29.1.3 Spacing of grouped staves

In orchestral and other large scores, it is common to place staves in groups. The space between
groups is typically larger than the space between staves of the same group.
Staff-groups (such as StaffGroup, ChoirStaff, etc.) are contexts that can contain one or
more staves simultaneously.
The following properties affect the spacing of staves inside staff groups:
• VerticalAxisGroup properties:
• staff-staff-spacing
• StaffGrouper properties:
• staff-staff-spacing
• staffgroup-staff-spacing
These grob properties are described individually above; see Section 29.1.1 [Within-system
spacing properties], page 669.
The following example shows how properties of the StaffGrouper grob can affect the spacing
of grouped staves:
\layout {
\context {
\Score
\override StaffGrouper.staff-staff-spacing.padding = 0
\override StaffGrouper.staff-staff-spacing.basic-distance = 1
}
}
Chapter 29: Vertical spacing 674

<<
\new PianoStaff \with {
\override StaffGrouper
.staffgroup-staff-spacing
.basic-distance = 20
} <<
\new Staff { c'1 }
\new Staff { c'1 }
>>

\new StaffGroup <<

\new Staff { c'1 }
\new Staff { c'1 }
>>


>>

º .
º .

7
º .
º
6 .
See also
Installed Files: scm/define-grobs.scm.
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “VerticalAxisGroup” in Internals Reference, Section “Staff-
Grouper” in Internals Reference.

29.1.4 Spacing of non-staff lines

Non-staff lines (such as Lyrics, ChordNames, etc.) are contexts whose layout objects are en-
graved like staves (i.e., in horizontal lines within systems). Specifically, non-staff lines are
non-staff contexts that contain the Section “Axis group engraver” in Internals Reference.
The following properties affect the spacing of non-staff lines:
• VerticalAxisGroup properties:
• staff-affinity
• nonstaff-relatedstaff-spacing
• nonstaff-nonstaff-spacing
• nonstaff-unrelatedstaff-spacing
These grob properties are described individually above; see Section 29.1.1 [Within-system
spacing properties], page 669.
Chapter 29: Vertical spacing 675

The following example shows how the nonstaff-nonstaff-spacing property can affect the
spacing of consecutive non-staff lines. Here, by setting the stretchability key to a very high
value, the lyrics are able to stretch much more than usual:

\layout {
\context {
\Lyrics
\override VerticalAxisGroup
.nonstaff-nonstaff-spacing
.stretchability = 1000
}
}

\new StaffGroup
<<
\new Staff \with {
\override VerticalAxisGroup.staff-staff-spacing =
#'((basic-distance . 30))
} { c'1 }
\new Lyrics \with {
\override VerticalAxisGroup.staff-affinity = #UP
} \lyricmode { up }
\new Lyrics \with {
\override VerticalAxisGroup.staff-affinity = #CENTER
} \lyricmode { center }
\new Lyrics \with {
\override VerticalAxisGroup.staff-affinity = #DOWN
} \lyricmode { down }
\new Staff { c'1 }
>>

7
º .
up

center

down

º
6 .
See also
Installed Files: ly/engraver-init.ly, scm/define-grobs.scm.

Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.

Internals Reference: Section “Contexts” in Internals Reference, Section “VerticalAxis-

Group” in Internals Reference.
Chapter 29: Vertical spacing 676

29.2 Explicit staff and system positioning

One way to understand the flexible vertical spacing mechanisms explained above is as a collection
of settings that control the amount of vertical padding between staves and systems.
It is possible to approach vertical spacing in a different way using property
NonMusicalPaperColumn.line-break-system-details. While the flexible vertical spacing
mechanisms specify vertical padding, NonMusicalPaperColumn.line-break-system-details
can specify exact vertical positions on the page.
NonMusicalPaperColumn.line-break-system-details accepts an associative list of four
different settings:
• X-offset
• Y-offset
• extra-offset
• alignment-distances
\once \override NonMusicalPaperColumn.line-break-system-details =
#'((X-offset . 20))

\once \override NonMusicalPaperColumn.line-break-system-details =

#'((Y-offset . 40))

\once \override NonMusicalPaperColumn.line-break-system-details =

#'((X-offset . 20)
(Y-offset . 40))

\once \override NonMusicalPaperColumn.line-break-system-details =

#'((alignment-distances . (15)))

\once \override NonMusicalPaperColumn.line-break-system-details =

#'((X-offset . 20)
(Y-offset . 40)
(alignment-distances . (15)))
To understand how each of these different settings work, we begin by looking at an example
that includes no overrides at all.
\header { tagline = ##f }
\paper { left-margin = 0\mm }
\book {
\score {
<<
\new Staff <<
\new Voice {
s1*5 \break
s1*5 \break
s1*5 \break
}
\new Voice { \repeat unfold 15 { c'4 c' c' c' } }
>>
\new Staff {
\repeat unfold 15 { d'4 d' d' d' }
}
>>
Chapter 29: Vertical spacing 677

}
}

º
h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
º h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
6

 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
11


h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
This score isolates both line breaking and page breaking information in a dedicated voice.
This technique of creating a breaks voice will help keep layout separate from music entry as our
example becomes more complicated. Also see Chapter 28 [Breaks], page 661.
By using explicit \break commands, the music is divided into five measures per line. Ver-
tical spacing is from LilyPond’s own defaults but the vertical start point of each system is
set explicitly using the Y-offset pair in the line-break-system-details attribute of the
NonMusicalPaperColumn grob:
\header { tagline = ##f }
\paper { left-margin = 0\mm }
\book {
\score {
<<
\new Staff <<
\new Voice {
\once \override
Score.NonMusicalPaperColumn
.line-break-system-details = #'((Y-offset . 0))
s1*5 \break
\once \override
Score.NonMusicalPaperColumn
.line-break-system-details = #'((Y-offset . 40))
s1*5 \break
\once \override
Score.NonMusicalPaperColumn
.line-break-system-details = #'((Y-offset . 60))
s1*5 \break
}
\new Voice { \repeat unfold 15 { c'4 c' c' c' } }
>>
\new Staff {
Chapter 29: Vertical spacing 678

\repeat unfold 15 { d'4 d' d' d' }

}
>>
}
}

º h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
º h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h


h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
11

 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
Note that line-break-system-details takes an associative list of potentially many values,
but that we set only one value here. Note, too, that the Y-offset property here determines the
exact vertical position on the page at which each new system will render.
In contrast to the absolute positioning available through Y-offset and X-offset, relative
positioning is possible with the extra-offset property of line-break-system-details. Place-
ment is relative to the default layout or to the absolute positioning created by setting X-offset
and Y-offset. The property extra-offset accepts a pair consisting of displacements along
the X-axis and Y-axis.
\header { tagline = ##f }
\paper { left-margin = 0\mm }
\book {
\score {
<<
\new Staff <<
\new Voice {
s1*5 \break
\once \override
Score
.NonMusicalPaperColumn
.line-break-system-details = #'((extra-offset . (0 . 10)))
s1*5 \break
\once \override
Chapter 29: Vertical spacing 679

Score
.NonMusicalPaperColumn
.line-break-system-details = #'((extra-offset . (0 . 10)))
s1*5 \break
}
\new Voice { \repeat unfold 15 { c'4 c' c' c' } }
>>
\new Staff {
\repeat unfold 15 { d'4 d' d' d' }
}
>>
}
}

º
h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
º h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h


h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
11

 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
Now that we have set the vertical start point of each system explicitly, we can also set
the vertical distances between staves within each system manually. We do this using the
alignment-distances subproperty of line-break-system-details.
\header { tagline = ##f }
\paper { left-margin = 0\mm }
\book {
\score {
<<
\new Staff <<
\new Voice {
\once \override
Score
.NonMusicalPaperColumn
.line-break-system-details
= #'((Y-offset . 20)
(alignment-distances . (10)))
Chapter 29: Vertical spacing 680

s1*5 \break
\once \override
Score
.NonMusicalPaperColumn
.line-break-system-details
= #'((Y-offset . 60)
(alignment-distances . (15)))
s1*5 \break
\once \override
Score
.NonMusicalPaperColumn
.line-break-system-details
= #'((Y-offset . 85)
(alignment-distances . (20)))
s1*5 \break
}
\new Voice { \repeat unfold 15 { c'4 c' c' c' } }
>>
\new Staff {
\repeat unfold 15 { d'4 d' d' d' }
}
>>
}
}
Chapter 29: Vertical spacing 681

º
h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

º h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h


h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
11


h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
Note that here we assign two different values to the line-break-system-details attribute
of the NonMusicalPaperColumn grob. Though the line-break-system-details attribute alist
accepts many additional spacing parameters (including, for example, a corresponding X-offset
pair), we need only set the Y-offset and alignment-distances pairs to control the vertical
start point of every system and every staff. Finally, note that alignment-distances specifies
the vertical positioning of staves but not of staff groups.
\header { tagline = ##f }
\paper { left-margin = 0\mm }
\book {
\score {
<<
\new Staff <<
\new Voice {
\once \override
Score
.NonMusicalPaperColumn
.line-break-system-details
= #'((Y-offset . 0)
(alignment-distances . (30 10)))
s1*5 \break
\once \override
Score
.NonMusicalPaperColumn
Chapter 29: Vertical spacing 682

.line-break-system-details
= #'((Y-offset . 60)
(alignment-distances . (10 10)))
s1*5 \break
\once \override
Score
.NonMusicalPaperColumn
.line-break-system-details
= #'((Y-offset . 100)
(alignment-distances . (10 30)))
s1*5 \break
}
\new Voice { \repeat unfold 15 { c'4 c' c' c' } }
>>
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff { \repeat unfold 15 { d'4 d' d' d' } }
\new Staff { \repeat unfold 15 { e'4 e' e' e' } }
>>
>>
}
}
Chapter 29: Vertical spacing 683

º h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

7
º h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
º h h h h
6 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h


h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
7
 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

6 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

11

 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
7
 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

6 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
Some points to consider:
• When using alignment-distances, lyrics and other non-staff lines do not count as a staff.
• The units of the numbers passed to X-offset, Y-offset, extra-offset and
alignment-distances are interpreted as multiples of the distance between adjacent staff
lines. Positive values move staves and lyrics up, negative values move staves and lyrics
down.
Chapter 29: Vertical spacing 684

• Because the NonMusicalPaperColumn.line-break-system-details settings given here al-

low the positioning of staves and systems anywhere on the page, it is possible to violate
paper or margin boundaries or even to print staves or systems on top of one another. Rea-
sonable values passed to these different settings will avoid this.

See also
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.

29.3 Vertical collision avoidance

Intuitively, there are some objects in musical notation that belong to the staff and there are
other objects that should be placed outside the staff. Objects belonging outside the staff include
things such as rehearsal marks, text and dynamic markings (from now on, these will be called
outside-staff objects). LilyPond’s rule for the vertical placement of outside-staff objects is to
place them as close to the staff as possible but not so close that they collide with another object.
LilyPond uses the outside-staff-priority property to determine whether a grob is an
outside-staff object: if outside-staff-priority is a number, the grob is an outside-staff object.
In addition, outside-staff-priority tells LilyPond in which order the objects should be
placed.
First, LilyPond places all the objects that do not belong outside the staff. Then it sorts the
outside-staff objects according to their outside-staff-priority (in increasing order). One by
one, LilyPond takes the outside-staff objects and places them so that they do not collide with
any objects that have already been placed. That is, if two outside-staff grobs are competing for
the same space, the one with the lower outside-staff-priority will be placed closer to the
staff.
A listing of defaults for outside-staff-priority may be found in Section B.17 [Default
values for outside-staff-priority], page 901.
\relative c'' {
c4_"Text"\pp
r2.
\once \override TextScript.outside-staff-priority = 1
c4_"Text"\pp % this time the text will be closer to the staff
r2.
% by setting outside-staff-priority to a non-number,
% we disable the automatic collision avoidance
\once \override TextScript.outside-staff-priority = ##f
\once \override DynamicLineSpanner.outside-staff-priority = ##f
c4_"Text"\pp % now they will collide
}

 º h ˜P h ˜P h
pp pp
Text pp
Text
Text
The vertical padding around outside-staff objects can be controlled with property
outside-staff-padding.
\relative {
\once \override TextScript.outside-staff-padding = 0
a'4-"outside-staff-padding = 0"
\once \override TextScript.outside-staff-padding = 3
Chapter 29: Vertical spacing 685

d-"outside-staff-padding = 3"
c-"default outside-staff-padding"
b-"default outside-staff-padding"
R1
}

º h h h h ”
outside-staff-padding = 0

outside-staff-padding = 3

default outside-staff-padding
default outside-staff-padding

By default, outside-staff objects are placed so they avoid a horizontal collision with previously-
positioned grobs. This can lead to situations in which objects are placed close to each other
horizontally. As shown in the example below, setting outside-staff-horizontal-padding
increases the horizontal spacing required, and in this case moves the text up to prevent it from
getting too close to the ledger lines.
\relative {
c''4^"Word" c c''2
R1
\once \override TextScript.outside-staff-horizontal-padding = 1
c,,4^"Word" c c''2
}

N Word N

º h h
Word
” h h

See also
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.
 686

30 Horizontal spacing

30.1 Horizontal spacing overview

The spacing engine translates differences in durations into stretchable distances (‘springs’) of
differing lengths. Longer durations get more space, shorter durations get less. The shortest
durations get a fixed amount of space (which is controlled by shortest-duration-space in the
Section “SpacingSpanner” in Internals Reference object). The longer the duration, the more
space it gets: doubling a duration adds spacing-increment of space to the note.
For example, the following piece contains lots of half, quarter, and 8th notes; the eighth note
is followed by 1 note head width (NHW). The quarter note is followed by 2 NHW, the half by
3 NHW, etc.
\relative c' {
c2 c4. c8
c4. c8 c4. c8
c8 c c4 c c
}

 º N hP h hP h hP h h h h h h
Normally, spacing-increment is set to 1.2 staff space, which is approximately the width of
a note head, and shortest-duration-space is set to 2.0, meaning that the shortest note gets
2.4 staff space (2.0 times the spacing-increment) of horizontal space. This space is counted
from the left edge of the symbol, so the shortest notes are generally followed by one NHW of
space.
If one would follow the above procedure exactly, then adding a single 32nd note to a score
that uses 8th and 16th notes, would widen up the entire score a lot. The shortest note is no
longer a 16th, but a 32nd, thus adding 1 NHW to every note. To prevent this, the shortest
duration for spacing is not the shortest note in the score, but rather the one which occurs most
frequently.
The most common shortest duration is determined as follows: in every measure, the shortest
duration is determined. The most common shortest duration is taken as the basis for the spacing,
with the stipulation that this shortest duration should always be equal to or shorter than an 8th
note.
These durations may also be customized. If you set the common-shortest-duration in Sec-
tion “SpacingSpanner” in Internals Reference, then this sets the base duration for spacing. The
maximum duration for this base (normally an 8th), is set through base-shortest-duration.
Notes that are even shorter than the common shortest note are followed by a space that is
proportional to their duration relative to the common shortest note. So if we were to add only
a few 16th notes to the example above, they would be followed by half a NHW:
\relative { c''2 c4. c8 | c4. c16[ c] c4. c8 | c8 c c4 c c }

 º N h P hT h P h h h P hT h h h h h
As explained in the Essay on automated music engraving, stem directions will
influence spacing (see Section “Optical spacing” in Essay) and can be adjusted using the
Chapter 30: Horizontal spacing 687

stem-spacing-correction property of the Section “NoteSpacing” in Internals Reference

object (which are generated for every Section “Voice” in Internals Reference context).
The StaffSpacing object (generated in Section “Staff” in Internals Reference context) con-
tains the same property for controlling the stem/bar line spacing.
The following example shows this; once with the default settings and once with an exaggerated
adjustment:

h h h hh h h h h hh h
º h h
h h
Proportional notation is supported; see Section 30.6 [Proportional notation], page 696.

See also
Essay on automated music engraving: Section “Optical spacing” in Essay.
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “SpacingSpanner” in Internals Reference, Section “Note-
Spacing” in Internals Reference, Section “StaffSpacing” in Internals Reference, Section “Non-
MusicalPaperColumn” in Internals Reference.

Known issues and warnings

There is no convenient mechanism to manually override spacing. The following workaround may
be used to insert extra space into a score, adjusting the padding value as necessary.
\override Score.NonMusicalPaperColumn.padding = 10
No workaround exists for decreasing the amount of space.

30.2 New spacing section

New sections with different spacing parameters can be started with the newSpacingSection
command. This is useful for sections with different notions of ‘long’ and ‘short’ notes. The
\newSpacingSection command creates a new SpacingSpanner object at that musical moment.
In the following example the time signature change introduces a new section, and the 16ths
notes are automatically spaced slightly wider apart.
\relative c' {
\time 2/4
c4 c8 c
c8 c c4 c16[ c c8] c4
\newSpacingSection
\time 4/16
c16[ c c8]
}

 42 4
16
h h h h h h hhh h hhh
If the automatic spacing adjustments do not give the required spacing, manual \overrides
may be applied to its properties. These must be applied at the same musical moment as the
\newSpacingSection command itself and will then affect the spacing of all the following music
until the properties are changed in a new spacing section, for example:
\relative c' {
Chapter 30: Horizontal spacing 688

\time 4/16
c16[ c c8]
\newSpacingSection
\override Score.SpacingSpanner.spacing-increment = 2
c16[ c c8]
\newSpacingSection
\revert Score.SpacingSpanner.spacing-increment
c16[ c c8]
}

4
 16
hhh h h h hhh
See also
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “SpacingSpanner” in Internals Reference.

30.3 Changing horizontal spacing globally

Horizontal spacing may be altered with the base-shortest-duration property. Here we com-
pare the same music; once without altering the property, and then altered. Larger values yield
tighter spacing.
\score {
\relative {
g'4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 d e f | g4 g g2 |
g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 e g g | c,1 |
d4 d d d | d4 e f2 | e4 e e e | e4 f g2 |
g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 e g g | c,1 |
}
}

º hh N hh N h h h h h h N
hh N
6

 h h N h h h h h h h h N
h h .
11

 hhhh hhN hhN hhN hh

hh .
\score {
\relative {
g'4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 d e f | g4 g g2 |
g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 e g g | c,1 |
d4 d d d | d4 e f2 | e4 e e e | e4 f g2 |
g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 e g g | c,1 |
}
\layout {
\context {
Chapter 30: Horizontal spacing 689

\Score
\override SpacingSpanner.base-shortest-duration = \musicLength 16
}
}
}

º h h N h h N h h h h
4

 h h N h h N h h N
7

 h h h h . h h h h
10

 h h N h h h h h h N
13

 h h N h h N h h
h h .
30.3.1 Uniform stretching of tuplets
By default, spacing in tuplets depends on various non-duration factors (such as accidentals,
clef changes, etc). To disregard such symbols and force uniform equal-duration spacing, use
Score.SpacingSpanner.uniform-stretching. This property can only be changed at the be-
ginning of a score,
\score {
<<
\new Staff \relative c' {
\tuplet 5/4 { c8 c c c c } c8 c c c
}
\new Staff \relative c' {
c8 c c c \tuplet 5/4 { c8 c c c c }
}
>>
\layout {
\context {
\Score
\override SpacingSpanner.uniform-stretching = ##t
}
}
}

º 5

hhhhhh h h h
 º h h h h h h h5 h h
Chapter 30: Horizontal spacing 690

30.3.2 Strict note spacing

When strict-note-spacing is set, notes are spaced without regard for clefs, bar lines, and
grace notes,
\override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t
\new Staff \relative {
c''8[ c \clef alto c \grace { c16 c } c8 c c] c32[ c] }

h hhh h h h h
 º h h
See also
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.

30.4 Adjusting horizontal spacing for specific layout objects

In addition to the general-purpose parameters of the default spacing algorithm that apply to
all elements of the score or spacing section, several properties serve to operate adjustments on
a per-object-type-basis. Examples include adjusting the distance from clefs to time signatures,
but not from clefs to notes when there is no time signature, or stretching notes further apart in
the presence of a printed text so that it does not overlap with the next note. Tweaking these
first requires identifying the type of spacing at play.

30.4.1 Overview of object-specific horizontal spacing tweaks

Layout objects that have a horizontally fixed position are called items (as opposed to spanners)
and, for the purpose of horizontal spacing, are grouped into columns. Note heads and rests,
forming the main musical material, together with those objects that are logically linked to them
– accidentals, articulations, stems, dots, etc. – are all part of ‘musical columns’ (represented by
NoteColumn grobs). Prefatory matter, such as clefs, time signatures and bar lines, is grouped
into ‘non-musical columns’ (represented by NonMusicalPaperColumn grobs). In the following
example, musical items are colored red, while non-musical items are blue.

A hP i
 83 hm h 
This example shows that there is an alternation between musical and non-musical columns. The
first non-musical column contains a clef and a time signature. The first musical column has a
note head with its stem and articulation. The second non-musical column is empty and thus
removed during the layout process. The second musical column has a note again. The third
non-musical column contains a clef, a bar line and a rehearsal mark, etc.
Within one column, spacing is fixed. On the other hand, the amount of space between
consecutive columns is flexible. As we shall see, the methods to adjust spacing within a column
and between columns are different.

30.4.2 Spacing between adjacent non-musical items

Within a non-musical column, items are laid out in a specific order. For instance, with the set
of items in the picture below, the default order places the breathing sign first, then the clef,
then the bar line, the key cancellation and key signature, and finally the time signature (this is
controlled by the BreakAlignment.break-align-orders property).
\relative {
Chapter 30: Horizontal spacing 691

\key g \minor
g'1
\breathe
\clef alto
\time 6/8
\key a \major
aes4.
}

  º i    6  h P
 .  8
The distance between two adjacent items from the same non-musical column is controlled
by the value of the space-alist property of the leftmost one of the two. space-alist has
the form of an associative list mapping break-align symbols to (spacing-style . value) pairs.
A breakable item’s break-align symbol is given by the value of its break-align-symbol prop-
erty; standard choices are listed in Section “break-alignment-interface” in Internals Reference.
Spacing styles are listed in Section “break-aligned-interface” in Internals Reference. Among the
available options, only extra-space and minimum-space are relevant for tweaking the space
between non-musical items. The difference is that extra-space measures the padding from the
right of the first object to the left of the second object while minimum-space counts from the
left of the first object. Thus, a way to move the bar line farther from the clef is:
\relative {
\key g \minor
g'1
\override Staff.Clef.space-alist.staff-bar = #'(extra-space . 4)
\breathe
\clef alto
\time 6/8
\key a \major
aes4.
}

 º i    6  h P
 . 8
space-alist settings, not limited to the two spacing styles described above, are also possible
to override the spacing between different columns. However, this kind of spacing is flexible, and
does not merely depend on the types of object involved but also their shapes. Methods specific
to it are documented in the next section.

Selected Snippets
Separating key cancellations from key signature changes
By default, the accidentals used for key cancellations are placed adjacent to those for key signa-
ture changes. This behavior can be changed by overriding the break-align-orders property
of the BreakAlignment grob.
The value of break-align-orders is a vector of length 3, with quoted lists of breakable items
as elements. Each list describes the default order of prefatory matter at the end, in the middle,
and at the beginning of a line, respectively. We are only interested in changing the behaviour
in the middle of a line.
Chapter 30: Horizontal spacing 692

If you look up the definition of break-align-orders in LilyPond’s Internal Reference

(see the BreakAlignment (https://lilypond.org/doc/v2.22/Documentation/internals/
breakalignment) grob), you get the following order in the second element:
...
staff-bar
key-cancellation
key-signature
...
We want to change that, moving key-cancellation before staff-bar. To make this happen
we use the grob-transformer function, which gives us access to the original vector as the second
argument of the lambda function, here called orig (we don’t need the first argument, grob). We
return a new vector, with unchanged first and last elements. For the middle element, we first
remove key-cancellation from the list, then adding it again before staff-bar.
#(define (insert-before where what lst)
(cond
((null? lst) ; If the list is empty,
(list what)) ; return a single-element list.
((eq? where (car lst)) ; If we find symbol `where`,
(cons what lst)) ; insert `what` before curr. position.
(else ; Otherwise keep building the list by
(cons (car lst) ; adding the current element and
; recursing with the next element.
(insert-before where what (cdr lst))))))

cancellationFirst =
\override Score.BreakAlignment.break-align-orders =
#(grob-transformer
'break-align-orders
(lambda (grob orig)
(let* ((middle (vector-ref orig 1))
(middle (delq 'key-cancellation middle))
(middle (insert-before
'staff-bar 'key-cancellation middle)))
(vector
;; end of line
(vector-ref orig 0)
;; middle of line
middle
;; beginning of line
(vector-ref orig 2)))))

music = { \key es \major d'1 \bar "||"

\key a \major d'1 }

{ <>^\markup "default"
\music }

{ <>^\markup "cancellation first"

\cancellationFirst
\music }
Chapter 30: Horizontal spacing 693

\paper { tagline = ##f }

 º default   
  .  .

 º    
cancellation first

 . .
See also
Notation Reference: Section 36.9.4 [Using the break-alignable-interface], page 766.
Extending LilyPond: Section “Association lists (alists)” in Extending.
Internals Reference: Section “Break align engraver” in Internals Reference, Section “Break-
AlignGroup” in Internals Reference, Section “BreakAlignment” in Internals Reference, Section
“break-alignable-interface” in Internals Reference, Section “break-aligned-interface” in Inter-
nals Reference, Section “break-alignment-interface” in Internals Reference.

30.4.3 Spacing between adjacent columns

Contrary to spacing within one column, spacing between adjacent columns is flexible and
stretches or compresses according to the density of music on the line. By default, columns
may even overlap in some situations. The following example shows three cases. The second
accidental slides behind the bar line, while the third one overlaps with the clef. Also, the tempo
marking Presto spans several columns. Observe how the first accidental, which remains within
the vertical extent of the bar line on its left, is placed further apart.

º ” ˜P
Presto

h h
h h h h h
These spacing rules can be overridden. This is done by modifying the width and height that
an object takes in horizontal spacing. The relevant properties are extra-spacing-width and
extra-spacing-height. When unset, an object takes as much space in horizontal spacing as
its X-extent and Y-extent properties allow. These are accurate values of its dimensions. The
extra-spacing-width and extra-spacing-height properties make an object larger or smaller
for computation of horizontal spacing between columns only, but preserve its dimensions for
other spacing types.
{
\textMark "Default"
c'2 2 cis'2 2
}

{
\textMark "Modified X-extent"
\override NoteHead.X-extent = #'(-2 . 2)
c'2 2 cis'2 2
}

{
\textMark "Modified extra-spacing-width"
Chapter 30: Horizontal spacing 694

\override NoteHead.extra-spacing-width = #'(-2 . 2)

c'2 2 cis'2 2
}

 º N N N N
Default

º N
Modified X-extent

N  N N
Modified extra-spacing-width
º
N N N N
extra-spacing-width and extra-spacing-height are pairs of numbers, which are added to
the dimensions on each axis. For instance, setting extra-spacing-height to '(-2 . 3) makes
the object three units larger on the top, and two units larger on the bottom (limit lowered by 2).
The following example shows how to use extra-spacing-height to change the limit after which
accidentals no longer overlap with bar lines.
music = \relative {
\time 1/4
cis8 8 | dis8 8 | eis8 8 | fis8 8 |
gis8 8 | ais8 8 | bis8 8 | cis8 8 |
}

{
\music
}

{
\override Accidental.extra-spacing-height = #'(0 . 1.0)
\music
}

 41
 h h  h h  h h h h h h h h h h
h h

 41
 h h  h h  h h h h h h h h h h
h h
The value '(+inf.0 . -inf.0) for extra-spacing-width or extra-spacing-height re-
moves the object’s presence.
music = \relative {
\time 1/4
cis8 8 | dis8 8 | eis8 8 | fis8 8 |
Chapter 30: Horizontal spacing 695

gis8 8 | ais8 8 | bis8 8 | cis8 8 |

}

{
\override Accidental.extra-spacing-height = #'(+inf.0 . -inf.0)
\music
}

 41
 h h  h h  h h  h h h h h h
h h  h h
Conversely, an extra-spacing-height of '(-inf.0 . +inf.0) makes the object infinitely
high, preventing overlap with another column completely. The below example demonstrates this
technique on Accidental and MetronomeMark. In the case of MetronomeMark, it is necessary to
set extra-spacing-width to '(0 . 0) because the default is '(+inf.0 . -inf.0), and even an
infinitely high object does not take space if it has no width.
{
\override Score.MetronomeMark.extra-spacing-width =
#'(0 . 0)
\override Score.MetronomeMark.extra-spacing-height =
#'(-inf.0 . +inf.0)
\override Accidental.extra-spacing-height =
#'(-inf.0 . +inf.0)
cis'4 r2.
\tempo Presto
fis16 8 16 4 \clef alto cis4 fis4
}

º ˜P 
Presto

h h h hh  h h
See also
Internals Reference: Section “item-interface” in Internals Reference, Section “separation-item-
interface” in Internals Reference.

30.5 Line width

The most basic settings influencing the spacing are indent and line-width. They are set in
the \layout block. They control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of
the lines.
If ragged-right is set to #t in the \layout block, then systems ends at their natural
horizontal length, instead of being spread horizontally to fill the whole line. This is useful for
short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural spacing is. The normal default setting
is false, but if the score has only one system the default value is true.
The option ragged-last is similar to ragged-right, but only affects the last line of the
piece. No restrictions are put on that line. The result is similar to formatting text paragraphs.
In a paragraph, the last line simply takes its natural horizontal length.
\layout {
Chapter 30: Horizontal spacing 696

indent = 0
line-width = 150
ragged-last = ##t
}

See also
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.

30.6 Proportional notation

LilyPond supports proportional notation, a type of horizontal spacing in which each note con-
sumes an amount of horizontal space exactly equivalent to its rhythmic duration. This type of
proportional spacing is comparable to horizontal spacing on top of graph paper. Some late 20th-
and early 21st-century scores use proportional notation to clarify complex rhythmic relationships,
or to facilitate the placement of timelines or other graphics directly in the score.
The following settings for proportional notation are provided, which may be used together
or alone:
• proportionalNotationDuration
• uniform-stretching
• strict-note-spacing
• \remove Separating_line_group_engraver
In the examples that follow, we explore these different proportional notation settings and
examine how they interact.
We start with the following one-measure example, which uses classical spacing with ragged-
right turned on.
\new RhythmicStaff {
c2 16 16 16 16 \tuplet 5/4 { 16 16 16 16 16 }
}
5

º N h h h h hhhhh
Notice that the half note starting the measure takes up far less than half of the horizontal
space of the measure. Likewise, the sixteenth notes and sixteenth-note quintuplets (or twentieth
notes) ending the measure together take up far more than half the horizontal space of the
measure.
In classical engraving, this spacing may be exactly what we want because we can borrow
horizontal space from the half note and conserve horizontal space across the measure as a whole.
On the other hand, if we want to insert a measured timeline or some other graphic above
or below our score, we need proportional notation. We turn proportional notation on with the
proportionalNotationDuration setting.
\new RhythmicStaff {
c2 16 16 16 16 \tuplet 5/4 { 16 16 16 16 16 }
}
\layout {
\context {
\Score
proportionalNotationDuration = #1/20
}
}
Chapter 30: Horizontal spacing 697

º N h h h h hhhhh
The half note at the beginning of the measure and the faster notes in the second half of the
measure now occupy equal amounts of horizontal space. We could place a measured timeline or
graphic above or below this example.
The proportionalNotationDuration setting is a context setting that lives in Score. Re-
member that context settings can appear in one of three locations within our input file – in a
\with block, in a \context block, or directly in the music entry preceded by the \set command.
As with all context settings, users can pick in which of the three different locations they would
like to set proportionalNotationDuration.
The proportionalNotationDuration setting takes a single argument, which is the reference
length to space all music. The call \musicLength 1*1/20 specifies one twentieth of a whole note;
values such as \musicLength 16 and \musicLength {2 2.} are possible as well.
How do we select the right reference duration to pass to proportionalNotationDuration?
Usually by a process of trial and error, beginning with a duration close to the fastest (or smallest)
duration in the piece. Smaller reference durations space music loosely; larger reference durations
space music tightly.
rhythm = { c2 16 16 16 16 \tuplet 5/4 { 16 16 16 16 16 } }

\new RhythmicStaff {
\set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #1/8
% Allow overlapping of note heads.
\override NoteHead.extra-spacing-width = #'(+inf.0 . -inf.0)
\rhythm
}

\new RhythmicStaff {
\set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #1/16
\rhythm
}

\new RhythmicStaff {
\set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #1/32
\rhythm
}

º N hhhhhhhhh
5

º N h h h h hhhhh
5

º N h h h h h h h h h
Note that too large a reference duration – such as the eighth note, above – spaces music
too tightly and can cause note head collisions. In general, proportional notation takes up more
horizontal space than classical spacing. Proportional spacing provides rhythmic clarity at the
expense of horizontal space.
Chapter 30: Horizontal spacing 698

Next we examine how to optimally space overlapping tuplets. We start by examining what
happens to our original example, with classical spacing, when we add a second staff with a
different type of tuplet.
<<
\new RhythmicStaff {
c2 16 16 16 16 \tuplet 5/4 { 16 16 16 16 16 }
}
\new RhythmicStaff {
\tuplet 9/8 { c8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 }
}
>>
5

º N h h h h hhhhh
9

º h h h h h h h h h
The spacing is bad because the evenly spaced notes of the bottom staff do not stretch uni-
formly. Classical engravings include very few complex triplets and so classical engraving rules
can generate this type of result. Setting proportionalNotationDuration fixes this.
<<
\new RhythmicStaff {
c2 16 16 16 16 \tuplet 5/4 { 16 16 16 16 16 }
}
\new RhythmicStaff {
\tuplet 9/8 { c8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 }
}
>>
\layout {
\context {
\Score
proportionalNotationDuration = #1/20
}
}
5

º N h h h h hhhhh
9

º h h h h h h h h h
But if we look very carefully we can see that notes of the second half of the 9-tuplet space
ever so slightly more widely than the notes of the first half of the 9-tuplet. To ensure uniform
stretching, we turn on uniform-stretching, which is a property of SpacingSpanner.
<<
\new RhythmicStaff {
c2 16 16 16 16 \tuplet 5/4 { 16 16 16 16 16 }
}
\new RhythmicStaff {
\tuplet 9/8 { c8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 }
Chapter 30: Horizontal spacing 699

}
>>
\layout {
\context {
\Score
proportionalNotationDuration = #1/20
\override SpacingSpanner.uniform-stretching = ##t
}
}

º N h h h h hhhhh
9

º h h h h h h h h h
Our two-staff example now spaces exactly, our rhythmic relationships are visually clear, and
we can include a measured timeline or graphic if we want.
It is recommended to always set the SpacingSpanner’s uniform-stretching property to #t
if you use proportionalNotationDuration. Omitting it, for example, causes skips to consume
an incorrect amount of horizontal space.
The SpacingSpanner is an abstract grob that lives in the Score context. As with our settings
of proportionalNotationDuration, overrides to the SpacingSpanner can occur in any of three
different places in our input file – in the Score’s \with block, in a Score’s \context block, or
directly in the note entry.
By default, there is only one SpacingSpanner per Score. This means that uniform-
stretching is either turned on for the entire score or turned off for the entire score. We
can, however, override this behavior and turn on different spacing features at different places in
the score by using the command \newSpacingSection. See Section 30.2 [New spacing section],
page 687, for more info.
Next we examine the effects of the Separating_line_group_engraver and see why propor-
tional scores frequently remove this engraver. The following example shows that there is a small
amount of “prefatory” space just before the first note in each system.
\paper {
indent = 0
}

\new Staff {
c'1 \break
c'1
}

º
.
2


.
Chapter 30: Horizontal spacing 700

The amount of this prefatory space stays the same regardless whether a time signature, a
key signature, or a clef follows. Separating_line_group_engraver is responsible for this space,
and removing this engraver reduces the prefatory space to zero.
\paper {
indent = 0
}

\new Staff \with {

\remove Separating_line_group_engraver
} {
c'1 \break
c'1
}

º
.
2


.
Non-musical elements like time signatures, key signatures, clefs, and accidentals are problem-
atic in proportional notation. None of these elements has rhythmic duration, but all of them
consume horizontal space. Different proportional scores approach these problems differently.
It may be possible to avoid spacing problems with key signatures simply by not having any.
This is a valid option since most proportional scores are contemporary music. The same may
be true of time signatures, especially for those scores that include a measured timeline or other
graphic. However, such scores are exceptional, and most proportional scores do include at least
some time signatures. Clefs and accidentals are even more essential.
So what strategies exist for spacing non-musical elements in a proportional context? One
good option is the strict-note-spacing property of SpacingSpanner. Compare the two scores
below:
{
\set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #1/16
c''8 8 8 \clef alto d'2 d'8
}

{
\set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #1/16
\override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t
c''8 8 8 \clef alto d'2 d'8
}

 º h h h N h
T
 º h h hN h
T
Both scores are proportional, but the spacing in the first score is too loose because of the clef
change. The spacing of the second score remains strict, however, because strict-note-spacing
Chapter 30: Horizontal spacing 701

is turned on. Turning on this property causes the width of time signatures, key signatures, clefs,
and accidentals to play no part in the spacing algorithm.
In addition to the settings given here, there are other settings that frequently appear in
proportional scores.
\override SpacingSpanner.strict-grace-spacing = ##t
space grace notes strictly (see [Positioning grace notes with floating space],
page 145)
\set tupletFullLength = ##t
extend tuplet brackets to mark both rhythmic start and stop points
\override Beam.breakable = ##t
permit broken beams (see [Beams across line breaks], page 98)
\override Glissando.breakable = ##t
permit broken glissandi (see [Making glissandi breakable], page 173)
\remove Forbid_line_break_engraver
allow line breaks even if a musical element is still active (see Section 28.1 [Line
breaking], page 661)

See also
Notation Reference: Section 30.2 [New spacing section], page 687.
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.
 702

31 Fitting music onto fewer pages

Sometimes you can end up with one or two staves on a second (or third, or fourth. . . ) page.
This is annoying, especially if you look at previous pages and it looks like there is plenty of room
left on those.
When investigating layout issues, annotate-spacing is an invaluable tool. This command
prints the values of various layout spacing variables; for more details see the following section,
Section 31.1 [Displaying spacing], page 702.

31.1 Displaying spacing

To graphically display the dimensions of vertical layout variables that may be altered for page
formatting, set annotate-spacing in the \paper block:
\book {
\score { { c4 } }
\paper { annotate-spacing = ##t }
}

3.25 top-margin
0.00 min-dist (top-system-spacing)

º
6.00 basic-dist (top-system-spacing)

1.00 basic-dist (last-bottom-spacing) 0.00 min-dist (last-bottom-spacing)

(-10.86,0.00) extent-estimate

85.36 paper-height
72.86 extra dist (last-bottom-spacing)

65.35 space left

LilyPond v2.25.27
3.25 bottom-margin

All layout dimensions are displayed in staff spaces, regardless of the units specified in the \paper
or \layout block. In the above example, paper-height has a value of 59.75 staff spaces, and
the staff-size is 20 points (the default value). Note that:

1 point = (25.4/72.27) mm

1 staff space = (staff-size)/4 pts

= (staff-size)/4 * (25.4/72.27) mm
Chapter 31: Fitting music onto fewer pages 703

In this case, one staff space is approximately equal to 1.757 mm. Thus the paper-height
measurement of 59.75 staff spaces is equivalent to 105 millimeters, the height of a6 paper in
landscape orientation. The pairs (a,b) are intervals, where a is the lower edge and b the upper
edge of the interval.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 27.2 [Setting the staff size], page 657.
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.

31.2 Changing spacing

The output of annotate-spacing reveals vertical dimensions in great detail. For details about
modifying margins and other layout variables, see Chapter 26 [Page layout], page 643.
Other than margins, there are a few other options to save space:
• Force systems to move as close together as possible (to fit as many systems as possible onto
a page) while being spaced so that there is no blank space at the bottom of the page.
\paper {
system-system-spacing = #'((basic-distance . 0.1) (padding . 0))
ragged-last-bottom = ##f
ragged-bottom = ##f
}
• Force the number of systems. This can help in two ways. Just setting a value, even the same
value as the number of systems being typeset by default, will sometimes cause more systems
to be fitted onto each page, as an estimation step is then bypassed, giving a more accurate
fit to each page. Also, forcing an actual reduction in the number of systems may save a
further page. For example, if the default layout has 11 systems, the following assignment
will force a layout with 10 systems.
\paper {
system-count = 10
}
• Force the number of pages. For example, the following assignment will force a layout with
2 pages.
\paper {
page-count = 2
}
• Avoid (or reduce) objects that increase the vertical size of a system. For example, volta
brackets for alternative repeat endings require extra space. If these endings are spread over
two systems, they take up more space than if they were on the same system. As another
example, dynamics that ‘stick out’ of a system can be moved closer to the staff:
\relative e' {
e4 c g\f c
e4 c g-\tweak X-offset -2.7 \f c
}

º h
hh h hhh h
f f
Chapter 31: Fitting music onto fewer pages 704

• Alter the horizontal spacing via SpacingSpanner. For more details, see Section 30.3 [Chang-
ing horizontal spacing globally], page 688. The following example illustrates the default
spacing:
\score {
\relative {
g'4 e e2 |
f4 d d2 |
c4 d e f |
g4 g g2 |
g4 e e2 |
}
}

º hh N hh N h h N hh N
h h h h
The next example modifies common-shortest-duration from a value of 1/4 to 1/2. The
quarter note is the most common and shortest duration in this example, so by making this
duration longer, a ‘squeezing’ effect occurs:
\score {
\relative {
g'4 e e2 |
f4 d d2 |
c4 d e f |
g4 g g2 |
g4 e e2 |
}
\layout {
\context {
\Score
\override SpacingSpanner.common-shortest-duration =
\musicLength 2
}
}
}

 º hhN hhN hhh hhN hhN

h
The common-shortest-duration property cannot be modified dynamically, so it must al-
ways be placed in a \context block so that it applies to the whole score.

See also
Notation Reference: Chapter 26 [Page layout], page 643, Section 30.3 [Changing horizontal
spacing globally], page 688.
Snippets: Section “Spacing” in Snippets.
Changing defaults
 707

32 Tuning output
The purpose of LilyPond’s design is to provide the finest quality output by default. Nevertheless,
it may happen that you need to change this default layout. The layout is controlled through
a large number of ‘knobs and switches’ collectively called properties. A tutorial introduction
to accessing and modifying these properties can be found in the Learning Manual, see Section
“Tweaking output” in Learning Manual. This should be read first. This chapter covers similar
ground, but in a style more appropriate to a reference manual.
The definitive description of the controls available for tuning can be found in a separate
document: the Internals Reference. That manual lists all the variables, functions, and options
available in LilyPond.
Internally, LilyPond uses Scheme (a Lisp dialect) to provide infrastructure. Overriding layout
decisions in effect accesses the program internals, which requires Scheme input. Scheme elements
are introduced in a .ly file with the hash mark ‘#’.1

1
Section “Scheme tutorial” in Extending, contains a short tutorial on entering numbers, lists, strings, and
symbols in Scheme.
 708

33 Interpretation contexts
This section describes what contexts are, and how to modify them.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Contexts and engravers” in Learning Manual.
Installed Files: ly/engraver-init.ly, ly/performer-init.ly.
Snippets: Section “Contexts and engravers” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “Contexts” in Internals Reference, Section “Engravers and
Performers” in Internals Reference.

33.1 Contexts explained

Contexts are arranged hierarchically.

33.1.1 Output definitions – blueprints for contexts

This section explains the relevance of output definitions when working with contexts. Examples
for actual output definitions are given later (see Section 33.5.1 [Changing all contexts of the
same type], page 718).
While music written in a file may refer to context types and names, contexts are created
only when the music is actually being interpreted. LilyPond interprets music under control of
an output definition and may do so for several different output definitions, resulting in different
output. The output definition relevant for printing music is specified using \layout.
A much simpler output definition used for producing MIDI output is specified using \midi.
Several other output definitions are used by LilyPond internally, like when using the part
combiner (Section 5.2.5 [Automatic part combining], page 224) or creating music quotes (Sec-
tion 6.3.2 [Quoting other voices], page 256).
Output definitions define the relation between contexts as well as their respective default
settings. While most changes are usually made inside of a \layout block, MIDI-related settings
only have an effect when made within a \midi block.
Some settings affect several outputs: for example, if autoBeaming is turned off in some
context, beams count as melismata for the purpose of matching music to lyrics, see Section 9.1.4
[Automatic syllable durations], page 339. This matching is done both for printed output as well
as for MIDI – if changes made to autoBeaming within a context definition of a \layout block
are not repeated in the corresponding \midi block, lyrics and music will get out of sync in MIDI
output.

See also
Installed Files: ly/engraver-init.ly. ly/performer-init.ly.

33.1.2 Score – the master of all contexts

This is the top-level notation context.1 No other context can contain a Score context. This
context handles the administration of time signatures. It also makes sure that items such as
clefs, time signatures, and key signatures are aligned across staves.
You cannot explicitly instantiate a Score context (since it is not contained in any other
context). It is instantiated automatically when an output definition (a \score or \layout
block) is processed.
1
There exists a context called Global that is even one level higher than Score, and which is the hard-coded
entry point for LilyPond. However, this is not meant to be modified; you will need this context only if you
are going to implement an engraver in Scheme and can be safely ignored otherwise.
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 709

An alias called Timing is established by the Timing_translator in whatever context it is

initialized, and the timing variables are then copied from wherever Timing had been previously
established. The alias at Score level provides a target for initializing Timing variables in layout
definitions before any Timing_translator has been run.

33.1.3 Top-level contexts – staff containers

StaffGroup
Connect staves vertically by adding a bracket on the left side. The bar lines of the
contained staves are connected vertically, too.
ChoirStaff
Identical to StaffGroup except that the bar lines of the contained staves are not
connected vertically.
GrandStaff
Connect staves vertically by adding a brace on the left side. The bar lines of the
contained staves are connected vertically, too.
PianoStaff
Just like GrandStaff, but the staves are only removed together, never separately.
OneStaff Provides a common axis for the contained staves, making all of them appear in
the same vertical space. This can be useful for typesetting staves of different types
in immediate succession or for temporarily changing the character of one staff or
overlaying it with a different one. Often used with \stopStaff and \startStaff
for best results.
VaticanaScore
Top-level context replacing Score for Gregorian chant notated in Vaticana style.
Compared to Score, it changes the staff line color to red, uses packed spacing, and
removes bar numbers.
ChordGridScore
Top-level context replacing Score in chord grid notation. Compared to Score, it
uses proportional notation, and has a few other settings like removing bar numbers.
StandaloneRhythmScore
A Score-level context for use by \markup \rhythm.

33.1.4 Intermediate-level contexts – staves

Staff Handles clefs, bar lines, keys, accidentals. It can contain Voice contexts.
RhythmicStaff
Like Staff but for printing rhythms. Pitches are ignored when engraving; the notes
are printed on one line. The MIDI rendition retains pitches unchanged.
TabStaff Context for generating tablature. It accepts only TabVoice contexts and handles
the line spacing, the tablature clef, etc., properly.
DrumStaff
Handles typesetting for percussion. Can contain DrumVoice.
VaticanaStaff
A kind of Staff for typesetting Gregorian chant in a notational style approximating
Editio Vaticana.
MensuralStaff
Same as Staff context, except that it is accommodated for typesetting a piece in
mensural style.
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 710

PetrucciStaff
A kind of Staff approximating the mensural typesetting of Ottaviano Petrucci’s
Harmonices Musices Odhecaton (Venice, 1501).
KievanStaff
Same as Staff context, except that it is accommodated for typesetting a piece in
Kievan style.
GregorianTranscriptionStaff
A staff for notating Gregorian chant in modern style.
ChordGrid
Creates chord grid notation. This context is always part of a ChordGridScore
context.
StandaloneRhythmStaff
A Staff-level context for use by \markup \rhythm.
FretBoards
A context for displaying fret diagrams.
Devnull Silently discard all musical information given to this context.

33.1.5 Bottom-level contexts – voices

Voice-level contexts initialize certain properties and start appropriate engravers. A bottom-level
context is one without \defaultchild. While it is possible to let it accept/contain subcontexts,
they can only be created and entered explicitly.
Voice Corresponds to a voice on a staff. This context handles the conversion of dynamic
signs, stems, beams, super- and subscripts, slurs, ties, and rests.
You have to instantiate this explicitly if you require multiple voices on the same
staff.
VaticanaVoice
A kind of Voice for typesetting Gregorian chant in a notational style approximating
Editio Vaticana.
MensuralVoice
Same as Voice context, except that it is accommodated for typesetting a piece in
mensural style.
PetrucciVoice
A kind of Voice approximating the mensural typesetting of Ottaviano Petrucci’s
Harmonices Musices Odhecaton (Venice, 1501).
KievanVoice
Same as Voice context, except that it is accommodated for typesetting a piece in
Kievan style.
GregorianTranscriptionVoice
A voice for notating Gregorian chant in modern style.
Lyrics Corresponds to a voice with lyrics. Handles the printing of a single line of lyrics.
VaticanaLyrics
Same as Lyrics context, except that it provides a hyphenation style (a single, flush-
left hyphen between two syllables) as used in the notational style of Editio Vaticana.
GregorianTranscriptionLyrics
A lyrics context for notating Gregorian chant in modern style.
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 711

DrumVoice
A voice on a percussion staff.
FiguredBass
The context in which BassFigure grobs are created from input entered in
\figuremode mode.
TabVoice The voice context used within a TabStaff context. Usually left to be created im-
plicitly.
CueVoice A voice context used to render notes of a reduced size, intended primarily for adding
cue notes to a staff, see Section 6.3.3 [Formatting cue notes], page 260. Usually left
to be created implicitly.
ChordNames
Typesets chord names.
NoteNames
Typesets note names.
NullVoice
For aligning lyrics without printing notes.
Devnull Silently discard all musical information given to this context.
Dynamics Holds a single line of dynamics centered between the staves surrounding this context.
StandaloneRhythmVoice
A Voice-level context for use by \markup \rhythm.
Bottom This is a generic bottom-level context, accepted by all intermediate-level contexts.
It can be used for situations where the same music should appear, say, in a Staff
and a TabStaff context.

33.2 Creating and referencing contexts

LilyPond creates lower-level contexts automatically if a music expression is encountered before
a suitable context exists, but this is usually successful only for simple scores or music fragments
like the ones in the documentation. For more complex scores it is advisable to specify all contexts
explicitly with either the \new or \context command. The syntax of these two commands is
very similar:
[\new | \context] Context [= name] [music-expression]
where either \new or \context may be specified. Context is the type of context which is to
be created, name is an optional name to be given to the particular context being created, and
music-expression is a single music expression that is to be interpreted by the engravers and
performers in this context.
The \new prefix without a name is commonly used to create scores with many staves:
<<
\new Staff \relative {
% leave the Voice context to be created implicitly
c''4 c
}
\new Staff \relative {
d''4 d
}
>>
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 712

º h h

º h
h

and to place several voices into one staff:

\new Staff <<
\new Voice \relative {
\voiceOne c''8 c c4 c c
}
\new Voice \relative {
\voiceTwo g'4 g g g
}
>>

 º hh h hh hh hh
\new should always be used to specify unnamed contexts.
The difference between \new and \context is in the action taken:
• \new with or without a name always creates a fresh, distinct context, even if one with the
same name already exists:
\new Staff <<
\new Voice = "A" \relative {
\voiceOne c''8 c c4 c c
}
\new Voice = "A" \relative {
\voiceTwo g'4 g g g
}
>>

 º hh h hh hh hh
• \context with a name specified creates a distinct context only if a context of the same type
with the same name in the same context hierarchy does not already exist. Otherwise it is
taken as a reference to that previously created context, and its music expression is passed
to that context for interpretation.
Named contexts may be useful in special cases such as lyrics or figured bass, see Section 9.2.1
[Working with lyrics and variables], page 348, and Section “Vocal ensembles templates” in
Learning Manual for the former, and Section 15.3.3 [Displaying figured bass], page 514, for
the latter. More generally, one application of named contexts is in separating the score
layout from the musical content. Either of these two forms is valid:
\score {
<<
% score layout
\new Staff <<
\new Voice = "one" {
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 713

\voiceOne
}
\new Voice = "two" {
\voiceTwo
}
>>

% musical content
\context Voice = "one" {
\relative {
c''4 c c c
}
}
\context Voice = "two" {
\relative {
g'8 g g4 g g
}
}
>>
}

 º hh h hh hh hh

\score {
<<
% score layout
\new Staff <<
\context Voice = "one" {
\voiceOne
}
\context Voice = "two" {
\voiceTwo
}
>>

% musical content
\context Voice = "one" {
\relative {
c''4 c c c
}
}
\context Voice = "two" {
\relative {
g'8 g g4 g g
}
}
>>
}
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 714

 º hh h hh hh hh
Alternatively, variables may be employed to similar effect. See Section “Organizing pieces
with variables” in Learning Manual.
• \context with no name matches the first of any previously created contexts of the same
type in the same context hierarchy, even one that has been given a name, and its music
expression is passed to that context for interpretation. This form is rarely useful. However,
\context with no name and no music expression is used to set the context in which a
Scheme procedure specified with \applyContext is executed:
\new Staff \relative {
c'1
\context Timing
\applyContext #(lambda (ctx)
(newline)
(display (ly:context-current-moment ctx)))
c1
}
A context must be named if it is to be referenced later, for example when lyrics are associated
with music:
\new Voice = "tenor" music
...
\new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenor" lyrics
For details of associating lyrics with music, see Section 9.1.4 [Automatic syllable durations],
page 339.
The properties of all contexts of a particular type can be modified in a \layout block (with
a different syntax), see Section 33.5.1 [Changing all contexts of the same type], page 718. This
construct also provides a means of keeping layout instructions separate from the musical content.
If a single context is to be modified, a \with block must be used, see Section 33.5.2 [Changing
just one specific context], page 721.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Organizing pieces with variables” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 33.5.2 [Changing just one specific context], page 721, Sec-
tion 9.1.4 [Automatic syllable durations], page 339.

33.3 Keeping contexts alive

Contexts are usually terminated at the first musical moment in which they have nothing to
do. So Voice contexts die as soon as they contain no events, Staff contexts die as soon as
all the Voice contexts within them contain no events, etc. This can cause difficulties if earlier
contexts which have died have to be referenced, for example, when changing staves with \change
commands, associating lyrics with a voice with \lyricsto commands, or when adding further
musical events to an earlier context.
There is an exception to this general rule: inside of a {...} construct (sequential music), the
construct’s notion of the “current context” will descend whenever an element of the sequence
ends in a subcontext of the previous current context. This avoids spurious creation of implicit
contexts in a number of situations but means that the first context descended into will be kept
alive until the end of the expression.
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 715

In contrast, the contexts of a <<...>> construct’s (simultaneous music) expression are not
carried forth, so enclosing a context-creating command in an extra pair of <<...>> keeps the
context from persisting through all of the enclosing {...} sequence.
Any context can be kept alive by ensuring it has something to do at every musical moment.
Staff contexts are kept alive by ensuring one of their voices is kept alive. One way of doing
this is to add spacer rests to a voice in parallel with the real music. These need to be added to
every Voice context which needs to be kept alive. If several voices are to be used sporadically
it is safest to keep them all alive rather than attempting to rely on the exceptions mentioned
above.
In the following example, both voice A and voice B are kept alive in this way for the duration
of the piece:
musicA = \relative { d''4 d d d }
musicB = \relative { g'4 g g g }
keepVoicesAlive = {
<<
\new Voice = "A" { s1*5 } % keep voice 'A' alive for 5 bars
\new Voice = "B" { s1*5 } % keep voice 'B' alive for 5 bars
>>
}

music = {
\context Voice = "A" {
\voiceOneStyle \musicA
}
\context Voice = "B" {
\voiceTwoStyle \musicB
}
\context Voice = "A" { \musicA }
\context Voice = "B" { \musicB }
\context Voice = "A" { \musicA }
}

\score {
\new Staff <<
\keepVoicesAlive
\music
>>
}

k k k k k k k k k k k k
º ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚ ‚
The following example shows how a sporadic melody line with lyrics might be written using
this approach. In a real situation the melody and accompaniment would consist of several
different sections, of course.
melody = \relative { a'4 a a a }
accompaniment = \relative { d'4 d d d }
words = \lyricmode { These words fol -- low the mel -- o -- dy }

\score {
<<
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 716

\new Staff = "music" {

<<
\new Voice = "melody" {
\voiceOne s1*4 % keep voice 'melody' alive for 4 bars
}
{
\new Voice = "accompaniment" {
\voiceTwo \accompaniment
}
<<
\context Voice = "melody" { \melody }
\context Voice = "accompaniment" { \accompaniment }
>>
\context Voice = "accompaniment" { \accompaniment }
<<
\context Voice = "melody" { \melody }
\context Voice = "accompaniment" { \accompaniment }
>>
}
>>
}
\new Lyrics \with { alignAboveContext = "music" }
\lyricsto "melody" { \words }
>>
}

These words fol low the mel o dy

 º h h h h hh h h h h
h h h h h h h h hh hh hh
An alternative way, which may be better in many circumstances, is to keep the melody line
alive by simply including spacer notes to line it up correctly with the accompaniment:
melody = \relative {
s1 % skip a bar
a'4 a a a
s1 % skip a bar
a4 a a a
}
accompaniment = \relative {
d'4 d d d
d4 d d d
d4 d d d
d4 d d d
}
words = \lyricmode { These words fol -- low the mel -- o -- dy }

\score {
<<
\new Staff = "music" {
<<
\new Voice = "melody" {
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 717

\voiceOne \melody
}
\new Voice = "accompaniment" {
\voiceTwo \accompaniment
}
>>
}
\new Lyrics \with { alignAboveContext = "music" }
\lyricsto "melody" { \words }
>>
}

These words fol low the mel o dy

 º h h h h hh h h h h
h h h h h h h h hh hh hh
33.4 Modifying context plug-ins
Notation contexts (like Score and Staff) not only store properties, they also contain plug-ins
called engravers that create notation elements. For example, the Voice context contains a
Note_heads_engraver and the Staff context contains a Key_engraver.
For a full a description of each plug-in, see Section “Engravers and Performers” in Inter-
nals Reference. Every context described in Section “Contexts” in Internals Reference lists the
engravers used for that context.
It can be useful to shuffle around these plug-ins. This is done by starting a new context with
\new or \context, and modifying it.
\new context \with {
\consists ...
\consists ...
\remove ...
\remove ...
etc.
}
{
...music...
}
where each ‘...’ should be the name of an engraver. Here is a simple example that removes
Time_signature_engraver and Clef_engraver from a Staff context.
<<
\new Staff \relative {
f'2 g
}
\new Staff \with {
\remove Time_signature_engraver
\remove Clef_engraver
} \relative {
f'2 g2
}
>>
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 718

º N N

N N
In the second staff there are no time signature or clef symbols. This is a rather crude method
of making objects disappear since it affects the entire staff. This method also influences the
spacing, which may or may not be desirable. More sophisticated methods of blanking objects
are shown in Section “Visibility and color of objects” in Learning Manual.

Known issues and warnings

The order in which the engravers are specified is the order in which they are called to carry out
their processing. Usually the order in which the engravers are specified does not matter, but
in a few special cases the order is important, for example where one engraver writes a property
and another reads it, or where one engraver creates a grob and another must process it.
The following orderings are important:
• the Bar_engraver must normally be first,
• the New_fingering_engraver must come before the Script_column_engraver,
• the Timing_translator must come before the Bar_number_engraver.

See also
Installed Files: ly/engraver-init.ly.

33.5 Changing context default settings

Context and grob properties can be changed with \set and \override commands, see Chap-
ter 35 [Modifying properties], page 732. These commands create music events, making the
changes take effect at the point in time the music is being processed.
In contrast, this section explains how to change the default values of context and grob prop-
erties at the time the context is created. There are two ways of doing this. One modifies the
default values in all contexts of a particular type, the other modifies the default values in just
one particular instance of a context.

33.5.1 Changing all contexts of the same type

The default context settings which are to be used for typesetting in Score, Staff, Voice, and
other contexts may be specified in a \context block within any \layout block.
Settings for MIDI output as opposed to typesetting has to be separately specified in \midi
blocks (see Section 33.1.1 [Output definitions – blueprints for contexts], page 708).
The \layout block should be placed within the \score block to which it is to apply, after
the music.
\layout {
\context {
\Voice
[context settings for all Voice contexts]
}
\context {
\Staff
[context settings for all Staff contexts]
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 719

}
}
The following types of settings may be specified:
• An \override command, but with the context name omitted.
\score {
\relative {
a'4^"Thicker stems" a a a
a4 a a\ff a
}
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
\override Stem.thickness = 4.0
}
}
}

Thicker stems

º h h h h h h h h
ff
• Directly setting a context property.
\score {
\relative {
a'4^"Smaller font" a a a
a4 a a\ff a
}
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
fontSize = -4
}
}
}
Smaller font

 º h h h h h h h h
ff
• A predefined command such as \dynamicUp or a music expression like \accidentalStyle
dodecaphonic.
\score {
\relative {
a'4^"Dynamics above" a a a
a4 a a\ff a
}
\layout {
\context {
\Voice
\dynamicUp
}
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 720

\context {
\Staff
\accidentalStyle dodecaphonic
}
}
}

Dynamics above ff
 º  h  h h h  h h  h h
• A user-defined variable containing a \with block; for details of the \with block, see Sec-
tion 33.5.2 [Changing just one specific context], page 721.
StaffDefaults = \with {
fontSize = -4
}

\score {
\new Staff {
\relative {
a'4^"Smaller font" a a a
a4 a a a
}
}
\layout {
\context {
\Staff
\StaffDefaults
}
}
}
Smaller font

 º h h h h h h h h

Property-setting commands can be placed in a \layout block without being enclosed in a

\context block. Such settings are equivalent to including the same property-setting commands
at the start of every context of the type specified. If no context is specified every bottom-level
context is affected (see Section 33.1.5 [Bottom-level contexts – voices], page 710). The syntax
of a property-setting command in a \layout block is the same as the same command written
in the music stream.
\score {
\new Staff {
\relative {
a'4^"Smaller font" a a a
a4 a a a
}
}
\layout {
\accidentalStyle dodecaphonic
\set fontSize = -4
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 721

\override Voice.Stem.thickness = 4.0

}
}

º
Smaller font

h h h h h h h h

33.5.2 Changing just one specific context

The context properties of just one specific context instance can be changed in a \with block.
All other context instances of the same type retain the default settings built into LilyPond and
modified by any \layout block within scope. The \with block must be placed immediately
after the \new context-type command:
\new Staff \with {
[context settings for this context instance only]
} {
...
}
Alternatively, if the music is being entered using the short form of the input mode-specifying
commands, e.g., \chords rather than \chordmode, the \with command must be placed imme-
diately after the mode-specifying command:
\chords \with {
[context settings for this (implicit) context instance only]
} {
...
}
as it is the implicit context created by these short forms which should be modified. The same
consideration applies to the other input mode-specifying short forms (\drums, \figures), see
Chapter 19 [Input modes], page 565.
Since context modifications specified in \with blocks are inside music, they affect all outputs
(typesetting and MIDI) as opposed to changes within an output definition.
The following types of settings may be specified:
• An \override command, but with the context name omitted.
\score {
\new Staff {
\new Voice \with { \override Stem.thickness = 4.0 } {
\relative {
a'4^"Thick stems" a a a
a4 a a a
}
}
}
}

Thick stems

º h h h h h h h h
• Directly setting a context property.
\score {
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 722

<<
\new Staff {
\relative {
a'4^"Default font" a a a
a4 a a a
}
}
\new Staff \with { fontSize = -4 } {
\relative {
a'4^"Smaller font" a a a
a4 a a a
}
}
>>
}
Default font

º hhhh hhhh
Smaller font

 º h h h h h h h h
• A predefined command such as \dynamicUp.
\score {
<<
\new Staff {
\new Voice {
\relative {
a'4^"Dynamics below" a a a
a4 a a\ff a
}
}
}
\new Staff \with { \accidentalStyle dodecaphonic } {
\new Voice \with { \dynamicUp } {
\relative {
a'4^"Dynamics above" a a a
a4 a a\ff a
}
}
}
>>
}
Dynamics below

º h h h h h h h h
ff
Dynamics above ff

 º h h h h h h h h
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 723

See also
Notation Reference: Chapter 19 [Input modes], page 565.

33.5.3 Order of precedence

The value of a property which applies at a particular time is determined as follows:
• if an \override or \set command in the input stream is in effect that value is used,
• otherwise the default value taken from a \with statement on the context initiation statement
is used,
• otherwise the default value taken from the most recent appropriate \context block in the
\layout or \midi blocks is used,
• otherwise LilyPond’s built-in default is used.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Modifying context properties” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 33.1 [Contexts explained], page 708, Section 33.1.5 [Bottom-
level contexts – voices], page 710, Section 35.2 [\set and \unset], page 732, Section 35.3
[\override and \revert], page 734, Section 27.1 [The \layout block], page 655.

33.6 Defining new contexts

Context definition overview
Specific contexts, like Staff and Voice, are made from simple building blocks. It is possible to
create new types of contexts with different combinations of engraver plug-ins.
The next example shows how to build a different type of Voice context from scratch. It
will be similar to Voice, but only prints centered slash note heads. It can be used to indicate
improvisation in jazz pieces.

 º h h  h } }
ad lib
} } } } .
undress

while playing :)
These settings are defined within a \context block inside a \layout block.
\layout {
\context {
...
}
}
In the following discussion, the example input shown should go in place of the ‘...’ in the
previous fragment.
First it is necessary to define a name for the new context:
\name ImproVoice
Since it is similar to the Voice context, we want commands that work in (existing) Voice
contexts to continue working. This is achieved by giving the new context an alias of Voice,
\alias Voice
The context will print notes and instructive texts, so we need to add the engravers that
provide this functionality, plus the engraver that groups notes, stems, and rests occurring at the
same musical moment into columns.
\consists Note_heads_engraver
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 724

\consists Text_engraver
\consists Rhythmic_column_engraver
The note heads should all be placed on the center line.
\consists Pitch_squash_engraver
squashedPosition = 0
The Pitch_squash_engraver modifies note heads (created by the Note_heads_engraver)
and sets their vertical position to the value of squashedPosition, in this case 0, the center line.
The notes should look like a slash without a stem.
\override NoteHead.style = #'slash
\hide Stem
All these plug-ins have to communicate under the control of the context. The mechanisms
with which contexts communicate are established by declaring the context \type. Within a
\layout block, most contexts are of type Engraver_group. Some special contexts use other
context types. Copying and modifying an existing context definition will also fill in the type.
Since this example creates a definition from scratch, it needs to be specified explicitly.
\type Engraver_group
Put together, we get
\context {
\name ImproVoice
\type Engraver_group
\consists Note_heads_engraver
\consists Text_engraver
\consists Rhythmic_column_engraver
\consists Pitch_squash_engraver
squashedPosition = 0
\override NoteHead.style = #'slash
\hide Stem
\alias Voice
}
Contexts form hierarchies. We want to place the ImproVoice context within the Staff
context, just like normal Voice contexts. Therefore, we modify the Staff definition with the
\accepts command.
\context {
\Staff
\accepts ImproVoice
}
Often when reusing an existing context definition, the resulting context can be used anywhere
where the original context would have been useful. Doing
\layout {
...
\inherit-acceptability to from
}
arranges to have contexts of type to accepted by all contexts also accepting from. For example,
using
\layout {
...
\inherit-acceptability ImproVoice Voice
}
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 725

adds an \accepts for ImproVoice to both Staff and RhythmicStaff definitions.

The opposite of \accepts is \denies, which is sometimes needed when reusing existing
context definitions.
Arranging the required pieces into a \layout block leaves us with
\layout {
\context {
\name ImproVoice
...
}
\inherit-acceptability ImproVoice Voice
}
Then the output at the start of this subsection can be entered as
\relative {
a'4 d8 bes8
\new ImproVoice {
c4^"ad lib" c
c4 c^"undress"
c c_"while playing :)"
}
a1
}

See also
Internals Reference: Section “Contexts” in Internals Reference, Section “Engravers and Per-
formers” in Internals Reference.

New contexts in MIDI

In MIDI output, the syntax for defining new context types is the same, except that the \context
block should be placed inside a \midi block, and the \type should normally be Performer_
group rather than Engraver_group. The term engraver refers to a context plug-in that creates
visual output. A performer, on the other hand, is relevant in MIDI output only. When plug-ins
have “translator” in their name rather than “engraver” or “performer”, they are relevant for
both graphical and audio output. Thus, when adapting a context definition for the \midi block,
you need to
• copy it in a \midi block,
• change Engraver_group to Performer_group,
• remove \consists for engravers (they are not relevant), and possibly add \consists for
performers.
Please note that, in order to maintain consistent interpretation between graphical and MIDI
output, it is recommended to copy any custom context definition in a \midi block. It should
at the minimum include those commands that specify the context hierarchy, such as \accepts,
\defaultchild, and \inherit-acceptability. Copying aliases is advised as well.
Thus, to complete the example above, the following can be added:
\midi {
\context {
\name ImproVoice
\type Performer_group
\alias Voice
\consists Note_performer
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 726

\consists Beam_performer
\consists Dynamic_performer
\consists Tie_performer
\consists Slur_performer
}
\context {
\Staff
\accepts ImproVoice
}
}
This makes the ImproVoice context also work in MIDI output.

Replacing the Score context

In order to write a context MyScore that acts as the topmost context, as the Score context
usually does, use \inherit-acceptability MyScore Score. The following example defines a
ProportionalScore context where proportional notation is enabled (see Section 30.6 [Propor-
tional notation], page 696).
\layout {
\context {
\Score
\name ProportionalScore
\alias Score
proportionalNotationDuration = #1/8
}
\inherit-acceptability ProportionalScore Score
}

music = { c'1 2 4 8 16 16 }

\new Score \music

\new ProportionalScore \music

º
. N h h hh
º
. N h h hh
Since the topmost context needs to contain a number of fundamental engravers, inheriting
settings with \Score is easiest in most cases. If you nevertheless define a score-level context
from scratch without inheriting the Score definition, the argument to \type should be Score_
engraver (or Score_performer in \midi) rather than Engraver_group. Furthermore, giving
the topmost context the Score alias is strongly recommended given that a number of engravers
need to access the topmost context using its alias.

33.7 Context layout order

Contexts are normally positioned in a system from top to bottom in the order in which they
are encountered in the input file. When contexts are nested, the outer context includes inner
nested contexts as specified in the input file, provided the inner contexts are included in the
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 727

outer context’s “accepts” list. Nested contexts which are not included in the outer context’s
“accepts” list are repositioned below the outer context rather than nested within it.
The “accepts” list of a context can be changed with the \accepts or \denies commands.
\accepts adds a context to the “accepts” list and \denies removes a context from the list.
For example, a TabStaff by default \accepts TabVoice contexts and \denies Voice con-
texts. If a Voice context is written within the TabStaff, it would be set on a separate staff.
\score {
\new TabStaff <<
\new TabVoice { c'1 }
\new Voice { d'1 }
>>
}

/ 1

 º .
However, by using the \accepts command, Voice can be forced onto the TabStaff context.
\score {
\new TabStaff <<
\new TabVoice { c'1 }
\new Voice { d'1 }
>>

\layout {
\context {
\TabStaff
\accepts Voice
}
}
}

/ 1

.
\denies is mainly used when a new context is being based on another, but the required
nesting differs. For example, the VaticanaStaff context is based on the Staff context, but
with the VaticanaVoice context substituted for the Voice context in the “accepts” list.
Note that a context is silently created implicitly if a command is encountered when there is
no suitable context available to contain it.
Within a context definition, the type of subcontext to be implicitly created is specified using
\defaultchild. A number of music events require a bottom-level context: when such an event is
encountered, subcontexts are created recursively until reaching a context with no \defaultchild
setting.
Implicit context creation can at times give rise to unexpected new staves or scores. Using
\new to create contexts explicitly avoids those problems.
Chapter 33: Interpretation contexts 728

Sometimes a context is required to exist for just a brief period, a good example being the
staff context for an ossia. This is usually achieved by introducing the context definition at the
appropriate place in parallel with corresponding section of the main music. By default, the
temporary context is placed below all the existing contexts. To reposition it above the context
called “main”, it should be defined like this:
\new Staff \with { alignAboveContext = "main" }
A similar situation arises when positioning a temporary lyrics context within a multi-staff
layout such as a ChoirStaff, for example, when adding a second verse to a repeated section.
By default the temporary lyrics context is placed beneath the lower staves. By defining the
temporary lyrics context with alignBelowContext it can be positioned correctly beneath the
(named) lyrics context containing the first verse.
Examples showing this repositioning of temporary contexts can be found elsewhere – see
Section “Nesting music expressions” in Learning Manual, Section 6.2 [Modifying single staves],
page 241, and Section 9.2 [Techniques specific to lyrics], page 348.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Nesting music expressions” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 6.2 [Modifying single staves], page 241, Section 9.2 [Tech-
niques specific to lyrics], page 348.
Application Usage: Section “An extra staff appears” in Application Usage.
Installed Files: ly/engraver-init.ly.
 729

34 Explaining the Internals Reference

See also
Notation Reference: Section B.23 [Naming conventions], page 932.

34.1 Navigating the program reference

Suppose we want to move the fingering indication in the fragment below:
c''-2

º h
If you visit the documentation on fingering instructions (in Section 7.1.2 [Fingering instruc-
tions], page 272), you will notice:
See also
Internals Reference: Section “Fingering” in Internals Reference.
The programmer’s reference is available as an HTML document. It is highly recommended
that you read it in HTML form, either online or by downloading the HTML documentation.
This section will be much more difficult to understand if you are using the PDF manual.
Follow the link to Section “Fingering” in Internals Reference. At the top of the page, you
will see
Fingering objects are created by the following engraver(s): Section
“Fingering engraver” in Internals Reference and Section “New fingering engraver”
in Internals Reference.
By following related links inside the program reference, we can follow the flow of information
within the program:
• Section “Fingering” in Internals Reference: Section “Fingering” in Internals Reference ob-
jects are created by the following engraver(s): Section “Fingering engraver” in Internals
Reference.
• Section “Fingering engraver” in Internals Reference: Music types accepted: Section
“fingering-event” in Internals Reference
• Section “fingering-event” in Internals Reference: Music event type fingering-event is in
Music expressions named Section “FingeringEvent” in Internals Reference
This path goes against the flow of information in the program: it starts from the output,
and ends at the input event. You could also start at an input event, and read with the flow of
information, eventually ending up at the output object(s).
The program reference can also be browsed like a normal document. It contains chapters on
Music definitions on Section “Translation” in Internals Reference, and the Section “Backend”
in Internals Reference. Every chapter lists all the definitions used and all properties that may
be tuned.

34.2 Layout interfaces

The HTML page that we found in the previous section describes the layout object called Section
“Fingering” in Internals Reference. Such an object is a symbol within the score. It has properties
that store numbers (like thicknesses and directions), but also pointers to related objects. A layout
object is also called a Grob, which is short for Graphical Object. For more details about Grobs,
see Section “grob-interface” in Internals Reference.
Chapter 34: Explaining the Internals Reference 730

The page for Fingering lists the definitions for the Fingering object. For example, the page
says
padding (dimension, in staff space):
0.5
which means that the number will be kept at a distance of at least 0.5 of the note head.
Each layout object may have several functions as a notational or typographical element. For
example, the Fingering object has the following aspects
• Its size is independent of the horizontal spacing, unlike slurs or beams.
• It is a piece of text. Granted, it is usually a very short text.
• That piece of text is typeset with a font, unlike slurs or beams.
• Horizontally, the center of the symbol should be aligned to the center of the note head.
• Vertically, the symbol is placed next to the note and the staff.
• The vertical position is also coordinated with other superscript and subscript symbols.
Each of these aspects is captured in so-called interfaces, which are listed on the Section
“Fingering” in Internals Reference page at the bottom
This object supports the following interfaces: Section “item-interface” in Inter-
nals Reference, Section “self-alignment-interface” in Internals Reference, Section
“side-position-interface” in Internals Reference, Section “text-interface” in Inter-
nals Reference, Section “text-script-interface” in Internals Reference, Section “font-
interface” in Internals Reference, Section “finger-interface” in Internals Reference,
and Section “grob-interface” in Internals Reference.
Clicking any of the links will take you to the page of the respective object interface. Each in-
terface has a number of properties. Some of them are not user-serviceable (‘Internal properties’),
but others can be modified.
We have been talking of the Fingering object, but actually it does not amount to
much. The initialization file (see Section “Other sources of information” in Learning Manual)
scm/define-grobs.scm shows the soul of the ‘object’,
(Fingering
. ((padding . 0.5)
(avoid-slur . around)
(slur-padding . 0.2)
(staff-padding . 0.5)
(self-alignment-X . 0)
(self-alignment-Y . 0)
(script-priority . 100)
(stencil . ,ly:text-interface::print)
(direction . ,ly:script-interface::calc-direction)
(font-encoding . fetaText)
(font-size . -5) ; don't overlap when next to heads.
(meta . ((class . Item)
(interfaces . (finger-interface
font-interface
text-script-interface
text-interface
side-position-interface
self-alignment-interface
item-interface))))))
As you can see, the Fingering object is nothing more than a bunch of variable settings, and
the web page in the Internals Reference is directly generated from this definition.
Chapter 34: Explaining the Internals Reference 731

34.3 Determining the grob property

Recall that we wanted to change the position of the 2 in
c''-2

º h
Since the 2 is vertically positioned next to its note, we have to meddle with the interface
associated with this positioning. This is done using side-position-interface. The page for
this interface says
side-position-interface
Position a victim object (this one) next to other objects (the support). The property
direction signifies where to put the victim object relative to the support (left or
right, up or down?)
Below this description, the variable padding is described as
padding (dimension, in staff space)
Add this much extra space between objects that are next to each other.
By increasing the value of padding, we can move the fingering away from the note head. The
following command will insert “three staff spaces” worth of distance between the note and a
fingering mark:
\once \override Voice.Fingering.padding = 3
Inserting the padding before the fingering object is created results in the following:
\once \override Voice.Fingering.padding = 3
c''-2

º h
In this case, the context for this tweak is Voice. See Section “Fingering engraver” in Internals
Reference plug-in, which says:
Fingering engraver is part of contexts: . . . Section “Voice” in Internals Reference
 732

35 Modifying properties

35.1 Overview of modifying properties

Within each context, there are two different kinds of properties: context properties and grob
properties. Context properties apply to a context as a whole, whereas grob properties are used
for initializing grobs engraved from within a context.
Context properties control the translation from music to notation. For example,
localAlterations is used to determine whether to print accidentals; or currentBarNumber
for determining which bar number to print. They can also change value over time while
interpreting a piece of music; currentBarNumber is an obvious example of this.
The \set command (and its counterpart \unset) is used to alter values for context properties,
whereas the \override command (and its counterpart \revert) is used to change values for
grob properties.

35.2 \set and \unset

The \set command syntax is
\set context.property = value
where value must be preceded by the ‘#’ character if it is a Scheme object.
The counterpart command \unset’s syntax is
\unset context.property
This removes a previously set definition of the property from the context. Any properties that
have been set in an enclosing context are not altered by an \unset in the same enclosed context.
For example, multi-measure rests are combined into a single bar (as explained in Section 6.3.4
[Compressing empty measures], page 265) if the context property skipBars is set to #t:
R1*2
\set Score.skipBars = ##t
R1*2

” ” 2
º ­
If the context argument is left out, then the property is set in the current ‘bottom’ context
(typically ChordNames, Voice, TabVoice, or Lyrics).
<<
\set Score.autoBeaming = ##f
\relative {
e''8 e e e
\set autoBeaming = ##t
e8 e e e
} \\
\relative {
c''8 c c c c8 c c c
}
>>

hhhhhhhh
 º hT hT hT hT hT hT hT hT
Chapter 35: Modifying properties 733

Note that the bottom context may not always contain an engraver that uses the property
that you wish to change. For example, attempting to set the skipBars property of the default,
bottom context has no effect because it is a property of the Score, not Voice context.
R1*2
\set skipBars = ##t
R1*2

º ” ” ” ”

Contexts are hierarchical; any change specified for an enclosing context (e.g., Staff) would
also apply to all Voices in that current Staff context (assuming, of course, that the Voice
context didn’t have an override of its own).
All contexts inherit settings established in the top-most Global context (via
\grobdescriptions), although a few of those defaults get overridden in their own context
definitions.
<<
\set Score.autoBeaming = ##t
\relative {
\unset autoBeaming
e''8 e e e
\unset Score.autoBeaming
e8 e e e
} \\
\relative {
c''8 c c c c8 c c c
}
>>

hhhhhhhh
 º h h h h hT hT hT hT
Like \set, the context argument does not have to be specified for a bottom context, so the
two statements
\set Voice.autoBeaming = ##t
\set autoBeaming = ##t
are equivalent if the current bottom context is Voice.
As described above, \unset restores the default value of a context property. However, it is
sometimes useful to change a value for some time, then return to the previously used value. For
this purpose, there are the two commands \pushContextProperty and \popContextProperty:
the first one pushes the current value to a stack, while the second one pops a value from the
stack and restores the property to it.
{
c'
\pushContextProperty Staff.fontSize
\set Staff.fontSize = 3
c'
\pushContextProperty Staff.fontSize
\set Staff.fontSize = 6
Chapter 35: Modifying properties 734

c'
\popContextProperty Staff.fontSize
c'
\popContextProperty Staff.fontSize
c'
}

º
h h hh h
35.3 \override and \revert
There is a special type of context property: the grob description. Grob descriptions start with
a capital letter and exist as association lists only in all-grob-descriptions, but they get
turned into more complex and efficient data structures supporting hierarchical manipulations
when placed into contexts. See scm/define-grobs.scm for the settings of each grob.
The syntax for the \override command is
\override [context.]GrobName.property = value
For example, we can increase the thickness of a note stem by overriding the thickness
property of the Stem object:
c''4 c''
\override Voice.Stem.thickness = 3.0
c''4 c''

º h h h h
If no context is specified in an \override command, the bottom context is used:
\override Staff.Stem.thickness = 3.0
<<
\relative {
e''4 e
\override Stem.thickness = 0.5
e4 e
} \\
\relative {
c''4 c c c
}
>>

h h h h
º h h h h
Some tweakable options are called ‘subproperties’ and reside inside properties. To tweak
those, use commands in the form
\override Stem.details.beamed-lengths = #'(4 4 3)
or to modify the ends of spanners, use a form like these
\override TextSpanner.bound-details.left.text = "left text"
\override TextSpanner.bound-details.right.text = "right text"
Chapter 35: Modifying properties 735

The effects of \override can be undone by \revert; its syntax is

\revert [context.]GrobName.property
For example,
\relative {
c''4
\override Voice.Stem.thickness = 3.0
c4 c
\revert Voice.Stem.thickness
c4
}

º h h h h
The effects of \override and \revert apply to all grobs in the affected context from the
current time forward:
<<
\relative {
e''4
\override Staff.Stem.thickness = 3.0
e4 e e
} \\
\relative {
c''4 c c
\revert Staff.Stem.thickness
c4
}
>>

h h h h
º h h h h

35.4 The \once command

\once is used in conjunction with the \set or \override command to affect only the current
musical moment.
c''4
\once \set fontSize = 4.7
c''4
c''4

º h hh
See also
Internals Reference: Section “Backend” in Internals Reference.
Chapter 35: Modifying properties 736

35.5 \set versus \override

The \set and \override commands manipulate properties associated with contexts. The prop-
erties exist in a hierarchy of contexts where each context contains zero or more others below
it. A property that is not set in a specific context shows the value from the nearest enclosing
context where it is set.
The lifetime and value of a context property is dynamic and only available when music is
being interpreted (i.e., ‘iterated’). At the time of the context’s creation, properties are initialized
from its corresponding definitions (along with any other modifications) of that context. Any
subsequent changes are achieved with any ‘property-setting’ commands that are within the music
itself.
Graphical Object (or “grob”) definitions are a special category of context properties as their
structure and use is different from that of normal context properties. Unlike normal context
properties, grob definitions are subdivided into grob properties.
Also, in contrast to normal context properties, grob definitions have their own internal ‘book-
keeping’ used to keep track of their own individual grob properties and any subproperties. This
means that it is possible to define those parts within different contexts and yet still have the
overall grob definition at the time of grob creation from all the pieces provided amongst the
current and enclosing contexts.
A grob is usually created by an engraver at the time of interpreting a music expression, and
receives its initial properties from the current grob definition of the engraver’s context. The
engraver (or other ‘backend’ parts of LilyPond) can then change (or add to) the grob’s initial
properties. However, this does not affect the context’s own grob definition.
What LilyPond calls grob properties in the context of ‘user-level’ tweaks are really the prop-
erties of a context’s own grob definition.
Grob definitions are accessed with a different set of commands and are manipulated using
\override and \revert, and have a name starting with a capital letter (e.g., ‘NoteHead’);
whereas normal context properties are manipulated using \set and \unset and are named
starting with a lowercase letter.
The commands \tweak and \overrideProperty change grob properties by bypassing all con-
text properties completely and, instead, catch grobs as they are being created, setting properties
on them for a music event (\tweak) or, in the case of \overrideProperty for a specific override.

35.6 \tweak and \single

When multiple grobs occur at the same musical moment the \override command cannot be
used to modify just one of them. In this case the \tweak command is used.
The \tweak command has the following syntax
\tweak [layout-object.]grob-property value
and applies to the music expression that immediately follows value in the music stream. Spec-
ifying layout-object is necessary for disambiguation if the music expression causes the indirect
creation of grobs with different types (for example, NoteHead causes Stem).
For an introduction to the syntax and uses of the tweak command see Section “Tweaking
methods” in Learning Manual.
Items that may appear more than once at the same musical moment include, but are not
limited to, the following:
• note heads of notes inside a chord
• articulation signs on a single note
• ties between notes in a chord
Chapter 35: Modifying properties 737

• tuplet brackets starting at the same time

In this example, the color of one note head and the type of another note head are modified
within a single chord:
< c''
\tweak color #red
d''
g''
\tweak duration-log 1
a''
> 4

hhN
º h
\tweak can also be used to modify slurs:
\relative { c'-\tweak thickness 5 ( d e f) }

º
h h h h
Tweaking a whole chord tweaks all the contained notes:
{ \tweak color #red <c'' e''>4 }

h
º h
As mentioned above, the simple \tweak command syntax form cannot be used to modify
any object that is not directly created from the input. In particular, it will not affect stems,
automatic beams, or accidentals, since these are generated later by NoteHead layout objects
rather than by music elements in the input stream.
Such indirectly created layout objects can be tweaked using the form of the \tweak command
in which the grob name is specified explicitly:
\tweak Stem.color #(universal-color 'orange)
\tweak Beam.color #(universal-color 'skyblue) c''8 e''
<c'' e'' \tweak Accidental.font-size -3 ges''>4

º h h  hhh

\tweak cannot be used to modify clefs or time signatures, since these become separated from
any preceding \tweak command in the input stream by the automatic insertion of extra elements
required to specify the context.
Multiple \tweak commands placed before a music expression all affect the grob(s) created at
this musical moment.
c'
-\tweak springs-and-rods #ly:spanner::set-spacing-rods
-\tweak minimum-length 15
-\tweak style #'dashed-line
Chapter 35: Modifying properties 738

-\tweak dash-fraction 0.2

-\tweak thickness 3
-\tweak color #red
\glissando
f''

h
º
h
The music stream which is generated from a section of an input file, including any auto-
matically inserted elements, may be examined, see Section “Displaying music expressions” in
Extending. This may be helpful in determining what may be modified by a \tweak command,
or in determining how to adjust the input to make a \tweak apply.
The \single command takes one or more \override commands (which are intended to
apply at a given musical moment or beyond) and converts them effectively into a single ‘tweak’
that now applies to the specific grobs created.
The file ly/property-init.ly contains many definitions of multiple \override commands
and so can be used in conjunction with the \single command. For example, the function
\easyHeadsOn can be used with \single to affect just one note head in a chord;
\relative c' {
<\single \easyHeadsOn c' g'>2
}

N
º C

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Tweaking methods” in Learning Manual.
Extending LilyPond: Section “Displaying music expressions” in Extending.

Known issues and warnings

The \tweak command cannot be used to modify the control points of just one of several ties in
a chord, other than the first one encountered in the input file.

35.7 The \offset command

While it is possible to set grob properties to new values with the \override, \tweak, and
\overrideProperty commands, it is often more convenient to modify such properties relative
to a default value. The \offset command is available for this purpose.
The syntax for \offset is
[-]\offset property offsets item
The command works by adding the contents of offsets to the default setting of the property
property of the grob indicated by item.
Depending on the formulation of the command, \offset may act as either a \tweak or
\override. The variations in usage are discussed after consideration is given to grob properties
that may be used with \offset.
Chapter 35: Modifying properties 739

Properties which may be offset

Many, but not all, grob properties may be offset. If property cannot be offset, the object will
remain unchanged and a warning will be issued. In such cases, \override or \tweak should be
used to modify the object instead.
One can work by trial and error and let the warnings be the guide to what may or may not
be offset. A more systematic approach is possible, however.
The following criteria determine whether a property can be modified with \offset:
• The property has a ‘default setting’ in the grob’s description. Such properties are listed for
each grob in Section “All layout objects” in Internals Reference. (They are also found in
scm/define-grobs.scm.)
• The property takes a numerical value. Numerical values include number, list of numbers,
number-pair, and number-pair-list. The pages at Section “All layout objects” in Inter-
nals Reference list the type of data characteristic to each property. It is immaterial whether
the default setting is a function.
• The property cannot be a ‘subproperty’ – a property residing within another property.
• Properties set to infinite values cannot be offset. There is no sensible way to offset positive
and negative infinity.
The following examples consider several grob properties against the criteria outlined above.
• Properties that may be offset
Hairpin.height
This property is not a subproperty, and it is listed at Section “Hairpin” in
Internals Reference. For a value, it takes ‘dimension, in staff space’ set to
0.6666 – clearly a non-infinite number.
Arpeggio.positions
The page Section “Arpeggio” in Internals Reference lists a positions property
which accepts a ‘pair of numbers’. It defaults to ly:arpeggio::positions – a
callback which will be evaluated during the typesetting phase to yield a pair of
numbers for any given Arpeggio object.
• Properties that may not be offset
Hairpin.color
There is no listing for color at Section “Hairpin” in Internals Reference.
Hairpin.circled-tip
The listing for Hairpin.circled-tip at Section “Hairpin” in Internals Refer-
ence shows that it takes a boolean value. Booleans are non-numerical.
Stem.details.lengths
Though listed at Section “Stem” in Internals Reference and defaulting to a list
of numbers, this is a ‘subproperty’. There is currently no support for ‘nested
properties’.

\offset as an override
If item is a grob name like Arpeggio or Staff.OttavaBracket, the result is an \override of
the specified grob type.
\offset property offsets [context.]GrobName
Note that the leading hyphen is never used with the ‘override’ form, just as it is never used
with the \override command itself.
The following example uses the ‘override’ form to lengthen the default arpeggios shown in the
first measure to cover the extent of the chords more fully. The arpeggios are stretched by a half
Chapter 35: Modifying properties 740

staff space to top and bottom. Also shown is the same operation done on the first chord with an
ordinary override of the positions property. This method is not at all expressive of the task of
‘stretching by a half staff space’, as the endpoints must be specified with absolute rather than
relative coordinates. Furthermore, individual overrides would be needed for the other chords, as
they vary in size and position.
arpeggioMusic = {
<c' e' g'>\arpeggio <a' c'' e''>\arpeggio
<d' f' a' c''>\arpeggio <c' e' g' b' d'' f'' a''>\arpeggio
}

{
\arpeggioMusic
\bar "||"
\offset positions #'(-0.5 . 0.5) Arpeggio
\arpeggioMusic
\bar "||"
\once \override Arpeggio.positions = #'(-3.5 . -0.5)
<c' e' g'>1\arpeggio
\bar "||"
}

; h ;;; hhh ;; hh ;; hh ;;;; hhhh

h h
 º ;; hhh ;; h ;;; hhh ;;; hhhh ;;; hhh ;; h ;; hh ;;; hhh ;; ...
; ; ; ; ; ; ;;
In its ‘override’ usage, \offset may be prefaced with \once or \temporary and reverted
using \revert with property (see Section “Intermediate substitution functions” in Extending).
This follows from the fact that \offset actually creates an \override of property.
music = { c'8\< d' e' f'\! }

{
\music
\offset height 1 Hairpin
\music
\music
\revert Hairpin.height
\music
\bar "||"
\once \offset height 1 Hairpin
\music \music
\bar "||"
\override Hairpin.height = 0.2
\music
\temporary \offset height 2 Hairpin
\music
\music
\revert Hairpin.height
\music
\bar "||"
}
Chapter 35: Modifying properties 741

º
hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh
4


h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

Also like \override, the ‘override’ form of \offset may be used with \undo and \single.
longStem = \offset length 6 Stem

{
\longStem c'4 c''' c' c''
\bar "||"
\undo \longStem c'4 c''' c' c''
\bar "||"
\single \longStem c'4 c''' c' c''
\bar "||"
}
h h h
º h h h h
h h h h h
\offset as a tweak
If item is a music expression such as ( or \arpeggio, the result is the same music expression
with a tweak applied.
[-]\offset [GrobName.]property offsets music-expression
The syntax of \offset in its ‘tweak’ form is analogous to the \tweak command itself, both
in ordering and in the presence or absence of the leading hyphen.
The following example uses the ‘tweak’ form to adjust the vertical position of the
BreathingSign object. Compare this with the ordinary \tweak command also demon-
strated. The syntax is equivalent; however, the output of \tweak is less intuitive, since
BreathingSign.Y-offset is calculated from the middle staff line. It is not necessary to know
how Y-offset is calculated when using \offset.
{
c''4
\breathe
c''4
\offset Y-offset 2 \breathe
c''2
\tweak Y-offset 3 \breathe
}
i i
i
º h h N
Chapter 35: Modifying properties 742

In the previous example, the tweaked objects were created directly from the user input: the
\breathe command was an explicit instruction to return a BreathingSign object. Since the
focus of the command was unambiguous, there was no need to specify the object’s name. When
an object is indirectly created, however, it is necessary to include the grob’s name. This is the
same as for the \tweak command.
In the following example, the Beam object is lowered two staff spaces by applying \offset to
the positions property.
The first application of \offset requires that the grob’s name be included, because nothing in
the input explicitly creates the beam. In the second application, the beam is created manually
with the music expression [; therefore, the grob’s name is not needed. (Also illustrated is a
shorthand: a single number will be applied to both members of a number-pair.)
{
c''8 g'' e'' d''
\offset Beam.positions #'(-2 . -2)
c''8 g'' e'' d''
c''8 g'' e'' d''
c''8-\offset positions -2 [ g'' e'' d'']
}

h hhhh hhh hhhh hhh

 º h

\offset with broken spanners

Independently modifying segments of a spanner extending over a line break or breaks is also
possible. In this case, offsets takes a list of values of the property’s required data type.
The \offset command used in this manner is similar to the \alterBroken command. (See
Section 36.4.1 [Modifying broken spanners], page 748.) In contrast with \alterBroken, however,
the values given to \offset are relative, not absolute.
The following example displaces the ‘broken’ OttavaBracket object through its
staff-padding property. Since the property takes a number, offsets is provided with a list
of numbers to account for the two segments created by the line break. The bracket piece on
the first line is effectively untouched since 0 is added to its default value of staff-padding.
The segment on the second line is raised three staff spaces from its default height. The
default height happens to be 2, though it is not necessary to know this to achieve the desired
positioning.
{
\offset staff-padding #'(0 3) Staff.OttavaBracket
\ottava 1
c'''2 c'''
\break
c'''2 c'''
}

º N N
8
Chapter 35: Modifying properties 743

 N N
2

The following example mimics the effect of the \shape command by offsetting the
control-points property of the Slur object. Here, offsets is a list of number-pair-lists, one
for each slur segment. This example achieves a result identical to the corresponding illustration
at Section 36.11 [Modifying shapes], page 769.
{
c'4-\offset control-points #'(
((0 . 0) (0 . 0) (0 . 0) (0 . 1))
((0.5 . 1.5) (1 . 0) (0 . 0) (0 . -1.5))
) ( f'4 g' c''
\break
d'4 c'' f' c')
}

º h h h
h
h
2

 h h h
35.8 Modifying alists
Some user-configurable properties are internally represented as alists (association lists), which
store pairs of keys and values. The structure of an alist is:
'((key1 . value1)
(key2 . value2)
(key3 . value3)
...)
If an alist is a grob property or \paper variable, its keys can be modified individually without
affecting other keys.
For example, to reduce the space between adjacent staves in a staff group, use the
staff-staff-spacing property of the StaffGrouper grob. The property is an alist with four
keys: basic-distance, minimum-distance, padding, and stretchability. The standard set-
tings for this property are listed in the “Backend” section of the Internals Reference (see Section
“StaffGrouper” in Internals Reference):
'((basic-distance . 9)
(minimum-distance . 7)
(padding . 1)
(stretchability . 5))
One way to bring the staves closer together is by reducing the value of the basic-distance
key (9) to match the value of minimum-distance (7). To modify a single key individually, use
a nested declaration:
% default space between staves
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff { \clef treble c''1 }
Chapter 35: Modifying properties 744

\new Staff { \clef bass c1 }

>>

% reduced space between staves

\new PianoStaff \with {
% this is the nested declaration
\override StaffGrouper.staff-staff-spacing.basic-distance = 7
} <<
\new Staff { \clef treble c''1 }
\new Staff { \clef bass c1 }
>>

X
 º .
º .

<
 º .
º .
Using a nested declaration will update the specified key (such as basic-distance in the
above example) without altering any other keys already set for the same property.
Now suppose we want the staves to be as close as possible without overlapping. The simplest
way to do this is to set all four alist keys to zero. However, it is not necessary to enter four
nested declarations, one for each key. Instead, the property can be completely redefined with
one declaration, as an alist:
\new PianoStaff \with {
\override StaffGrouper.staff-staff-spacing =
#'((basic-distance . 0)
(minimum-distance . 0)
(padding . 0)
(stretchability . 0))
} <<
\new Staff { \clef treble c''1 }
\new Staff { \clef bass c1 }
>>

&
 º .
º .
Note that any keys not explicitly listed in the alist definition will be reset to their default-
when-unset values. In the case of staff-staff-spacing, any unset key values would be reset
to zero (except stretchability, which takes the value of basic-distance when unset). Thus
the following two declarations are equivalent:
\override StaffGrouper.staff-staff-spacing =
Chapter 35: Modifying properties 745

#'((basic-distance . 7))

\override StaffGrouper.staff-staff-spacing =
#'((basic-distance . 7)
(minimum-distance . 0)
(padding . 0)
(stretchability . 7))
One (possibly unintended) consequence of this is the removal of any standard settings that are
set in an initialization file and loaded each time an input file is compiled. In the above example,
the standard settings for padding and minimum-distance (defined in scm/define-grobs.scm)
are reset to their default-when-unset values (zero for both keys). Defining a property or variable
as an alist (of any size) will always reset all unset key values to their default-when-unset values.
Unless this is the intended result, it is safer to update key values individually with a nested
declaration.
☛ ✟
Note: Nested declarations will not work for context prop-
erty alists (such as beamExceptions, keyAlterations,
timeSignatureSettings, etc.). These properties can only be
modified by completely redefining them as alists.
✡ ✠
 746

36 Useful concepts and properties

This section discusses various common layout issues and the tweaking methods related to them.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Tweaking output” in Learning Manual, Section “Other sources of
information” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Chapter 34 [Explaining the Internals Reference], page 729, Chapter 35
[Modifying properties], page 732.
Extending LilyPond: Section “Interfaces for programmers” in Extending.
Installed Files: scm/define-grobs.scm.
Snippets: Section “Tweaks and overrides” in Snippets.
Internals Reference: Section “All layout objects” in Internals Reference.

36.1 Direction and placement

In typesetting music the direction and placement of many items is a matter of choice. For
example, the stems of notes can be directed up or down; lyrics, dynamics, and other expressive
marks may be placed above or below the staff; text may be aligned left, right or center; etc.
Most of these choices may be left to be determined automatically by LilyPond, but in some
cases it may be desirable to force a particular direction or placement.

36.1.1 Articulation direction indicators

By default some directions are always up or always down (e.g., dynamics or fermata), while other
things can alternate between up or down based on the stem direction (like slurs or accents).
The default action may be overridden by prefixing the articulation by a direction indicator.
Three direction indicators are available: ^ (meaning “up”), _ (meaning “down”) and - (meaning
“use default direction”). The direction indicator can usually be omitted, in which case - is
assumed, but a direction indicator is always required before
• \tweak commands
• \markup commands
• \tag commands
• string markups, e.g., -"string"
• fingering instructions, e.g., -1
• articulation shortcuts, e.g., -., ->, --
Direction indicators affect only the next note:
\relative {
c''2( c)
c2_( c)
c2( c)
c2^( c)
}

º N N N N N N N N
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 747

36.1.2 The direction property

The position or direction of many layout objects is controlled by the direction property.
The value of the direction property may be set to 1, meaning “up” or “above”, or to
-1, meaning “down” or “below”. The symbols UP and DOWN may be used instead of 1 and
-1 respectively. The default direction may be specified by setting direction to 0 or CENTER.
Alternatively, in many cases predefined commands exist to specify the direction. These are of
the form
\xxxUp, \xxxDown or \xxxNeutral
where \xxxNeutral means “use the default” direction. See Section “Within-staff objects” in
Learning Manual.
In a few cases, arpeggio for example, the value of the direction property can specify whether
the object is to be placed to the right or left of the parent. In this case -1 or LEFT means “to
the left” and 1 or RIGHT means “to the right”. 0 or CENTER means “use the default” direction.
These indications affect all notes until they are canceled.
\relative {
c''2( c)
\slurDown
c2( c)
c2( c)
\slurNeutral
c2( c)
}

º N N N N N N N N
In polyphonic music, it is generally better to specify an explicit voice than change an object’s
direction. For more information, see Section 5.2 [Multiple voices], page 213.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Within-staff objects” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Section 5.2 [Multiple voices], page 213.

36.2 Distances and measurements

Distances in LilyPond are of two types: absolute and scaled.
Absolute distances are used for specifying margins, indents, and other page layout details, and
are by default specified in millimeters. In general, distance units may be specified by appending
\mm (millimeter), \cm (centimeter), \in (inches), \pt (points), or \bp (big points).
mm cm in pt bp
mm 1 0.1 0.0394 2.8453 2.8346
cm 10 1 0.3937 28.4528 28.3465
in 25.4 2.54 1 72.27 72
pt 0.3515 0.0351 0.0138 1 0.996
bp 0.3538 0.0354 0.0139 1.0038 1
Page layout distances can also be specified in scalable units (see the following paragraph) by
appending \staff-space to the quantity. See Chapter 26 [Page layout], page 643, for a detailed
description of LilyPond’s page layout.
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 748

Scaled distances are always specified in units of the staff space or, rarely, the half staff space.
The staff space is the distance between two adjacent staff lines. The default value can be
changed globally by setting the global staff size, or it can be overridden locally by changing the
staff-space property of StaffSymbol. Scaled distances automatically scale with any change
to the either the global staff size or the staff-space property of StaffSymbol, but fonts scale
automatically only with changes to the global staff size. The global staff size thus enables the
overall size of a rendered score to be easily varied. For the methods of setting the global staff
size see Section 27.2 [Setting the staff size], page 657.
If just a section of a score needs to be rendered to a different scale, for example an ossia
section or a footnote, the global staff size cannot simply be changed as this would affect the
entire score. In such cases the change in size is made by overriding both the staff-space
property of StaffSymbol and the size of the fonts. A Scheme function, magstep, is available to
convert from a font size change to the equivalent change in staff-space. For an explanation
and an example of its use, see Section “Length and thickness of objects” in Learning Manual.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Length and thickness of objects” in Learning Manual.
Notation Reference: Chapter 26 [Page layout], page 643, Section 27.2 [Setting the staff
size], page 657.

36.3 Dimensions
The dimensions of a graphical object specify the positions of the left and right edges and the
bottom and top edges of the objects’ bounding box as distances from the objects’ reference point
in units of staff spaces. These positions are usually coded as two Scheme pairs. For example,
the text markup command \with-dimensions takes three arguments, the first two of which are
a Scheme pair giving the left and right edge positions and a Scheme pair giving the bottom and
top edge positions:
\with-dimensions #'(-5 . 10) #'(-3 . 15) arg
This specifies a bounding box for arg with its left edge at -5, its right edge at 10, its bottom
edge at -3 and its top edge at 15, all measured from the objects’ reference point in units of staff
spaces.
For more information on how such boxes are defined, including the formal definition of
horizontal and vertical space as set up by the \hspace and \vspace markup commands, see
Section “LilyPond’s box model” in Extending.

See also
Notation Reference: Section A.1.8 [Other markup commands], page 839, (documen-
tation for commands similar to \with-dimensions, such as \with-dimension or
\with-dimension-from), Section 36.2 [Distances and measurements], page 747.

36.4 Spanners
Many objects of musical notation extend over several notes or even several bars. Examples are
slurs, beams, tuplet brackets, volta repeat brackets, crescendi, trills, and glissandi. Such objects
are collectively called “spanners”, and have special properties to control their appearance and
behavior, as well as special tweaking methods related to the fact that they can be broken across
systems.

36.4.1 Modifying broken spanners

When a spanner crosses a line break or breaks, each piece inherits the attributes of the original
spanner. Thus, ordinary tweaking of a broken spanner applies the same modifications to each
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 749

of its segments. In the example below, overriding thickness affects the slur on either side of
the line break.
\relative c'' {
r2
\once\override Slur.thickness = 10
c8( d e f
\break
g8 f e d) r2
}

º ˜ h h hh

hhhh
˜
2


Independently modifying the appearance of individual pieces of a broken spanner is possible
with the \alterBroken command. This command can produce either an \override or a \tweak
of a spanner property.
The syntax for \alterBroken is
[-]\alterBroken property values target
The argument values is a list of values, one for each broken piece. If target is a grob name like
Slur or Staff.PianoPedalBracket, the result is an \override of the specified grob type. If
target is a music expression such as ‘(’ or ‘[’ the result is the same music expression with an
appropriate tweak applied.
The leading hyphen must be used with the \tweak form. Do not add it when \alterBroken
is used as an \override.
In its \override usage, \alterBroken may be prefaced by \once or \temporary and re-
verted by using \revert with property (see Section “Intermediate substitution functions” in
Extending).
The following code applies an independent \override to each of the slur segments in the
previous example:
\relative c'' {
r2
\alterBroken thickness #'(10 1) Slur
c8( d e f
\break
g8 f e d) r2
}

hh
º ˜ hh
hhhh
˜
2


The \alterBroken command may be used with any spanner object, including Tie,
PhrasingSlur, Beam and TextSpanner. For example, an editor preparing a scholarly edition
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 750

may wish to indicate the absence of part of a phrasing slur in a source by dashing only the
segment which has been added. The following example illustrates how this can be done, in this
case using the \tweak form of the command:
% The empty list is conveniently used below, because it is the
% default setting of dash-definition, resulting in a solid curve.
\relative {
c''2-\alterBroken dash-definition #'(() ((0 1.0 0.4 0.75))) \(e
\break
g2 e\)
}

N
º N
2 N N

It is important to understand that \alterBroken sets each piece of a broken spanner to the
corresponding value in values. When there are fewer values than pieces, any additional piece
will be assigned the empty list. This may lead to undesired results if the layout property is not
set to the empty list by default. In such cases, each segment should be assigned an appropriate
value.

Known issues and warnings

Line breaks may occur in different places following changes in layout. Settings chosen for
\alterBroken may be unsuitable for a spanner that is no longer broken or is split into more
segments than before. Explicit use of \break can guard against this situation.
The \alterBroken command is ineffective for spanner properties accessed before line break-
ing such as direction.

See also
Extending LilyPond: Section “Difficult tweaks” in Extending.

36.4.2 Setting minimum lengths for spanners

The spanner-interface interface provides three properties that apply to several spanners.

The minimum-length property

The minimum length of the spanner is specified by the minimum-length property. Increasing
this usually has the necessary effect of increasing the spacing of the notes between the two end
points. However, this override has no effect on many spanners, as their length is determined by
other considerations. A few examples where it is effective are shown below.
a'~ a'
a'
% increase the length of the tie
-\tweak minimum-length 5
~ a'

º h h h h
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 751

\relative \compressMMRests {
a'1
R1*23
% increase the length of the rest bar
\once \override MultiMeasureRest.minimum-length = 20
R1*23
a1
}

23 23
º . .
\relative {
a' \< a a a \!
% increase the length of the hairpin
\override Hairpin.minimum-length = 20
a \< a a a \!
}

º h h h h h h h h
This override can also be used to increase the length of slurs and phrasing slurs:
\relative {
a'( g)
a
-\tweak minimum-length 5
( g)

a\( g\)
a
-\tweak minimum-length 5
\( g\)
}

º h h h h h h h h
For some layout objects, the minimum-length property becomes effective only if the
set-spacing-rods procedure is called explicitly. To do this, the springs-and-rods property
should be set to ly:spanner::set-spacing-rods. For example, the minimum length of a
glissando has no effect unless the springs-and-rods property is set:
% default
e' \glissando c''

% not effective alone

\once \override Glissando.minimum-length = 20
e' \glissando c''

% effective only when both overrides are present

Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 752

\once \override Glissando.minimum-length = 20

\once \override Glissando.springs-and-rods =
#ly:spanner::set-spacing-rods
e' \glissando c''

º h hh h h h
The same is true of the Beam object:
% not effective alone
\once \override Beam.minimum-length = 20
e'8 e' e' e'

% effective only when both overrides are present

\once \override Beam.minimum-length = 20
\once \override Beam.springs-and-rods =
#ly:spanner::set-spacing-rods
e'8 e' e' e'

º hhhhh h h h
The minimum-length-after-break property
The property minimum-length-after-break can be used to stretch broken spanners start-
ing after a line break. As for the minimum-length property, it is often needed to set the
springs-and-rods property to ly:spanner::set-spacing-rods.
{
\once \override Tie.minimum-length-after-break = 20
a1~
\break
a1

\once \override Slur.minimum-length-after-break = 20

a1(
\break
d'1)

\once \override TextSpanner.springs-and-rods =

#ly:spanner::set-spacing-rods
\once \override TextSpanner.minimum-length-after-break = 20
a1\startTextSpan
\break
a1\stopTextSpan

\once \override Hairpin.after-line-breaking = ##t

\once \override Hairpin.to-barline = ##f
\once \override Hairpin.minimum-length-after-break = 20
a1\<
\break
a1\!
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 753

\once \override Glissando.springs-and-rods =

#ly:spanner::set-spacing-rods
% for completeness; not necessary for manual breaks
\once \override Glissando.breakable = ##t
\once \override Glissando.after-line-breaking = ##t
\once \override Glissando.minimum-length-after-break = 20
a1\glissando
\break
d'1
}

º
.
2


. .
4

 . .
6


. .
8


. .
10

 .
36.4.3 Controlling spanner end points
The to-barline property of the spanner-interface, usually defaulting to #t, causes hairpins
and other spanners that are terminated on the first note of a measure to end instead on the
immediately preceding bar line. If set to #f, the spanner extends beyond the bar line and end
on the note itself:
\relative {
a' \< a a a a \! a a a \break
\override Hairpin.to-barline = ##f
a \< a a a a \! a a a
}

º h h h h h h h h
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 754

 h h h h h h h h
This property is not effective for all spanners. For example, setting it to #t has no effect on
slurs or phrasing slurs or on other spanners for which terminating on the bar line would not be
meaningful.

36.5 Line styles

The Section “line-interface” in Internals Reference groups all objects printing lines. All objects
supporting these interfaces can be printed using different line styles. Here is an example showing
the available values.
\relative {
d''2 \glissando d'2
\once \override Glissando.style = #'dashed-line
d,2 \glissando d'2
\override Glissando.style = #'dotted-line
d,2 \glissando d'2
\override Glissando.style = #'zigzag
d,2 \glissando d'2
\override Glissando.style = #'trill
d,2 \glissando d'2
}
N N N N N
º N N N N N
vvv

Some objects may support specific additional styles.

36.6 Line spanners

Some performance indications, e.g., rallentando and accelerando and trills are written as text
and are extended over many measures with lines, sometimes dotted or wavy.
The locations of the two end points of the spanner are computed on the fly, but it is possible
to override their Y-coordinates. The properties that need to be specified are nested two levels
down within the property hierarchy, but the syntax of the \override command is quite simple:
e''2 \glissando b'
\once \override Glissando.bound-details.left.Y = 3
\once \override Glissando.bound-details.right.Y = -2
e''2 \glissando b'

N N N N
º
The units for the Y property are staff spaces, with the center line of the staff being the zero
point. For the glissando, this is the value for Y at the X-coordinate corresponding to the center
point of each note head, if the line is imagined to be extended to there.
If Y is not set, the value is computed from the vertical position of the corresponding attach-
ment point of the spanner.
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 755

In case of a line break, the values for the end points are specified by the left-broken and
right-broken sublists of bound-details. For example:
\override Glissando.bound-details.right-broken.Y = -3
c''1 \glissando \break
f''1

º .
2
.

A number of further properties of the left and right sublists of the bound-details property
may be modified in the same way as Y:
Y This sets the Y-coordinate of the end point, measured in staff spaces from the staff
center line. By default, it is the center of the bound object, so a glissando points to
the vertical center of the note head.
For horizontal spanners, such as text spanners and trill spanners, it is hard-coded
to 0.
attach-dir
This determines where the line starts and ends in the X-direction, relative to the
bound object. So, a value of -1 (or LEFT) makes the line start/end at the left side
of the note head it is attached to.
X This is the absolute X-coordinate of the end point. It is usually computed on the
fly, and overriding it has little useful effect.
stencil Line spanners may have symbols at the beginning or end, which is contained in this
subproperty. This is for internal use; it is recommended that text be used instead.
text
This is a markup that is evaluated to yield the stencil. It is used to put cresc., tr,
and other text on horizontal spanners.
\override TextSpanner.bound-details.left.text
= \markup { \small \bold Slower }
\relative { c''2\startTextSpan b c a\stopTextSpan }

º N N N N
Slower

stencil-align-dir-y
stencil-offset
Without setting one of these, the stencil is simply put at the end point, cen-
tered on the line, as defined by the X and Y subproperties. Setting either
stencil-align-dir-y or stencil-offset will move the symbol at the edge verti-
cally relative to the end point of the line:
\override TextSpanner.bound-details
.left.stencil-align-dir-y = -2
\override TextSpanner.bound-details
.right.stencil-align-dir-y = #UP
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 756

\override TextSpanner.bound-details.left.text = "ggg"

\override TextSpanner.bound-details.right.text = "hhh"

\relative { c'4^\startTextSpan c c c \stopTextSpan }

ggg

º h h h h
hhh

Note that negative values move the text up, contrary to the effect that might be
expected, as a value of -1 or DOWN means align the bottom edge of the text with the
spanner line. A value of 1 or UP aligns the top edge of the text with the spanner
line.
arrow Setting this subproperty to #t produces an arrowhead at the end points of the line.
padding This subproperty controls the space between the specified end point of the line and
the actual end. Without padding, a glissando would start and end in the center of
each note head.
The music function \endSpanners prematurely terminates all spanners in its argument, obey-
ing the to-barline property if set.
\relative c'' {
\endSpanners c1 \> c
\endSpanners { r4 c2.\< c1\startTextSpan } c1 c
}

º . .  NP . . .

When using \endSpanners it is not necessary to close \startTextSpan with \stopTextSpan,

nor is it necessary to close hairpins with \!.

See also
Internals Reference: Section “TextSpanner” in Internals Reference, Section “Glissando” in
Internals Reference, Section “VoiceFollower” in Internals Reference, Section “TrillSpanner” in
Internals Reference, Section “line-spanner-interface” in Internals Reference.

36.7 Visibility of objects

There are four main ways in which the visibility of layout objects can be controlled: their
stencil can be removed, they can be made transparent, they can be colored white, or their
break-visibility property can be overridden. The first three apply to all layout objects; the
last to just a few – the breakable objects. The Learning Manual introduces these four techniques,
see Section “Visibility and color of objects” in Learning Manual.
There are also a few other techniques which are specific to certain layout objects. These are
covered under Special considerations.

36.7.1 Removing the stencil

Every layout object has a stencil property. By default this is set to the specific function which
draws that object. If this property is overridden to #f no function will be called and the object
will not be drawn. The default action can be recovered with \revert.
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 757

a1 a
\override Score.BarLine.stencil = ##f
a a
\revert Score.BarLine.stencil
a a a

º
. . . . . . .
This rather common operation has a shortcut \omit:
a1 a
\omit Score.BarLine
a a
\undo \omit Score.BarLine
a a a

º
. . . . . . .
36.7.2 Making objects transparent
Every layout object has a transparent property which by default is set to #f. If set to #t the
object still occupies space but is made invisible.
a'4 a'
\once \override NoteHead.transparent = ##t
a' a'

º h h h
This rather common operation has a shortcut \hide:
a'4 a'
\once \hide NoteHead
a' a'

º h h h
36.7.3 Painting objects white
Every layout object has a color property which by default is set to black. If this is overridden
to white the object will be indistinguishable from the white background. However, if the object
crosses other objects the color of the crossing points will be determined by the order in which
they are drawn, and this may leave a ghostly image of the white object, as shown here:
\override Staff.Clef.color = #white
a'1

º .
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 758

This may be avoided by changing the order of printing the objects. All layout objects have
a layer property which should be set to an integer. Objects with the lowest value of layer
are drawn first, then objects with progressively higher values are drawn, so objects with higher
values overwrite objects with lower values. By default most objects are assigned a layer value
of 1, although a few objects, including StaffSymbol and BarLine, are assigned a value of 0.
The order of printing objects with the same value of layer is indeterminate.
In the example above the white clef, with a default layer value of 1, is drawn after the staff
lines (default layer value 0), so overwriting them. To change this, the Clef object must be
given in a lower value of layer, say -1, so that it is drawn earlier:
\override Staff.Clef.color = #white
\override Staff.Clef.layer = -1
a'1

º .
Selected Snippets
Using the whiteout property
Any graphical object can be printed over a white background to mask parts of objects that
lie beneath. This can be useful to improve the appearance of collisions in complex situations
when repositioning objects is impractical. It is necessary to explicitly set the layer property to
control which objects are masked by the white background.
In this example the collision of the tie with the time signature is improved by masking out the
part of the tie that crosses the time signature, setting the whiteout property of TimeSignature.
To do this, TimeSignature is moved to a layer above Tie, which is left in the default layer 1,
and StaffSymbol is moved to a layer above TimeSignature so it is not masked.
{
\override Score.StaffSymbol.layer = 4
\override Staff.TimeSignature.layer = 3
b'2 b'~
\once \override Staff.TimeSignature.whiteout = ##t
\time 3/4
b' r4
}

 º N N 43 N 
36.7.4 Using break-visibility
Most layout objects are printed only once, but some like bar lines, clefs, time signatures and key
signatures, may need to be printed twice when a line break occurs – once at the end of the line
and again at the start of the next line. Such objects are called breakable, and have a property,
the break-visibility property to control their visibility at the three positions in which they
may appear – at the start of a line, within a line if they are changed, and at the end of a line if
a change takes place there.
For example, the time signature by default will be printed at the start of the first line, but
nowhere else unless it changes, when it will be printed at the point at which the change occurs.
If this change occurs at the end of a line the new time signature will be printed at the start of
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 759

the next line and a cautionary time signature will be printed at the end of the previous line as
well.
This behavior is controlled by the break-visibility property, which is explained in Section
“Visibility and color of objects” in Learning Manual. This property takes a vector of three
Booleans which, in order, determine whether the object is printed at the end of, within the body
of, or at the beginning of a line. Or to be more precise, before a line break, where there is no
line break, or after a line break.
Alternatively, these eight combinations may be specified by predefined functions, defined in
scm/output-lib.scm, where the last three columns indicate whether the layout objects will be
visible in the positions shown at the head of the columns:
Function Vector Before At no After
form form break break break

all-visible #(#t #t #t) yes yes yes

begin-of-line-visible #(#f #f #t) no no yes
center-visible #(#f #t #f) no yes no
end-of-line-visible #(#t #f #f) yes no no
begin-of-line-invisible #(#t #t #f) yes yes no
center-invisible #(#t #f #t) yes no yes
end-of-line-invisible #(#f #t #t) no yes yes
all-invisible #(#f #f #f) no no no
The default settings of break-visibility depend on the layout object. The following table
shows all the layout objects of interest which are affected by break-visibility and the default
setting of this property:
Layout object Usual context Default setting

BarLine Score calculated

BarNumber Score begin-of-line-visible
BreathingSign Voice begin-of-line-invisible
Clef Staff begin-of-line-visible
Custos Staff end-of-line-visible
Divisio Staff begin-of-line-invisible
DoublePercentRepeat Voice begin-of-line-invisible
KeyCancellation Staff begin-of-line-invisible
KeySignature Staff begin-of-line-visible
ClefModifier Staff begin-of-line-visible
RehearsalMark Score end-of-line-invisible
TimeSignature Staff all-visible
The example below shows the use of the vector form to control the visibility of bar lines:
\relative {
f'4 g a b
f4 g a b
% Remove bar line at the end of the current line
\once \override Score.BarLine.break-visibility = ##(#f #t #t)
\break
f4 g a b
f4 g a b
}
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 760

º h h h h h h h h

 h h h h h h h h
3

Although all three components of the vector used to override break-visibility must be
present, not all of them are effective with every layout object, and some combinations may even
give errors. The following limitations apply:
• Bar lines cannot be printed at the start of line.
• A bar number cannot be printed at the start of the first line unless it is set to be different
from 1.
• Clef – see the next section.
• Double percent repeats are either all printed or all suppressed. Use begin-of-line-
invisible to print them and all-invisible to suppress them.
• Key signature – see the next section.
• ClefModifier – see the next section.

36.7.5 Special considerations

Visibility following explicit changes
The break-visibility property controls the visibility of key signatures and changes of clef
only at the start of lines, i.e., after a break. It has no effect on the visibility of the key signature
or clef following an explicit key change or an explicit clef change within or at the end of a line.
In the following example the key signature following the explicit change to B-flat major is still
visible, even though all-invisible is set.
\relative {
\key g \major
f'4 g a b
% Try to remove all key signatures
\override Staff.KeySignature.break-visibility = #all-invisible
\key bes \major
f4 g a b
\break
f4 g a b
f4 g a b
}

 
 º  h h h h  h h h h

 h h h h h h h h
3

The visibility of such explicit key signature and clef changes is controlled by the
explicitKeySignatureVisibility and explicitClefVisibility properties. These are the
equivalent of the break-visibility property and both take a vector of three Booleans or the
predefined functions listed above, exactly like break-visibility. Both are properties of the
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 761

Staff context, not the layout objects themselves, and so they are set using the \set command.
Both are set by default to all-visible. These properties control only the visibility of key
signatures and clefs resulting from explicit changes and do not affect key signatures and clefs
at the beginning of lines; break-visibility must still be overridden in the appropriate object
to remove these.
\relative {
\key g \major
f'4 g a b
\set Staff.explicitKeySignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
\override Staff.KeySignature.break-visibility = #all-invisible
\key bes \major
f4 g a b \break
f4 g a b
f4 g a b
}

º h 
 h h h h h h h

 h h h h h h h h
3

Visibility of cancelling accidentals

To remove the cancelling accidentals printed at an explicit key change, set the Staff context
property printKeyCancellation to #f:
\relative {
\key g \major
f'4 g a b
\set Staff.explicitKeySignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
\set Staff.printKeyCancellation = ##f
\override Staff.KeySignature.break-visibility = #all-invisible
\key bes \major
f4 g a b \break
f4 g a b
f4 g a b
}

º
  h h h h h h h h

 h h h h h h h h
3

With these overrides only the accidentals before the notes remain to indicate the change of
key.
Note that when changing the key to C major or A minor the cancelling accidentals would be
the only indication of the key change. In this case setting printKeyCancellation to #f has no
effect:
\relative {
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 762

\key g \major
f'4 g a b
\set Staff.explicitKeySignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
\set Staff.printKeyCancellation = ##f
\key c \major
f4 g a b \break
f4 g a b
f4 g a b
}

 
 º h h h h h h h h

 h h h h h h h h
3

To suppress the cancelling accidentals even when the key is changed to C major or A minor,
override the visibility of the KeyCancellation grob instead:
\relative {
\key g \major
f'4 g a b
\set Staff.explicitKeySignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
\override Staff.KeyCancellation.break-visibility = #all-invisible
\key c \major
f4 g a b \break
f4 g a b
f4 g a b
}

º
 h h h h h h h h

 h h h h h h h h
3

Transposed clefs
The small transposition symbol on transposed clefs is produced by the ClefModifier layout
object. Its visibility is automatically inherited from the Clef object, so it is not necessary to
apply any required break-visibility overrides to the ClefModifier layout objects to suppress
transposition symbols for invisible clefs.
For explicit clef changes, the explicitClefVisibility property controls both the clef sym-
bol and any transposition symbol associated with it.

See also
Learning Manual: Section “Visibility and color of objects” in Learning Manual.
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 763

36.8 Rotating objects

Both layout objects and elements of markup text can be rotated by any angle about any point,
but the method of doing so differs.

36.8.1 Rotating layout objects

All layout objects which support the grob-interface can be rotated by setting their rotation
property. This takes a list of three items: the angle of rotation counter-clockwise, and the x and
y coordinates of the point relative to the object’s reference point about which the rotation is to
be performed. The angle of rotation is specified in degrees and the coordinates in staff spaces.
The angle of rotation and the coordinates of the rotation point must be determined by trial
and error.
There are only a few situations where the rotation of layout objects is useful; the following
example shows one situation where they may be:
g4\< e' d'' f''\!
\override Hairpin.rotation = #'(15 -1 0)
g4\< e' d'' f''\!

º h h h h
h h
h h
36.8.2 Rotating markup
All markup text can be rotated to lie at any angle by prefixing it with the \rotate com-
mand. The command takes two arguments: the angle of rotation in degrees counter-clockwise
and the text to be rotated. The extents of the text are not rotated: they take their values
from the extremes of the x and y coordinates of the rotated text. In the following example
the outside-staff-priority property for text is set to #f to disable the automatic collision
avoidance, which would push some of the text too high.
\override TextScript.outside-staff-priority = ##f
g4^\markup { \rotate #30 "a G" }
b^\markup { \rotate #30 "a B" }
des'^\markup { \rotate #30 "a D-Flat" }
fis'^\markup { \rotate #30 "an F-Sharp" }

p
ar
F lat - Sh
- F
a G a B a D an
º h h
h h
36.9 Aligning objects
Graphical objects which support the self-alignment-interface and/or the side-position-
interface can be aligned to a previously placed object in a variety of ways. For a list of these
objects, see Section “self-alignment-interface” in Internals Reference and Section “side-position-
interface” in Internals Reference.
All graphical objects have a reference point, a horizontal extent and a vertical extent. The
horizontal extent is a pair of numbers giving the displacements from the reference point of the left
and right edges, displacements to the left being negative. The vertical extent is a pair of numbers
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 764

giving the displacement from the reference point to the bottom and top edges, displacements
down being negative.
An object’s position on a staff is given by the values of the X-offset and Y-offset properties.
The value of X-offset gives the displacement from the X coordinate of the reference point of
the parent object, and the value of Y-offset gives the displacement from the center line of the
staff. The values of X-offset and Y-offset may be set directly or may be set to be calculated
by procedures in order to achieve alignment with the parent object.
☛ ✟
Note: Many objects have special positioning considerations which
cause any setting of X-offset or Y-offset to be ignored or modi-
fied, even though the object supports the self-alignment-interface.
Overriding the X-offset or Y-offset properties to a fixed value
causes the respective self-alignment property to be disregarded.
✡ ✠
For example, an accidental can be repositioned vertically by setting Y-offset but any changes
to X-offset have no effect.
Rehearsal marks may be aligned with breakable objects such as bar lines, clef symbols,
time signature symbols and key signatures. There are special properties to be found in the
break-aligned-interface for positioning rehearsal marks on such objects.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 36.9.4 [Using the break-alignable-interface], page 766.
Extending LilyPond: Section “Callback functions” in Extending.

36.9.1 Setting X-offset and Y-offset directly

Numerical values may be given to the X-offset and Y-offset properties of many objects. The
following example shows three notes with the default fingering position and the positions with
X-offset and Y-offset modified.
a'-3
a'
-\tweak X-offset 0
-\tweak Y-offset 0
-3
a'
-\tweak X-offset -1
-\tweak Y-offset 1
-3

 º h h  h


36.9.2 Using the side-position-interface

An object which supports the side-position-interface can be placed next to its parent object
so that the specified edges of the two objects touch. The object may be placed above, below,
to the right or to the left of the parent. The parent cannot be specified; it is determined by
the order of elements in the input stream. Most objects have the associated note head as their
parent.
The values of the side-axis and direction properties determine where the object is to be
placed, as follows:
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 765

side-axis property direction property Placement

0 -1 left
0 1 right
1 -1 below
1 1 above
When side-axis is 0, X-offset should be set to the procedure ly:side-position-
interface::x-aligned-side. This procedure will return the correct value of X-offset to
place the object to the left or right side of the parent according to value of direction.
When side-axis is 1, Y-offset should be set to the procedure ly:side-position-
interface::y-aligned-side. This procedure will return the correct value of Y-offset to
place the object to the top or bottom of the parent according to value of direction.

36.9.3 Using the self-alignment-interface

Self-aligning objects horizontally
The horizontal alignment of an object which supports the self-alignment-interface is con-
trolled by the value of the self-alignment-X property, provided the object’s X-offset prop-
erty is set to ly:self-alignment-interface::x-aligned-on-self. self-alignment-X may
be given any real value, in units of half the total X extent of the object. Negative values move
the object to the right, positive to the left. A value of 0 centers the object on the reference point
of its parent, a value of -1 aligns the left edge of the object on the reference point of its parent,
and a value of 1 aligns the right edge of the object on the reference point of its parent. The
symbols LEFT, CENTER, and RIGHT may be used instead of the values -1, 0, and 1, respectively.
Normally the \override command would be used to modify the value of self-alignment-X,
but the \tweak command can be used to separately align several annotations on a single note:
a'
-\tweak self-alignment-X -1
^"left-aligned"
-\tweak self-alignment-X 0
^"center-aligned"
-\tweak self-alignment-X #RIGHT
^"right-aligned"
-\tweak self-alignment-X -2.5
^"aligned further to the right"

right-aligned
center-aligned
left-aligned

º
aligned further to the right
h
Self-aligning objects vertically
Objects may be aligned vertically in an analogous way to aligning them horizontally if the
Y-offset property is set to ly:self-alignment-interface::y-aligned-on-self. However,
other mechanisms are often involved in vertical alignment: the value of Y-offset is just one
variable taken into account. This may make adjusting the value of some objects tricky. The
units are just half the vertical extent of the object, which is usually quite small, so quite large
numbers may be required. A value of -1 aligns the lower edge of the object with the reference
point of the parent object, a value of 0 aligns the center of the object with the reference point
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 766

of the parent, and a value of 1 aligns the top edge of the object with the reference point of the
parent. The symbols DOWN, CENTER, and UP may be substituted for -1, 0, and 1, respectively.

Self-aligning objects in both directions

By setting both X-offset and Y-offset, an object may be aligned in both directions simulta-
neously.
The following example shows how to adjust a fingering mark so that it nestles close to the
note head.
a'
-\tweak self-alignment-X 0.5 % move horizontally left
-\tweak Y-offset #ly:self-alignment-interface::y-aligned-on-self
-\tweak self-alignment-Y -1 % move vertically up
-3 % third finger

 º h
36.9.4 Using the break-alignable-interface
Rehearsal marks, text marks, bar numbers, and more generally all objects with Section “break-
alignable-interface” in Internals Reference, collectively referred to as “break-alignable objects”,
may be aligned with notation objects such as bar lines, key signatures, time signatures, and
generally any object with Section “break-aligned-interface” in Internals Reference. To be more
precise, break-aligned items have a break-align-symbol property, providing symbols that can
be used as ‘anchor points’ for other objects via the break-align-symbols property. See Section
“break-alignment-interface” in Internals Reference, for a complete list of available symbols.
Each type of object has its own default reference point, to which break-alignable items are
aligned:
\override Score.TextMark.self-alignment-X = #CENTER
% The text mark will be aligned
% to the right edge of the clef
\override Score.TextMark.break-align-symbols =
#'(clef)
\key a \major
\clef treble
\textMark "↓"
e'1
% The text mark will be aligned
% to the left edge of the time signature
\override Score.TextMark.break-align-symbols =
#'(time-signature)
\key a \major
\clef treble
\time 3/4
\textMark "↓"
e'2.
% The text mark will be centered
% above the breathing mark
\override Score.TextMark.break-align-symbols =
#'(breathing-sign)
\key a \major
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 767

\clef treble
\time 4/4
e'1
\breathe
\textEndMark "↓"

 º
↓  ↓3  º ↓i
 . 4 NP .
A list of possible target alignment objects may be specified. If some of the objects are invisible
at that point due to the setting of break-visibility or the explicit visibility settings for keys
and clefs, the rehearsal mark or bar number is aligned to the first object in the list which is
visible. If no objects in the list are visible the object is aligned to the bar line. If the bar line is
invisible the object is aligned to the place where the bar line would be.
\override Score.TextMark.self-alignment-X = #CENTER
% The text mark will be aligned
% to the right edge of the key signature
\override Score.TextMark.break-align-symbols =
#'(key-signature clef)
\key a \major
\clef treble
\textMark "↓"
e'1
% The text mark will be aligned
% to the right edge of the clef
\set Staff.explicitKeySignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
\override Score.TextMark.break-align-symbols =
#'(key-signature clef)
\key a \major
\clef bass
\textMark "↓"
gis,1
% The text mark will be centered
% above the bar line
\set Staff.explicitKeySignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
\set Staff.explicitClefVisibility = #all-invisible
\override Score.TextMark.break-align-symbols =
#'(key-signature clef)
\key a \major
\clef treble
\textMark "↓"
e'1

 º
↓

 ↓ ↓

. . .
The alignment of the break-alignable item relative to the notation object can be changed, as
shown in the following example. In a score with multiple staves, this setting should be done for
all the staves.
\override Score.TextMark.self-alignment-X = #CENTER
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 768

% The text mark will be aligned

% with the right edge of the key signature
\override Score.TextMark.break-align-symbols =
#'(key-signature)
\key a \major
\clef treble
\time 4/4
\textMark "↓"
e'1
% The text mark will be centered
% above the key signature
\once \override Score.KeySignature.break-align-anchor-alignment =
#CENTER
\textMark "↓"
\key a \major
e'1
% The text mark will be aligned
% with the left edge of the key signature
\once \override Score.KeySignature.break-align-anchor-alignment =
#LEFT
\key a \major
\textMark "↓"
e'1

 º ↓ 

↓ ↓

 . . .
The break-alignable item can also be offset to the right or left of the left edge by an arbitrary
amount. The units are staff spaces:
\override Score.TextMark.self-alignment-X = #CENTER
% The text mark will be aligned
% with the left edge of the key signature
% and then shifted right by 3.5 staff spaces
\override Score.TextMark.break-align-symbols =
#'(key-signature)
\once \override Score.KeySignature.break-align-anchor = 3.5
\key a \major
\textMark "↓"
e'1
% The text mark will be aligned
% with the left edge of the key signature
% and then shifted left by 2 staff spaces
\once \override Score.KeySignature.break-align-anchor = -2
\key a \major
\textMark "↓"
e'1

 º 
↓
↓
 . .
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 769

36.10 Modifying stencils

All layout objects have a stencil property which is part of the grob-interface. By default,
this property is usually set to a function specific to the object that is tailor-made to render the
symbol which represents it in the output. For example, the standard setting for the stencil
property of the MultiMeasureRest object is ly:multi-measure-rest::print.
The standard symbol for any object can be replaced by modifying the stencil property to
reference a different, specially-written, procedure. This requires a high level of knowledge of
the internal workings of LilyPond, but there is an easier way which can often produce adequate
results.
This is to set the stencil property to the procedure which prints text –
ly:text-interface::print – and to add a text property to the object which is set
to contain the markup text which produces the required symbol. Due to the flexibility of
markup, much can be achieved – see in particular Section 8.2.4 [Graphic notation inside
markup], page 322.
The following example demonstrates this by changing the note head symbol to a cross within
a circle.
XinO = {
\once \override NoteHead.stencil = #ly:text-interface::print
\once \override NoteHead.text = \markup {
\combine
\halign #-0.7 \draw-circle #0.85 #0.2 ##f
\musicglyph "noteheads.s2cross"
}
}
\relative {
a' a \XinO a a
}

º h h j h
Any of the Feta glyphs used in the Emmentaler font can be supplied to the \musicglyph
markup command – see Section B.8 [The Emmentaler font], page 871.
EPS files and Postscript commands can both be inserted inline using the \epsfile and
\postscript markup commands respectively – see Section A.1.3 [Graphical markup], page 806.

See also
Notation Reference: Section 8.2.4 [Graphic notation inside markup], page 322, Section 8.2
[Formatting text], page 310, Section A.1 [Text markup commands], page 777, Section B.8 [The
Emmentaler font], page 871, Section A.1.3 [Graphical markup], page 806.

36.11 Modifying shapes

36.11.1 Modifying ties and slurs
Ties, Slurs, PhrasingSlurs, LaissezVibrerTies and RepeatTies are all drawn as third-order
Bézier curves. If the shape of the tie or slur which is calculated automatically is not optimum,
the shape may be modified manually in two ways:
a. by specifying the displacements to be made to the control points of the automatically
calculated Bézier curve, or
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 770

b. by explicitly specifying the positions of the four control points required to define the wanted
curve.
Both methods are explained below. The first method is more suitable if only slight adjust-
ments to the curve are required; the second may be better for creating curves which are related
to just a single note.

Cubic Bézier curves

Third-order or cubic Bézier curves are defined by four control points. The first and fourth
control points are precisely the starting and ending points of the curve. The intermediate two
control points define the shape. Animations showing how the curve is drawn can be found on
the web, but the following description and image may be helpful. The curve starts from the first
control point heading directly towards the second, gradually bending over to head towards the
third and continuing to bend over to head towards the fourth, arriving there traveling directly
from the third control point. The curve is entirely contained in the quadrilateral defined by the
four control points.

Translations, rotations and scaling of the control points all result in exactly the same opera-
tions on the curve.

Specifying displacements from current control points

In this example the automatic placement of the tie is not optimum, and \tieDown would not
help.
<<
{ e'1~ 1 }
\\
\relative { r4 <g' c,> <g c,> <g c,> }
>>

 º .h h h .
 h h h
Adjusting the control points of the tie with \shape allows the collisions to be avoided.
The syntax of \shape is
[-]\shape displacements item
This will reposition the control points of item by the amounts given by displacements. The
displacements argument is a list of number pairs or a list of such lists. Each element of a pair
represents the displacement of one of the coordinates of a control point. If item is a string, the
result is \once\override for the specified grob type. If item is a music expression, the result is
the same music expression with an appropriate tweak applied.
In other words, the \shape function can act as either a \once\override command or a
\tweak command depending on whether the item argument is a grob name, like “Slur”, or a
music expression, like “(”. The displacements argument specifies the displacements of the four
control points as a list of four pairs of (dx . dy) values in units of staff spaces (or a list of such
lists if the curve has more than one segment).
The leading hyphen is required if and only if the \tweak form is being used.
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 771

So, using the same example as above and the \once\override form of \shape, this will raise
the tie by half a staff space:
<<
{
\shape #'((0 . 0.5) (0 . 0.5) (0 . 0.5) (0 . 0.5)) Tie
e'1~ 1
}
\\
\relative { r4 <g' c,> <g c,> <g c,> }
>>

 º .h h h .
 h h h
This positioning of the tie is better, but maybe it should be raised more in the center. The
following example does this, this time using the alternative \tweak form:
<<
{
e'1-\shape #'((0 . 0.5) (0 . 1) (0 . 1) (0 . 0.5)) ~ e'
}
\\
\relative { r4 <g' c,> <g c,> <g c,> }
>>

 º .h h h .
h h h

To aid the tweaking process, the \vshape function is provided. Its name means visual shape:
it acts exactly like \shape, except that the control points and polygon are additionally displayed.
\relative {
c''8(\( a) e4 gis a\)
\vshape #'((0 . -0.3) (0.5 . -0.2)
(0.5 . -0.3) (0 . -0.7)) PhrasingSlur
c8(\( a) e4 gis a\)
}

 º h h h h h h h h  h h
It is advisable to start with \vshape and adjust until a satisfactory curve is obtained, then
simply remove the “v” letter in \vshape.
Two different curves starting at the same musical moment may also be shaped:
\relative {
c''8(\( a) a'4 e c\)
\shape #'((0.7 . -0.4) (0.5 . -0.4)
(0.3 . -0.3) (0 . -0.2)) Slur
\shape #'((0 . 0) (0 . 0.5)
(0 . 0.5) (0 . 0)) PhrasingSlur
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 772

c8(\( a) a'4 e c\)

}

h h h
 º hh h hh h h
The \shape function can also displace the control points of curves which stretch across line
breaks. Each piece of the broken curve can be given its own list of offsets. If changes to a
particular segment are not needed, the empty list can serve as a placeholder. In this example
the line break makes the single slur look like two:
\relative {
c'4( f g c
\break
d,4 c' f, c)
}

º h h h
h
 h hh
2

h
Changing the shapes of the two halves of the slur makes it clearer that the slur continues
over the line break:
% () may be used as a shorthand for ((0 . 0) (0 . 0) (0 . 0) (0 . 0))
% if any of the segments does not need to be changed
\relative c' {
\shape #'(
(( 0 . 0) (0 . 0) (0 . 0) (0 . 1))
((0.5 . 1.5) (1 . 0) (0 . 0) (0 . -1.5))
) Slur
c4( f g c
\break
d,4 c' f, c)
}

º h h h
h
 h hh
2

h
If an S-shaped curve is required the control points must always be adjusted manually –
LilyPond will never select such shapes automatically.
\relative c'' {
c8( e b-> f d' a e-> g)
\shape #'((0 . -1) (5.5 . -0.5) (-5.5 . -10.5) (0 . -5.5))
PhrasingSlur
c8\( e b-> f d' a e-> g\)
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 773

h m h h m
º h hh h h h hhhhh h
hm m
Specifying control points explicitly
The coordinates of the Bézier control points are specified in units of staff spaces. The X coor-
dinate is relative to the reference point of the note to which the tie or slur is attached, and the
Y coordinate is relative to the staff center line. The coordinates are specified as a list of four
pairs of decimal numbers (reals). One approach is to estimate the coordinates of the two end
points, and then guess the two intermediate points. The optimum values are then found by trial
and error. Be aware that these values may need to be manually adjusted if any further changes
are made to the music or the layout.
One situation where specifying the control points explicitly is preferable to specifying dis-
placements is when they need to be specified relative to a single note. Here is an example of
this. It shows one way of indicating a slur extending into alternative sections of a volta repeat.
\relative {
c''1
\repeat volta 3 { c4 d( e f }
\alternative {
\volta 1 { g2) d }
\volta 2 {
g2
% create a slur and move it to a new position
% the <> is just an empty chord to carry the slur termination
-\tweak control-points
#'((-2 . 3.8) (-1 . 3.9) (0 . 4) (1 . 3.4)) ( <> )
f,
}
\volta 3 {
e'2
% create a slur and move it to a new position
-\tweak control-points
#'((-2 . 3) (-1 . 3.1) (0 . 3.2) (1 . 2.4)) ( <> )
f,
}
}
}

. . .

º . PP h h h h N N PP N PP N
N N
Known issues and warnings
It is not possible to modify shapes of ties or slurs by changing the control-points property if
there are multiple ties or slurs at the same musical moment – the \tweak command will also not
work in this case. However, the tie-configuration property of TieColumn can be overridden
to set start line and direction as required.
Chapter 36: Useful concepts and properties 774

See also
Internals Reference: Section “TieColumn” in Internals Reference.
Appendices
 777

Appendix A Markup commands

A.1 Text markup commands

The following commands can all be used inside \markup { }.

A.1.1 Font markup

\abs-fontsize size (number) arg (markup)
Use size as the absolute font size (in points) to display arg.
This function adjusts the baseline-skip and word-space properties accordingly.
\markup {
default text font size
\hspace #2
\abs-fontsize #16 { text font size 16 }
\hspace #2
\abs-fontsize #12 { text font size 12 }
}

default text font size text font size 16 text font size 12
Used properties:
• baseline-skip (3)
• word-space (0.6)
\bold arg (markup)
Print arg with a bold face.
\markup {
default
\hspace #2
\bold bold
}

default bold
The code \markup \bold ... is a shorthand for \markup \override
#'(font-series . bold) ... – using the more verbose form, it is possible to
obtain nuances such as semi-bold, if the text font has such variants. Refer to the
documentation for the font-series properties (Section “User backend properties”
in Internals Reference).
\box arg (markup)
Draw a box around arg.
This function looks at the thickness, box-padding, and font-size properties to
determine the line thickness and padding around the markup.
\markup {
\override #'(box-padding . 0.5)
\box \line { V. S. }
}

V. S.
Appendix A: Markup commands 778

Note that the box does not horizontally displace its argument. Use markup com-
mands like \left-align or \table to make LilyPond realign it.
\markup {
\override #'(box-padding . 1.5)
\column {
"text"
\box "text"
\left-align \box "text"
}
}
text
text

text

Used properties:
• box-padding (0.2)
• font-size (0)
• thickness (1)
\caps arg (markup)
Print arg in (fake) small caps.
This function is a copy of the \smallCaps command.
\markup {
default
\hspace #2
\caps {
Text in small caps
}
}
default TEXT IN SMALL CAPS
Use \fontCaps for real small caps (if the font provides it).
\dynamic arg (markup)
Print arg using the (music) font for dynamics.
This font only contains letters f, m, n, p, r, s, and z. When producing phrases
like ‘più f’, the normal words (like ‘più’) should be done in a different font. The
recommended font for this is bold and italic.
\markup {
\dynamic {
sfzp
}
}

sfzp
\figured-bass arg (markup)
Set arg as small numbers for figured bass.
Specially slashed digits can be achieved with a trailing backslash (for numbers 6, 7,
and 9) or a trailing plus (for numbers 2, 4, and 5).1
1
Internally, this works by activating the ‘dlig’ OpenType feature of the Emmentaler font.
Appendix A: Markup commands 779

The use of a backslash is in analogy to \figuremode (see Section 15.3.2 [Entering

figured bass], page 510). Note that to get a backslash character in markup it must
be escaped by doubling it. Additionally, it must be put into double quotes.
\markup {
\figured-bass {
2 3 4+ 7 "9\\"
}
}
#$

\finger arg (markup)

Set arg as small numbers for fingering instructions.
\markup {
\finger {
1 2 3 4 5
}
}
 

\fontCaps arg (markup)

Print arg in small caps.
This command sets the font-variant property to small-caps.
Unlike \smallCaps, which merely uses capital letters at a smaller font size, this uses
the actual variant of the font for small caps. (As a consequence, if you configure a
custom text font, this command has no effect if that font does not have a small caps
variant.)
\markup \fontCaps "Small caps"

SMALL CAPS
\fontsize increment (number) arg (markup)
Increase current font size by increment to print arg.
This function adjusts the baseline-skip and word-space properties accordingly.
\markup {
default
\hspace #2
\fontsize #-1.5 smaller
}

default smaller

Used properties:
• baseline-skip (2)
• word-space (1)
• font-size (0)
\huge arg (markup)
Set font size to value 2 to print arg.
\markup {
default
\hspace #2
Appendix A: Markup commands 780

\huge huge
}

default huge
\italic arg (markup)
Print arg in italics.
This command sets the font-shape property to italic.
\markup {
default
\hspace #2
\italic italic
}

default italic
\large arg (markup)
Set font size to value 1 to print arg.
\markup {
default
\hspace #2
\large large
}

default large
\larger arg (markup)
Increase current font size by 1 to print arg.
This function adjusts the baseline-skip and word-space properties accordingly.
\markup {
default
\hspace #2
\larger larger
}

default larger
\magnify sz (number) arg (markup)
Magnify current font by factor sz to print arg.
\markup {
default
\hspace #2
\magnify #1.5 {
50% larger
}
}

default 50% larger

Note that magnification only works if a font name is explicitly selected. Use
\fontsize otherwise.
Appendix A: Markup commands 781

\normal-size-sub arg (markup)

Set arg in subscript with a normal font size.
\markup {
default
\normal-size-sub {
subscript in standard size
}
}

default subscript in standard size

Used properties:
• font-size (0)
\normal-size-super arg (markup)
Set arg in superscript with a normal font size.
\markup {
default
\normal-size-super {
superscript in standard size
}
}

default superscript in standard size

Used properties:
• font-size (0)
\normal-text arg (markup)
Print arg with default text font.
This resets all font-related properties (except the size), no matter what font was
used earlier.
\markup {
\huge \bold \sans \fontCaps {
huge bold sans caps
\hspace #2
\normal-text {
huge normal
}
\hspace #2
as before
}
}

HUGE BOLD SANS CAPS huge normal AS BEFORE

\normal-weight arg (markup)

Switch to normal weight (in contrast to bold) to print arg.
This command sets the font-series property to normal.
\markup {
\bold {
some bold text
Appendix A: Markup commands 782

\hspace #2
\normal-weight {
normal font series
}
\hspace #2
bold again
}
}

some bold text normal font series bold again

\normalsize arg (markup)
Set font size to default (i.e., to value 0) to print arg.
\markup {
\teeny {
this is very small
\hspace #2
\normalsize {
normal size
}
\hspace #2
teeny again
}
}

this is very small normal size teeny again

\number arg (markup)

Print arg using the (music) font for numbers.
This font also contains symbols for figured bass, some punctuation, spaces of various
widths, some letters and text variants of accidentals. Use \dynamic to access the
(very small number of) letters. For accidentals you might use \number in combina-
tion with Unicode characters to access the text representation forms of accidental
glyphs, as the following table shows.

Unicode value Unicode character

U+266D 
U+266E 
U+266F 
U+1D12A

U+1D12B 

Examples:
\number ♭ → 
\number { \char ##x266F } → 
Appendix A: Markup commands 783

To get accidentals protected against overrides of font-name it is preferable

to use \text-doubleflat, \text-flat, \text-natural, \text-sharp,
\text-doublesharp or the general \text-accidental for the text variants of
accidentals.
The appearance of digits in the Emmentaler font can be controlled with four Open-
Type features: ‘tnum’, ‘cv47’, ‘ss01’, and ‘kern’, which can be arbitrarily combined.
tnum If off (which is the default), glyphs ‘zero’ to ‘nine’ have no left and
right side bearings. If on, the glyphs all have the same advance
width by making the bearings non-zero.
cv47 If on, glyphs ‘four’ and ‘seven’ have shorter vertical strokes. De-
fault is off.
ss01 If on, glyphs ‘zero’ to ‘nine’ have a fatter design, making them
more readable at small sizes. Default is off.
kern If on (which is the default), provide pairwise kerning between
(most) glyphs.
\markuplist
\number
\fontsize #4.5
\override #'((padding . 2)
(baseline-skip . 4)
(box-padding . 0)
(thickness . 0.1))
\table #'(-1 -1 -1 -1) {
0123456789 \box 147 \concat { \box 1 \box 4 \box 7 }
\normal-text \normalsize "(time signatures)"
\override #'(font-features .("cv47")) {
0123456789 \box 147 \concat { \box 1 \box 4 \box 7 } }
\normal-text \normalsize "(alternatives)"
\override #'(font-features .("tnum" "cv47" "-kern")) {
0123456789 \box 147 \concat { \box 1 \box 4 \box 7 } }
\normal-text \normalsize "(fixed-width)"
\override #'(font-features . ("tnum" "cv47" "ss01")) {
0123456789 \box 147 \concat { \box 1 \box 4 \box 7 } }
\normal-text \normalsize "(figured bass)"
\override #'(font-features . ("cv47" "ss01")) {
0123456789 \box 147 \concat { \box 1 \box 4 \box 7 } }
\normal-text \normalsize "(fingering)"

0123456789 147 147

}

0123456789 147
(time signatures)

147
5/43-+21*. /-1
(alternatives)

/-1
   
(fixed-width)


!    
(figured bass)

 (fingering)
Appendix A: Markup commands 784

See also the markup commands \figured-bass and \finger, which set the font
features accordingly.
\overtie arg (markup)
Overtie arg.
\markup \line {
\overtie "overtied"
\override #'((offset . 5) (thickness . 1))
\overtie "overtied"
\override #'((offset . 1) (thickness . 5))
\overtie "overtied"
}

overtied overtied overtied

Used properties:
• shorten-pair ((0 . 0))
• height-limit (0.7)
• direction (1)
• offset (2)
• thickness (1)
\replace replacements (list) arg (markup)
Use replacements to replace strings in arg.
Each (key . value) pair of the replacements alist specifies what should be replaced;
key gets replaced by value. Note the quasiquoting syntax with a backquote in the
second example.
\markup \replace #'(("2nd" . "Second"))
"2nd time"
\markup \replace
#`(("2nd" . ,#{ \markup \concat { 2 \super nd } #}))
\center-column {
\line { Play only }
\line { the 2nd time }
}

Second time

Play only
the 2nd time
Used properties:
• replacement-alist
\sans arg (markup)
Print arg with a sans-serif font.
This command sets the font-family property to sans.
\markup {
default
\hspace #2
\sans {
sans serif
Appendix A: Markup commands 785

}
}

default sans serif

\serif arg (markup)
Print arg with a serif font.
This command sets the font-family property to serif.
\markup {
\sans \bold {
sans serif, bold
\hspace #2
\serif {
text in serif font
}
\hspace #2
return to sans
}
}

sans serif, bold text in serif font return to sans

\simple str (string)
Print string str.
\markup \simple "x" is equivalent to \markup "x". This command was previously
used internally, but no longer is, and is being kept for backward compatibility only.
\small arg (markup)
Set font size to value -1 to print arg.
\markup {
default
\hspace #2
\small small
}

default small

\smallCaps arg (markup)

Print arg in (fake) small caps.
Unlike \fontCaps, which uses the actual small caps variant of the current font, this
fakes small caps by using capital letters at a smaller font size. It can thus be used
for fonts that don’t have a small caps variant.
\markup {
default
\hspace #2
\smallCaps {
Text in small caps
}
}

default TEXT IN SMALL CAPS

\smaller arg (markup)
Decrease current font size by 1 to print arg.
Appendix A: Markup commands 786

This function adjusts the baseline-skip and word-space properties accordingly.

\markup {
\fontsize #3.5 {
large text
\hspace #2
\smaller { smaller text }
\hspace #2
large text
}
}

large text smaller text large text

\sub arg (markup)
Set arg in subscript.
\markup { \concat { H \sub 2 O } }

H2O
Ssee also \super.
Used properties:
• font-size (0)
\super arg (markup)
Set arg in superscript.
\markup { E = \concat { mc \super 2 } }

E = mc2
See also \sub.
Used properties:
• font-size (0)
\teeny arg (markup)
Set font size to value -3 to print arg.
\markup {
default
\hspace #2
\teeny teeny
}

default teeny

\tie arg (markup)

Add a horizontal bow at the bottom or top of arg.
This function uses make-tie-stencil to create the bow; it looks at the thickness
and offset properties to determine the line thickness and vertical offset, respectively.
The added bow fits the extent of arg; use the shorten-pair property to modify this.
The direction property may be set explicitly using override or direction modifiers,
or implicitly by using voiceOne, etc.
\markup {
\override #'(direction . 1)
\tie "above"
Appendix A: Markup commands 787

\override #'(direction . -1)

\tie "below"
}

above below

See also \undertie and \overtie, which are shorthands for this function.
Used properties:
• shorten-pair ((0 . 0))
• height-limit (0.7)
• direction (1)
• offset (2)
• thickness (1)
\tiny arg (markup)
Set font size to value -2 to print arg.
\markup {
default
\hspace #2
\tiny tiny
}

default tiny

\typewriter arg (markup)

Print arg in typewriter.
This command sets the font-family property to typewriter, also switching off the
‘liga’ OpenType feature to disable ligatures like ‘ff’ or ‘fi’.
\markup {
"default fi ff"
\hspace #2
\typewriter "typewriter fi ff"
}

default fi ff typewriter fi ff
\underline arg (markup)
Underline arg.
This function looks at the property thickness to determine the line thickness, at
offset to determine the line’s vertical offset from arg, and at underline-skip to
determine the distance of additional lines from the others.
The underline-shift property is used to make subsequent calls work correctly.
Overriding it makes little sense since it would end up adding the provided value to
the one of offset.
\markup \justify-line {
\underline "underlined"
\override #'(offset . 5)
\override #'(thickness . 1)
\underline "underlined"
\override #'(offset . 1)
\override #'(thickness . 5)
Appendix A: Markup commands 788

\underline "underlined"
\override #'(offset . 5)
\override #'(underline-skip . 4)
\underline \underline \underline "underlined thrice"
}

underlined underlined underlined underlined thrice

Used properties:
• underline-skip (2)
• underline-shift (0)
• offset (2)
• thickness (1)
\undertie arg (markup)
Print a tie under arg.
\markup \line {
\undertie "undertied"
\override #'((offset . 5) (thickness . 1))
\undertie "undertied"
\override #'((offset . 1) (thickness . 5))
\undertie "undertied"
}

undertied undertied undertied

Used properties:
• shorten-pair ((0 . 0))
• height-limit (0.7)
• direction (1)
• offset (2)
• thickness (1)
\upright arg (markup)
Print arg upright.
This command is the opposite of \italic; it sets the font-shape property to
upright.
\markup {
\italic {
italic text
\hspace #2
\upright {
upright text
}
\hspace #2
italic again
}
}

italic text upright text italic again

Appendix A: Markup commands 789

\volta-number arg (markup)

Set arg in a font appropriate for volta numbers.
\markup \volta-number "4."

.
\with-string-transformer transformer (procedure) arg (markup)
Apply string transformer function transformer to arg.
Whenever a string is interpreted inside arg, function transformer is called first, and
its result is then interpreted. The arguments passed to transformer are the output
definition, the property alist chain, and the markup arg. See Section “New markup
command definition” in Extending about the two first arguments.
\markup \with-string-transformer
#(lambda (layout props str)
(string-upcase str))
\concat { "abc" \larger "def" }

ABCDEF
A.1.2 Markup for text alignment
\abs-hspace amount (number)
Create an invisible object taking up absolute horizontal space of amount points.
\markup {
one
\abs-hspace #20
two
\abs-hspace #40
three
}

one two three

See also \hspace.
\abs-vspace amount (number)
Create an invisible object taking up absolute vertical space of amount points.
\markup {
\center-column {
one
\abs-vspace #20
two
\abs-vspace #40
three
}
}
one

two

three
Appendix A: Markup commands 790

See also \vspace.

\align-on-other axis (non-negative, exact integer) other-dir (boolean-or-number) other
(markup) self-dir (boolean-or-number) self (markup)
Align markup self on markup other along axis.
This function uses self-dir and other-dir for mutual alignment of self and other,
respectively, translating self as requested relative to its surroundings. other is not
printed.
If self-dir or other-dir is #f, use the reference point of self or other, respectively.
\markup \column {
12
\align-on-other #X #RIGHT 12
#LEFT 12345
\align-on-other #X #RIGHT 123
#LEFT \fermata
123
\align-on-other #X #RIGHT 123
##f \fermata
}
12

z
12345

z
123

\center-align arg (markup)

Align arg to its X center.
\markup {
\column {
one
\center-align two
three
}
}
one
two
three
\center-column args (markup list)
Put args into a centered column.
See also \column.
\markup {
\center-column {
one
two
three
}
}
one
two
three
Appendix A: Markup commands 791

Used properties:
• baseline-skip
\column args (markup list)
Stack the markups in args vertically.
The property baseline-skip determines the space between markups in args (to be
more precise, the space between the baselines of the markups).
\markup {
\column {
one
two
three
}
}

one
two
three
The baseline of the output of \column is the baseline of its first line.
Used properties:
• baseline-skip
\combine arg1 (markup) arg2 (markup)
Print arg1, then print arg2 on top of it.
Note: \combine cannot take a list of markups enclosed in curly braces as an argu-
ment; for this purpose use \overlay instead.
\markup {
\fontsize #5
\override #'(thickness . 2)
\combine
\draw-line #'(0 . 4)
\arrow-head #Y #DOWN ##f
}

5
\concat args (markup list)
Concatenate args in a horizontal line, without spaces in between.
Strings are concatenated on the input level, allowing ligatures. For example,
\concat { "f" "i" } is equivalent to "fi".
\markup {
\concat {
one two three
}
}

onetwothree
\dir-column args (markup list)
Make a column of args.
Appendix A: Markup commands 792

Depending on the setting of the direction layout property, the arguments are
stacked upwards or downwards.
\markup {
\override #`(direction . ,UP)
\dir-column {
going up
}
\hspace #1
\dir-column {
going down
}
\hspace #1
\override #'(direction . 1)
\dir-column {
going up
}
}
up up
going going going
down
The baseline of the output of \dir-column is the baseline of its first line.
Used properties:
• baseline-skip
• direction
\fill-line args (markup list)
Put markups args into a horizontal line.
The markups are spaced or flushed to fill the entire line. If there are no arguments,
return an empty stencil.
The width of the horizontal line can be modified by overriding the line-width
property.
\markup {
\column {
\fill-line {
Words evenly spaced across the page
}
\null
\fill-line {
\line { Text markups }
\line {
\italic { evenly spaced }
}
\line { across the page }
}
\null
\override #'(line-width . 50)
\fill-line {
Width explicitly specified
}
}
Appendix A: Markup commands 793

Words evenly spaced across the page

Text markups evenly spaced across the page

Width explicitly specified

Used properties:
• line-width (#f)
• word-space (0.6)
• text-direction (1)
\fill-with-pattern space (number) dir (direction) pattern (markup) left (markup) right
(markup)
Put left and right at the start and end of a line, respectively, and fill the space
inbetween with repeated pattern markups.
Patterns are spaced apart by space and aligned to direction dir. The width of the
line is given by the line-width property.
\markup \column {
"right-aligned:"
\fill-with-pattern #1 #RIGHT . first right
\fill-with-pattern #1 #RIGHT . second right
\null
"center-aligned:"
\fill-with-pattern #1.5 #CENTER - left right
\null
"left-aligned:"
\override #'(line-width . 50) {
\fill-with-pattern #2 #LEFT : left first
\fill-with-pattern #2 #LEFT : left second
}
}

right-aligned:
first . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . right
second . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . right

center-aligned:
left - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - right

left-aligned:
left : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : first
left : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : second
Used properties:
• line-width
• word-space
\general-align axis (integer) dir (number) arg (markup)
Align arg in axis direction to the dir side.
\markup {
Appendix A: Markup commands 794

\column {
one
\general-align #X #LEFT two
three
\null
one
\general-align #X #CENTER two
three
\null
\line {
one
\general-align #Y #UP two
three
}
\null
\line {
one
\general-align #Y #3.2 two
three
}
}
}
one
two
three

one
two
three

one three
two

one three
two
\halign dir (number) arg (markup)
Print arg with horizontal alignment set to dir.
If dir is -1, arg is left-aligned, while +1 makes it right-aligned. Values inbetween
interpolate the alignment accordingly.
\markup {
\column {
one
\halign #LEFT two
three
\null
one
\halign #CENTER two
three
\null
one
Appendix A: Markup commands 795

\halign #RIGHT two

three
\null
one
\halign #-5 two
three
}
}

one
two
three

one
two
three

one
two
three

one
two
three

\hcenter-in length (number) arg (markup)

Center arg horizontally within a box of extending length/2 to the left and right.
\new StaffGroup <<
\new Staff {
\set Staff.instrumentName = \markup {
\hcenter-in #12 Oboe
}
c''1
}
\new Staff {
\set Staff.instrumentName = \markup {
\hcenter-in #12 Bassoon
}
\clef tenor
c'1
}
>>

7
Oboe  º .

º .
Bassoon
6
Appendix A: Markup commands 796

\hspace amount (number)

Create an invisible object taking up amount horizontal space.
\markup {
one
\hspace #2
two
\hspace #8
three
}

one two three

amount can be also a negative value, which can be best visualized as if the current
drawing point gets moved to the left.
\markup \concat {
\hspace #4
\column {
\box \concat { AAAA \hspace #4 }
\box \concat { AAAA \hspace #-4 }
\box \concat { \hspace #4 AAAA }
\box \concat { \hspace #-4 AAAA }
}
}

AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
See also \abs-hspace.
\justify args (markup list)
Print args as lines aligned both at the left and the right.
Like \wordwrap, but with lines stretched to justify the margins. Use \override
#'(line-width . X) to set the line width; X is the number of staff spaces.
\markup {
\justify {
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore
magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud
exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea
commodo consequat.
}
}

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do

eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut
enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris
nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.
The baseline of the output of \justify is the baseline of its first line.
Used properties:
• text-direction (1)
Appendix A: Markup commands 797

• word-space
• line-width (#f)
• baseline-skip
\justify-field symbol (symbol)
Justify the data that has been assigned to symbol.
\header {
title = "My title"
myText = "Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur
adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim
veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris
nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat."
}

\paper {
bookTitleMarkup = \markup {
\column {
\fill-line { \fromproperty #'header:title }
\null
\justify-field #'header:myText
}
}
}

\markup {
\null
}

My title

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do

eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut
enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris
nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.

\justify-line args (markup list)

Put markups args into a horizontal line.
The markups are spread to fill the entire line and separated by equal space. If there
are no arguments, return an empty stencil.
The width of the horizontal line can be modified by overriding the line-width
property.
\markup {
\justify-line {
Constant space between neighboring words
}
}

Constant space between neighboring words

Appendix A: Markup commands 798

Used properties:
• line-width (#f)
• word-space (0.6)
• text-direction (1)
\justify-string arg (string)
Print string arg as lines aligned both at the left and the right.
Paragraphs are indicated by double newlines. Use \override #'(line-width . X)
to set the line width; X is the number of staff spaces.
\markup {
\override #'(line-width . 40)
\justify-string "Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur
adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut
labore et dolore magna aliqua.

Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation

ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo
consequat.

Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt

in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est
laborum"
}

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur

adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor
incididunt ut labore et dolore magna
aliqua.
Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud
exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut
aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.
Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non
proident, sunt in culpa qui officia
deserunt mollit anim id est laborum
The baseline of the output of \justify-string is the baseline of its first line.
Used properties:
• text-direction (1)
• word-space
• line-width
• baseline-skip
\left-align arg (markup)
Align arg on its left edge.
\markup {
\column {
one
\left-align two
Appendix A: Markup commands 799

three
}
}
one
two
three
\left-column args (markup list)
Put args into a left-aligned column.
\markup {
\left-column {
one
two
three
}
}
one
two
three
Used properties:
• baseline-skip
\line args (markup list)
Put args into a horizontal line.
The property word-space determines the space between markups in args. For right-
to-left scripts like Hebrew, text-direction should be set to -1.
\markup
\override #'(word-space . 3)
\column {
\line { "A B" "C D" "E F" }
\override #'(text-direction . -1)
\line { "A B" "C D" "E F" }
}

AB CD EF
EF CD AB
Used properties:
• text-direction (1)
• word-space
\lower amount (number) arg (markup)
Lower arg by the distance amount.
A negative amount indicates raising; see also \raise.
The argument to \lower is the vertical displacement amount, measured in (global)
staff spaces, which is independent of the markup’s current font size. If you need
vertical movement that takes the font size into account, use \translate-scaled
instead.
This function is normally used to move one element inside of a markup relative
to the other elements. When using it on the whole markup, bear in mind that
Appendix A: Markup commands 800

spacing mechanisms that place the markup itself on the page could cancel this shift.
Consider using grob properties such as padding, Y-offset, or extra-offset, or
spacing variables such as markup-system-spacing.
\markup {
one
\lower #3 two
three
}

one three
two
\overlay args (markup list)
Take a list of markups args and combine them.
\markup {
\fontsize #5
\override #'(thickness . 2)
\overlay {
\draw-line #'(0 . 4)
\arrow-head #Y #DOWN ##f
\translate #'(0 . 4) \arrow-head #Y #UP ##f
}
}
4
5
\pad-around amount (number) arg (markup)
Add padding amount all around arg.
Identical to function \pad-markup.
\markup {
\box {
default
}
\hspace #2
\box {
\pad-around #0.5 {
padded
}
}
}

default padded

\pad-markup amount (number) arg (markup)

Add padding amount all around arg.
Identical to function \pad-around.
\markup {
\box {
default
}
\hspace #2
Appendix A: Markup commands 801

\box {
\pad-markup #1 {
padded
}
}
}

default padded

\pad-to-box x-ext (pair of numbers) y-ext (pair of numbers) arg (markup)

Make arg take at least x-ext, y-ext space.
\markup {
\box {
default
}
\hspace #4
\box {
\pad-to-box #'(0 . 10) #'(0 . 3) {
padded
}
}
}

default padded
\pad-x amount (number) arg (markup)
Add padding amount around arg in the X direction.
\markup {
\box {
default
}
\hspace #4
\box {
\pad-x #2 {
padded
}
}
}

default padded
\put-adjacent axis (integer) dir (direction) arg1 (markup) arg2 (markup)
Put arg2 next to arg1 along axis to the dir side, without moving arg1.
\markup \column {
text
\put-adjacent #X #LEFT text *
text
}

text
*text
text
Appendix A: Markup commands 802

\raise amount (number) arg (markup)

Raise arg by the distance amount.
A negative amount indicates lowering, see also \lower.
The argument to \raise is the vertical displacement amount, measured in (global)
staff spaces, which is independent of the markup’s current font size. If you need
vertical movement that takes the font size into account, use \translate-scaled
instead.
This function is normally used to move one element inside of a markup relative
to the other elements. When using it on the whole markup, bear in mind that
spacing mechanisms that place the markup itself on the page could cancel this shift.
Consider using grob properties such as padding, Y-offset, or extra-offset, or
spacing variables such as markup-system-spacing.
\markup { C \small \bold \raise #1.0 9/7+ }

C 9/7+
\right-align arg (markup)
Align arg on its right edge.
\markup {
\column {
one
\right-align two
three
}
}

one
two
three
\right-column args (markup list)
Put args into a right-aligned column.
\markup {
\right-column {
one
two
three
}
}

one
two
three
Used properties:
• baseline-skip
\rotate ang (number) arg (markup)
Rotate arg by ang degrees around its center.
\markup {
default
\hspace #2
Appendix A: Markup commands 803

\rotate #45
\line {
rotated 45°
}
}

°
45
default

d
te
ta
ro

\translate offset (pair of numbers) arg (markup)

Translate arg relative to its surroundings.
offset is a pair of numbers representing the displacement in the X and Y axes. See
also \translate-scaled.
This function is normally used to move one element inside of a markup relative
to the other elements. When using it on the whole markup, bear in mind that
spacing mechanisms that place the markup itself on the page could cancel this shift.
Consider using grob properties such as padding, X-offset, Y-offset or extra-
offset, or spacing variables such as markup-system-spacing.
\markup {
*
\translate #'(2 . 3)
\line { translated two spaces right, three up }
}

translated two spaces right, three up

*
\translate-scaled offset (pair of numbers) arg (markup)
Translate arg by offset, scaling the offset by the font size.
This function is normally used to move one element inside of a markup relative
to the other elements. When using it on the whole markup, bear in mind that
spacing mechanisms that place the markup itself on the page could cancel this shift.
Consider using grob properties such as padding, X-offset, Y-offset or extra-
offset, or spacing variables such as markup-system-spacing.
See also \translate.
\markup {
\fontsize #5 {
* \translate #'(2 . 3) translate
\hspace #2
* \translate-scaled #'(2 . 3) translate-scaled
}
}

translate-scaled
translate
* *
Used properties:
• font-size (0)
Appendix A: Markup commands 804

\vcenter arg (markup)

Align arg to its Y center.
\markup {
one
\vcenter two
three
}

one two three

\vspace amount (number)

Create an invisible object taking up vertical space of amount multiplied by 3.
\markup {
\center-column {
one
\vspace #1
two
\vspace #3
three
}
}
one

two

three
amount can be also a negative value, which can be best visualized as if the current
drawing point gets moved up.
\markup {
\vspace #1
\box \column { AAAA \vspace #0.4 }
\box \column { AAAA \vspace #-0.4 }
\box \column { \vspace #0.4 AAAA }
\box \column { \vspace #-0.4 AAAA }
}

AAAA
AAAA AAAA
AAAA
See also \abs-vspace.
\wordwrap args (markup list)
Print args as left-aligned lines.
This function provides simple word-wrap. Use \override #'(line-width . X) to
set the line width; X is the number of staff spaces.
\markup {
\wordwrap {
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore
Appendix A: Markup commands 805

magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud

exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea
commodo consequat.
}
}

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do

eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut
enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco
laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.
The baseline of the output of \wordwrap is the baseline of its first line.
Used properties:
• text-direction (1)
• word-space
• line-width (#f)
• baseline-skip
\wordwrap-field symbol (symbol)
Word-wrap the data that has been assigned to symbol.
\header {
title = "My title"
myText = "Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur
adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut
labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim
veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi
ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat."
}

\paper {
bookTitleMarkup = \markup {
\column {
\fill-line { \fromproperty #'header:title }
\null
\wordwrap-field #'header:myText
}
}
}

\markup {
\null
}

My title

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do

eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut
enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco
laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.
Appendix A: Markup commands 806

\wordwrap-string arg (string)

Print string arg as left-aligned lines.
Paragraphs are indicated by double newlines. Use \override #'(line-width . X)
to set the line width; X is the number of staff spaces.
\markup {
\override #'(line-width . 40)
\wordwrap-string "Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor
incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.

Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation

ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo
consequat.

Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident,

sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id
est laborum"
}

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do
eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et
dolore magna aliqua.
Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis
nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris
nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo
consequat.
Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non
proident, sunt in culpa qui officia
deserunt mollit anim id est laborum
The baseline of the output of \wordwrap-string is the baseline of its first line.
Used properties:
• text-direction (1)
• word-space
• line-width
• baseline-skip

A.1.3 Graphical markup

\arrow-head axis (integer) dir (direction) filled (boolean)
Print an arrow head along axis in direction dir.
Fill the head if filled is set to #t.
\markup {
\fontsize #5 {
\general-align #Y #DOWN {
\arrow-head #Y #UP ##t
\arrow-head #Y #DOWN ##f
Appendix A: Markup commands 807

\hspace #2
\arrow-head #X #RIGHT ##f
\arrow-head #X #LEFT ##f
}

0 5 23
}
}

\beam width (number) slope (number) thickness (number)

Draw a beam with given width, slope, and thickness.
\markup {
\beam #5 #1 #2
}

\bracket arg (markup)

Draw vertical brackets around arg.
\markup {
\bracket {
\note {2.} #UP
}
}

NP
\circle arg (markup)
Draw a circle around arg.
Use properties thickness, circle-padding, and font-size to set the line thickness
and padding around the markup.
\markup {
\circle {
Hi
}
}

Hi

Used properties:
• circle-padding (0.2)
• font-size (0)
• thickness (1)
\draw-circle radius (number) thickness (number) filled (boolean)
Draw a circle with given radius and thickness.
Fill the circle if filled is set to #t.
\markup {
\draw-circle #2 #0.5 ##f
\hspace #2
Appendix A: Markup commands 808

\draw-circle #2 #0 ##t
}

\draw-dashed-line dest (pair of numbers)

Draw a dashed line along vector dest.
Properties on and off give the length of a dash and the space between two dashes,
respectively; phase shortens the first dash by the given amount.
If the full-length property is set to #t (which is the default), the value of property
off (and on under some boundary conditions) gets adjusted so that there is neither
whitespace at the end of the line nor the last dash truncated.
\markup {
\override #'((on . 0.3) (off . 0.5))
\draw-dashed-line #'(6 . 2)

\draw-dashed-line #'(6 . 2)

\override #'(full-length . #f)

\draw-dashed-line #'(6 . 2)

\override #'(phase . 0.5)

\draw-dashed-line #'(6 . 2)

\override #'((full-length . #f) (phase . 0.5))

\draw-dashed-line #'(6 . 2)
}

Used properties:
• full-length (#t)
• phase (0)
• off (1)
• on (1)
• thickness (1)
\draw-dotted-line dest (pair of numbers)
Draw a dotted line along vector dest.
Property off gives the space between two dots; its value gets adjusted so that the
first and last dot exactly start and end the line, respectively. phase shifts all dots
along the vector by the given amount.
\markup {
\draw-dotted-line #'(5.1 . 2.3)
\override #'((thickness . 2) (off . 0.2))
\draw-dotted-line #'(5.1 . 2.3)
}

Used properties:
• phase (0)
Appendix A: Markup commands 809

• off (1)
• thickness (1)
\draw-hline
Draw a horizontal line.
The property span-factor sets the length of the line as a multiple of the line-width
property.
\markup {
\column {
\draw-hline
\override #'(span-factor . 1/3)
\draw-hline
}
}

Used properties:
• span-factor (1)
• line-width
• thickness (1)
\draw-line dest (pair of numbers)
Draw a line along vector dest.
\markup {
\draw-line #'(4 . 4)
\override #'(thickness . 5)
\draw-line #'(-3 . 0)
}

Used properties:
• thickness (1)
\draw-squiggle-line sq-length (number) dest (pair of numbers) eq-end? (boolean)
Draw a squiggled line along vector dest.
sq-length is the length of the first bow; this value gets always adjusted so that an
integer number of squiggles is printed. If eq-end? is set to #t, the squiggled line
ends with a bow in the same direction as the starting one.
The appearance of the squiggled line may be customized by overriding the
thickness, angularity, height, and orientation properties.
\markup
\column {
\draw-squiggle-line #0.5 #'(6 . 0) ##t
\override #'(orientation . -1)
\draw-squiggle-line #0.5 #'(6 . 0) ##t
\draw-squiggle-line #0.5 #'(6 . 0) ##f
\override #'(height . 1)
\draw-squiggle-line #0.5 #'(6 . 0) ##t
\override #'(thickness . 5)
Appendix A: Markup commands 810

\draw-squiggle-line #0.5 #'(6 . -2) ##t

\override #'(angularity . 2)
\draw-squiggle-line #0.5 #'(6 . 2) ##t
}

Used properties:
• orientation (1)
• height (0.5)
• angularity (0)
• thickness (0.5)
\ellipse arg (markup)
Draw an ellipse around arg.
Use properties thickness, x-padding, y-padding, and font-size to set the line
thickness and padding around the markup.
This is the same as function \oval but with different padding defaults.
\markup {
\ellipse {
Hi
}
}

Hi
Used properties:
• y-padding (0.2)
• x-padding (0.2)
• font-size (0)
• thickness (1)
\epsfile axis (number) size (number) file-name (string)
Inline an image file-name, scaled along axis to size.
See \image for details on this command; calling
\markup \epsfile axis size file-name
is the same as
\markup
\override #'(background-color . #f)
\image axis size file-name
\filled-box xext (pair of numbers) yext (pair of numbers) blot (number)
Draw a box of dimensions xext and yext, with rounded corners given by blot.
For example,
\filled-box #'(-.3 . 1.8) #'(-.3 . 1.8) #0
Appendix A: Markup commands 811

creates a box extending horizontally from -0.3 to 1.8 and vertically from -0.3 up to
1.8, with corners formed from a circle of diameter 0 (i.e., sharp corners).
\markup {
\filled-box #'(0 . 4) #'(0 . 4) #0
\filled-box #'(0 . 2) #'(-4 . 2) #0.4
\combine
\filled-box #'(1 . 8) #'(0 . 7) #0.2
\with-color #white
\filled-box #'(3.6 . 5.6) #'(3.5 . 5.5) #0.7
}

\hbracket arg (markup)

Draw horizontal brackets around arg.
\markup {
\hbracket {
\line {
one two three
}
}
}

one two three

\image axis (number) size (number) file-name (string)
Inline an image file-name, scaled along axis to size.
The image format is determined based on the extension of file-name, which should
be .png for a PNG image, or .eps for an EPS image (.PNG and .EPS are allowed
as well).
EPS files are only supported in the PostScript backend – for all output formats –,
and in the Cairo backend – when creating PostScript or EPS output.
If the image has transparency, it will appear over a colored background with the
color specified by the background-color property, which defaults to "white".
To disable the colored background, set background-color to #f. For EPS images,
this always works (where EPS images work in the first place). On the other hand, for
PNG images, it works in the Cairo backend (which can output all supported formats),
as well as in the SVG backend, but not in the PostScript backend, which is the
default. See Section “Advanced command-line options for LilyPond” in Application
Usage for how to activate the Cairo backend.
Use \withRelativeDir as a prefix to file-name if the file should be found relative
to the input file.
Used properties:
• background-color ("white")
\oval arg (markup)
Draw an oval around arg.
Use properties thickness, x-padding, y-padding, and font-size to set the line
thickness and padding around the markup.
Appendix A: Markup commands 812

This is the same as function \ellipse but with different padding defaults.
\markup {
\oval {
Hi
}
}

Hi

Used properties:
• y-padding (0.75)
• x-padding (0.75)
• font-size (0)
• thickness (1)
\parenthesize arg (markup)
Draw parentheses around arg.
This is useful for parenthesizing a column containing several lines of text.
\markup {
\parenthesize
\column {
foo
bar
}
\override #'(angularity . 2)
\parenthesize
\column {
bah
baz
}
}

foo bah
bar baz
Used properties:
• width (0.25)
• line-thickness (0.1)
• thickness (1)
• size (1)
• padding
• angularity (0)
\path thickness (number) commands (list)
Draw a path with line thickness according to the directions given in commands.
commands is a list of lists where the car of each sublist is a drawing command and
the cdr comprises the associated arguments for each command.
There are seven commands available to use in commands: moveto, rmoveto, lineto,
rlineto, curveto, rcurveto, and closepath. Note that the commands that begin
with ‘r’ are the relative variants of the other three commands. You may also use
Appendix A: Markup commands 813

the standard SVG single-letter equivalents: moveto = M, lineto = L, curveto =

C, closepath = Z. The relative commands are written lowercase: rmoveto = r,
rlineto = l, rcurveto = c.
The commands moveto, rmoveto, lineto, and rlineto take 2 arguments, namely
the X and Y coordinates of the destination point.
The commands curveto and rcurveto create cubic Bézier curves, and take 6 ar-
guments; the first two are the X and Y coordinates for the first control point, the
second two are the X and Y coordinates for the second control point, and the last
two are the X and Y coordinates for the destination point.
The closepath command takes zero arguments and closes the current subpath in
the active path.
Line-cap styles and line-join styles may be customized by overriding the
line-cap-style and line-join-style properties, respectively. Available line-cap
styles are butt, round, and square. Available line-join styles are miter, round,
and bevel.
The property filled specifies whether or not the path is filled with color.
samplePath =
#'((lineto -1 1)
(lineto 1 1)
(lineto 1 -1)
(curveto -5 -5 -5 5 -1 0)
(closepath))

\markup \scale #'(2 . 2) {

\path #0.25 #samplePath

\override #'(line-join-style . miter)

\path #0.25 #samplePath

\override #'(filled . #t)

\path #0.25 #samplePath
}

Used properties:
• filled (#f)
• line-join-style (round)
• line-cap-style (round)
\polygon points (list of number pairs)
A polygon delimited by the list of points.
Property extroversion defines how the shape of the polygon is adapted to its
thickness: if it is 0, the polygon is traced as-is. If it is -1, the outer side of the
line is just on the given points. If set to 1, the line has its inner side on the points.
The thickness property controls the thickness of the line; for filled polygons, this
means the diameter of the blot.
regularPentagon =
#'((1 . 0) (0.31 . 0.95) (-0.81 . 0.59)
Appendix A: Markup commands 814

(-0.81 . -0.59) (0.31 . -0.95))

\markup \scale #'(2 . 2) {

\polygon #'((-1 . -1) (0 . -3) (2 . 2) (1 . 2))
\override #'(filled . #f)
\override #'(thickness . 2)
\combine
\with-color #(universal-color 'blue)
\polygon #regularPentagon
\with-color #(universal-color 'vermillion)
\override #'(extroversion . 1)
\polygon #regularPentagon
}

Used properties:
• thickness (1)
• filled (#t)
• extroversion (0)
\postscript str (string)
Insert str directly into the output as a PostScript command string.
This command is meant as a last resort. Almost all needs are better fulfilled by
other markup commands (see, for example, \path and \draw-line). If you do use
this command, keep the following points in mind:
• \postscript does not work in SVG output.
• Only a subset of the PostScript language is supported during the conversion
from PostScript to PDF.
• There are no stability guarantees on the details of how LilyPond produces its
own output (i.e., the context into which the PostScript code is inserted). They
may change substantially across versions.
• LilyPond cannot understand the shape of the drawing, leading to suboptimal
spacing. Usually, it is necessary to explicitly set up dimensions with a command
like \with-dimensions.
• Depending on how you install LilyPond, the version of the PostScript interpreter
(Ghostscript) can vary, and some of its features may be disabled.
str is processed with the following constraints.
• The string is embedded into the (intermediate) output file with the PostScript
commands
gsave currentpoint translate 0.1 setlinewidth
before and
grestore
after it.
• After these preceding commands (i.e., currentpoint translate) the origin of
the current transformation is the reference point of \postscript. Scale and
Appendix A: Markup commands 815

rotation of the current transformation reflect the global staff line distance and
(if applied) other transformation markup commands (e.g., \scale and \rotate)
encapsulating the \postscript command.
• The current point is set to the coordinate (0, 0).
• If an unwanted line appears at the beginning of your PostScript code, you are
probably missing a call to newpath.
ringsps = "
0.15 setlinewidth
0.9 0.6 moveto
0.4 0.6 0.5 0 361 arc
stroke
1.0 0.6 0.5 0 361 arc
stroke
"

rings = \markup {
\with-dimensions #'(-0.2 . 1.6) #'(0 . 1.2)
\postscript #ringsps
}

\relative c'' {
c2^\rings
a2_\rings
}

º N N
\rounded-box arg (markup)
Draw a box with rounded corners around arg.
This function looks at properties thickness, box-padding, and font-size to deter-
mine the line thickness and padding around the arg. The corner-radius property
defines the radius of the round corners (default value is 1).
c4^\markup {
\rounded-box {
Overtura
}
}
c,8. c16 c4 r

 º h hP h h 
Overtura

Note that the box does not horizontally displace its argument. Use markup com-
mands like \left-align or \table to make LilyPond realign it.
\markup {
\override #'(box-padding . 1.5)
\column {
"text"
Appendix A: Markup commands 816

\rounded-box "text"
\left-align \rounded-box "text"
}
}
text
text

text

Used properties:
• box-padding (0.5)
• font-size (0)
• corner-radius (1)
• thickness (1)
\scale factor-pair (pair of numbers) arg (markup)
Scale arg.
factor-pair is a pair of numbers representing the scaling factor of the X and Y axes.
Negative values may be used to produce mirror images.
\markup {
\line {
\scale #'(2 . 1)
stretched
\scale #'(1 . -1)
mirrored
}
}

stretched mirrored

\triangle filled (boolean)

Draw a triangle.
Fill the triangle if filled is set to #t.
The appearance can be controlled with properties extroversion, font-size, and
thickness.
\markup {
\triangle ##t
\triangle ##f
\override #'(font-size . 5)
\override #'(thickness . 5) {
\override #'(extroversion . 1)
\triangle ##f
\override #'(extroversion . -1)
\triangle ##f
}
}

Used properties:
• thickness (1)
Appendix A: Markup commands 817

• font-size (0)
• extroversion (0)
\with-url url (string) arg (markup)
Add a link to URL url around arg.
This only works in the PDF backend.2
\markup {
\with-url "https://lilypond.org/" {
LilyPond ... \italic {
music notation for everyone
}
}
}

LilyPond ... music notation for everyone

A.1.4 Markup for music and musical symbols
\accidental alteration (an exact rational number)
Select an accidental glyph for alteration, given as a rational number.
Use \text-accidental instead if you need glyph representation forms that fit and
align well with text.
\markup {
text
\tiny { \accidental #1/2 \accidental #-1/2 }
text
\tiny { \text-accidental #1/2 \text-accidental #-1/2 }
text
}

text   text   text

Used properties:
• alteration-glyph-name-alist
\bar-line strg (string)
Print a bar line in markup.
The allowed characters for input string strg are ‘;|.:!S[]{}’, having the same
meaning as with the \bar command. The additional characters ‘{’ and ‘}’ denote
left and right braces, respectively.
The output is vertically centered.
Changes of font-size are respected.
The default of height is 4 staff-space units. Apart from the bracket tips of a bracket
bar line and the segno bar line all other bar lines are scaled with height. We don’t
scale bracket tips and segno to meet the behaviour of SystemStartBracket and the
segno barline.
\bar-line is further customizable by overriding dot-count and dash-count
for dotted and dashed bar lines. The values for hair-thickness, kern and
thick-thickness are customizable as well; defaults are the same as the values of
the corresponding BarLine grob properties.
\markup {
2
Due to technical limitations the link doesn’t work here in the Notation Reference.
Appendix A: Markup commands 818

\override #'(word-space . 2)
\column {
\line {
Examples
\fontsize #-5 \translate-scaled #'(0 . 2) {
\bar-line ":|.|:"
\bar-line ";!S!;"
\bar-line "]{|}["
}
}
\line {
Examples
\fontsize #0 \translate-scaled #'(0 . 2) {
\bar-line ":|.|:"
\bar-line ";!S!;"
\bar-line "]{|}["
}
}
\line {
Examples
\fontsize #5 \translate-scaled #'(0 . 2) {
\bar-line ":|.|:"
\bar-line ";!S!;"
\bar-line "]{|}["
}
}

| |
}
}

P P PP ΠPP 7 7
Examples P P PP PP 6 6

PP PP PPP ΠPPPP 7 7

PP PPPP Œ PPPP7 š 7
š
Examples P 6 6

PP
Examples 6 6
Used properties:
• thick-thickness (6.0)
• kern (3.0)
• hair-thickness (1.9)
• dash-count (5)
• dot-count (4)
• height (4)
• font-size (0)
\coda Draw a coda sign.
\markup {
Appendix A: Markup commands 819

\coda
}

C
\compound-meter time-sig (number or pair)
Draw a numeric time signature based on time-sig.
time-sig can be a single number, a pair of numbers, a simple list, or a list of lists,
as the following example demonstrates.
\markuplist {
\override #'(baseline-skip . 4.5)
\override #'(padding . 4.5)
\table #'(-1 -1) {
"Single number" \compound-meter #3
"Conventional" \line {
\compound-meter #'(4 . 4) or
\compound-meter #'(4 4)
}
"Subdivided" \compound-meter #'(2 3 5 8)
"Alternating" \line {
\compound-meter #'((2) (3)) or
\compound-meter #'((2 3 8) (3 4))
}
}
}

Single number 3
Conventional 44 or 44
Subdivided 2 + 83 + 5
Alternating 2 + 3 or 2 8+ 3 + 43
Setting the denominator-style property to note prints denominators as a note
and dots when exact representation is possible. Example:
\markup {
\override #'(denominator-style . note)
\line {
\compound-meter #'(2 2) or
\compound-meter #'(4 1/2) or
\compound-meter #'((2 8/3) (3 4)) but not
\compound-meter #'(8 20)
}
}

2N or „4 or 2h P + 3h but not 20
8
Appendix A: Markup commands 820

The nested-fraction-mixed property controls whether fractional parts are printed

as mixed numbers or as common fractions. Example:
\markup {
\override #'(nested-fraction-mixed . #f)
\compound-meter #'(5/2 4) or
\override #'(nested-fraction-mixed . #t)
\compound-meter #'(5/2 4)
}

5/2
4 4or 221

The nested-fraction-orientation property controls how nested fractions are ar-

ranged. Supported values are horizontal and vertical. Example:
\markup {
\override #'(nested-fraction-orientation . horizontal)
\compound-meter #'(5/2 4) or
\override #'(nested-fraction-orientation . vertical)
\compound-meter #'(5/2 4)
}

241/2 or 2421
The nested-fraction-relative-font-size property controls the size of the nu-
merals in nested fractions. Recommended values are -5.5 and 0. Using large numer-
als may take precedence over related properties. Example:
\markup {
\override #'(nested-fraction-relative-font-size . -5.5)
\compound-meter #'(5/2 4) or
\override #'(nested-fraction-relative-font-size . 0)
\compound-meter #'(5/2 4)
}

2421 or 2 1/2
4
Used properties:
• note-staff-position (-2)
• note-head-style (())
• note-flag-style (())
• note-dots-direction (0)
• nested-fraction-relative-font-size (())
• nested-fraction-orientation (default)
• nested-fraction-mixed (#t)
• font-size (0)
• denominator-style (default)
\customTabClef num-strings (integer) staff-space (number)
Draw a clef in sans-serif style for a tablature with num-strings lines spaced by staff-
space.
Appendix A: Markup commands 821

This markup command is used to implement \clef moderntab within a TabStaff

context.
\markup {
\customTabClef #4 #1
}

T
A
B

\doubleflat
Draw a double flat symbol.
\markup {
\doubleflat
}

\doublesharp
Draw a double sharp symbol.
\markup {
\doublesharp
}


\fermata Create a fermata glyph.
If property direction is DOWN, use an inverted glyph.
Note that within music, one would normally use the \fermata articulation instead
of a markup.
{ c''1^\markup \fermata d''1_\markup \fermata }

\markup { \fermata \override #`(direction . ,DOWN) \fermata }

z .
º . F
z F
Used properties:
• direction (1)
\flat Draw a flat symbol.
\markup {
\flat
}


\multi-measure-rest-by-number length (non-negative, exact integer)
Return a multi-measure rest symbol for length measures.
If the number of measures is greater than the number given by expand-limit a
thick horizontal line is printed. For every multi-measure rest lasting more than one
Appendix A: Markup commands 822

measure a number is printed on top. However, if property multi-measure-rest-

number is set to #t, this number gets suppressed.
\markup {
Multi-measure rests may look like
\multi-measure-rest-by-number #12
or
\override #'(multi-measure-rest-number . #f)
\multi-measure-rest-by-number #7
(church rests)
}

Multi-measure rests may look like 12 or ± ­ ” (church rests)

Used properties:
• multi-measure-rest-number (#t)
• width (8)
• expand-limit (10)
• hair-thickness (2.0)
• thick-thickness (6.6)
• word-space
• style (())
• font-size (0)
\musicglyph glyph-name (string)
Print music symbol glyph-name.
See Section “The Emmentaler font” in Notation Reference for a complete listing of
the possible glyph names.
\markup {
\musicglyph "f"
\musicglyph "rests.2"
\musicglyph "clefs.G_change"
}

f
\natural Draw a natural symbol.
\markup {
\natural
}


\note duration (duration) dir (number)
Draw a note of given duration with a stem pointing into direction dir.
duration gives the note head type and augmentation dots; dir controls both the
direction and length of the stem.
See also function \note-by-number.
\markup {
\note {4..} #UP
Appendix A: Markup commands 823

\hspace #2
\override #'(style . cross)
\note {4..} #0.75
\hspace #2
\note {\breve} #0
}

hPP jPP „
Used properties:
• style (())
• dots-direction (0)
• flag-style (())
• font-size (0)
\note-by-number log (number) dot-count (number) dir (number)
Draw a note of length log, with dot-count dots and a stem pointing into direction
dir.
By using fractional values for dir, longer or shorter stems can be obtained.
Ancient note-head styles (via the style property, see Section B.9 [Note head styles],
page 886) get mensural-style flags by default; use flag-style to override this.
Supported flag styles are default, old-straight-flag, modern-straight-flag,
flat-flag, stacked, mensural, and neomensural. The last flag style is the same
as mensural and provided for convenience.
\markup {
\note-by-number #3 #0 #DOWN
\hspace #2
\note-by-number #1 #2 #0.8
\hspace #2
\override #'(style . petrucci)
\note-by-number #3 #0 #UP
\hspace #2
\override #'(flag-style . modern-straight-flag)
\note-by-number #4 #0 #DOWN

p
}

h NPP z h
T
Used properties:
• style (())
• dots-direction (0)
• flag-style (())
• font-size (0)
\rest duration (duration)
Return a rest symbol with length duration.
If the multi-measure-rest property is set to #t, a multi-measure rest symbol may
be returned. In this case the duration needs to be entered as { 1*N } to get a multi-
measure rest for N bars. Actually, only the scaling factor (i.e., the number after ‘*’)
determines the length; the basic duration is disregarded.
Appendix A: Markup commands 824

See also functions \rest-by-number and \multi-measure-rest-by-number for

more information on the used properties.
\markup {
Rests:
\hspace #2
\rest { 4.. }
\hspace #2
\rest { \breve }
\hspace #2
Multi-measure rests:
\override #'(multi-measure-rest . #t)
{
\hspace #2
\rest { 1*7 }
\hspace #2
\rest { 1*12 }
}
}

Rests: PP ° Multi-measure rests: ± ­7” 12

Used properties:
• multi-measure-rest-number (#t)
• width (8)
• expand-limit (10)
• hair-thickness (2.0)
• thick-thickness (6.6)
• word-space
• style (())
• font-size (0)
• style (())
• ledgers ((-1 0 1))
• font-size (0)
\rest-by-number log (integer) dot-count (integer)
Draw a rest of length log, with dot-count dots.
For duration logs that appear in the ledgers property, rest symbols with ledger
lines are selected.
\markup {
\rest-by-number #3 #2
\hspace #2
\rest-by-number #0 #1
\hspace #2
\rest-by-number #-1 #0
\hspace #2
\override #'(ledgers . ())
\rest-by-number #-1 #0
}
¢PP — P ° ­
Appendix A: Markup commands 825

Used properties:
• style (())
• ledgers ((-1 0 1))
• font-size (0)
\rhythm music (music)
Draw embedded rhythmic pattern as specified by music.
\relative {
\tempo \markup {
Swing
\hspace #0.4
\rhythm { 8[ 8] } = \rhythm { \tuplet 3/2 { 4 8 } }
}
b8 g' c, d ees d16 ees d c r8
}
3

Swing h h=h h
º h ¢
h h h h h h h h
Within \rhythm, there is no time signature and no division in measures (as with
\cadenzaOn, see Section 2.3.4 [Unmetered music], page 88). Beaming must be added
explicitly with the syntax explained in Section 2.4.3 [Manual beams], page 110.
\markup {
The rhythmic pattern \rhythm { 16[ 8 16] } is
a type of syncopation.
}

The rhythmic pattern h h h is a type of syncopation.

\stemDown can be used to flip the stems.
\markup \rhythm { \stemDown 8 16 8 }
h hh
T UT
\rhythm works by creating a StandaloneRhythmVoice context, which is enclosed in
a StandaloneRhythmStaff context, which is enclosed in a StandaloneRhythmScore
context. It is possible to apply global tweaks to the output by using a \layout block.
\layout {
\context {
\StandaloneRhythmVoice
\xNotesOn
}
}

\markup \rhythm { 8 16 8 }
†
jjj
Used properties:
• font-size (-2)
Appendix A: Markup commands 826

\score score (score)

Inline an image of music as specified by score.
The reference point (usually the middle staff line) of the lowest staff in the top
system is placed on the baseline.
No page breaks and no MIDI output, i.e., both \pageBreak commands and \midi{}
blocks get ignored.
\markup {
Text before the score.
\score {
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff \relative c' {
\key f \major
\time 3/4
\mark \markup { Allegro }
f2\p( a4)
}
\new Staff \relative c {
\clef bass
\key f \major
\time 3/4
f8( a c a c a
}
>>

\layout {
indent = 0.0\cm
}
}
Text after the score.
}

1
Allegro
  43 N h
p h h
 3 hh h h
Text before the score. 4 Text after the score.

Used properties:
• baseline-skip
\segno Draw a segno symbol.
\markup {
\segno
}
l

\semiflat
Draw a semiflat symbol.
\markup {
\semiflat
}
Appendix A: Markup commands 827


\semisharp
Draw a semisharp symbol.
\markup {
\semisharp
}

\sesquiflat
Draw a 3/2 flat symbol.
\markup {
\sesquiflat
}


\sesquisharp
Draw a 3/2 sharp symbol.
\markup {
\sesquisharp
}

\sharp Draw a sharp symbol.

\markup {
\sharp
}


\text-accidental alteration (an exact rational number)
Select an accidental glyph for alteration (given as a rational number) that aligns
well with text.
\markup {
text
\tiny { \text-accidental #1/2 \text-accidental #-1/2 }
text
}

text   text
Used properties:
• alteration-glyph-name-alist
\text-doubleflat
Draw a double flat symbol for text.
\markup {
\text-doubleflat
}


Appendix A: Markup commands 828

\text-doublesharp
Draw a double sharp symbol for text.
\markup {
\text-doublesharp
}


\text-flat
Draw a flat symbol for text.
\markup {
\text-flat
}


\text-natural
Draw a natural symbol for text.
\markup {
\text-natural
}


\text-sharp
Draw a sharp symbol for text.
\markup {
\text-sharp
}


\tied-lyric str (string)
Replace ‘~’ tilde symbols with tie characters in str.
\markup \column {
\tied-lyric
"Siam navi~all'onde~algenti Lasciate~in abbandono"
\tied-lyric
"Impetuosi venti I nostri~affetti sono"
\tied-lyric
"Ogni diletto~e scoglio Tutta la vita~e~un mar."
}

· · ·
Siam navi all'onde algenti Lasciate in abbandono
·
Impetuosi venti I nostri affetti sono
· ¸ ¸
Ogni diletto e scoglio Tutta la vita e un mar.
Used properties:
• word-space
\varcoda Draw a varcoda sign.
\markup {
\varcoda
}
‹
Appendix A: Markup commands 829

A.1.5 Conditional markup

\if condition? (procedure) argument (markup)
Test condition?, and only insert argument if it is true.
The condition is provided as a procedure taking an output definition and a property
alist chain. The procedure is applied, and its result determines whether to print the
markup. This command is most useful inside oddHeaderMarkup or similar. Here is
an example printing page numbers in bold:
\paper {
oddHeaderMarkup =
\markup \fill-line {
""
\if #print-page-number
\bold \fromproperty #'page:page-number-string
}
evenHeaderMarkup =
\markup \fill-line {
\if #print-page-number
\bold \fromproperty #'page:page-number-string
""
}
}
\unless condition? (procedure) argument (markup)
Test condition?, and only insert argument if it is false.
This function is similar to \if; the following example shows how to print the copy-
right notice on all pages but the last instead of just the first page.
\paper {
oddFooterMarkup = \markup {
\unless #on-last-page-of-part \fill-line {
\fromproperty #'header:copyright
}
}
}

\header {
copyright = "⃝c LilyPond Authors. License: GFDL."
tagline = "⃝c LilyPond Authors. Documentation placed
under the GNU Free Documentation License
version 1.3."
}

A.1.6 Instrument-specific markup

\fret-diagram definition-string (string)
Make a (guitar) fret diagram based on definition-string.
For example, say
\markup \fret-diagram "s:1.25;6-x;5-x;4-o;3-2;2-3;1-2;"
X X O
Appendix A: Markup commands 830

for fret spacing 5/4 of staff space, D chord diagram.

Syntax rules for definition-string:
− Diagram items are separated by semicolons.
− Possible items:
• s:number – Set the fret spacing of the diagram (in staff spaces). Default: 1.
• t:number – Set the line thickness (relative to normal line thickness). De-
fault: 0.5.
• h:number – Set the height of the diagram in frets. Default: 4.
• w:number – Set the width of the diagram in strings. Default: 6.
• f:number – Set fingering label type (0 = none, 1 = in circle on string, 2 =
below string). Default: 0.
• d:number – Set radius of dot, in terms of fret spacing. Default: 0.25.
• p:number – Set the position of the dot in the fret space. 0.5 is centered;
1 is on lower fret bar, 0 is on upper fret bar. Default: 0.6.
• c:string1-string2-fret – Include a barre mark from string1 to string2 on
fret.
• string-fret – Place a dot on string at fret. If fret is ‘o’, string is identified
as open. If fret is ‘x’, string is identified as muted.
• string-fret-fingering – Place a dot on string at fret, and label with
fingering as defined by the f: code.
− Note: There is no limit to the number of fret indications per string.
Used properties:
• thickness (0.5)
• fret-diagram-details
• size (1.0)
• align-dir (-0.4)
\fret-diagram-terse definition-string (string)
Make a fret diagram markup using terse string-based syntax.
For example,
\markup \fret-diagram-terse "x;x;o;2;3;2;"
X X O

displays a D chord diagram.

Syntax rules for definition-string:
• Strings are terminated by semicolons; the number of semicolons is the number
of strings in the diagram.
• Mute strings are indicated by ‘x’.
• Open strings are indicated by ‘o’.
• A number indicates a fret indication at that fret.
• If there are multiple fret indicators desired on a string, they should be separated
by spaces.
• Fingerings are given by following the fret number with a ‘-’ followed by the
finger indicator, e.g., ‘3-2’ for playing the third fret with the second finger.
Appendix A: Markup commands 831

• Where a barre indicator is desired, follow the fret (or fingering) symbol with
-( to start a barre and -) to end the barre.
Used properties:
• thickness (0.5)
• fret-diagram-details
• size (1.0)
• align-dir (-0.4)
\fret-diagram-verbose marking-list (pair)
Make a fret diagram containing the symbols indicated in marking-list.
The following example produces a standard D chord diagram without fingering in-
dications.
\markup \scale #'(1.5 . 1.5)
\fret-diagram-verbose
#'((mute 6) (mute 5) (open 4)
(place-fret 3 2) (place-fret 2 3) (place-fret 1 2))
X X O

Possible elements in marking-list:

(mute string-number)
Place a small ‘x’ at the top of string string-number.
(open string-number)
Place a small ‘o’ at the top of string string-number.
(barre start-string end-string fret-number)
Place a barre indicator (much like a tie) from string start-string to string
end-string at fret fret-number.
(capo fret-number)
Place a capo indicator (a large solid bar) across the entire fretboard at
fret location fret-number. Also, set fret fret-number to be the lowest
fret on the fret diagram.
(place-fret string-number fret-number [finger-value] [color-modifier]
[color] ['parenthesized ['default-paren-color]])
Place a fret playing indication on string string-number at fret
fret-number with an optional fingering label finger-value, an optional
color modifier color-modifier, an optional color color, an optional
parenthesis 'parenthesized and an optional paranthesis color
'default-paren-color.
By default, the fret playing indicator is a solid dot. This can be globally
changed by setting the value of the property dot-color or for a single
dot by setting the value of color. The dot can be parenthesized by adding
'parenthesized. By default the color for the parenthesis is taken from
the dot. Adding 'default-paren-color will take the parenthesis color
from the global dot-color property; as a fallback black will be used.
Setting color-modifier to inverted inverts the dot color for a specific
fingering.
Appendix A: Markup commands 832

The values for string-number, fret-number, and the optional finger

should be entered first in that order. The order of the other optional ar-
guments does not matter. If the finger part of the place-fret element
is present, finger-value will be displayed according to the setting of the
variable finger-code. There is no limit to the number of fret indications
per string.
\markup \scale #'(1.5 . 1.5)
\fret-diagram-verbose #'(
(place-fret 6 3 1 red parenthesized default-paren-color)
(place-fret 5 3 1 inverted)
(place-fret 4 5 2 blue parenthesized)
(place-fret 3 5 3 blue)
(place-fret 2 5 4 blue)
(place-fret 1 3 1 inverted)
)
3fr

Used properties:
• thickness (0.5)
• fret-diagram-details
• size (1.0)
• align-dir (-0.4)
\harp-pedal definition-string (string)
Make a harp pedal diagram containing the symbols indicated in definition-string.
Possible elements in definition-string:
^ pedal is up
- pedal is neutral
v pedal is down
| vertical divider line
o the following pedal should be circled (indicating a change)
\markup \harp-pedal "^-v|--ov^"

The function also checks whether the string has the typical form of three pedals,
then the divider, and then the remaining four pedals, printing a warning otherwise
(without preventing the non-standard order).
Use the size property to control the overall size, and the thickness property for
the line thickness of the horizontal line and the divider.
The remaining configuration is done via the harp-pedal-details property; it con-
tains the following elements:
box-offset
vertical shift of the box center for up/down pedals
box-width
box width
Appendix A: Markup commands 833

box-height
box height
space-before-divider
spacing between two boxes before the divider
space-after-divider
spacing between two boxes after the divider
\markup {
\override #'((size . 1.5)
(harp-pedal-details . ((box-width . 1)
(box-offset . 2))))
\harp-pedal "^-v|--ov^"
}

For global modification of harp-pedal-details, i.e., outside of the current \markup

block, you can also use code similar to
\override Voice.TextScript.harp-pedal-details.box-width = 1
Used properties:
• thickness (0.5)
• harp-pedal-details (())
• size (1.2)
\woodwind-diagram instrument (symbol) user-draw-commands (list)
Make a woodwind-instrument diagram for instrument using user-draw-commands.
user-draw-commands is a list of alists, specifying the left-hand keys, the elements
on the central column, and the right-hand keys. For example, this diagram
\markup \woodwind-diagram
#'oboe #'((lh . (d ees))
(cc . (five3qT1q))
(rh . (gis)))

shows an oboe with the left-hand d key, left-hand ees key, and right-hand gis key
depressed, while the five-hole of the central column effectuating a trill between 1/4
and 3/4 is closed.
The following instruments are supported:
− piccolo
− flute
− oboe
− clarinet
Appendix A: Markup commands 834

− bass-clarinet
− saxophone
− bassoon
− contrabassoon
To see all of the callable keys for a given instrument, include the function call
(print-keys 'instrument) in your .ly file, where instrument is the instrument
whose keys you want to print.
Certain keys allow for special configurations. The entire gamut of configurations
possible is as follows:
1q 1/4 covered
1h 1/2 covered
3q 3/4 covered
R ring depressed
F fully covered; the default if no state put
Additionally, these configurations can be used in trills. So, for example, three3qTR
effectuates a trill between 3/4 full and ring depressed on the three hole. As another
example, threeRT effectuates a trill between R and open, whereas threeTR effectu-
ates a trill between open and shut. To see all of the possibilities for all of the keys
of a given instrument, invoke (print-keys-verbose 'instrument).
Lastly, substituting an empty list for the pressed-key alist results in a diagram with
all of the keys drawn but none filled, for example
\markup \woodwind-diagram #'flute #'()

Used properties:
• woodwind-diagram-details (())
• font-size (0)
• graphical (#t)
• thickness (0.1)
• size (1)

A.1.7 Accordion registers

\discant name (string)
Generate a discant accordion register symbol for name.
To make it available,
#(use-modules (lily accreg))
is required near the top of your input file.
Appendix A: Markup commands 835

The register names in the default \discant register set have been modeled af-
ter the numeric Swiss notation (as depicted in http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Register_%28Akkordeon%29), omitting the slashes and dropping leading zeros.
The string name is basically a three-digit number with the lowest digit specifying
the number of 16’ reeds, the tens the number of 8’ reeds, and the hundreds specifying
the number of 4’ reeds. Without modification, the specified number of reeds in 8’ is
centered in the symbol. Newer instruments may have registrations where 8’ can be
used either within or without a tone chamber, ‘cassotto’. Notationally, the central
dot then indicates use of cassotto. One can suffix the tens’ digits ‘1’ and ‘2’ with
‘+’ or ‘-’ to indicate clustering the dots at the right or left, respectively, rather than
centered.
Some examples are

(' '(
\discant "1" \discant "1+0"

( ('( ( ((('(
\discant "120" \discant "131"
Used properties:
• font-size (0)
\freeBass name (string)
Generate a free bass/converter accordion register symbol for the usual two-reed
layout as given by name.
To make it available,
#(use-modules (lily accreg))
is required near the top of your input file.
Available registrations are

)( ()(
\freeBass "1" \freeBass "11"

()
\freeBass "10"
Used properties:
• font-size (0)
\stdBass name (string)
Generate a standard bass accordion register symbol for name.
To make it available,
#(use-modules (lily accreg))
is required near the top of your input file.
The default bass register definitions have been modeled after the article http://
www.accordions.com/index/art/stradella.shtml originally appearing in Accord
Magazine.
The underlying register model is
Appendix A: Markup commands 836

h h h

l
h
 hh hh  h h
h h
 h h h h
h
h h h
This kind of overlapping arrangement is common for Italian instruments though the
exact location of the octave breaks differ.
When not composing for a particular target instrument, using the five-reed defini-
tions makes more sense than using a four-reed layout: in that manner, the ‘Master’
register is unambiguous. This is rather the rule in literature bothering about bass
registrations at all.
Available registrations are
(
- ((
(-
\stdBass "Soprano" \stdBass "Soft Bass"
(( ((
- -
\stdBass "Alto" \stdBass "Soft Tenor"
((( ((
- (-
\stdBass "Tenor" \stdBass "Bass/Alto"
((( (
(-
\stdBass "Master"
Used properties:
• font-size (0)
\stdBassIV name (string)
Generate a standard bass accordion register symbol for name.
To make it available,
#(use-modules (lily accreg))
is required near the top of your input file.
The main use is for four-reed standard bass instruments with reedbank layout

Y
 N  NN

N
 N
N N
N
Notable instruments are Morino models with MIII (the others are five-reed instead)
and the Atlantic IV. Most of those models have three register switches. Some newer
Morinos with MIII might have five or even seven.
Appendix A: Markup commands 837

The prevalent three-register layout uses the middle three switches ‘Tenor’, ‘Master’,
‘Soft Bass’. Note that the sound is quite darker than the same registrations of
‘c,’-based instruments.
Available registrations are
( (((
- -
\stdBassIV "Soprano" \stdBassIV "Soft Bass"
(( ((
- (
-
\stdBassIV "Alto" \stdBassIV "Bass/Alto"
(( (
- (-
\stdBassIV "Tenor" \stdBassIV "Soft Bass/Alto"
((( ((
(- -
\stdBassIV "Master" \stdBassIV "Soft Tenor"
Used properties:
• font-size (0)
\stdBassV name (string)
Generate a standard bass accordion register symbol for name.
To make it available,
#(use-modules (lily accreg))
is required near the top of your input file.
The main use is for five-reed standard bass instruments with reedbank layout

N

Y
N 
 N  NN
N
 N
N N
N
This tends to be the bass layout for Hohner’s Morino series without converter or
MIII manual.
With the exception of the rather new 7-register layout, the highest two chord reeds
are usually sounded together. Older instruments offer 5 or 3 bass registers. The
Tango VM offers an additional ‘Solo Bass’ setting that mutes the chord reeds. The
symbol on the register buttons of the Tango VM would actually match the physical
five-octave layout reflected here, but it is not used in literature.
Composers should likely prefer the five-reed versions of these symbols. The mis-
match of a four-reed instrument with five-reed symbols is easier to resolve for the
player than the other way round.
Available registrations are
Appendix A: Markup commands 838

(( (((
(- -
\stdBassV "Bass/Alto" \stdBassV "Soft Bass"

( ((
(- -
\stdBassV "Soft Bass/Alto" \stdBassV "Soft Tenor"
((( (
- -
\stdBassV "Alto" \stdBassV "Soprano"
(( ((
(- -
\stdBassV "Tenor" \stdBassV "Sopranos"
( (( (
(- (-
\stdBassV "Master" \stdBassV "Solo Bass"

Used properties:

• font-size (0)

\stdBassVI name (string)

Generate a standard bass accordion register symbol for six-reed basses as given by
name.

To make it available,

#(use-modules (lily accreg))

is required near the top of your input file.

This is primarily the register layout for the Hohner “Gola” model. The layout is

h  h h

l
 hhh hh  h h
h h h
 hh h  hh hhh
h h h

The registers are effectively quite similar to that of \stdBass. An additional bass
reed at alto pitch is omitted for esthetical reasons from the ‘Master’ setting, so the
symbols are almost the same except for the ‘Alto/Soprano’ register with bass notes
at Alto pitch and chords at Soprano pitch.

Available registrations are

Appendix A: Markup commands 839

( ((
- -
\stdBassVI "Soprano" \stdBassVI "Alto/Soprano"

( ((
- (-
\stdBassVI "Alto" \stdBassVI "Bass/Alto"

(( ((-(
-
\stdBassVI "Soft Tenor" \stdBassVI "Soft Bass"
((( (
(-
\stdBassVI "Master"
Used properties:
• font-size (0)

A.1.8 Other markup commands

\annotate-moving arg (markup)
Indicate \vspace and \hspace movement with an arrow.
The arrow changes its size and thickness depending on the printed length; the max-
imum size of the arrow head can be controlled with the size property. If size
exceeds a third of the length of the final arrow, it falls back to that third.
Note that the arrows do not reflect the actual extents of the objects created by
\vspace and \hspace; you might use \box for that.
\markup
\column {
\line { left \annotate-moving \hspace #4 right }
\line { left \annotate-moving \hspace #-4 right }
\line {
\column {
top \override #'(size . 0.6) \annotate-moving \vspace #4/3 bottom
}
\column {
top \override #'(size . 2.0) \annotate-moving \vspace #-4/3 bottom
}
}
}

left right
left
right
top bottom
top

bottom
Used properties:
• size (1)
• color ("red")
Appendix A: Markup commands 840

\append-to-tag tag (symbol) more (markup) arg (markup)

Append more to all markup in var arg tagged with tag.
It works similar to \appendToTag for music, but only with markups.
tagged = \markup {
\tag #'foo A
\tag #'bar B
}

\markup { \append-to-tag #'foo postfoo \tagged }

A postfoo B
Used properties:
• tags-with-appends-alist (())
\auto-footnote mkup (markup) note (markup)
Have footnote note act as an annotation to the markup mkup.
\markup {
\auto-footnote a b
\override #'(padding . 0.2)
\auto-footnote c d
}

a1 c 2

1
b
2
d
The footnote will be annotated automatically.
Used properties:
• padding (0.0)
• raise (0.5)
\backslashed-digit num (integer)
Print number num with the Emmentaler font, crossed through with a backslash.
This is for use in the context of figured bass notation.
\markup {
\backslashed-digit #5
\hspace #2
\override #'(thickness . 3)
\backslashed-digit #7
}
Appendix A: Markup commands 841


Used properties:
• thickness (1.6)
• font-size (0)
\char num (integer)
Produce a single Unicode character with code num.
Characters encoded in hexadecimal format require the prefix #x.
\markup {
\char #65 \char ##x00a9
}

A©
\eyeglasses
Prints out eyeglasses, indicating strongly to look at the conductor.
\markup { \eyeglasses }

\first-visible args (markup list)

Use the first markup in args that yields a non-empty stencil and ignore the rest.
\markup {
\first-visible {
\fromproperty #'header:composer
\italic Unknown
}
}

Unknown
\footnote mkup (markup) note (markup)
Have footnote note act as an annotation to the markup mkup.
\markup {
\footnote a b
\override #'(padding . 0.2)
\footnote c d
}
ac

b
d
Appendix A: Markup commands 842

The footnote will not be annotated automatically.

\fraction arg1 (markup) arg2 (markup)
Make a fraction of markups arg1 and arg2.
\markup {
π ≈ \fraction 355 113
}

355
π≈
113
Used properties:
• font-size (0)
\fromproperty symbol (symbol)
Read symbol from the property settings and produce a stencil from the markup
contained within.
If symbol is not defined or is not a markup, return an empty markup.
Currently, the following properties can be accessed.
• Within a \paper block defining titles, headers, or footers, or within a \header
block: all fields from the \header block (that produce markup) are available,
with header: as a name prefix.
• Within a \paper block defining headers or footers: the current page number
(symbol page:page-number-string).
• Within the tocItemMarkup paper variable (or in custom-made Scheme code
that uses function add-toc-item!) defining a table of contents entry: the en-
try’s text and page number are available as toc:text and toc:page, respec-
tively. An entry’s indentation markup is available as toc:indent.
\header {
myTitle = "myTitle"
title = \markup {
from
\italic
\fromproperty #'header:myTitle
}
}
\markup {
\null
}

from myTitle

\keep-with-tag tags (symbol list or symbol) arg (markup)

Keep markup from arg that is untagged or tagged with tags.
All other parts of arg that are using a different tag are replaced with empty stencils.
It works similar to \keepWithTag for music, but only with markups.
tagged = \markup {
untagged
\tag #'foo A
\tag #'bar B
Appendix A: Markup commands 843

\markup { \keep-with-tag #'bar \tagged }

\markup { \keep-with-tag #'foo \tagged }

untagged B

untagged A
Used properties:
• tags-to-keep (())
\left-brace size (number)
Print a brace from the music font, of height size (in points).
\markup {
\left-brace #35
\hspace #2
\left-brace #45

À 
}

\lookup glyph-name (string)

Print a brace glyph with name glyph-name.
This is a historical command; \left-brace (which looks up the glyph by absolute
size and is independent of the font size) is recommended instead.
\markup \lookup "brace200"

\markalphabet num (integer)

Make a markup letter for num.
The letters start with A to Z and continue with double letters.
\markup {
\markalphabet #8
\hspace #2
\markalphabet #26
}

H Z
\markletter num (integer)
Make a markup letter for num.
The letters start with A to Z (skipping letter I), and continue with double letters.
\markup {
Appendix A: Markup commands 844

\markletter #8
\hspace #2
\markletter #26
}

H AA
\null
An empty markup with extents of a single point.
\markup {
\null
}

\on-the-fly procedure (procedure) arg (markup)

Apply the procedure markup command to arg.
procedure takes the same arguments as interpret-markup and returns a stencil.
\override new-prop (pair) arg (markup)
Add the argument new-prop to the property list for printing arg.
In general, any property may be overridden that is part of font-interface
(Section “font-interface” in Internals Reference), text-interface (Section “text-
interface” in Internals Reference), or instrument-specific-markup-interface
(Section “instrument-specific-markup-interface” in Internals Reference). Addition-
ally, various markup commands listen to other properties, too, as described in a
markup function’s documentation.
new-prop is either a single alist pair or a non-empty list of alist pairs.
\markup {
\undertie "undertied"
\override #'(offset . 15)
\undertie "offset undertied"
\override #'((offset . 15) (thickness . 3))
\undertie "offset thick undertied"
}

undertied offset undertied offset thick undertied

\page-link page-number (number) arg (markup)

Add a link to a score’s page page-number around arg.
This only works in the PDF backend.
\markup {
\page-link #2 { \italic { This links to page 2... } }
}

This links to page 2...

\page-ref label (symbol) gauge (markup) default (markup)
Print a page number reference.
label is the label set on the referenced page (using \label or \tocItem), gauge a
markup used to estimate the maximum width of the page number, and default the
value to display when label is not found.
Appendix A: Markup commands 845

If the current book or bookpart is set to use roman numerals for page numbers,
the reference will be formatted accordingly – in which case the gauge’s width may
require additional tweaking.
Used properties:
• x-align (1)
\pattern count (non-negative, exact integer) axis (non-negative, exact integer) space
(number) pattern (markup)
Print a pattern markup count times.
Patterns are spaced apart by space (defined as for \hspace or \vspace, respectively)
and distributed on axis.
\markup \column {
"Horizontally repeated:"
\pattern #7 #X #2 \flat
\null
"Vertically repeated:"
\pattern #3 #Y #0.5 \flat
}

Horizontally repeated:
      


Vertically repeated:



\property-recursive symbol (symbol)
Print out a warning when header field markup in symbol contains some recursive
markup definition.
\push-to-tag tag (symbol) more (markup) arg (markup)
Prepend more to all markup in arg tagged with tag.
It works similar to \pushToTag for music, but only with markups.
tagged = \markup {
\tag #'foo A
\tag #'bar B
}

\markup { \push-to-tag #'foo prefoo \tagged }

prefoo A B
Used properties:
• tags-with-pushes-alist (())
\qr-code width (non-negative number) str (string)
Insert a QR code for string str, usually a URL, with a given width.
\markup \vcenter {
\center-column { Engraved with LilyPond }
\hspace #1.5
\qr-code #10.0 "https://lilypond.org"
Appendix A: Markup commands 846

Engraved
with
LilyPond

The error-correction-level property can be set to one of the symbols low,

medium, quarter, or high. The higher the level of error correction is, the more
the QR code contains redundancy, potentially helping detectors, e.g., in poor light-
ing conditions; however, a higher correction level also makes the code denser.
\markup \vcenter {
\center-column { Engraved with LilyPond }
\hspace #1.5
\override #'(error-correction-level . high)
\qr-code #10.0 "https://lilypond.org"
}

Engraved
with
LilyPond

The quiet-zone-size property specifies the width of the “quiet zone”, namely the
white area around the QR code. It is expressed as a multiple of the width of one
little square inside the QR code. Use at least 4 for best results.
Used properties:
• quiet-zone-size (4)
• error-correction-level (low)
\remove-with-tag tags (symbol list or symbol) arg (markup)
Remove markup from arg that is tagged with tags.
The removed markup is replaced with empty stencils. It works similar to
\removeWithTag for music, but only with markups.
tagged = \markup {
\tag #'foo A
\tag #'bar B
}

\markup { \remove-with-tag #'foo \tagged }

\markup { \remove-with-tag #'bar \tagged }

A
Used properties:
• tags-to-remove (())
\right-brace size (number)
A music brace in point size size, rotated 180 degrees.
\markup {
Appendix A: Markup commands 847

\right-brace #45
\hspace #2
\right-brace #35

À 
}

\slashed-digit num (integer)

Print number num with the Emmentaler font, crossed through with a slash.
This is for use in the context of figured bass notation.
\markup {
\slashed-digit #5
\hspace #2
\override #'(thickness . 3)
\slashed-digit #7
}


Used properties:
• thickness (1.6)
• font-size (0)
\stencil stil (stencil)
Use stencil stil as markup.
\markup {
\stencil #(make-circle-stencil 2 0 #t)
}

\strut
Create a box of the same height as the space in the current font.
\tag tags (symbol list or symbol) arg (markup)
Tag markup arg with tag.
tag can be one or multiple tags. This allows later on to reference arg; for example,
to remove it or to add markup before or after the tagged markup. It works similar
to \tag for music, but only with markups.
tagged = \markup {
\tag #'foo A
\tag #'bar B
}

\markup { \keep-with-tag #'bar \tagged }

\markup { \keep-with-tag #'foo \tagged }

A
Appendix A: Markup commands 848

Used properties:
• tags-with-appends-alist (())
• tags-with-pushes-alist (())
• tags-to-remove (())
• tags-to-keep (())
\transparent arg (markup)
Make arg transparent.
\markup {
\transparent {
invisible text
}
}

\verbatim-file name (string)

Read the contents of file name and include it verbatim.
\markup {
\verbatim-file "en/included/simple.ly"
}

% A simple piece in LilyPond, a scale.

\version "2.19.21"
\relative {
c' d e f g a b c
}
Use \withRelativeDir as a prefix to name if the file should be found relative to
the input file.
\whiteout arg (markup)
Provide a white background for arg.
The shape of the white background is determined by the style property. The default
is box which produces a rectangle. rounded-box produces a rounded rectangle, and
outline approximates the outline of the markup.
The color of the background can be controlled with the color property, defaulting
to "white".
\markup {
\combine
\filled-box #'(-1 . 62) #'(-3 . 4) #1
\override #'(line-width . 60)
\fill-line {
\override #'(thickness . 1.5)
\whiteout box
\override #'((style . rounded-box) (thickness . 3))
\whiteout rounded-box
\override #'((style . outline) (thickness . 3))
\whiteout outline
\override #'((color . "red") (style . outline))
\whiteout red-outline
}
Appendix A: Markup commands 849

box rounded-box outline

outline
outline
outline red-outline
red-outline
red-outline
red-outline

Used properties:
• color ("white")
• thickness (())
• style (box)
\with-color col (color) arg (markup)
Use color col to draw arg.
See Section 7.1.5 [Coloring objects], page 279, for valid color specifications.
\markup {
\with-color #red red
\hspace #2
\with-color #green green
\hspace #2
\with-color "#0000ff" blue
}

red green blue

\with-dimension axis (integer) val (pair of numbers) arg (markup)

Set the dimension of arg along axis to val.
If axis is equal to X, set the horizontal dimension. If axis is equal to Y, set the
vertical dimension.
\with-dimension-from axis (integer) arg1 (markup) arg2 (markup)
Print arg2 but replace the dimension along axis with the one from arg1.
If axis is set to X, replace the horizontal dimension. If axis is set to Y, replace the
vertical dimension.
\with-dimensions x (pair of numbers) y (pair of numbers) arg (markup)
Set the horizontal and vertical dimensions of arg to x and y.
\with-dimensions-from arg1 (markup) arg2 (markup)
Print arg2 with the horizontal and vertical dimensions of arg1.
\with-link label (symbol) arg (markup)
Add a link to the page holding label label around arg.
This only works in the PDF backend.
\markup {
\with-link #'label {
\italic { This links to the page
containing the label... }
}
}
\with-outline outline (markup) arg (markup)
Print arg with the outline and dimensions of outline.
The outline is used by skylines to resolve collisions (not for whiteout).
Appendix A: Markup commands 850

\with-true-dimension axis (integer) arg (markup)

Give arg its actual dimension (extent) on axis.
Sometimes, the extents of a markup’s printed ink differs from the default extents.
The main case is if glyphs are involved. By default, the extents of a glyph are based
on the glyph’s metrics (i.e., a default vertical and horizontal size for the glyph),
which, for various reasons, are often not identical to its bounding box (i.e., the
smallest rectangle that completely encompasses the glyph’s outline) – in most cases,
the outline protrudes the box spanned up by the metrics.
\markup {
text
\fontsize #10
\override #'((box-padding . 0) (thickness . 0.2))
\box
\musicglyph "scripts.trill"

u
text
}

text text
For purposes other than setting text, this behavior may not be wanted. You can
use \with-true-dimension in order to give the markup its actual printed extent.
\markup {
text
\fontsize #10
\override #'((box-padding . 0) (thickness . 0.2))
\box
\with-true-dimension #X
\musicglyph "scripts.trill"

u
text
}

text text
\with-true-dimensions arg (markup)
Give arg its actual dimensions (extents).
Calling
\markup \with-true-dimensions arg
is short for
\markup
\with-true-dimension #X
\with-true-dimension #Y
arg
i.e., \with-true-dimensions has the effect of \with-true-dimension on both axes.

A.2 Text markup list commands

The following commands can all be used with \markuplist.
\column-lines args (markup list)
Stack the markups in args vertically.
Appendix A: Markup commands 851

Like \column, but return a list of lines instead of a single markup. The property
baseline-skip determines the space between each markup in args.
Used properties:
• baseline-skip
\justified-lines args (markup list)
Print args as lines aligned both at the left and the right.
Like \justify, but return a list of lines instead of a single markup. Use
\override-lines #'(line-width . X) to set the line width; X is the number of
staff spaces.
Used properties:
• text-direction (1)
• word-space
• line-width (#f)
• baseline-skip
\override-lines new-prop (pair) args (markup list)
Add the argument new-prop to the property list for printing args.
Like \override but for markup lists.
\score-lines score (score)
Inline an image of music as specified by score.
Like \score but return a list of lines instead of a single markup.
Used properties:
• tags-with-appends-alist (())
• tags-with-pushes-alist (())
• tags-to-remove (())
• tags-to-keep (())
\string-lines str (string)
Split string str into lines.
The character to split at is specified by the property split-char, defaulting to
#\newline. Surrounding whitespace is removed from every resulting string. The
returned list of markups is ready to be formatted by other markup or markup list
commands like \column, \line, etc.
\markup {
\column
\string-lines
"foo, foo,
bar, bar,
buzz, buzz!"
}

foo, foo,
bar, bar,
buzz, buzz!
Used properties:
• split-char (#\newline)
Appendix A: Markup commands 852

\table column-align (number list) lst (markup list)

Print a table.
column-align specifies how each column is aligned; possible values are -1, 0, and 1.
The number of elements in column-align determines how many columns will be
printed.
The entries to print are given by lst, a markup list. If needed, the last row is filled
up with point-stencils.
Override the padding property to increase the horizontal distance between columns.
Override baseline-skip to increase the vertical distance between rows.
% A markup command to print a fixed-width number.
\markup fwnum =
\markup \override #'(font-features . ("ss01" "-kern"))
\number \etc

\markuplist {
\override #'(padding . 2)
\table #'(0 1 0 -1) {
\underline { center-aligned right-aligned
center-aligned left-aligned }
one \fwnum 1 thousandth \fwnum 0.001
eleven \fwnum 11 hundredth \fwnum 0.01
twenty \fwnum 20 tenth \fwnum 0.1
thousand \fwnum 1000 one \fwnum 1.0
}
}

center-aligned right-aligned center-aligned left-aligned

one  thousandth !.!!

eleven  hundredth !.!
twenty ! tenth !.
thousand !!! one .!
Used properties:
• baseline-skip
• padding (0)
\table-of-contents
Print a table of contents.
This function uses the paper variable tocTitleMarkup for the title; it then prints
\tocItem entries line by line.
See Section 21.7 [Table of contents], page 599, for a complete discussion.
Used properties:
• baseline-skip
\tag-list tags (symbol list or symbol) arg (markup list)
Tag markup list arg with tag.
Appendix A: Markup commands 853

tag can be one or multiple tags. This allows later on to reference arg; for example,
to remove it or to add markup before or after the tagged markup list.
It works like the \tag command for markups but with markup lists. You will need
it if you have to reference a whole list; for example, to use \push-to-tag and
\append-to-tag without pushing or appending before or after every single item of
the list, but before or after the whole list instead.
tagged = \markuplist {
\tag-list #'foo { foo bar }
}

\markup { \push-to-tag #'foo test \tagged }

test foo bar

Used properties:
• tags-with-appends-alist (())
• tags-with-pushes-alist (())
• tags-to-remove (())
• tags-to-keep (())
\wordwrap-lines args (markup list)
Print args as left-aligned lines.
Like \wordwrap, but return a list of lines instead of a single markup. Use
\override-lines #'(line-width . X) to set the line width, where X is the number
of staff spaces.
Used properties:
• text-direction (1)
• word-space
• line-width (#f)
• baseline-skip
 854

Appendix B Notation manual tables

B.1 Chord name chart

The following chart shows LilyPond’s standard system for printing chord names, along with
the pitches they represent. Additional (unsupported) naming systems are also demonstrated in
the “Chord names alternative” snippet in Section “Chords” in Snippets, including the notation
inspired by Harald Banter (1982) that was used by default in early LilyPond releases (up to
version 1.7).

C° C7 Cm7 C C°7
5
 º ...  ...  ...   ...  ....  ... ...   ...   ...
C Cm C+ Cm

. . . .
5 5
C7 Cø C6
. Cm6 C9
 ....
Cm9
   ....  ....  ....   .... ....  ....  ....
Cm C

.
5 9 C7 9 9 11
... . . . . .
13
Cm Cm11 Cm7 C7 C11 C7 C13

  ....  .... .
  ....   ....   ....  ....  ....  ....
. . . . . .
    9 11 7 13
  ...   ....
 ...C
7 11 13 7 5 9
C C C7
  ....  ....  ..
. .. ..
7 9 13  
 C..  ...
C7 11  C...
9 7 13
C

 ... .
.  ... ...  ..
.. ..
7 9 13 7 9 13 11 
 .C.. .
. ...  .. .
.
9 13 7 9 13
C C C C C
 ....   .... ..
... ... ...   ....
. . . .
Csus4 C7 sus4 C9 sus4 C9
.
Cm11
 ..
Clyd
   .... .
alt
C
 ...  ...  .... .
...
. .  ... ... ...
B.2 Common chord modifiers
The following table shows chord modifiers that can be used to generate standard chord struc-
tures.

Type Interval Modifier Example Output

C
Major Major third, (nothing) c1  ...
perfect fifth
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 855

Cm
Minor Minor third, m or m5 c1:m   ...
perfect fifth
C+
Augmented Major third, aug c1:aug  ...
augmented fifth

C°
Diminished Minor third, dim c1:dim    ...
diminished fifth

C7
  ...
Dominant seventh Major triad,
minor seventh
7 c1:7 .

...
C
Major seventh Major triad, maj7 or maj c1:maj7  .
major seventh

Cm7
Minor seventh Minor triad, m7 c1:m7   ....
minor seventh

C°7
  ...
Diminished
seventh
Diminished triad,
diminished seventh
dim7 c1:dim7 .
5
C7
Augmented Augmented triad, aug7 c1:aug7    ....
seventh minor seventh

Cø
Half-diminished Diminished triad, m7.5- c1:m7.5-    ....
seventh minor seventh

 ....
Cm
Minor-major Minor triad, m7+ c1:m7+ 
seventh major seventh

C6
Major sixth Major triad, 6 c1:6  ....
sixth
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 856

Cm6
Minor sixth Minor triad, m6 c1:m6   ....
sixth

 ....
C9
Dominant ninth Dominant seventh, 9 c1:9  .
major ninth

 .....
9
C
Major ninth Major seventh, maj9 c1:maj9
major ninth

  .....
Cm9
Minor ninth Minor seventh, m9 c1:m9
major ninth

.
 ....
11
C
Dominant eleventh Dominant ninth, 11 c1:11  .
perfect eleventh

.
...
11
C
Major eleventh Major ninth, maj11 c1:maj11  ..
perfect eleventh

.
  .....
11
Cm
Minor eleventh Minor ninth, m11 c1:m11
perfect eleventh

.
9 13
C
  ....
Dominant
thirteenth
Dominant ninth,
major thirteenth
13 c1:13
.

. .
13
C
 .
.
 ...
Dominant Dominant eleventh, 13.11 c1:13.11
thirteenth major thirteenth

....
13
C

Major thirteenth Major eleventh, maj13.11 c1:maj13.11  ...

major thirteenth

..
13
Cm
 .
.
  ...
Minor thirteenth Minor eleventh, m13.11 c1:m13.11
major thirteenth
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 857

Csus2
Suspended second Major second, sus2 c1:sus2  ...
perfect fifth

Csus4
Suspended fourth Perfect fourth, sus4 c1:sus4  ...
perfect fifth

C5
Power chord Perfect fifth 1.5 c1:5  ..
(two-voiced)

 ...
C5
Power chord Perfect fifth, 1.5.8 c1:5.8
(three-voiced) octave

B.3 Predefined string tunings

The chart below shows the predefined string tunings.

Guitar tunings
. guitar-tuning
..
guitar-seven-string-tuning
..
guitar-drop-d-tuning
 º ... .. ..
.. .. ..
.
8

..guitar-drop-c-tuning ..
guitar-open-g-tuning
.
guitar-open-d-tuning
 .. ..  ...
. .. .
8
. .
.guitar-dadgad-tuning ..
guitar-lute-tuning
.
guitar-asus4-tuning
 ...  .. ...
. .. ..
8
.
Bass tunings
..
 º bass-tuning ..
bass-four-string-tuning
..
bass-drop-d-tuning

.. .. .
8 .
..
 .. bass-five-string-tuning bass-six-string-tuning

.. ...
8
. .
Mandolin tunings
. mandolin-tuning
 º ..
.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 858

Banjo tunings
..banjo-open-g-tuning .. .
...
banjo-c-tuning banjo-modal-tuning

 º ... ..
. .
8

. banjo-open-d-tuning .
banjo-open-dm-tuning
..
  .... ..
banjo-double-c-tuning

.. ..
8
.
.. banjo-double-d-tuning
.
 ..
8

.
Ukulele tunings
 ...
ukulele-tuning ukulele-d-tuning tenor-ukulele-tuning

 º ...  ...
.
.

...
baritone-ukulele-tuning

.
Orchestral string tunings
.viola-tuning
.  ..  ... ..
 double-bass-tuning
violin-tuning cello-tuning
 º .. ..
. . . 8

B.4 Predefined fretboard diagrams

B.4.1 Diagrams for Guitar

X
C O O
Cm X X
C+ C° X X
C°7 O
C7 O X
C OOO
Cm7 X
C9
X X X X
3fr 3fr 3fr

   ° ° 7 7   9
32 1 13421 2114 1243 1324 3241 32 13121 21333

C C m C + C C C C C m7 C
X X X X O X X X X O O X X X X X X OO X

3121 213 4312 3 4 1324 2314 43111 421 21333

X X
D  X X

D m
O X

D +
X X X
D
O
°
O X X
D °7 X X
D 7 X
D  X
D m7 
OO X
D 9
3121 213 4312 3 4 1324 2314 43111 421 21333

X X O
D X X O
Dm X X O
D+ X X O
D° X X O
D°7 O X X O
D7 D
X X O X X O
Dm7 X
D9
4fr

132 231 231 131 1 2 213 123 211 21333

Appendix B: Notation manual tables 859

D  D m  D +  D ° D ° 7 D 7 D  D m7  D 9
X X X X OO X X X X X X X X X X X
3fr 5fr

3121 3241 321 4 3141 1324 1324 1234 1234 21333

X X
E  X X
E m  E + 
OO X X
E ° X X
E ° 7 X X
E 7 X X
E  X X
E m7  X
E 9
3fr 5fr

3121 3241 321 4 3141 1324 1324 1234 1234 21333

7 7 7
O
E OO O
Em OOO O
E+ X X X X
E° X X
E° O
E
O OO O
E O X O
EmOOOO O
E9
O O
3fr

231 23 321 3141 1324 2 1 312 2 2 1 3

F Fm X X
F+ X X
F° X X O
F° 7O
F7 X X
F O
Fm7 F9
4fr

   ° °7 7   9
134211 134111 1342 3141 1 2 131211 321 131111 131214

F F m F + F F F F F m7 F
O X X X X X X
5fr

134211 134111 21 443 3141 1324 131211 4321 131111 131214

G  G m  G +
O
 X X
G ° X X
G °7 G 7 X X
G  G m7  G 9
5fr

134211 134111 21 443 3141 1324 131211 4321 131111 131214

G
OOO
Gm G+ G° X X
G°7 G7
OOO
G Gm7 G9
X X X X X X
3fr 5fr 6fr 2fr 3fr 3fr

   ° ° 7 7   9
21 3 134111 1342 3141 1324 32 1 4321 131111 131214

G G m G + G G G G G m7 G
O O X X X X O O X X
4fr 4fr 7fr 4fr 4fr 4fr

134211 134111 4312 3141 1 2 131211 1113 131111 131214

A  A m  O
A +  O X X
A ° X X O
A °7
O
A 7 X X
A  A m7  A 9
4fr 4fr 7fr 4fr 4fr 4fr

134211 134111 4312 3141 1 2 131211 1113 131111 131214

X O
A O X O
Am O X O
A+ X O
A° X X X
A°7 X O
A7 O O X O
A O X O
Am7O O
A9
5fr

   ° ° 7 7   9
123 231 4231 123 1324 1 3 213 2 1 131214

A A m A + A A A A A m7 A
X X O X X X X X X X X
6fr

12341 13421 21 443 1243 1324 12131 1324 13121 131214

Appendix B: Notation manual tables 860

X
B  X
B m  B +
O
 X
B ° X X X
B ° 7 X
B 7 X
B  X X

B m7 B 9
6fr

12341 13421 21 443 1243 1324 12131 1324 13121 131214

X
B X
Bm X
B+ OO X X
B° X X X O
B°7 O X
B7 O X
B X X
Bm7 X
B9

12341 13421 21 1243 1 2 213 4 1324 13121 21333

B.4.2 Diagrams for Ukulele

OOO
C O
Cm C+
OO
C° OOO
C7 OOO
C Cm7 C6
OOOO O
Csus2 Csus4 C9
OO O O
2fr

3 123 1 3 4123 1 2 1111 133 13 2 1

C  C m C +   C ° C 7 C  
C m7 C 6 Csus2 Csus4 C9
O O O O O

1114 12 4 312 1 4 1112 1113 12 3 1111 1344 1124 1312

D  D m D +
O
 
O O
D
O
° D 7 D  O

D m7 D 6 D sus2 D sus4 D 9
1114 12 4 312 1 4 1112 1113 12 3 1111 1344 1124 1312

D O
Dm O
D+ D° D7 D Dm7 D6 Dsus2 Dsus4 D9
OO O O

123 231 4321 1112 1113 2314 1111 12 12 1312

1214

D  D m D +   D ° D 7 D  
D m7 D 6 Dsus2 Dsus4 D9
O O O O
3fr

231 3421 231 133 1112 1112 2314 1111 2311 1341 111

O
E  E m  O
E +  E °
O
E 7 E  
E m7 E 6 E sus2 E sus4 E 9 O
3fr

231 3421 231 133 1112 1112 2314 1111 2311 1341 111

E O O
Em O
E+
OO O
E°
O
E7 O
E O O
Em7
O
E6
O
Esus2 Esus4 E9 O

14 2 3 1 1 3 4 1 12 3 13 2 1 2 12 3 2311 24 1 1234

F
O O
Fm
O
F+ O
F° F7 F Fm7 F6 OO
Fsus2 Fsus4 F9 O

2 1 1 24 312 2314 2413 1324 2314 13 3 11 1234

1412
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 861

F  
F m 
F + F ° F 7 F  
F m7 F 6 F sus2 Fsus4 F9
O O O O
2fr

3121 213 4321 1 2 2314 2413 1324 2314 1124 4123 12 3

G  
G m G +
O
 G
O
°
O
G 7 G  G m7 G 6 G sus2 G sus4 G 9 O
2fr

3121 213 4321 1 2 2314 2413 1324 2314 1124 4123 12 3

O
G O
Gm O
G+ O
G° O
G7 O
G O
Gm7 G6 O O O
Gsus2 Gsus4 G9
O O

132 231 231 142 213 123 211 1 2 12 123 2314

G  
G m G +  G ° G 7 G  
G m7 G 6 G sus2 Gsus4 G9
OO
3fr

4132 1342 1 3 1243 1324 1234 1423 1324 1341 1344 2314

A  A m A +
OO
 A ° A 7 A  
A m7 A 6 A sus2 A sus4 A 9
3fr

4132 1342 1 3 1243 1324 1234 1423 1324 1341 1344 2314

AOO
Am
OOO
A+ O
A° O
A7 OO
A OO OOOO
Am7 A6 Asus2 Asus4 A9
O OO O O
2fr

21 2 312 1244 1 12 1324 13 2 12 1 2

A  
A m 
A + A ° A 7 A  
A m7 A 6 A sus2 Asus4 A9
O O O

3211 3111 4321 31 2 1211 2211 1111 211 3 11 2311 1324

B  B m B +  B
O
° B 7 B  
B m7 B
O
6 B
O
sus2 B sus4 B 9
3211 3111 4321 31 2 1211 2211 1111 211 3 11 2311 1324

B Bm O
B+ B° B7 B Bm7 B6 Bsus2 Bsus4 B9

3211 3111 231 4123 1211 2211 1111 1423 2311 1324
4132

B.4.3 Diagrams for Mandolin

C Cm C+ C°7 C7 O
C Cm7 Cø C6 Csus2 Csus4 C9
O O O
2fr 5fr 2fr 2fr 5fr 3fr 3fr 5fr

412 1124 4123 2143 4112 1122 3142 1122 3 11 3111 1 32

421
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 862

C  
C m C + C  °7 C7 C  
C m7 C ø C 6 C sus2 Csus4 C9
O O O
4fr 3fr 2fr 3fr 6fr 4fr 3fr

231 41 211 4112 1122 3142 1122 1134 3111

4213 2134
4231

D  
D m D + D
O O
 °7 D 7
O
D  D m7 D ø D 6 D sus2 D sus4 D 9
4fr 3fr 2fr 3fr 6fr 4fr 3fr

231 41 211 4112 1122 3142 1122 1134 3111

4213 2134
4231

D
OO
Dm
OO
D+
O O
D°7 D7
O
D
O
Dm7 Dø
O O
D6
O
Dsus2 Dsus4 D9
OOO OO O
3fr

1 2 2 1 3 12 1 32 1 32 1 42 2 31 1 32 1 23 1 1 2

   °7 D7   ø 6 sus2 Dsus4 D9

421

D D m D + D D D m7 D D D
O
5fr

3114 3112 123 2143 2143 3142 2143 2134 3111 3114
2143 2134

E  
E m E +
O
 E °7 E 7 E  
E m7 E ø E 6 E sus2 E sus4 E 9
5fr

3114 3112 123 2143 2143 3142 2143 2134 3111 3114
2143 2134

E O O
Em O
E+ E°7 E7
O O
E O OO
Em7 Eø O OO O
E6 O
Esus2 Esus4 E9 OO
4fr 6fr

123 23 1234 2143 1 2 112 2 1 132 3111 31

2134

FO
Fm F+ O
F° 7 F7 F Fm7 Fø F6
O O
Fsus2 Fsus4 F9
2fr 7fr

23 1 1341 1234 1 32 2131 2341 1131 1121 2 31 341

   ° 7 F 7   ø 6 sus2 Fsus4 F9

4211 2134

F F m F + F F F m7 F F F
O
3fr 4fr 2fr 8fr

2341 1341 1234 2143 2131 2341 1131 1121 3142 3111 213
4211

G  
G m G + G  °7 G 7 G  G m7 G ø G 6 G sus2 G sus4 G 9 O
3fr 4fr 2fr 8fr

2341 1341 1234 2143 2131 2341 1131 1121 3142 3111 213
4211

OO
G OO
Gm O
G+ G°7 G7
OO
G
OO OO
Gm7 Gø G6
OO O OOO
Gsus2 Gsus4 G9
OO O O
3fr

12 13 123 2143 21 11 11 1121 2 3 11

1 4
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 863

G  
G m G + G  ° 7 G 7 G  
G m7 G ø G 6 G sus2 Gsus4 G9
O O

1134 1124 1234 1 32 1132 1133 1122 1 22 1131 1114 1134

1324

A  
A m A +  A
O
°7 A 7 A  
A m7 A
O
ø A 6 A sus2 A sus4 A 9
1134 1124 1234 1 32 1132 1133 1122 1 22 1131 1114 1134
1324

A O
Am O
A+ A°7 A7 A Am7 Aø A6 Asus2 Asus4 A9
O OOO
2fr

113 112 2341 2143 1132 1133 1122 2134 1131 111 1

   °7 A7   ø 6 sus2 Asus4 A9

1324

A A m A + A A A m7 A A A
O O OO OO O
3fr 3fr 3fr

3 11 1124 3 12 2143 1132 3 1 1122 2134 11 1114 3111 1 23

O
B  
B m B +
O
 B °7 B 7 B
OO
 
B m7 B ø B
OO
6 B sus2 B sus4 B 9 O
3fr 3fr 3fr

3 11 1124 3 12 2143 1132 3 1 1122 2134 11 1114 3111 1 23

B Bm
O
B+ B°7
O
B7 B Bm7 Bø
OO O
B6 Bsus2 Bsus4 B9
4fr 4fr 4fr

1134 3 11 4123 1 32 1132 4112 3 1 2 31 1122 1114 3111

2134

B.5 Predefined paper sizes

Paper sizes are defined in file scm/paper.scm.
ISO 216, A series
"a10" 26 mm x 37 mm (1.02 in x 1.46 in)
"a9" 37 mm x 52 mm (1.46 in x 2.05 in)
"a8" 52 mm x 74 mm (2.05 in x 2.91 in)
"a7" 74 mm x 105 mm (2.91 in x 4.13 in)
"a6" 105 mm x 148 mm (4.13 in x 5.83 in)
"a5" 148 mm x 210 mm (5.83 in x 8.27 in)
"a4" 210 mm x 297 mm (8.27 in x 11.69 in)
"a3" 297 mm x 420 mm (11.69 in x 16.54 in)
"a2" 420 mm x 594 mm (16.54 in x 23.39 in)
"a1" 594 mm x 841 mm (23.39 in x 33.11 in)
"a0" 841 mm x 1189 mm (33.11 in x 46.81 in)
Two extended sizes as defined in DIN 476
"2a0" 1189 mm x 1682 mm (46.81 in x 66.22 in)
"4a0" 1682 mm x 2378 mm (66.22 in x 93.62 in)
ISO 216, B series
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 864

"b10" 31 mm x 44 mm (1.22 in x 1.73 in)

"b9" 44 mm x 62 mm (1.73 in x 2.44 in)
"b8" 62 mm x 88 mm (2.44 in x 3.46 in)
"b7" 88 mm x 125 mm (3.46 in x 4.92 in)
"b6" 125 mm x 176 mm (4.92 in x 6.93 in)
"b5" 176 mm x 250 mm (6.93 in x 9.84 in)
"b4" 250 mm x 353 mm (9.84 in x 13.90 in)
"b3" 353 mm x 500 mm (13.90 in x 19.69 in)
"b2" 500 mm x 707 mm (19.69 in x 27.83 in)
"b1" 707 mm x 1000 mm (27.83 in x 39.37 in)
"b0" 1000 mm x 1414 mm (39.37 in x 55.67 in)
ISO 269, C series
"c10" 28 mm x 40 mm (1.10 in x 1.57 in)
"c9" 40 mm x 57 mm (1.57 in x 2.24 in)
"c8" 57 mm x 81 mm (2.24 in x 3.19 in)
"c7" 81 mm x 114 mm (3.19 in x 4.49 in)
"c6" 114 mm x 162 mm (4.49 in x 6.38 in)
"c5" 162 mm x 229 mm (6.38 in x 9.02 in)
"c4" 229 mm x 324 mm (9.02 in x 12.76 in)
"c3" 324 mm x 458 mm (12.76 in x 18.03 in)
"c2" 458 mm x 648 mm (18.03 in x 25.51 in)
"c1" 648 mm x 917 mm (25.51 in x 36.10 in)
"c0" 917 mm x 1297 mm (36.10 in x 51.06 in)
North American paper sizes
"junior-legal" 5.0 in x 8.0 in (127 mm x 203 mm)
"legal" 8.5 in x 14.0 in (216 mm x 356 mm)
"ledger" 17.0 in x 11.0 in (432 mm x 279 mm)
"17x11" 17.0 in x 11.0 in (432 mm x 279 mm)
"letter" 8.5 in x 11.0 in (216 mm x 279 mm)
"tabloid" 11.0 in x 17.0 in (279 mm x 432 mm)
"11x17" 11.0 in x 17.0 in (279 mm x 432 mm)
Sizes by IEEE Printer Working Group, for children’s writing
"government-letter" 8.0 in x 10.5 in (203 mm x 267 mm)
"government-legal" 8.5 in x 13.0 in (216 mm x 330 mm)
"philippine-legal" 8.5 in x 13.0 in (216 mm x 330 mm)
ANSI sizes
"ansi a" 8.5 in x 11.0 in (216 mm x 279 mm)
"ansi b" 11.0 in x 17.0 in (279 mm x 432 mm)
"ansi c" 17.0 in x 22.0 in (432 mm x 559 mm)
"ansi d" 22.0 in x 34.0 in (559 mm x 864 mm)
"ansi e" 34.0 in x 44.0 in (864 mm x 1118 mm)
"engineering f" 28.0 in x 40.0 in (711 mm x 1016 mm)
North American architectural sizes
"arch a" 9.0 in x 12.0 in (229 mm x 305 mm)
"arch b" 12.0 in x 18.0 in (305 mm x 457 mm)
"arch c" 18.0 in x 24.0 in (457 mm x 610 mm)
"arch d" 24.0 in x 36.0 in (610 mm x 914 mm)
"arch e" 36.0 in x 48.0 in (914 mm x 1219 mm)
"arch e1" 30.0 in x 42.0 in (762 mm x 1067 mm)
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 865

Other sizes, including antique sizes still used in the United Kingdom
"statement" 5.5 in x 8.5 in (140 mm x 216 mm)
"half letter" 5.5 in x 8.5 in (140 mm x 216 mm)
"quarto" 8.0 in x 10.0 in (203 mm x 254 mm)
"octavo" 6.75 in x 10.5 in (171 mm x 267 mm)
"executive" 7.25 in x 10.5 in (184 mm x 267 mm)
"monarch" 7.25 in x 10.5 in (184 mm x 267 mm)
"foolscap" 8.27 in x 13.0 in (210 mm x 330 mm)
"folio" 8.27 in x 13.0 in (210 mm x 330 mm)
"super-b" 13.0 in x 19.0 in (330 mm x 483 mm)
"post" 15.5 in x 19.5 in (394 mm x 495 mm)
"crown" 15.0 in x 20.0 in (381 mm x 508 mm)
"large post" 16.5 in x 21.0 in (419 mm x 533 mm)
"demy" 17.5 in x 22.5 in (445 mm x 572 mm)
"medium" 18.0 in x 23.0 in (457 mm x 584 mm)
"broadsheet" 18.0 in x 24.0 in (457 mm x 610 mm)
"royal" 20.0 in x 25.0 in (508 mm x 635 mm)
"elephant" 23.0 in x 28.0 in (584 mm x 711 mm)
"double demy" 22.5 in x 35.0 in (572 mm x 889 mm)
"quad demy" 35.0 in x 45.0 in (889 mm x 1143 mm)
"atlas" 26.0 in x 34.0 in (660 mm x 864 mm)
"imperial" 22.0 in x 30.0 in (559 mm x 762 mm)
"antiquarian" 31.0 in x 53.0 in (787 mm x 1346 mm)
PA4-based sizes
"pa10" 26 mm x 35 mm (1.02 in x 1.38 in)
"pa9" 35 mm x 52 mm (1.38 in x 2.05 in)
"pa8" 52 mm x 70 mm (2.05 in x 2.76 in)
"pa7" 70 mm x 105 mm (2.76 in x 4.13 in)
"pa6" 105 mm x 140 mm (4.13 in x 5.51 in)
"pa5" 140 mm x 210 mm (5.51 in x 8.27 in)
"pa4" 210 mm x 280 mm (8.27 in x 11.02 in)
"pa3" 280 mm x 420 mm (11.02 in x 16.54 in)
"pa2" 420 mm x 560 mm (16.54 in x 22.05 in)
"pa1" 560 mm x 840 mm (22.05 in x 33.07 in)
"pa0" 840 mm x 1120 mm (33.07 in x 44.09 in)
Additional format for use in Southeast Asia and Australia
"f4" 210 mm x 330 mm (8.27 in x 12.99 in)

B.6 MIDI instruments

The following is a list of names that can be used for the midiInstrument property. Each is
presented with its number among the General MIDI Standard’s 128 Program Numbers.
1 acoustic grand 2 bright acoustic 3 electric grand
4 honky-tonk 5 electric piano 1 6 electric piano 2
7 harpsichord 8 clav 9 celesta
10 glockenspiel 11 music box 12 vibraphone
13 marimba 14 xylophone 15 tubular bells
16 dulcimer 17 drawbar organ 18 percussive organ
19 rock organ 20 church organ 21 reed organ
22 accordion 23 harmonica 24 concertina
25 acoustic guitar (nylon) 26 acoustic guitar (steel) 27 electric guitar (jazz)
28 electric guitar (clean) 29 electric guitar (muted) 30 overdriven guitar
31 distorted guitar 32 guitar harmonics 33 acoustic bass
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 866

34 electric bass (finger) 35 electric bass (pick) 36 fretless bass

37 slap bass 1 38 slap bass 2 39 synth bass 1
40 synth bass 2 41 violin 42 viola
43 cello 44 contrabass 45 tremolo strings
46 pizzicato strings 47 orchestral harp 48 timpani
49 string ensemble 1 50 string ensemble 2 51 synthstrings 1
52 synthstrings 2 53 choir aahs 54 voice oohs
55 synth voice 56 orchestra hit 57 trumpet
58 trombone 59 tuba 60 muted trumpet
61 french horn 62 brass section 63 synthbrass 1
64 synthbrass 2 65 soprano sax 66 alto sax
67 tenor sax 68 baritone sax 69 oboe
70 english horn 71 bassoon 72 clarinet
73 piccolo 74 flute 75 recorder
76 pan flute 77 blown bottle 78 shakuhachi
79 whistle 80 ocarina 81 lead 1 (square)
82 lead 2 (sawtooth) 83 lead 3 (calliope) 84 lead 4 (chiff)
85 lead 5 (charang) 86 lead 6 (voice) 87 lead 7 (fifths)
88 lead 8 (bass+lead) 89 pad 1 (new age) 90 pad 2 (warm)
91 pad 3 (polysynth) 92 pad 4 (choir) 93 pad 5 (bowed)
94 pad 6 (metallic) 95 pad 7 (halo) 96 pad 8 (sweep)
97 fx 1 (rain) 98 fx 2 (soundtrack) 99 fx 3 (crystal)
100 fx 4 (atmosphere) 101 fx 5 (brightness) 102 fx 6 (goblins)
103 fx 7 (echoes) 104 fx 8 (sci-fi) 105 sitar
106 banjo 107 shamisen 108 koto
109 kalimba 110 bagpipe 111 fiddle
112 shanai 113 tinkle bell 114 agogo
115 steel drums 116 woodblock 117 taiko drum
118 melodic tom 119 synth drum 120 reverse cymbal
121 guitar fret noise 122 breath noise 123 seashore
124 bird tweet 125 telephone ring 126 helicopter
127 applause 128 gunshot
The drum kits listed below are also possible.
1 standard kit 9 room kit 17 power kit
25 electronic kit 26 tr-808 kit 33 jazz kit
41 brush kit 49 orchestra kit 57 sfx kit
128 mt-32 kit/cm-64 kit

B.7 List of colors

Normal colors
See Section 7.1.5 [Coloring objects], page 279, for detailed usage syntax.
black white red green
blue cyan magenta yellow
grey darkred darkgreen darkblue
darkcyan darkmagenta darkyellow

CSS color names

CSS color names may be used as-is in string arguments.
aliceblue antiquewhite aqua
aquamarine azure beige
bisque black blanchedalmond
blue blueviolet brown
burlywood cadetblue chartreuse
chocolate coral cornflowerblue
cornsilk crimson cyan
darkblue darkcyan darkgoldenrod
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 867

darkgray darkgreen darkgrey

darkkhaki darkmagenta darkolivegreen
darkorange darkorchid darkred
darksalmon darkseagreen darkslateblue
darkslategray darkslategrey darkturquoise
darkviolet deeppink deepskyblue
dimgray dimgrey dodgerblue
firebrick floralwhite forestgreen
fuchsia gainsboro ghostwhite
gold goldenrod gray
green greenyellow grey
honeydew hotpink indianred
indigo ivory khaki
lavender lavenderblush lawngreen
lemonchiffon lightblue lightcoral
lightcyan lightgoldenrodyellow lightgray
lightgreen lightgrey lightpink
lightsalmon lightseagreen lightskyblue
lightslategray lightslategrey lightsteelblue
lightyellow lime limegreen
linen magenta maroon
mediumaquamarine mediumblue mediumorchid
mediumpurple mediumseagreen mediumslateblue
mediumspringgreen mediumturquoise mediumvioletred
midnightblue mintcream mistyrose
moccasin navajowhite navy
oldlace olive olivedrab
orange orangered orchid
palegoldenrod palegreen paleturquoise
palevioletred papayawhip peachpuff
peru pink plum
powderblue purple rebeccapurple
red rosybrown royalblue
saddlebrown salmon sandybrown
seagreen seashell sienna
silver skyblue slateblue
slategray slategrey snow
springgreen steelblue tan
teal thistle tomato
turquoise violet wheat
white whitesmoke yellow
yellowgreen

CSS color definitions differ from X color names for the following colors: green, grey, maroon,
purple.

X color names
X11 color names (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X11_color_names) offer a wider choice
than CSS names. They come in several variants:
• Any name that is spelled as a single word with capitalization (e.g., ‘LightSlateBlue’) can
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 868

also be spelled as space-separated words with or without capitalization (e.g., ‘light slate
blue’).
• The word ‘grey’ can always be spelled ‘gray’ (e.g., ‘DarkSlateGray’), without any difference
in the output.
• Some names can take a numerical suffix (e.g., ‘LightSalmon4’).
Use the Scheme function x11-color to access them.

Color Names without a numerical suffix

The following table presents all color names that may be used without a numerical suffix.
aliceblue antiquewhite aquamarine
azure beige bisque
black blanchedalmond blue
blueviolet brown burlywood
cadetblue chartreuse chocolate
coral cornflowerblue cornsilk
cyan darkblue darkcyan
darkgoldenrod darkgray darkgreen
darkgrey darkkhaki darkmagenta
darkolivegreen darkorange darkorchid
darkred darksalmon darkseagreen
darkslateblue darkslategray darkslategrey
darkturquoise darkviolet deeppink
deepskyblue dimgray dimgrey
dodgerblue firebrick floralwhite
forestgreen gainsboro ghostwhite
gold goldenrod gray
green greenyellow grey
honeydew hotpink indianred
ivory khaki lavender
lavenderblush lawngreen lemonchiffon
lightblue lightcoral lightcyan
lightgoldenrod lightgoldenrodyellow lightgray
lightgreen lightgrey lightpink
lightsalmon lightseagreen lightskyblue
lightslateblue lightslategray lightslategrey
lightsteelblue lightyellow limegreen
linen magenta maroon
mediumaquamarine mediumblue mediumorchid
mediumpurple mediumseagreen mediumslateblue
mediumspringgreen mediumturquoise mediumvioletred
midnightblue mintcream mistyrose
moccasin navajowhite navy
navyblue oldlace olivedrab
orange orangered orchid
palegoldenrod palegreen paleturquoise
palevioletred papayawhip peachpuff
peru pink plum
powderblue purple red
rosybrown royalblue saddlebrown
salmon sandybrown seagreen
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 869

seashell sienna skyblue

slateblue slategray slategrey
snow springgreen steelblue
tan thistle tomato
turquoise violet violetred
wheat white whitesmoke
yellow yellowgreen

Color names with a numerical suffix

A subset of the X11 color names may be used with a numerical suffix in the range 1 to 4 to get
darker shades. Note that for such colors, color foo is identical to color foo1.
antiquewhite1 antiquewhite2 antiquewhite3 antiquewhite4
aquamarine1 aquamarine2 aquamarine3 aquamarine4
azure1 azure2 azure3 azure4
bisque1 bisque2 bisque3 bisque4
blue1 blue2 blue3 blue4
brown1 brown2 brown3 brown4
burlywood1 burlywood2 burlywood3 burlywood4
cadetblue1 cadetblue2 cadetblue3 cadetblue4
chartreuse1 chartreuse2 chartreuse3 chartreuse4
chocolate1 chocolate2 chocolate3 chocolate4
coral1 coral2 coral3 coral4
cornsilk1 cornsilk2 cornsilk3 cornsilk4
cyan1 cyan2 cyan3 cyan4
darkgoldenrod1 darkgoldenrod2 darkgoldenrod3 darkgoldenrod4
darkolivegreen1 darkolivegreen2 darkolivegreen3 darkolivegreen4
darkorange1 darkorange2 darkorange3 darkorange4
darkorchid1 darkorchid2 darkorchid3 darkorchid4
darkseagreen1 darkseagreen2 darkseagreen3 darkseagreen4
darkslategray1 darkslategray2 darkslategray3 darkslategray4
deeppink1 deeppink2 deeppink3 deeppink4
deepskyblue1 deepskyblue2 deepskyblue3 deepskyblue4
dodgerblue1 dodgerblue2 dodgerblue3 dodgerblue4
firebrick1 firebrick2 firebrick3 firebrick4
gold1 gold2 gold3 gold4
goldenrod1 goldenrod2 goldenrod3 goldenrod4
green1 green2 green3 green4
honeydew1 honeydew2 honeydew3 honeydew4
hotpink1 hotpink2 hotpink3 hotpink4
indianred1 indianred2 indianred3 indianred4
ivory1 ivory2 ivory3 ivory4
khaki1 khaki2 khaki3 khaki4
lavenderblush1 lavenderblush2 lavenderblush3 lavenderblush4
lemonchiffon1 lemonchiffon2 lemonchiffon3 lemonchiffon4
lightblue1 lightblue2 lightblue3 lightblue4
lightcyan1 lightcyan2 lightcyan3 lightcyan4
lightgoldenrod1 lightgoldenrod2 lightgoldenrod3 lightgoldenrod4
lightpink1 lightpink2 lightpink3 lightpink4
lightsalmon1 lightsalmon2 lightsalmon3 lightsalmon4
lightskyblue1 lightskyblue2 lightskyblue3 lightskyblue4
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 870

lightsteelblue1 lightsteelblue2 lightsteelblue3 lightsteelblue4

lightyellow1 lightyellow2 lightyellow3 lightyellow4
magenta1 magenta2 magenta3 magenta4
maroon1 maroon2 maroon3 maroon4
mediumorchid1 mediumorchid2 mediumorchid3 mediumorchid4
mediumpurple1 mediumpurple2 mediumpurple3 mediumpurple4
mistyrose1 mistyrose2 mistyrose3 mistyrose4
navajowhite1 navajowhite2 navajowhite3 navajowhite4
olivedrab1 olivedrab2 olivedrab3 olivedrab4
orange1 orange2 orange3 orange4
orangered1 orangered2 orangered3 orangered4
orchid1 orchid2 orchid3 orchid4
palegreen1 palegreen2 palegreen3 palegreen4
paleturquoise1 paleturquoise2 paleturquoise3 paleturquoise4
palevioletred1 palevioletred2 palevioletred3 palevioletred4
peachpuff1 peachpuff2 peachpuff3 peachpuff4
pink1 pink2 pink3 pink4
plum1 plum2 plum3 plum4
purple1 purple2 purple3 purple4
red1 red2 red3 red4
rosybrown1 rosybrown2 rosybrown3 rosybrown4
royalblue1 royalblue2 royalblue3 royalblue4
salmon1 salmon2 salmon3 salmon4
seagreen1 seagreen2 seagreen3 seagreen4
seashell1 seashell2 seashell3 seashell4
sienna1 sienna2 sienna3 sienna4
skyblue1 skyblue2 skyblue3 skyblue4
slateblue1 slateblue2 slateblue3 slateblue4
slategray1 slategray2 slategray3 slategray4
snow1 snow2 snow3 snow4
springgreen1 springgreen2 springgreen3 springgreen4
steelblue1 steelblue2 steelblue3 steelblue4
tan1 tan2 tan3 tan4
thistle1 thistle2 thistle3 thistle4
tomato1 tomato2 tomato3 tomato4
turquoise1 turquoise2 turquoise3 turquoise4
violetred1 violetred2 violetred3 violetred4
wheat1 wheat2 wheat3 wheat4
yellow1 yellow2 yellow3 yellow4

Grey Scale
The set of X11 colors also contains a palette of 101 gray shades.
gray0 gray1 gray2 gray3 gray4
gray5 gray6 gray7 gray8 gray9
gray10 gray11 gray12 gray13 gray14
gray15 gray16 gray17 gray18 gray19
gray20 gray21 gray22 gray23 gray24
gray25 gray26 gray27 gray28 gray29
gray30 gray31 gray32 gray33 gray34
gray35 gray36 gray37 gray38 gray39
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 871

gray40 gray41 gray42 gray43 gray44

gray45 gray46 gray47 gray48 gray49
gray50 gray51 gray52 gray53 gray54
gray55 gray56 gray57 gray58 gray59
gray60 gray61 gray62 gray63 gray64
gray65 gray66 gray67 gray68 gray69
gray70 gray71 gray72 gray73 gray74
gray75 gray76 gray77 gray78 gray79
gray80 gray81 gray82 gray83 gray84
gray85 gray86 gray87 gray88 gray89
gray90 gray91 gray92 gray93 gray94
gray95 gray96 gray97 gray98 gray99
gray100
The table for color names greyN looks the same.

Color-blind-safe colors
The Scheme function universal-color provides a set of eight colors (https://jfly.
uni-koeln.de/color) designed to be unambiguous to people with dichromatism.
black orange skyblue bluegreen
yellow blue vermillion redpurple

B.8 The Emmentaler font

The Emmentaler font consists of two subsets of glyphs: “Feta”, used for classical notation, and
“Parmesan”, used for ancient notation.
Any glyph within the Emmentaler font can be accessed directly by using text markup along
with the name of the glyph (as shown in the tables below). For example;
g^\markup {\musicglyph "scripts.segno" }
or
\markup {\musicglyph "five"}
See Section 8.2 [Formatting text], page 310, for more information.

B.8.1 Modern glyph charts

All glyphs of the “Feta” subset.

Clef glyphs
clefs.C
clefs.C_change 
clefs.varC 3 clefs.varC_change 4
clefs.F  clefs.F_change 
clefs.G  clefs.G_change 
clefs.GG  clefs.GG_change 
clefs.tenorG 1 clefs.tenorG_change 2
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 872

clefs.percussion  clefs.percussion_change

clefs.varpercussion 5 clefs 6
/ 0
.varpercussion_change
clefs.tab clefs.tab_change

Time Signature glyphs

timesig.C44 º timesig.C22 ¹
Number glyphs
plus + comma ,
hyphen - period .
figuredash ‒ endash –
parenleft ( parenright )
slash / zero 0
one 1 two 2
three 3 four 4
four.alt 4 five 5
six 6 seven 7
seven.alt 7 eight 8
nine 9 fixedwidth.zero 5
fixedwidth.one / fixedwidth.two 4
fixedwidth.three 3 fixedwidth.four ,
fixedwidth.four.alt - fixedwidth.five +
fixedwidth.six 2 fixedwidth.seven 0
fixedwidth.seven.alt 1 fixedwidth.eight *
fixedwidth.nine . fattened.zero !
fattened.one  fattened.two

fattened.three  fattened.four 
fattened.four.alt  fattened.five
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 873

fattened.six  fattened.seven 
fattened.seven.alt  fattened.eight

fattened.nine  fattened.fixedwidth.zero 
fattened.fixedwidth.one  fattened.fixedwidth.two 
fattened  fattened.fixedwidth.four 

.fixedwidth.three
fattened.fixedwidth fattened.fixedwidth.five

 
.four.alt
fattened.fixedwidth.six fattened


.fixedwidth.seven
fattened.fixedwidth fattened


.seven.alt .fixedwidth.eight
fattened.fixedwidth.nine u2007

u2009 u200A

Figured bass symbol glyphs

figbass.twoplus ' figbass.fourplus #
figbass.fiveplus " figbass.sixstroked &
figbass.sevenstroked % figbass.ninestroked $
Accidental glyphs
accidentals.sharp  accidentals 
 
.sharp.figbass
accidentals accidentals

 
.sharp.arrowup .sharp.arrowdown
accidentals accidentals.sharp

" !
.sharp.arrowboth .slashslash.stem
accidentals.sharp accidentals.sharp


.slashslashslash.stemstem .slashslashslash.stem
accidentals accidentals.sharp

.sharp.slash.stem .slashslash.stemstemstem
accidentals.doublesharp accidentals

 
.doublesharp.figbass
accidentals.natural accidentals

 
.natural.figbass
accidentals accidentals

 
.natural.arrowup .natural.arrowdown
accidentals accidentals.flat


.natural.arrowboth
accidentals.flat.figbass accidentals.flat.arrowup 
accidentals  accidentals 
.flat.arrowdown .flat.arrowboth
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 874

accidentals.flat.slash  accidentals.flat 
 
.slashslash
accidentals accidentals.mirroredflat


.mirroredflat.flat
accidentals accidentals.flatflat


.mirroredflat.backslash
accidentals accidentals

# 
.flatflat.figbass .flatflat.slash
accidentals.sharp.sori accidentals.flat.koron

accidentals.rightparen  accidentals.leftparen 
Default note head glyphs

noteheads.uM2 Ø noteheads.dM2 
noteheads.sM1 „ noteheads.s0 .
noteheads.s1 N noteheads.s2 h
Special note head glyphs
noteheads.sM1double † noteheads.s0diamond 2
noteheads.s1diamond Q noteheads.s2diamond k
noteheads.s0triangle M noteheads.s1triangle g
noteheads.s2triangle ‚ noteheads.s0slash G
noteheads.s1slash b noteheads.s2slash }
noteheads.s0cross 1 noteheads.s1cross P
noteheads.s2cross j noteheads.s2xcircle ƒ
noteheads.s0harmonic 7 noteheads.s2harmonic n
Note head glyphs for shape notes
noteheads.s0do 3 noteheads.s1do R
noteheads.s2do l noteheads.s0doThin 4
noteheads.s1doThin S noteheads.s2doThin m
noteheads.s0re D noteheads.s1re `
noteheads.s2re { noteheads.s0reThin E
noteheads.s1reThin a noteheads.s2reThin |
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 875

noteheads.s0mi > noteheads.s1mi Z

noteheads.s2mi t noteheads.s0miMirror ?
noteheads.s1miMirror [ noteheads.s2miMirror v
noteheads.s0miThin @ noteheads.s1miThin \
noteheads.s2miThin w noteheads.u0fa »
noteheads.d0fa  noteheads.u1fa Ã
noteheads.d1fa noteheads.u2fa Î
noteheads.d2fa  noteheads.u0faThin ½
noteheads.d0faThin  noteheads.u1faThin Å
noteheads.d1faThin noteheads.u2faThin Ð
noteheads.d2faThin  noteheads.s0sol H
noteheads.s1sol c noteheads.s2sol ~
noteheads.s0la 9 noteheads.s1la U
noteheads.s2la o noteheads.s0laThin ;
noteheads.s1laThin W noteheads.s2laThin q
noteheads.s0ti J noteheads.s1ti e
noteheads.s2ti € noteheads.s0tiThin K
noteheads.s1tiThin f noteheads.s2tiThin 
noteheads.u0doFunk º noteheads.d0doFunk

noteheads.u1doFunk Á noteheads.d1doFunk 
noteheads.u2doFunk Ì noteheads.d2doFunk 
noteheads.u0reFunk ¿ noteheads.d0reFunk 
noteheads.u1reFunk È noteheads.d1reFunk 
Ó

noteheads.u2reFunk noteheads.d2reFunk 
¾

noteheads.u0miFunk noteheads.d0miFunk

Ç
u ¼
noteheads.u1miFunk noteheads.d1miFunk

noteheads.s2miFunk noteheads.u0faFunk
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 876

 Ä
Ï
noteheads.d0faFunk noteheads.u1faFunk

 I
noteheads.d1faFunk noteheads.u2faFunk

noteheads.d2faFunk noteheads.s0solFunk

d 
V
noteheads.s1solFunk noteheads.s2solFunk

:
p À
noteheads.s0laFunk noteheads.s1laFunk

 Ê
noteheads.s2laFunk noteheads.u0tiFunk

 Õ
noteheads.d0tiFunk noteheads.u1tiFunk

 5
noteheads.d1tiFunk noteheads.u2tiFunk

noteheads.d2tiFunk noteheads.s0doWalker

Â

noteheads.u1doWalker noteheads.d1doWalker

Í
F É
noteheads.u2doWalker noteheads.d2doWalker

 Ô
noteheads.s0reWalker noteheads.u1reWalker

 A
noteheads.d1reWalker noteheads.u2reWalker

noteheads.d2reWalker noteheads.s0miWalker

] x
6 Æ
noteheads.s1miWalker noteheads.s2miWalker

Ñ
noteheads.s0faWalker noteheads.u1faWalker

 <
noteheads.d1faWalker noteheads.u2faWalker

r
noteheads.d2faWalker noteheads.s0laWalker

noteheads.s1laWalker X noteheads.s2laWalker

L Ë
 Ö
noteheads.s0tiWalker noteheads.u1tiWalker


noteheads.d1tiWalker noteheads.u2tiWalker

noteheads.d2tiWalker

Rest glyphs
rests.0 ” rests.1 ˜
rests.0o — rests.1o œ
rests.M3 ´ rests.M2 ±
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 877

rests.M1 ­ rests.M1o °
rests.2  rests.2classical ž
rests.2z ¡ rests.3 ¢
rests.4 ¥ rests.5 ¨
rests.6 © rests.7 ª
rests.8 « rests.9 ¬
rests.10 ™

†
Flag glyphs

‡ ˆ
flags.u3 flags.u4

flags.u5 flags.u6

flags.u7 ‰ flags.u8 Š

flags.u9 ‹ flags.u10 „

T U
W
flags.d3 flags.d4

flags.d5 V flags.d6

flags.d7 X flags.d8 Y

Z S
} ~
flags.d9 flags.d10

 €
flags.stackedu3 flags.stackedu4

flags.stackedu5 flags.stackedu6

flags.stackedu7  flags.stackedu8 ‚
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 878

flags.stackedu9 ƒ flags.stackedu10 |

u v
w x
flags.stackedd3 flags.stackedd4

flags.stackedd5 flags.stackedd6

flags.stackedd7 y flags.stackedd8 z

{ t
Π[
flags.stackedd9 flags.stackedd10

flags.ugrace flags.dgrace

Dot glyphs
dots.dot P
Dynamic glyphs
f
m n
space f

m n

p r
z
p r

s s z

Script glyphs
scripts.ufermata z scripts.dfermata F
| H
G
scripts scripts

{
.uhenzeshortfermata .dhenzeshortfermata

Q
scripts scripts
.uhenzelongfermata .dhenzelongfermata
scripts.ushortfermata scripts.dshortfermata

scripts Š scripts V
} I
.uveryshortfermata .dveryshortfermata
scripts.ulongfermata scripts.dlongfermata

‰ U
s m
scripts.uverylongfermata scripts.dverylongfermata

scripts.thumb scripts.sforzato

scripts.espr W scripts.staccato p
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 879

scripts.ustaccatissimo ‡ scripts.dstaccatissimo S
r ‚
O
scripts.tenuto scripts.uportato

~
J b
scripts.dportato scripts.umarcato

scripts.dmarcato scripts.open

Y Z
q
scripts.halfopen scripts.halfopenvertical

ˆ
T
scripts.stopped scripts.uupbow

y
E j
scripts.dupbow scripts.udownbow

scripts.ddownbow scripts.reverseturn

scripts.turn w scripts.slashturn n
[ u
M
scripts.haydnturn scripts.trill

scripts.upedalheel  scripts.dpedalheel

€ N
l
scripts.upedaltoe scripts.dpedaltoe

X
C
scripts.flageolet scripts.segno

scripts.varsegno Πscripts.coda

‹ i
k
scripts.varcoda scripts.rcomma

^
` h
scripts.lcomma scripts.rvarcomma

] ;
scripts.lvarcomma scripts.raltcomma

=
scripts.laltcomma scripts.arpeggio

scripts.trill_element v scripts.arpeggio

< c
.arrow.M1

f
scripts.arpeggio.arrow.1 scripts.prall

a
e
scripts.mordent scripts.prallprall

scripts.prallmordent scripts.upprall ƒ
 g
L K
scripts.upmordent scripts.prallup

d _
scripts.downprall scripts.downmordent

> @
scripts.pralldown scripts.lineprall

scripts.bachschleifer scripts.caesura.curved
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 880

A t
o \
scripts.caesura.straight scripts.tickmark

D
scripts.snappizzicato scripts.ictus

x
P
scripts.uaccentus scripts.daccentus

„
B
scripts.usemicirculus scripts.dsemicirculus

†
R
scripts.circulus scripts
.usignumcongruentiae
scripts
.dsignumcongruentiae

2 3
Arrowhead glyphs

4
arrowheads.open.01 arrowheads.open.0M1

5
. /
arrowheads.open.11 arrowheads.open.1M1

0 1
arrowheads.close.01 arrowheads.close.0M1

arrowheads.close.11 arrowheads.close.1M1

Bracket-tip glyphs
brackettips.up 7 brackettips.down 6
Pedal glyphs
pedal.*  pedal.M 
Ž 
“
pedal.. pedal.P

pedal.d ’ pedal.e

pedal.Ped ‘
Accordion glyphs

' (
) -
accordion.discant accordion.dot

& *
accordion.freebass accordion.stdbass

accordion.bayanbass accordion.oldEE

accordion.push , accordion.pull +
Tie glyphs
ties.lyric.short ¸ ties.lyric.default ·
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 881

B.8.2 Ancient glyph charts

All glyphs of the “Parmesan” subset.

7 8
Vaticana glyphs
clefs.vaticana.do clefs.vaticana.do_change

clefs.vaticana.fa 9 clefs.vaticana.fa_change :
custodes.vaticana.u0 M custodes.vaticana.u1 N
custodes.vaticana.u2 O custodes.vaticana.d0 J
custodes.vaticana.d1 K custodes.vaticana.d2 L
accidentals.vaticanaM1 % accidentals.vaticana0 $
R °
± ¬
dots.dotvaticana noteheads
.svaticana.punctum

­ ª
noteheads.svaticana noteheads.svaticana
.punctum.cavum .linea.punctum

® ·
noteheads.svaticana noteheads.svaticana
.linea.punctum.cavum .inclinatum

µ ¹
noteheads.svaticana.lpes noteheads
.svaticana.vlpes

¯ ¸
noteheads.svaticana.upes noteheads
.svaticana.vupes

© ¶
noteheads noteheads
.svaticana.plica .svaticana.vplica

³ ´
noteheads noteheads.svaticana
.svaticana.epiphonus .vepiphonus

« ¨
noteheads.svaticana noteheads.svaticana
.reverse.plica .reverse.vplica

²
noteheads.svaticana noteheads.svaticana
.inner.cephalicus .cephalicus
noteheads
.svaticana.quilisma

Medicaea glyphs
 

clefs.medicaea.do clefs.medicaea.do_change

clefs.medicaea.fa clefs.medicaea.fa_change 
custodes.medicaea.u0 A custodes.medicaea.u1 B
C >
?
custodes.medicaea.u2 custodes.medicaea.d0

@
 •
custodes.medicaea.d1 custodes.medicaea.d2

– —
accidentals.medicaeaM1 noteheads.smedicaea
.inclinatum

˜
noteheads noteheads
.smedicaea.punctum .smedicaea.rvirga
noteheads
.smedicaea.virga
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 882

Hufnagel glyphs
clefs.hufnagel.do clefs.hufnagel.do_change 
clefs.hufnagel.fa  clefs.hufnagel.fa_change 
clefs.hufnagel.do.fa clefs.hufnagel
.do.fa_change
custodes.hufnagel.u0 ; custodes.hufnagel.u1 <
custodes.hufnagel.u2 = custodes.hufnagel.d0 8
custodes.hufnagel.d1 9 custodes.hufnagel.d2 :
“
” ’
accidentals.hufnagelM1 noteheads
.shufnagel.punctum
noteheads noteheads.shufnagel.lpes
.shufnagel.virga

Mensural glyphs
rests.M3mensural µ rests.M2mensural ²
rests.M1mensural ® rests.0mensural •
rests.1mensural š rests.2mensural Ÿ
£ ¦

rests.3mensural rests.4mensural

clefs.mensural.c clefs.mensural.c_change 

 
clefs.blackmensural.c clefs.blackmensural
.c_change
clefs.mensural.f clefs.mensural.f_change

clefs.mensural.g  clefs.mensural.g_change 
custodes.mensural.u0 G custodes.mensural.u1 H
custodes.mensural.u2 I custodes.mensural.d0 D
custodes.mensural.d1 E custodes.mensural.d2 F
accidentals.mensural1  accidentals.mensuralM1 
flags.mensuralu03 h flags.mensuralu13 l
flags.mensuralu23 p flags.mensurald03 \
` d
i
flags.mensurald13 flags.mensurald23

flags.mensuralu04 flags.mensuralu14 m
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 883

q ]
a
flags.mensuralu24 flags.mensurald04

e
n
flags.mensurald14 flags.mensurald24

flags.mensuralu05 j flags.mensuralu15

flags.mensuralu25 r flags.mensurald05 ^
flags.mensurald15 b flags.mensurald25 f
flags.mensuralu06 k flags.mensuralu16 o

flags.mensuralu26 s flags.mensurald06 _

c g
¿ »
flags.mensurald16 flags.mensurald26

Á
timesig.mensural44 timesig.mensural22

½
¾
timesig.mensural32 timesig.mensural64

Ä
 Å
timesig.mensural94 timesig.mensural34

Ã
timesig.mensural68 timesig.mensural98

timesig.mensural48 À timesig.mensural68alt

¼ Þ
% 
timesig.mensural24 noteheads.uM3mensural

noteheads.dM3mensural noteheads.sM3ligmensural

Ú !

noteheads.uM2mensural noteheads.dM2mensural

ˆ
+
noteheads.sM2ligmensural noteheads.sM1mensural

ä
Ÿ á
noteheads.urM3mensural noteheads.drM3mensural

( 
noteheads noteheads.urM2mensural
.srM3ligmensural

š à
noteheads.drM2mensural noteheads
.srM2ligmensural

' ‘
noteheads.srM1mensural noteheads
.uM3semimensural

#
noteheads noteheads

Ü
.dM3semimensural .sM3semiligmensural

Ž
noteheads noteheads

Š
.uM2semimensural .dM2semimensural
noteheads noteheads
.sM2semiligmensural .sM1semimensural
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 884

æ -
ã
noteheads noteheads
.urM3semimensural .drM3semimensural

ž
noteheads noteheads

*
.srM3semiligmensural .urM2semimensural

œ Ý
noteheads noteheads
.drM2semimensural .srM2semiligmensural

$ 
noteheads noteheads
.srM1semimensural .uM3blackmensural
noteheads noteheads

Ù
.dM3blackmensural .sM3blackligmensural
noteheads noteheads

‹
.uM2blackmensural .dM2blackmensural
noteheads noteheads

= Y
.sM2blackligmensural .sM1blackmensural
noteheads.s0mensural noteheads.s1mensural

noteheads.s2mensural s noteheads /
.s0blackmensural

Neomensural glyphs
rests.M3neomensural ¶ rests.M2neomensural ³
rests.M1neomensural ¯ rests.0neomensural –
rests.1neomensural › rests.2neomensural

¤ §

rests.3neomensural rests.4neomensural

clefs.neomensural.c  clefs.neomensural

Ê Æ
.c_change

È Ì
timesig.neomensural44 timesig.neomensural22

timesig.neomensural32 timesig.neomensural64

Ï É
Í Ð
timesig.neomensural94 timesig.neomensural34

Ë Î
timesig.neomensural68 timesig.neomensural98

Ç ß
timesig.neomensural48 timesig.neomensural68alt

timesig.neomensural24 noteheads.uM3neomensural

& Û
"
noteheads.dM3neomensural noteheads.uM2neomensural

‰
,
noteheads.dM2neomensural noteheads.sM1neomensural

noteheads å noteheads

â
.urM3neomensural .drM3neomensural

›
noteheads noteheads )
B
.urM2neomensural .drM2neomensural

^
noteheads noteheads.s0neomensural

y
.srM1neomensural
noteheads.s1neomensural noteheads.s2neomensural
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 885

!
Petrucci glyphs

clefs.petrucci.c1 clefs.petrucci.c1_change "

clefs.petrucci.c2 # clefs.petrucci.c2_change $
clefs.petrucci.c3 % clefs.petrucci.c3_change &
clefs.petrucci.c4 ' clefs.petrucci.c4_change (
clefs.petrucci.c5 ) clefs.petrucci.c5_change *
clefs.petrucci.f + clefs.petrucci.f_change ,

clefs.petrucci.g - clefs.petrucci.g_change .
noteheads.s0petrucci C noteheads.s1petrucci _
noteheads.s2petrucci z noteheads 0
O i
.s0blackpetrucci
noteheads noteheads
.s1blackpetrucci .s2blackpetrucci

¤ ¡
Solesmes glyphs

¢ £
noteheads.ssolesmes noteheads
.incl.parvum .ssolesmes.auct.asc

¦ §
noteheads noteheads.ssolesmes
.ssolesmes.auct.desc .incl.auctum

¥
noteheads noteheads.ssolesmes
.ssolesmes.stropha .stropha.aucta
noteheads
.ssolesmes.oriscus

Kievan Notation glyphs

clefs.kievan.do  clefs.kievan.do_change 
accidentals.kievan1 accidentals.kievanM1

scripts.barline.kievan ? dots.dotkievan Q
noteheads.sM2kievan Œ noteheads.sM1kievan ‡
noteheads.s0kievan 8 noteheads.d2kievan 
Ò T
™
noteheads.u2kievan noteheads.s1kievan

noteheads.sr1kievan noteheads.d3kievan 
noteheads.u3kievan ×
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 886

B.9 Note head styles

The following styles may be used for note heads.

7 h NP
default altdefault

2N h N P .. „
„
Ø
 2N hh NN PP .. †
†
Ø


2^ yy ^^ PP
baroque neomensural

2N hh NN PP .. ‰‰ Û" B
B
‰‰ Û"
mensural petrucci

2Y ss YY PP == ˆ
ˆ
Ú
! 2_ zz __ PP C
C
ˆ
ˆ
Ú
!
harmonic harmonic-black

27 77 77 PP 77 77 77 2n nn nn PP nn
nn nn
harmonic-mixed diamond

27 nn 77 PP 7
7 7
7
7
7 2Q kk QQ PP 2
2
2
2
2
2
cross xcircle

2P jj PP PP 11 11 11 2ƒ ƒƒ ƒƒ PP ƒƒ ƒƒ ƒƒ
triangle slash

2g ‚‚ gg PP M M M 2b }} b P
bP G G
M G
6 M M G G G
B.10 Accidental glyph sets
The following sets of accidental glyphs are available.
standard-alteration-glyph-name-alist

 º h h  h  h h h  h h
h
alteration-hufnagel-glyph-name-alist

 º h $h  h
alteration-medicaea-glyph-name-alist

 º  h $h  h
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 887

alteration-vaticana-glyph-name-alist

 º % h $h  h
alteration-mensural-glyph-name-alist

 º  h $h  h
alteration-kievan-glyph-name-alist

º h h
B.11 Clef styles
The following table shows all the clef styles possible (including the cases where middle C sits
relative to the clef). For more modification possibilities like ottavation digits, see Section 1.3.1
[Clef], page 19.

B.11.1 Standard clefs

Example Output Example Output

 
\clef G . \clef "G2" .

 
\clef treble . \clef violin .

 .
\clef french . \clef GG

\clef tenorG
1 .

.
.

.
.
\clef soprano \clef mezzosoprano

\clef C \clef alto

Appendix B: Notation manual tables 888

.
.
\clef tenor \clef baritone

\clef varC
3 . \clef altovarC
3 .

3 . 3 .
\clef tenorvarC \clef baritonevarC

\clef varbaritone
 . \clef baritonevarF
 .

\clef F
 . \clef bass
 .

 .
\clef subbass

B.11.2 Percussion staff clef

 .
Example Output Example Output

\clef percussion \clef varpercussion

5 .

B.11.3 Tab staff clefs

Example Output Example Output

/ 1 T
A
1

\new TabStaff { \new TabStaff {

B
\clef tab \clef moderntab
} }
B.11.4 Ancient music clefs
Gregorian

7 ° 7 °
Example Output Example Output

7 °
\clef "vaticana-do1" \clef "vaticana-do2"

9 °
\clef "vaticana-do3" \clef "vaticana-fa1"
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 889

9 °
\clef "vaticana-fa2"

 –  –
–  –
\clef "medicaea-do1" \clef "medicaea-do2"

 –
\clef "medicaea-do3" \clef "medicaea-fa1"

\clef "medicaea-fa2"

\clef "hufnagel-do1" “ \clef "hufnagel-do2"

“
“  “
\clef "hufnagel-do3" \clef "hufnagel-fa1"

“ “
\clef "hufnagel-fa2"
 \clef "hufnagel-do-fa"

Mensural

Example Output Example Output

 =  =
 =
\clef "mensural-c1" \clef "mensural-c2"

 =
 =
\clef "mensural-c3" \clef "mensural-c4"

\clef "mensural-c5"

 =  =
 =
\clef "mensural-f" \clef "mensural-f2"

 =
 =
\clef "mensural-f3" \clef "mensural-f4"

\clef "mensural-f5"
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 890

 
\clef "mensural-g1" = \clef "mensural-g2" =

\clef "mensural-g" =

\clef "blackmensural-c1" / \clef "blackmensural-c2"

/

/ /
\clef "blackmensural-c3" \clef "blackmensural-c4"

/
\clef "blackmensural-c5"

\clef "neomensural-c1"  B \clef "neomensural-c2"

 B

 B  B
\clef "neomensural-c3" \clef "neomensural-c4"

 B
\clef "neomensural-c5"

\clef "petrucci-c1" ! C \clef "petrucci-c2"

# C

% C ' C
\clef "petrucci-c3" \clef "petrucci-c4"

) C
\clef "petrucci-c5"

C
+ + C
\clef "petrucci-f" \clef "petrucci-f2"

C C
+ +
\clef "petrucci-f3" \clef "petrucci-f4"
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 891

C
+
\clef "petrucci-f5"

- -
\clef "petrucci-g1" C \clef "petrucci-g2" C
-
\clef "petrucci-g" C
Kievan

 8
Example Output

\clef "kievan-do"

B.12 List of special characters

The following special characters references can be used; for more details, see Section 22.4.3
[ASCII aliases], page 620.
The HTML syntax is used and most of these references are the same as HTML. The rest of
them are inspired by LATEX.
The characters are boxed so that you can see their size. A small padding has been added
between the character and the box for more readability.

&iexcl; ¡ &iquest; ¿ &solidus; ∕ &flq; ‹

&frq; › &flqq; « &frqq; » &glq; ‚

&grq; ‘ &glqq; „ &grqq; “ &elq; ‘

&erq; ’ &elqq; “ &erqq; ” &ensp;

&emsp; &thinsp; &nbsp; &nnbsp;

&zwj; &zwnj; &middot; · &bull; •

&copyright; © &registered; ® &trademark; ™ &dagger; †

&Dagger; ‡ &numero; № &ordf; ª &ordm; º

&para; ¶ &sect; § &deg; ° &numero; №

&permil; ‰ &brvbar; ¦ &acute; ´ &acutedbl; ˝

&grave; ` &breve; ˘ &caron; ˇ &cedilla; ¸

&circumflex; ^ &diaeresis; ¨ &macron; ¯ &aa; å

Appendix B: Notation manual tables 892

&AA; Å &ae; æ &AE; Æ &auml; ä

&Auml; Ä &dh; ð &DH; Ð &dj; đ

&DJ; Đ &l; ł &L; Ł &ng; ŋ

&NG; Ŋ &o; ø &O; Ø &oe; œ

&OE; Œ &ouml; ö &Ouml; Ö &s; ſ

&ss; ß &th; þ &TH; Þ &uuml; ü

&Uuml; Ü &plus; + &minus; − &times; ×

&div; ÷ &sup1; ¹ &sup2; ² &sup3; ³

&sqrt; √ &increment; ∆ &infty; ∞ &sum; ∑

&pm; ± &bulletop; ∙ &partial; ∂ &neg; ¬

&currency; ¤ &dollar; $ &euro; € &pounds; £

&yen; ¥ &cent; ¢

B.13 List of articulations

In LilyPond’s internal logic, an ‘articulation’ is any object (other than dynamics) that may be
attached directly after a rhythmic event: notes, chords; even silences and skips, or the empty
chord construct <> (see Section “Structure of a note entry” in Learning Manual). Even slurs,
fingerings and text scripts are technically articulations, although these are not shown here.
Therefore, the following lists include not only articulation marks, but also all other scripts in
the Emmentaler font that may be attached to notes (the way an accent is entered as ‘c'\accent’
or ‘c'->’). Each example shows the script in its two possible vertical positions: respectively up
and down, as well as its default (neutral ) position. See also [Script glyphs], page 878, for a
more extensive list of glyphs, for use with the \musicglyph markup command as explained in
Section 8.2.5 [Music notation inside markup], page 325.

B.13.1 Articulation scripts

hm m hO O
\accent or -> \marcato or -^ \portato or -_

hW hW
\espressivo
h~ h~
 hm
h  h
W
 hJ  h‚
h

\staccatissimo or -! \staccato or -. \tenuto or --

h‡ ‡ hp hp hr hr
 hS h  hp  hr
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 893

B.13.2 Ornament scripts

hc hg hg hd d hƒ hƒ
\prall \prallup \pralldown \upprall
c
hd h
 h  h   h
hc g ƒ

hL hL hf hf h_ h_ he he
\downprall \prallprall \lineprall \prallmordent

L f _ e
 h  h  h  h

ha h h hK hK
\mordent \upmordent \downmordent \trill
a hu u
K
 h  h  h  h
ha  h
u

hw j hj j h[
\turn \reverseturn \slashturn \haydnturn

hn n [
hj h
h
 hw h   hn h  h[

B.13.3 Fermata scripts

\veryshortfermata \shortfermata \fermata \longfermata

hŠ Š h hz hz h} }
hQ h
 h   h  hI h
hV F

\verylongfermata \henzeshortfermata \henzelongfermata

h‰ ‰ h| h| h{ h{
G
 h  h  h
hU H
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 894

B.13.4 Instrument-specific scripts

hb b
\upbow \downbow \flageolet \open

hˆ ˆ hy y hX X
hT hE hb
 h  h  h  h
hX

hY h hM M
\halfopen \lheel \rheel \ltoe
Y h€
h hM
  h  h  h
hY h h
 € €

N N ho o hq q
\rtoe \snappizzicato \stopped or -+ \thumb

h hs s
hq
h
hN h ho
h
    hs h

B.13.5 Repeat sign scripts

l l C C
\segno \coda \varcoda
‹ ‹
h h h h h
h h C
l
  h  h
‹

B.13.6 Ancient scripts

7 °x 7 °B °B 7 °\ °\
°B °\
\accentus \circulus \ictus

°x °x

7 °P °P °P
7 °†
\semicirculus \signumcongruentiae

°R °†
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 895

B.14 List of breath marks

'chantquarterbar 'chanthalfbar 'chantfullbar 'chantdoublebar

 h h h  h h h  h h h  h h h

kh
'comma 'varcomma 'tickmark 'upbow

ih t ˆ
 h h  h h  h h h  h h h

@h
'outsidecomma 'caesura 'curvedcaesura 'spacer
i Ah
 h h h  h h  h h  h h h

B.15 Percussion notes

bassdrum acousticbassdrum snare acousticsnare

bd bda sn sna

º h . º h . º h . º h .

electricsnare lowfloortom highfloortom lowtom

sne tomfl tomfh toml

º h . º h . º h . º h .
hightom lowmidtom himidtom hihat
tomh tomml tommh hh

º h . º h . º h . º j 1

closedhihat openhihat halfopenhihat pedalhihat

q 1q b 1b
hhc hho hhho hhp

º j º j º ƒ ƒ º
j 1
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 896

crashcymbal crashcymbala crashcymbalb ridecymbal

cymc cymca cymcb cymr

º º º º
ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ j 1 j 1

ridecymbala ridecymbalb chinesecymbal splashcymbal

cymra cymrb cymch cyms

º º º º
j 1 j 1 s = k 2

ridebell cowbell hibongo openhibongo

rb cb boh boho

º
h .
º
‚ M º h . º h .

mutehibongo lobongo openlobongo mutelobongo

bohm bol bolo bolm

º h . º h . º h . º h .

hiconga openhiconga mutehiconga loconga

cgh cgho cghm cgl

º h . º h . º h . º h .

openloconga muteloconga hitimbale lotimbale

cglo cglm timh timl

º h . º h . º h . º h .

hiagogo loagogo sidestick hisidestick

agh agl ss ssh

º h . º h . º j 1 º h .
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 897

losidestick guiro shortguiro longguiro

ssl gui guis guil

º h . º h . º h . º h .

cabasa maracas shortwhistle longwhistle

cab mar whs whl

º h . º h . º h . º h .

handclap tambourine vibraslap tamtam

hc tamb vibs tt

º ‚ M º h . º k 2 º h .

claves hiwoodblock lowoodblock opencuica

cl wbh wbl cuio

º h . º h . º h . º h .

mutecuica triangle opentriangle mutetriangle

cuim tri trio trim

º h . º h . º h . º h .

B.16 List of bar lines

Each system following shows the appearance of a particular bar type at the beginning, middle,
and end of a line.

For more information, see Section 2.5.1 [Bar lines], page 115, and Section 2.5.2 [Automatic
bar lines], page 125.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 898

Simple bar lines

";"
 . PP . PP  .
"!"
.  . .
PP PP
""

PPP PPP
PP PP
PPP . PPP
 . P P  . .  . .

"|-s" "|"
 . .  . .

 . .  . .

End-of-line bar lines

"x-||" "x-|"
 . .  . .  . .
"x-."

 . .  . .  . .

Chant bar lines

"-span|" "||"
 . ? . ?  . .  . .
"k"

 . ? . ?  . .  . .

"|" ","
 . .  . .  . .
"'"

 . .  . .  . .
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 899

Section bar lines

"||" ".|-||"
 . .  . .  . .
".."

 . .  . .  . .

".|-|" "|."
 . .  . .  . .
"."

 . .  . .  . .

"|.|" ".|"
 . .  . .

 . .  . .

Segno bar lines

"S-|"
"|.S-S"
 . Œ . Œ  . Œ . Œ  Œ. Œ .
"S-S"

 . Œ . Œ  . Œ . Œ  Œ. Œ .

"|.S" "S-||" "S"

 Œ. Œ .  Œ. Œ .  Œ. Œ .

 Œ. Œ .  Œ. Œ .  Œ. Œ .
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 900

Start-repeat bar lines

7 7P
"|.S.|:-S" "[|:-|."
 PP . ΠPP .  PP . ΠPP .  PP .
"S.|:-S"
ΠΠP .

 PP . ΠPP . Π PP . ΠPP . Π 6PP . 6
PP .

"|.S.|:"

 7PP . 7P .
"[|:-||"
 PP . PP .  ΠPP . ΠPP .
".|:-|."
P

 PP . PP .  ΠPP . ΠPP .  6PP . 6
PP .

"S.|:-||"
7 7P
"[|:-|"
 PP . PP .  ΠPP . ΠPP .  PP .
".|:-||"
P .

 PP . PP .  ΠPP . ΠPP .  6PP . 6
PP .

"S.|:-|"
7 7P
"[|:"
 PP . PP .  ΠPP . ΠPP .  PP .
".|:-|"
P .

 PP . PP .  ΠPP . ΠPP .  6PP . 6
PP .

"S.|:"

 PP . PP .  ΠPP . ΠPP .
".|:"

 PP . PP .  ΠPP . ΠPP .
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 901

Double-repeat bar lines

7 77 7
":|][|:" ":|.S.|:-S"

 PP . PP PP . PP  PP . PP ΠPP . PP Π PP . PP PP . PP
":|.|:"

 6PP . 6PP 6PP . 6PP  PP . PP ΠPP . PP Π PP . PP PP . PP

":|.S.|:"

 PP . PP PP . PP  ΠPP . PP ΠPP . PP  PP . PP PP . PP
":|.:" ":.|.:"

 PP . PP PP . PP  ΠPP . PP ΠPP . PP  PP . PP PP . PP

 PP . PP PP . PP
":..:"

 PP . PP PP . PP

End-repeat bar lines

7P 7P
":|.S-S"
 . PP Œ . PP Œ
":|]"
 . P . P

 . PP Π. PP Π . P
6P .
P
6P
":|.S"

 Π. PP Π. PP PP . PP
":|."
 .

 Π. PP Π. PP  . PP . PP

B.17 Default values for outside-staff-priority

The following table shows the default outside-staff-priority of all outside-staff grobs. Ob-
jects with smaller values are placed closer to the staff.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 902

Grob Priority
AccidentalSuggestion 0
BassFigureAlignmentPositioning 25
MultiMeasureRestScript 40
TrillSpanner 50
BarNumber 100
LigatureBracket 200
DynamicLineSpanner 250
TextSpanner 350
OttavaBracket 400
MultiMeasureRestText 450
TextScript 450
CombineTextScript 475
InstrumentSwitch 500
VoltaBracketSpanner 600
MeasureCounter 750
MeasureSpanner 750
HorizontalBracket 800
SostenutoPedalLineSpanner 1000
SustainPedalLineSpanner 1000
UnaCordaPedalLineSpanner 1000
CenteredBarNumberLineSpanner 1200
TextMark 1250
MetronomeMark 1300
JumpScript 1350
CodaMark 1400
SegnoMark 1400
SectionLabel 1450
RehearsalMark 1500

B.18 Default values for script-priority

The following table shows the default script-priority of all script-related grobs (starting with
an uppercase letter) and script names (starting with a lowercase letter). Objects with smaller
values are placed closer to the staff.
The Fingering, StringNumber, and StrokeFinger grobs, if part of a chord, add the vertical
position of the associated note head to get the final priority value. The script-priority values
of other scripts part of a chord stay unmodified.
For scripts not part of a chord, the current event position is added instead. This means that
for scripts with the same script-priority value, the first one attached to a note head gets the
lowest priority value.
Grobs not listed here (and which are related to scripts) get 200 as the default
script-priority value.
Grob or Script Priority
AccidentalPlacement -100
accentus -100
circulus -100
ictus -100
semicirculus -100
staccato -100
tenuto -50
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 903

AccidentalSuggestion 0
Arpeggio 0
flageolet 50
Fingering 100
StrokeFinger 125
StringNumber 150
trill 150
fermata 175
henzelongfermata 175
henzeshortfermata 175
longfermata 175
shortfermata 175
verylongfermata 175
veryshortfermata 175
downbow 180
upbow 180
CombineTextScript 200
TextScript 200

B.19 Technical glossary

This glossary lists some the technical terms and concepts used internally in LilyPond. These
terms may appear in the manuals, on mailing lists or in the source code.
alist An association list or alist for short is a Scheme pair that associates a value with a
key: (key . value). For example, in scm/lily.scm, the alist type-p-name-alist
associates certain type predicates (e.g., ly:music?) with names (e.g., “music”) so
that type check failures can be reported with a console message that includes the
name of the expected type predicate.
callback A callback is a routine, function or method whose reference is passed as an argument
in a call to another routine, thus allowing the called routine to invoke it. The
technique enables a lower-level software layer to call a function defined in a higher
layer. Callbacks are used extensively in LilyPond to make user-level Scheme code
control many low-level actions.
closure In Scheme, a closure is created when a function, usually a lambda expression (i.e.,
an ad-hoc, anonymous function), is passed as a variable. The closure contains the
function’s code plus references to the lexical bindings of the function’s free variables
(i.e., those variables used in the expression but defined outside it). When this
function is applied to different arguments later, the free variable bindings that were
captured in the closure are used to obtain the values of the free variables, which in
turn are used in the calculation. One useful property of closures is the preservation of
internal variable values between invocations, thus permitting state to be maintained.
glyph A glyph is a particular graphical representation of a typographic character, or a
combination of two (or more) characters forming a ligature. A set of glyphs with a
single style and shape comprise a font, and a set of fonts covering several styles and
sizes comprise a typeface.
See also: Section 8.3 [Fonts], page 327, Section 22.4 [Special characters], page 618.
grob LilyPond objects that represent items of notation in the printed output such as
note heads, stems, slurs, ties, fingering, clefs, etc., are called ‘Layout objects’, often
known as ‘GRaphical OBjects’, or grobs for short. They are represented by instances
of the Grob class.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 904

See also: Section “Objects and interfaces” in Learning Manual, Section “Properties
of layout objects” in Learning Manual.
Section B.23 [Naming conventions], page 932.
Section “grob-interface” in Internals Reference, Section “All layout objects” in In-
ternals Reference.
immutable
An immutable object is one whose state cannot be modified after creation, in con-
trast to a mutable object, which can be modified after creation.
In LilyPond, immutable or shared properties define the default style and behavior
of grobs. They are shared between many objects. In apparent contradiction to the
name, they can be changed using \override and \revert.
See also below for mutable objects.
interface Actions and properties that are common to a number of grobs are grouped together
in an object called a grob-interface, or just interface for short.
See also: Section B.23 [Naming conventions], page 932, Section 34.2 [Layout inter-
faces], page 729.
Section “Objects and interfaces” in Learning Manual, Section “Properties found in
interfaces” in Learning Manual.
Section “Graphical Object Interfaces” in Internals Reference.
lexer A lexer is a program that converts a sequence of characters into a sequence of tokens,
a process called lexical analysis. The LilyPond lexer converts the stream obtained
from an input .ly file into a tokenized stream more suited to the next stage of
processing – parsing (see below). The LilyPond lexer is built using the flex program
from the lexer file lily/lexer.ll, which contains the lexical rules. This file is part
of the source code and not included in the LilyPond binary installation.
mutable A mutable object is one whose state can be modified after creation, in contrast to
an immutable object, whose state is fixed at the time of creation.
In LilyPond, mutable properties contain values that are specific to one grob. Typ-
ically, lists of other objects or results from computations are stored in mutable
properties.
See also above for immutable objects.
output-def An instance of the Output-def class contains the methods and data structures
associated with an output block. Instances are created for MIDI, layout, and paper
blocks.
parser A parser analyzes the sequence of tokens produced by a lexer to determine its gram-
matical structure, grouping the tokens progressively into larger groupings according
to the rules of the grammar. If the sequence of tokens is valid the end product
is a tree of tokens whose root is the grammar’s start symbol. If this cannot be
achieved the file is invalid and an appropriate error message is produced. The syn-
tactic groupings and the rules for constructing the groupings from their parts for
the LilyPond syntax are defined in file lily/parser.yy. During compilation, this
file gets processed by a parser generator, bison, to build the parser. It is part of
the source code and not included in the LilyPond binary installation.
parser variable
These are variables defined directly in Scheme. Their direct use by users is strongly
discouraged because their scoping semantics can be confusing.
When the value of such a variable is changed in a .ly file, the change is global, and
unless explicitly reverted, the new value persists to the end of the file, affecting sub-
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 905

sequent \score blocks as well as external files added with the \include command.
This can lead to unintended consequences, and in complex typesetting projects the
consequent errors can be difficult to track down.
Among others, the following parser variables are used by LilyPond:
afterGraceFraction
musicQuotes
output-count
output-suffix
partCombineListener
pitchnames
toplevel-bookparts
toplevel-scores
showLastLength
showFirstLength
prob PRoperty OBjects, or probs for short, are instances of the Prob class, a simple
base class for objects that have mutable and immutable property alists and the
methods to manipulate them. The Music and Stream_event classes derive from
Prob. Instances of the Prob class are also created to hold the formatted content of
system grobs and titling blocks during page layout.
smob Smobs, or ScheMe OBjects, are part of the mechanism used by Guile to export C
and C++ objects to Scheme code. In LilyPond, smobs are created from C++ objects
through macros. There are two types of smob objects: simple smobs, intended for
simple immutable objects like numbers, and complex smobs, used for objects with
identities. If you have access to the LilyPond sources, more information can be
found in file lily/includes/smob.hh.
spanner Spanners are a class of grobs that are not horizontally fixed on one point of the score
but extend from one point to another. Examples include beams, ties, and slurs, as
well as hairpins and staff lines. Whereas non-spanners can only be broken into at
most two visible pieces (for example, a clef duplicated at the end of the line and the
beginning of the next line), spanners are broken into as many pieces as required by
their start and end points (such as a long crescendo extending on three systems, or
staff lines, which always span the whole score).
Technically, spanners are defined as grobs having the spanner-interface; on the
C++ side of LilyPond, they are instances of the Spanner subclass of Grob. The left
and right bounds of a spanner can be retrieved and set using ly:spanner-bound and
ly:spanner-set-bound!, respectively. The bounds are always items. The X parent
of a spanner has little musical sense, but is usually set to the left bound.
See also: Section 36.4 [Spanners], page 748.
Section “All layout objects” in Internals Reference, Section “spanner-interface” in
Internals Reference.
stencil An instance of the Stencil class holds the information required to print a typo-
graphical object, a stencil. It is a simple smob containing a confining box, which
defines the vertical and horizontal extents of the object, and a Scheme expression,
which prints the object when evaluated. Stencils may be combined to form more
complex stencils defined by a tree of Scheme expressions, which in turn are formed
from the Scheme expressions of the component stencils.
The stencil property, which connects a grob to its stencil, is defined in the
grob-interface interface.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 906

See also Section “grob-interface” in Internals Reference.

B.20 Available music functions

In the following, the first argument of a function is printed with a slanted typeface, followed
by the first argument’s type in parentheses. Then comes the second argument, followed by the
second argument’s type, again in parentheses, and so on. After the arrow the type of the return
value is printed.
If an argument and its type is enclosed in brackets, the argument is optional and can be
omitted, indicating that LilyPond should use a default value instead. However, if a function’s
last argument is tagged as optional, it cannot be omitted: you have to pass \default if you do
not want to explicitly specify a value. See Section “Scheme function usage” in Extending for
more details on how optional arguments are handled.
\absolute music (music) ⇒ music
Make music absolute.
This does not actually change the music itself but rather hides it from surrounding
\relative and \fixed commands.
\acciaccatura music (music) ⇒ music
Create an acciaccatura from music.
\accidentalStyle style (symbol list) ⇒ music
Set accidental style to style.
style is a (predefined) symbol list like piano-cautionary; see Section 1.3.5 [Auto-
matic accidentals], page 31, for the available styles. If it is preceded by a context
name, the settings are applied to that context (example: Staff.piano-cautionary).
Otherwise, the context defaults to Staff, except for piano styles, which use
GrandStaff as a context.
\addChordShape key-symbol (symbol) tuning (pair) shape-definition (string or pair) ⇒ void
Add shape-definition as a chord shape.
It gets added to the chord-shape-table hash with the key (cons key-symbol
tuning).
\addInstrumentDefinition name (string) lst (list) ⇒ void
Create instrument name with properties lst.
This function is deprecated.
\addQuote name (string) music (music) ⇒ void
Define music as a quotable music expression named name.
\after delta (duration) ev (music) mus (music) ⇒ music
Add music ev with a delay of delta after the onset of mus.
ev is usually a post-event.
\afterGrace [fraction (non-negative rational, fraction, or moment)] main (music) grace
(music) ⇒ music
Create grace as grace notes after a main music expression.
The musical position of the grace expression is after a given fraction of the main
note’s duration has passed. If optional argument fraction is omitted, the fraction
value is taken from afterGraceFraction, defaulting to 3/4.
\allowPageTurn ⇒ music
Allow a page turn.
May be used at top level (i.e., between scores or markups), or inside a score.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 907

\allowVoltaHook bar (string) ⇒ void

Allow the volta bracket hook being drawn over bar line bar.
\alterBroken property (key list or symbol) arg (list) target (key list or music) ⇒ music
Override property for pieces of broken spanner target with arg.
target may either be music in the form of a starting spanner event, or a symbol list
of the form Context.Grob or just Grob. If target is in the form of a spanner event,
property may also have the form Grob.property for specifying a directed tweak.
arg is a list of values, one for each broken piece.
\ambitusAfter target (symbol) ⇒ music
Move the ambitus after the break-align symbol target.
\appendToTag tag (symbol) more (music) music (music) ⇒ music
Append more to music tagged with tag.
A post-event can be added to the articulations of rhythmic events or chords; other
expressions may be added to chords, sequential or simultaneous music.
\appendToTagMarkup tag (symbol) more (markup) music (music) ⇒ music
Append more to every markup in music tagged with tag.
\applyContext proc (procedure) ⇒ music
Modify context properties with Scheme procedure proc.
\applyMusic func (procedure) music (music) ⇒ music
Apply procedure func to music.
\applyOutput target (symbol list or symbol) proc (procedure) ⇒ music
Apply function proc to every layout object matched by target.
target takes the form Context or Context.Grob.
\appoggiatura music (music) ⇒ music
Create an appoggiatura from music.
\assertBeamQuant l (pair) r (pair) ⇒ music
Testing function: check whether the beam quants l and r are correct.
\assertBeamSlope comp (procedure) ⇒ music
Testing function: check whether the slope of the beam is the same as comp.
\atLeft m (music) ⇒ post-event
Set side-axis to X and direction to LEFT for mus.
\atRight m (music) ⇒ post-event
Set side-axis to X and direction to RIGHT for mus.
\augmentum expr (music) ⇒ music
Add augmentum dots (morae) to Gregorian chant expr.
\autoChange [pitch (pitch)] [clef-1 (context modification)] [clef-2 (context modification)]
music (music) ⇒ music
Make voices for music that switch between staves automatically.
The optional argument pitch specifies where to switch staves; the default is c'.
Optional arguments clef-1 and clef-2 specify which clefs to use; this only works for
implicitly instantiated staves.
Example:
\autoChange d' \with { \clef alto } { g4 d' g' }
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 908

\balloonGrobText grob-name (symbol) offset (pair of numbers) text (markup) ⇒ music

Attach text to grob-name at offset offset (use like \once).
\balloonText offset (pair of numbers) text (markup) ⇒ post-event
Attach text at offset (use like \tweak).
\bar type (string) ⇒ music
Insert a bar line of type type, overriding any automatic bar lines.
\barNumberCheck n (integer) ⇒ music
Print a warning if the current bar number is not n.
\beamExceptions music (music) ⇒ any type
Set beam exceptions.
This function extracts a value suitable for setting Timing.beamExceptions from the
given pattern with explicit beams in music. A bar check ‘|’ has to be used between
bars of patterns in order to reset the timing.
\bendAfter delta (real number) ⇒ post-event
Create a fall or doit of pitch interval delta.
\bendHold mus (music) ⇒ post-event
Set BendSpanner.style to 'hold for mus.
\bendStartLevel idx (non-negative, exact integer) mus (music) ⇒ post-event
Set Bendspanner.details.successive-level to idx for mus.
\bookOutputName newfilename (string) ⇒ void
Direct output for the current book block to newfilename.
This is equivalent to setting output-filename in the current book’s \paper block.
\bookOutputSuffix newsuffix (string) ⇒ void
Set the output file name suffix for the current book block to newsuffix.
This is equivalent to setting output-suffix in the current book’s \paper block.
\breathe ⇒ music
Insert a breath mark.
\caesura ⇒ music
Insert a caesura.
\chordRepeats [event-types (list)] music (music) ⇒ music
Extend ‘q’ to also repeat articulation.
This function walks through music, putting the notes of the previous
chord into repeat chords, as well as an optional list of event-types such as
#'(string-number-event).
\clef type (string) ⇒ music
Set the current clef to type.
\codaMark [num (non-negative, exact integer)] ⇒ music
Create a coda mark.
num may be 1 for the first mark, 2 for the second, etc., or it may be \default to
use the next number in sequence automatically.
\compoundMeter time-sig (pair) ⇒ music
Set the time signature to time-sig.
This is like \time time-sig, except that it allows abbreviating fractions as lists. For
example, a time signature of (3+1)/8 + 2/4 can be created with \compoundMeter
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 909

#'((3 1 8) (2 4)), and a time signature of (3+2)/8 with either \compoundMeter

#'((3 2 8)) or the shorter version \compoundMeter 3,2,8.
\compressMMRests music (music) ⇒ music
Convert empty bars to multi-measure rests in music.
\contextPropertyCheck property-path (symbol list or symbol) [expected-value (any type)] ⇒
music
Check that the context property identified by property-path is set to expected-value
in that very context: being set in an enclosing context is insufficient. If expected-
value is \default, check that the property is unset in that context.
If property-path does not name a context, Bottom is implied.
Print a warning if the requested context is not visible looking upward from the
current context or if the state of the property in the requested context is unexpected.
\crossStaff notes (music) ⇒ music
Create cross-staff stems for notes.
\cueClef type (string) ⇒ music
Set the current cue clef to type.
\cueClefUnset ⇒ music
Unset the current cue clef.
\cueDuring what (string) dir (direction) main-music (music) ⇒ music
Create a cue.
This function inserts the contents of quote what corresponding to main-music, in a
CueVoice context called cue oriented by dir.
\cueDuringWithClef what (string) dir (direction) clef (string) main-music (music) ⇒ music
Create a cue with clef.
This function inserts the contents of quote what corresponding to main-music, in a
CueVoice context called cue oriented by dir and using clef clef.
\deadNote note (music) ⇒ music
Print note with a cross-shaped note head.
\defineBarLine bar (string) glyph-list (list) ⇒ void
Define bar line settings for bar line bar.
The list glyph-list must have three entries, defining substitute glyphs for the end of
a line, the beginning of a line, and a span bar, respectively. The substitute glyphs
may be either strings or Booleans: #t calls for the same value as bar and #f calls
for no glyph.
\displayLilyMusic [port (output port)] music (music) ⇒ music
Write LilyPond’s input representation of music.
If port is omitted, the output defaults to the console (stdout).
\displayMusic [port (output port)] music (music) ⇒ music
Write the internal representation of music.
If port is omitted, the output defaults to the console (stdout).
\displayScheme [port (output port)] expr (any type) ⇒ any type
Write the internal Scheme representation of expr.
If port is omitted, the output defaults to the console (stdout).
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 910

\dropNote num (integer) music (music) ⇒ music

‘Drop’ the num-th note in each chord of music.
This function moves the affected notes down (usually by an octave) to be lower than
the other notes of the chord. The position in a chord is counted downwards from
the top.
The opposite function is \raiseNote.
\enablePolymeter ⇒ void
Enable polymetry.
This function moves the timing management from Score to Staff-like contexts.
This is done by removing the Timing_translator from Score, and adding it to all
contexts having the Staff alias.
Use this within an output definition.
\endSpanners music (music) ⇒ music
Terminate spanners.
This function prematurely ends all spanners in music by inserting an end-spanner
event at the end of the argument, without the need of specific end-spanner com-
mands.
\eventChords music (music) ⇒ music
Compatibility function: Handle isolated rhythmic events in music.
Use this to wrap EventChord around isolated rhythmic events occuring since version
2.15.28, after expanding repeat chords ‘q’.
Not needed for new code.
\featherDurations scale (non-negative rational, fraction, or moment) music (music) ⇒ music
Adjust feathered beam durations in music by scale.
\finger finger (index or markup) ⇒ post-event
Apply finger as a fingering indication.
\fixed pitch (pitch) music (music) ⇒ music
Use the octave of pitch as the default octave for music.
\footnote [mark (markup)] offset (pair of numbers) footnote (markup) item (symbol list or
music) ⇒ music
Make the markup footnote a footnote on item.
The footnote is marked with a markup mark moved by offset with respect to the
marked music.
If mark is not given or specified as \default, it is replaced by an automatically
generated sequence number. If item is a symbol list of form Grob or Context.Grob,
then grobs of that type are marked at the current time step in the given context
(default Bottom).
If item is music, the music gets a footnote attached to a grob immediately attached
to the event, like \tweak does. For attaching a footnote to an indirectly caused grob,
write \single\footnote, use item to specify the grob, and follow it with the music
to annotate.
Like with \tweak, if you use a footnote on a following post-event, the \footnote
command itself needs to be attached to the preceding note or rest as a post-event
with ‘-’.
\grace music (music) ⇒ music
Insert music as grace notes.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 911

\grobdescriptions descriptions (list) ⇒ any type

Create a context modification from descriptions.
The argument is a list in the format of all-grob-descriptions.
\harmonicByFret fret (number) music (music) ⇒ music
Convert music into mixed harmonics.
The resulting notes resemble harmonics played on a fretted instrument by touching
the strings at fret.
\harmonicByRatio ratio (number) music (music) ⇒ music
Convert music into mixed harmonics.
The resulting notes resemble harmonics played on a fretted instrument by touching
the strings at the point given through ratio.
\harmonicNote note (music) ⇒ music
Print note with a diamond-shaped note head.
\harmonicsOn ⇒ music
Set the default note head style to a diamond-shaped style.
\hide item (symbol list or music) ⇒ music
Make item invisible while still retaining its dimensions.
If item is a symbol list of form GrobName or Context.GrobName, the result is an
override for the grob name specified by it. If item is a music expression, the result
is the same music expression with an appropriate tweak applied to it.
This function sets item’s transparent property to #t.
\incipit incipit-music (music) ⇒ music
Output incipit-music as an incipit.
incipit-music is typeset within a MensuralStaff context; the result is positioned
before the main staff (as part of an InstrumentName grob) to indicate the music’s
original notation.
In the special case that incipit-music has the form \new xxx ... where ‘xxx’ is a
context type not accepted by MensuralStaff, it is taken directly.
\inherit-acceptability to (symbol) from (symbol) ⇒ void
Make two contexts ‘compatible’.
When used in an output definition, modify all context definitions such that context
to is accepted as a child by all contexts that also accept from.
\initialContextFrom music (music) ⇒ music
Enter the initial context of music and ignore the rest of it.
This is useful for prepending music while preserving the influence of the original
music on the context.
Example:
{
\initialContextFrom \originalMusic
\prependedMusic
\originalMusic
\appendedMusic
}
\inStaffSegno ⇒ music
Put the segno variant varsegno at this position into the staff.
This is compatible with the repeat command.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 912

\instrumentSwitch name (string) ⇒ music

Switch instrument to name.
name must have been predefined with function \addInstrumentDefinition.
This function is deprecated.
\inversion around (pitch) to (pitch) music (music) ⇒ music
Invert music about around and transpose from around to to.
\invertChords num (integer) music (music) ⇒ music
Invert any chords in music into their num-th position.
Chord inversions may be directed downwards using negative integers.
\jump text (markup) ⇒ music
Use text to mark a point of departure, e.g., ‘Gavotte I D.C.’.
\keepWithTag tags (symbol list or symbol) music (music) ⇒ music
Keep tagged music.
This function only includes elements of music that are tagged with one of the tags
in tags. tags may be either a single symbol or a list of symbols.
Each tag may be declared as a member of at most one tag group (defined with
\tagGroup). If none of a music element’s tags share a tag group with one of the
specified tags, the element is retained.
\key [tonic (pitch)] [pitch-alist (list of number pairs)] ⇒ music
Set key to tonic and scale pitch-alist.
If both arguments are omitted (i.e., replaced by \default), just generate a
KeyChangeEvent, which prints the current key signature again.
\killCues music (music) ⇒ music
Remove cue notes from music.
\label label (symbol) ⇒ music
Create label as a referrable label.
The value stored in label is the page number, which can be extracted with the
\page-ref markup command later on.
\language language (string) ⇒ void
Set note names for language language.
The value is stored in the pitchnames alist.
\languageRestore ⇒ void
Restore the previously-saved pitchnames alist.
\languageSaveAndChange language (string) ⇒ void
Save current pitchnames alist and change note names to language.
\ligature music (music) ⇒ music
Make a ligature from Gregorian Chant music.
This is equivalent to enclosing music with \[ and \].
\magnifyMusic mag (positive number) music (music) ⇒ music
Magnify the size of music by factor mag.
This doesn’t change the staff size. Stems, beams, slurs, ties, and horizontal spacing
are adjusted automatically.
\magnifyStaff mag (positive number) ⇒ music
Change the staff size by factor mag.
This adjusts notation size and horizontal spacing automatically.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 913

\makeClusters arg (music) ⇒ music

Display chords in arg as clusters.
\makeDefaultStringTuning symbol (symbol) pitches (list) ⇒ void
Define string tuning symbol by a list of pitches.
symbol also gets registered in defaultStringTunings for documentation purposes.
\mark [label (index or markup)] ⇒ music
Create a rehearsal mark.
If label is an integer, create the rehearsal mark for the given sequence number. If
label is \default, create the next sequential rehearsal mark. If label is markup, use
it for the mark.
\markupMap path (symbol list or symbol) markupfun (markup-function) music (music) ⇒
music
Apply markupfun to property path in music.
Argument path is either of the form property or MusicExpression.property. If
MusicExpression is not given, markupfun gets applied to all properties called
property, otherwise it is restricted to MusicExpression events. If property is
not a markup, it is ignored.
In the following example, both the tempo indication and the bowing instruction are
printed in red. If you replace text with TempoChangeEvent.text, only the tempo
indication changes the color.
\markupMap
text
\markup \with-color #red \etc
{ \tempo "Largo" g'2_"arco" c'' }
\modalInversion around (pitch) to (pitch) scale (music) music (music) ⇒ music
Invert music about around using scale and transpose from around to to.
\modalTranspose from (pitch) to (pitch) scale (music) music (music) ⇒ music
Transpose music from pitch from to pitch to using scale.
\musicLength music (music) ⇒ any type
Return the length of music as a moment.
\musicMap proc (procedure) mus (music) ⇒ music
Apply proc to mus and all of the music it contains.
\noPageBreak ⇒ music
Forbid a page break.
May be used at top level (i.e., between scores or markups), or inside a score.
\noPageTurn ⇒ music
Forbid a page turn.
May be used at top level (i.e., between scores or markups), or inside a score.
\octaveCheck pitch (pitch) ⇒ music
Do an octave check.
This prints a warning if the interval between the previous note and pitch is not
within a fourth.
\offset property (symbol list or symbol) offsets (any type) item (key list or music) ⇒ music
Offset the default value of property of item by offsets.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 914

If item is a string, the result is an override for the specified grob type. If item is a
music expression, the result is the same music expression with an appropriate tweak
applied to it.
\omit item (symbol list or music) ⇒ music
Omit item without taking up space.
If item is a symbol list of form GrobName or Context.GrobName, the result is an
override for the grob name specified by it. If item is a music expression, the result
is the same music expression with an appropriate tweak applied to it.
This function sets item’s stencil property to #f.
\once music (music) ⇒ music
Set property once to #t on all layout instruction events in music.
\ottava octave (integer) ⇒ music
Set the octavation to octave.
A positive value n indicates n octaves higher; a negative value n octaves lower, and
value 0 means no octavation.
\overrideProperty grob-property-path (list of indices or symbols) value (any type) ⇒ music
Set the grob property specified by grob-property-path to value.
grob-property-path is a symbol list of the form Context.GrobName.property or
GrobName.property, possibly with subproperties given as well.
As opposed to \override, which overrides the context-dependent defaults with
which a grob is created, this command uses Output_property_engraver at the
grob acknowledge stage. This may be necessary for overriding values set after the
initial grob creation.
\overrideTimeSignatureSettings time-signature (boolean-or-fraction) beat-base (positive
exact rational, fraction (as pair), moment, or +inf.0) beat-structure (list) beam-exceptions
(list) ⇒ music
Override time signature settings.
This function sets timeSignatureSettings for time signatures equal to time-
signature to have settings of beat-base, beat-structure, and beam-exceptions.
\pageBreak ⇒ music
Force a page break.
May be used at top-level (i.e., between scores or markups), or inside a score.
\pageTurn ⇒ music
Force a page turn.
May be used at top-level (i.e., between scores or markups), or inside a score.
\palmMute note (music) ⇒ music
Print note with a triangle-shaped note head.
\palmMuteOn ⇒ music
Set the default note head style to a triangle-shaped style.
\parallelMusic voice-ids (list) music (music) ⇒ void
Define parallel music sequences.
Within music, parallel music sequences are separated by ‘|’ characters. The se-
quences are assigned to the LilyPond music identifiers provided in voice-ids.
For example, this code
\parallelMusic A,B,C {
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 915

c c | d d | e e |
d d | e e | f f |
}
is equivalent to
A = { c c | d d }
B = { d d | e e }
C = { e e | f f }
The last bar checks in a sequence are not copied to the result in order to facilitate
ending the last entry at non-bar boundaries.
\parenthesize arg (symbol list or music) ⇒ music
Tag arg to be parenthesized.
arg may be either a music event or a grob path.
\partCombine [chord-range (pair of numbers)] part1 (music) part2 (music) ⇒ music
Combine two parts into a single staff.
This takes the music in part1 and part2 and returns a music expression containing
simultaneous Voice contexts (called one for the upper and two for the lower voice).
Where appropriate, part1 and part2 are combined into a single voice (called shared
or solo, depending on context).
Optional argument chord-range is a pair (start . stop) that defines the range in
which the two voices are printed as chords (or unison); the default value is (0 . 8),
which means that intervals up to and including a ninth are unified.
\partCombineDown [chord-range (pair of numbers)] part1 (music) part2 (music) ⇒ music
Combine two parts into a single staff with all stems downwards.
See function \partCombine for details.
\partCombineForce [type (symbol)] ⇒ music
Override the part-combiner mode with type.
The following table gives the possible values for type, together with the correspond-
ing shorthand functions.
apart \partCombineApart
chords \partCombineChords
unisono \partCombineUnisono
solo1 \partCombineSoloI
solo2 \partCombineSoloII
\default \partCombineAutomatic
\partCombineUp [chord-range (pair of numbers)] part1 (music) part2 (music) ⇒ music
Combine two parts into a single staff with all stems upwards.
See function \partCombine for details.
\partial dur (duration) ⇒ music
Adjust the measure position to end the current measure at dur past the point of
use. As a special case, when used at the start, create an anacrusis before the first
measure.
\phrasingSlurDashPattern dash-fraction (number) dash-period (number) ⇒ music
Set up a custom dash pattern style for phrasing slurs.
dash-fraction gives the size of one dash relative to dash-period; dash-period is the
length of one dash plus one space. LilyPond adjusts dash-period to produce sym-
metrical output.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 916

More complex patterns can be achieved by directly manipulating the PhrasingSlur

.dash-definition property.
\pitchedTrill main-note (music) secondary-note (music) ⇒ music
Print a pitched trill.
main-note is the main note of the trill; secondary-note gets printed as a stemless
note head in parentheses.
\pointAndClickOff ⇒ void
Suppress links to LilyPond source code in music output.
\pointAndClickOn ⇒ void
Generate links to LilyPond source code in music output.
This enables the creation of code in a PDF or SVG output file to reference the
originating LilyPond source code (i.e., file name, line number, and column). This is
helpful when developing a score; however, the output file becomes much larger.
\pointAndClickTypes types (symbol list or symbol) ⇒ void
Generate point-and-click info for music of type types only.
types is a single music expression (such as #'note-event) or a list of music expres-
sions.
\popContextProperty path (list of indices or symbols) ⇒ music
Pop value of context property path from stack and set it.
This is the opposite to function \pushContextProperty.
\preBend mus (music) ⇒ post-event
Set BendSpanner.style to 'pre-bend for mus.
\preBendHold mus (music) ⇒ post-event
Set BendSpanner.style to 'pre-bend-hold for mus.
\propertyOverride grob-property-path (list of indices or symbols) value (any type) ⇒ music
Set the grob property specified by grob-property-path to value.
grob-property-path is a symbol list of the form Context.GrobName.property or
GrobName.property, possibly with subproperties given as well. This music function
is mostly intended for use from Scheme as a substitute for the built-in \override
command.
\propertyRevert grob-property-path (list of indices or symbols) ⇒ music
Revert the grob property specified by grob-property-path to its previous value.
grob-property-path is a symbol list of the form Context.GrobName.property or
GrobName.property, possibly with subproperties given as well. This music function
is mostly intended for use from Scheme as a substitute for the built-in \revert
command.
\propertySet property-path (symbol list or symbol) value (any type) ⇒ music
Set the context property specified by property-path to value.
This music function is mostly intended for use from Scheme as a substitute for the
built-in \set command.
\propertyTweak prop (key list or symbol) value (any type) item (key list or music) ⇒ music
Add a tweak to item, usually music.
This function sets the value of property prop to value; it generally behaves like
\tweak but will turn into an \override when item is a symbol list. In that
case, item specifies the grob path to override. This is mainly useful when using
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 917

\propertyTweak as as a component for building other functions like \omit. It is

not the default behavior for \tweak since many input strings in \lyricmode can
serve equally as music or as symbols, which causes surprising behavior when tweak-
ing lyrics using the less specific semantics of \propertyTweak.
prop can contain additional elements in which case a nested property (inside of an
alist) is tweaked.
\propertyUnset property-path (symbol list or symbol) ⇒ music
Unset the context property specified by property-path.
This music function is mostly intended for use from Scheme as a substitute for the
built-in \unset command.
\pushContextProperty path (list of indices or symbols) ⇒ music
Push the current value of context property path to a stack.
The property can later be restored to the saved value with function
\popContextProperty.
\pushToTag tag (symbol) more (music) music (music) ⇒ music
Add more to the front of music tagged with tag.
A post-event can be added to the articulations of rhythmic events or chords; other
expressions may be added to chords, sequential or simultaneous music.
\pushToTagMarkup tag (symbol) more (markup) music (music) ⇒ music
Prepend more to every markup in music tagged with tag.
\quoteDuring what (string) main-music (music) ⇒ music
Indicate a section of music to be quoted.
what indicates the name of the quoted voice, as specified in an \addQuote command.
main-music is used to indicate the length of music to be quoted; it usually contains
spacers or multi-measure rests.
\raiseNote num (integer) music (music) ⇒ music
‘Raise’ the num-th note in each chord of music.
This function moves the affected notes up (usually by an octave) to be higher than
the other notes of the chord. The position in a chord is counted upwards from the
bottom.
The opposite function is \dropNote.
\reduceChords music (music) ⇒ music
Reduce chords contained in music to single notes.
This is intended mainly for reusing music in a RhythmicStaff context. It does not
reduce simultaneous music.
\relative [pitch (pitch)] music (music) ⇒ music
Make music relative to pitch.
If pitch is omitted, the first note in music is given in absolute pitch.
\removeWithTag tags (symbol list or symbol) music (music) ⇒ music
Remove elements of music that are tagged with one of the tags in tags.
tags may be either a single symbol or a list of symbols.
\resetRelativeOctave pitch (pitch) ⇒ music
Set the octave inside a \relative section to pitch.
\responsum music (music) ⇒ music
Prepend character U+211F (response) to the lyrics represented by music.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 918

\retrograde music (music) ⇒ music

Return music in reverse order.
\revertTimeSignatureSettings time-signature (pair) ⇒ music
Revert timeSignatureSettings for time signatures equal to time-signature.
\rightHandFinger finger (index or markup) ⇒ post-event
Apply finger as a right-hand fingering indication.
\scaleDurations fraction (non-negative rational, fraction, or moment) music (music) ⇒ music
Multiply the duration of events in music by fraction.
\sectionLabel text (markup) ⇒ music
Mark the beginning of a named passage with text, e.g., “Coda”.
This is well suited for use at a section division created with \section, but it does
not imply \section and may be used alone.
\segnoMark [num (non-negative, exact integer)] ⇒ music
Create a segno mark (or bar line).
num may be 1 for the first segno, 2 for the second, etc., or it may be \default to
use the next number in sequence automatically.
If the segnoStyle context property is 'bar-line, a segno bar line is created instead
of a segno mark.
\settingsFrom [ctx (symbol)] music (music) ⇒ any type
Translate layout instructions into a context modification.
This function takes the layout instruction events from music (i.e., \set, \unset,
\override, \revert), optionally restricted to those applying to context type ctx,
and returns a context modification duplicating their effect.
\shape offsets (list) item (key list or music) ⇒ music
Offset control points of item by offsets.
offsets is a list of number pairs (x . y) or a list of such lists. Each pair represents
an offset to a control point. The ‘y’ value of each pair is scaled by staff space.
If item is a string, the result is \once\override for the specified grob type. If item
is a music expression, the result is the same music expression with an appropriate
tweak applied.
\shiftDurations dur (integer) dots (integer) arg (music) ⇒ music
Change duration of arg.
This function walks over all durations and dot counts in arg, adding dur to the
durations and dots to the dot counts.
\single overrides (music) music (music) ⇒ music
Convert overrides to tweaks and apply them to music.
This does not convert \revert, \set or \unset.
\skip arg (duration-or-music) ⇒ music
Skip over arg, which may be music or a duration.
\slashedGrace music (music) ⇒ music
Create slashed graces from music.
This produces slashes through stems, but no slur.
\slurDashPattern dash-fraction (number) dash-period (number) ⇒ music
Set up a custom dash pattern style for slurs.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 919

dash-fraction gives the size of one dash relative to dash-period; dash-period is the
length of one dash plus one space. LilyPond adjusts dash-period to produce sym-
metrical output.
More complex patterns can be achieved by directly manipulating the Slur
.dash-definition property.
\staffHighlight color (color) ⇒ music
Start a highlight with color color.
\storePredefinedDiagram fretboard-table (hash table) chord (music) tuning (pair)
diagram-definition (string or pair) ⇒ void
Add a predefined fret diagram to fretboard-table.
It is defined by diagram-definition for the chord pitches chord and the string tuning
tuning.
\stringTuning chord (music) ⇒ any type
Convert chord to a string tuning.
chord must be in absolute pitches and should have the highest string number (gen-
erally the lowest pitch) first.
\styledNoteHeads style (symbol) heads (symbol list or symbol) music (music) ⇒ music
Set heads in music to style.
\tabChordRepeats [event-types (list)] music (music) ⇒ music
Extend ‘q’ to also repeat string and fingering information.
This function walks through music putting the notes, fingerings and string numbers
of the previous chord into repeat chords, as well as an optional list of event-types
such as #'(articulation-event).
\tabChordRepetition ⇒ void
Include the string and fingering information in a chord repetition.
This function is deprecated; use \tabChordRepeats instead.
\tag tags (symbol list or symbol) music (music) ⇒ music
Tag music with tags.
This function adds the single symbol or symbol list tags to the tags property of
music and returns the result.
\tagGroup tags (symbol list) ⇒ void
Define a tag group comprising the symbols in the symbol list tags.
Tag groups must not overlap.
\temporary music (music) ⇒ music
Make \override reversible with \revert.
This function makes any \override in music replace an existing grob property value
only temporarily, restoring the old value when a corresponding \revert is executed.
This is achieved by clearing the pop-first property normally set on \overrides.
An \override/\revert sequence created by using \temporary and \undo on the
same music containing overrides will cancel out perfectly or cause a warning.
Non-property-related music is ignored, warnings are generated for any property-
changing music that isn’t an \override.
\textEndMark text (markup) ⇒ music
Create a right-aligned text mark using text.
\textMark text (markup) ⇒ music
Create a (left-aligned) text mark using text.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 920

\tieDashPattern dash-fraction (number) dash-period (number) ⇒ music

Set up a custom dash pattern style for ties.
dash-fraction gives the size of one dash relative to dash-period; dash-period is the
length of one dash plus one space. LilyPond adjusts dash-period to produce sym-
metrical output.
More complex patterns can be achieved by directly manipulating the Tie
.dash-definition property.
\time [beat-structure (number list)] time-sig (time signature) ⇒ music
Set the time signature to time-sig.
The optional number list beat-structure additionally sets a beat structure.
time-sig may be a fraction, e.g., 3/4.
time-sig may also describe a complex time signature as a Scheme expression. Frac-
tions are represented as pairs, (numerator . denominator), where the denominator
is always a number. The numerator is one number or a list of two or more numbers.
A list represents concatenation.
For example, a time signature of (3+1)/8 + 2/4 can be created with \time #'(((3 1)
. 8) (2 . 4))
\times fraction (fraction, as pair) music (music) ⇒ music
Scale music in time by fraction.
\tocItem [label (symbol list or symbol)] text (markup) ⇒ music
Add text as an entry to the table of contents.
This uses the tocItemMarkup paper variable markup for formatting and assigns it
to label if one is provided. If a hierarchy of labels is given, make the current item a
child of the corresponding objects.
\transpose from (pitch) to (pitch) music (music) ⇒ music
Transpose music from pitch from to pitch to.
\transposedCueDuring what (string) dir (direction) pitch (pitch) main-music (music) ⇒
music
Create a transposed cue.
This function inserts notes from the part what into a CueVoice context called cue,
using the transposition defined by pitch. This happens simultaneously with main-
music, which is usually a rest. The argument dir determines whether the cue notes
should be notated as a first or second voice.
\transposition pitch (pitch) ⇒ music
Set instrument transposition to pitch.
\tuplet ratio (fraction, as pair) [tuplet-span (duration)] music (music) ⇒ music
Scale the given music to tuplets.
ratio is a fraction that specifies how many notes are played in place of the nominal
value: it will be 3/2 for triplets, namely three notes being played in place of two.
If the optional duration tuplet-span is specified, it is used instead of
tupletSpannerDuration for grouping the tuplets. For example,
\tuplet 3/2 4 { c8 c c c c c }
results in two groups of three tuplets, each group lasting for a quarter note.
\tupletSpan [tuplet-span (duration)] ⇒ music
Set tupletSpannerDuration to the duration tuplet-span.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 921

This context property is the length into which \tuplet without an explicit tuplet
span argument of its own will group its tuplets. To revert to the default of not
subdividing the contents of a \tuplet command without an explicit tuplet span
argument, use
\tupletSpan \default
\tweak prop (key list or symbol) value (any type) music (music) ⇒ music
Add a tweak to music.
Layout objects created by music get their property prop set to value. If prop has
the form Grob.property, like with
\tweak Accidental.color #red cis'
an indirectly created grob (Accidental is caused by NoteHead) can be tweaked;
otherwise only directly created grobs are affected.
prop can contain additional elements in which case a nested property (inside of an
alist) is tweaked.
If music is an event-chord, every contained rhythmic-event is tweaked instead.
\undo music (music) ⇒ music
Convert \override and \set in music to \revert and \unset, respectively.
Any reverts and unsets already in music cause a warning. Non-property-related
music is ignored.
\unfolded music (music) ⇒ music
Mask music until the innermost enclosing repeat is unfolded.
\unfoldRepeats [types (symbol list or symbol)] music (music) ⇒ music
Unfold \repeat.
This forces \repeat volta, \repeat tremolo or \repeat percent commands in
music to be interpreted as \repeat unfold, if specified in the optional symbol-list
types. The default for types is an empty list, which forces any of those commands
in music to be interpreted as \repeat unfold. Possible entries are volta, tremolo
or percent. Multiple entries are possible.
\versus music (music) ⇒ music
Prepend character U+2123 (versicle) to the lyrics represented by music.
\voices ids (list of indices or symbols) music (music) ⇒ music
Specify voice order in simultaneous music.
This takes the key list ids of numbers (indicating the use of ‘\voiceOne’. . . ) or
symbols (indicating voice names, typically converted from strings by argument list
processing) and assign the following \\-separated music in music to contexts accord-
ing to that list. Named rather than numbered contexts can be used for continuing
one voice (for the sake of spanners and lyrics), usually requiring a \voiceOne-style
override at the beginning of the passage and a \oneVoice override at its end.
The default
<< ... \\ ... \\ ... >>
construct would correspond to
\voices 1,2,3 << ... \\ ... \\ ... >>
\void arg (any type) ⇒ void
Accept a Scheme argument arg and return a void expression.
Use this if you want to have a Scheme expression evaluated because of its side effects
but its return value being ignored.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 922

\volta volta-numbers (number list) music (music) ⇒ music

Mark music as being limited to the volte given in volta-numbers.
This gets used when the innermost enclosing repeat is unfolded. Volta number
begins at 1 and increases by 1 with each repetition.
\vshape offsets (list) item (key list or music) ⇒ music
Like \shape, but additionally show control points for ease of tweaking.
\withMusicProperty sym (symbol) val (any type) music (music) ⇒ music
Set music property sym to val in music.
\withRelativeDir file-name (string) ⇒ any type
Prepend directory of current input file to string file-name.
Use this for markup commands that include files, and where such files should be
found relative to the input file. Example:
\markup { \image #X #3 \withRelativeDir "test.png" }
\xNote note (music) ⇒ music
Print note with a cross-shaped note head.
\= id (index or symbol) event (post-event) ⇒ post-event
Assign an ID to a spanner or an item.
This sets the spanner-id or id property of event to the given id, which is a non-
negative integer or a symbol.
For spanners this can be used to tell LilyPond how to connect overlapping or parallel
slurs or phrasing slurs within a single Voice context.
\fixed c' { c\=1( d\=2( e\=1) f\=2) }

º
h h h h
For itmes this can be used, for example, to tell LilyPond how to connect a
FingerGlideSpanner with non-matching fingers.
\fixed c' { c\glide \= #'foo -1 d\= #'foo -2 }

º


h h
B.21 Context modification identifiers
The following commands are defined for use as context modifications within a \layout or \with
block.
\EnableGregorianDivisiones
Configure division commands such as \section to create Divisio grobs rather than
BarLine grobs. This does not affect measure bar lines or the properties of the grobs
themselves.
• Sets translator property caesuraTypeTransform to caesura-to-divisio.
• Sets translator property doubleRepeatBarType to '().
• Sets translator property endRepeatBarType to '().
• Sets translator property fineBarType to "".
• Sets translator property sectionBarType to "".
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 923

• Sets translator property startRepeatBarType to '().

• Sets translator property underlyingRepeatBarType to "".
• Sets translator property doubleRepeatSegnoBarType to "S-||".
• Sets translator property endRepeatSegnoBarType to "S-||".
• Sets translator property fineSegnoBarType to "S-||".
• Sets translator property fineStartRepeatSegnoBarType to "S-||".
• Sets translator property segnoBarType to "S-||".
• Sets translator property startRepeatSegnoBarType to "S-||".
\RemoveAllEmptyStaves
Remove staves which are considered to be empty according to the list of interfaces
set by keepAliveInterfaces, including those in the first system.
• Sets grob property remove-empty in Section “VerticalAxisGroup” in Internals
Reference to #t.
• Sets grob property remove-first in Section “VerticalAxisGroup” in Internals
Reference to #t.
\RemoveEmptyStaves
Remove staves which are considered to be empty according to the list of interfaces
set by keepAliveInterfaces.
• Sets grob property remove-empty in Section “VerticalAxisGroup” in Internals
Reference to #t.

B.22 Paper variables

The following paper variables are predefined by LilyPond. Default values that are scaled to
paper size are given for the default paper size, A4. The mentioned xxx-default variables are
paper variables, too.
Some values like mm or pt are constants and thus essentially read-only; changing them would
confuse LilyPond thoroughly.
Most paper variables can be either set in \paper or in \layout, see Section 27.1 [The \layout
block], page 655.
annotate-spacing (boolean)
If this value is set to #t, dimensions of vertical layout variables that may be altered
for page formatting are graphically displayed. Default: #f.
auto-first-page-number (boolean)
The page-breaking algorithm is affected by the first page number being odd or even.
If set to #t, the algorithm decides whether to start with an odd or even number.
This results in the first page number remaining as is or being increased by one.
Default: #f.
binding-offset (number)
This amount gets added to inner-margin so that nothing is hidden by the binding.
Has only an effect if two-sided is set to #t. Default: binding-offset-default
(5 mm, scaled to paper size).
blank-after-score-page-penalty (number)
The penalty for having a blank page after the end of one score and before the next.
By default, this is smaller than blank-page-penalty so that LilyPond prefers blank
pages after scores to blank pages within a score. Default: 2.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 924

blank-last-page-penalty (number)
The penalty for ending the score on an odd-numbered page. Default: 0.
blank-page-penalty (number)
The penalty for having a blank page in the middle of a score. Note that this is not
used by ly:optimal-breaking, which never considers blank pages in the middle of
a score. Default: 5.
blot-diameter (non-negative number)
This value globally defines the smallest ‘round’ feature LilyPond uses while con-
structing almost all non-glyph elements like beams or stems. Essentially, it sets up
how round the corners and line ends are. It only makes sense to change the value if
you use a different music glyph font with crisper corners, say. Default: 0.4 pt.
book-title (procedure)
Internal. This is what LilyPond actually uses for handling bookTitleMarkup.
book-title-properties (association list (list of pairs))
Internal.
bookpart-level-page-numbering (boolean)
If set to #t, restart page numbering for each \bookpart block. Otherwise all pages
in the document are enumerated continuously. Default: #f.
bookTitleMarkup (markup)
The titling markup within a \book, using standard fields from the \header block.
The default value is defined in file titling-init.ly.
bottom-margin (non-negative number)
The margin between the bottom of the printable area and the bottom of the page.
Default: bottom-margin-default (10 mm, scaled to paper size).
bp (positive number)
The big point unit, also called desktop publishing point (DTP point). It is 1/72 of
an inch, approx. 0.353 mm (0.0138 in).
check-consistency (boolean)
If set to #t, print a warning if the left margin, line width, and right margin do not
exactly add up to paper-width, and replace each of these (except paper-width)
with its default value (scaled to the paper size if necessary). If set to #f, ignore any
inconsistencies and allow systems to run off the edge of the page. Default: #t.
clip-regions (association list (list of pairs))
A list of rhythm location pairs to output fragments of a score.
clip-regions
= #(list (cons (make-rhythmic-location 2 0 1)
(make-rhythmic-location 4 0 1))
(cons (make-rhythmic-location 5 1 2)
(make-rhythmic-location 7 3 4)))
The above example defines two regions: the first is from the beginning of bar 2 to
the beginning of bar 4, the second starts after a half note duration in bar 5 and ends
after the third quarter in bar 7.
Has only an effect if LilyPond’s command-line option -dclip-systems is active.
Default: unset.
cm (positive number)
The centimeter unit, approx. 0.39 in.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 925

debug-beam-scoring (boolean)
If set to #t, print demerits together with their cause, followed by the number of
configurations that have been scored before concluding. Default: #f.
Example:
L 18.95 C 655.12 c19/625 → demerits for stem lengths (‘L’) and collisions
(‘C’), scored 19 out of 625 initially considered configurations.
Possible demerit causes: collision (‘C’), inappropriate stem length (‘L’), beam di-
rection different from damping direction (‘Sd’), difference between beam slope and
musical slope (‘Sm’), deviation from ideal slope (‘Si’), horizontal inter-quants (‘H’),
forbidden quants (‘Fl’/‘Fs’).
Demerits are configurable, see Section “beam-interface” in Internals Reference for
a list of tunable parameters.
debug-slur-scoring (boolean)
If set to #t, print demerits together with their cause, followed by the sum of all
demerits and the index of the slur configuration finally chosen. Default: #f.
Example:
slope=2.00, R edge=10.51, variance=0.03 TOTAL=12.54 idx=4 → demer-
its for slope, distance of the right edge to the attachment point, variance of
distance between note heads and slur. Total demerits: 12.54, index of the
chosen configuration: 4.
Possible demerit causes: distance of the left/right slur edge to the attachment points
(‘L edge’/‘R edge’), inappropriate slope (‘slope’), distance variations between note
heads and slur (‘variance’), distances for heads that are between the slur and an
imaginary line between the attachment points (‘encompass’), too small distance
between slur and tie extrema (‘extra’).
Demerits are configurable, see Section “slur-interface” in Internals Reference for a
list of tunable parameters.
debug-tie-scoring (boolean)
If set to #t, print the basic configuration of ties, followed by demerits and their
corresponding causes and the total sum of demerits. Default: unset.
Example:
0 (0.23) u: vdist=1.08 lhdist=1.79 tie/stem dir=8.00 TOTAL=10.87 →
offset from the center of the staff according tie specification: 0 staff-spaces,
vertical distance of the tie’s center in y-direction to the bottom (or top) of the
tie: 0.23, direction: up. Demerits for vertical and horizontal distance to note
head, same direction of stem and tie. Total demerits: 10.87.
Possible demerit causes: wrong tie direction (‘wrong dir’), vertical distance to note
heads (‘vdist’), horizontal distance to left or right note head (‘lhdist’/‘rhdist’),
same direction of stem and tie (‘tie/stem dir’), position and direction of tie not
matching, e.g., tie is in the upper half of the staff but has direction DOWN (‘tie/pos
dir’), tie is too short (‘minlength’), tip of tie collides with staff line (‘tipline’),
collision with dot (‘dot collision’), center of tie is too close to a staff line (‘line
center’), y-position (edge or center) of currently considered tie is less than the
y-position of the previous tie (‘monoton edge’/ ‘monoton cent’), edge or center of
tie is too close to the one considered previously (‘tietie center’/‘tietie edge’),
unsymmetrical horizontal positioning with respect to the note heads (‘length symm’),
unsymmetrical vertical positioning with respect to the note heads (‘pos symmetry’).
Demerits are configurable, see Section “tie-interface” in Internals Reference for a
list of tunable parameters.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 926

dimension-variables (list)
Internal.
evenFooterMarkup (markup)
The footer markup used for even-numbered pages. If not set, oddFooterMarkup is
used instead. The default value is defined in file titling-init.ly.
evenHeaderMarkup (markup)
The header markup used for even-numbered pages. If not set, oddHeaderMarkup is
used instead. The default value is defined in file titling-init.ly.
first-page-number (integer)
The value of the page number on the first page. Default: 1.
footnote-footer-padding (number)
The padding between the footer and the bottom-most footnote. Default: 0.5 mm.
footnote-number-raise (number)
This controls how high the annotation numbers of both footnotes and in-notes are
raised relative to the footnote or in-note text. Default: 0.5 mm.
footnote-numbering-function (procedure)
This variable holds the name of the function that formats both footnote and in-note
numbers (without positioning it). LilyPond provides two predefined functions (in
file output-lib.scm): numbered-footnotes (‘1’, ‘2’, etc.) and symbol-footnotes
(‘*’, ‘†’, etc.). Default: numbered-footnotes.
The function takes an integer as an argument (starting with value 0) and returns
the appropriate markup. You can create your own function, for example,
footnote-numbering-function =
#(lambda (x)
#{ \markup \concat { "[" #(number->string (1+ x)) "]" } #})
footnote-padding (number)
The padding between two footnotes. Default: 0.5 mm.
footnote-separator-markup (markup)
Markup to separate the music from the footnotes, usually a horizontal line. The
default value is defined in file paper-defaults-init.ly.
horizontal-shift (number)
If set, the main content block of all pages (but not headers and footers) is shifted
horizontally. Positive values shift to the right (on both even and odd pages). Default:
0 mm.
in (positive number)
The inch unit, equal to 2.54 cm.
in-note-padding (number)
The padding between two in-notes. Default: 0.5 mm.
in-note-system-padding (number)
The padding between an in-note and the associated music system. Default: 0.5 mm.
incipit-width (positive number)
The width of an incipit as created by the \incipit command. Must be smaller
than or equal to indent. Default: (indent / 2).
indent (non-negative number)
The indentation of the first system in a score. The space within the line-width
available for the first system is reduced by this amount. Default: indent-default
(15 mm, scaled to paper size).
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 927

inner-margin (non-negative number)

The margin all pages have at the inner side if they are part of a book. Has only an
effect if two-sided is set to #t. If unset, inner-margin-default (15 mm, scaled to
paper size) is used in computations. Default: unset.
is-last-bookpart (boolean)
To be documented.
label-alist-table (list)
Internal. LilyPond uses this to construct a table of contents.
label-page-table (association list (list of pairs))
Internal. LilyPond uses this to implement the \with-link functionality and to
construct a table of contents.
landscape (boolean)
Internal. Use set-default-paper-size or set-paper-size to set the paper orien-
tation.
last-bottom-spacing (association list (list of pairs))
The distance from the last system or top-level markup on a page to the bottom of
the printable area (i.e., the top of the bottom margin). The default value is defined
in file paper-defaults-init.ly.
left-margin (non-negative number)
The margin between the left edge of the page and the start of the staff lines
in unindented systems. If left-margin is not set, and both line-width and
right-margin are set, then left-margin is set to (paper-width - line-width
- right-margin). If only line-width is set, then both margins are set to
((paper-width - line-width) / 2), and the systems are consequently centered on
the page. If unset, left-margin-default (15 mm, scaled to paper size) is used in
computations. Default: unset.
If two-sided is set to #t, this value is ignored. Also see check-consistency.
line-thickness (positive number)
This value globally defines the default line thickness LilyPond uses while construct-
ing many non-glyph elements like lines or boxes. The actual line thickness is usually
specified as a factor of this base value, either as a default value, or overridden by
the user. The default depends on the staff space and is computed as (0.328571 +
0.0342857 * staff-space) (see function calc-line-thickness in file paper.scm),
which is synchronized with the Emmentaler font.
line-width (positive number)
The horizontal extent of the staff lines in unindented, non-ragged systems, equal
to (paper-width - left-margin - right-margin) if not set. If line-width is set,
and both left-margin and right-margin are not set, then the margins are updated
to center the systems on the page automatically. Also see check-consistency.
Default: unset.
As a feature of LilyPond, if the command-line option -dcrop is set, the dimensions
of the cropped output file are always rounded up to integer (PostScript) big points;
this might cause a little bit of whitespace at the right margin. To avoid that, set
line-width to an integer big point value like 450\bp.
make-footer (procedure)
Internal. This is what LilyPond actually uses for for handling evenFooterMarkup
and oddFooterMarkup.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 928

make-header (procedure)
Internal. This is what LilyPond actually uses for for handling evenHeaderMarkup
and oddHeaderMarkup.
markup-markup-spacing (association list (list of pairs))
The distance between two (title or top-level) markups. The default value is defined
in file paper-defaults-init.ly.
markup-system-spacing (association list (list of pairs))
The distance between a (title or top-level) markup and the system that follows it.
The default value is defined in file paper-defaults-init.ly.
max-systems-per-page (non-negative, exact integer)
The maximum number of systems that are placed on a page. This is currently
supported only by the ly:optimal-breaking algorithm. Default: unset.
min-systems-per-page (non-negative, exact integer)
The minimum number of systems that are placed on a page. This may cause pages
to be overfilled if it is made too large. This is currently supported only by the
ly:optimal-breaking algorithm. Default: unset.
mm (positive number)
The millimeter unit, approx. 0.039 in.
number-footnote-table (list)
Internal. LilyPond uses this to manage footnotes and footnote numbers.
oddFooterMarkup (markup)
The footer markup used for odd-numbered pages. The default value is defined in
file titling-init.ly.
oddHeaderMarkup (markup)
The header markup used for odd-numbered pages. The default value is defined in
file titling-init.ly.
orphan-penalty (number)
To be documented. See lily/page-breaking.cc. Default is 100000.
outer-margin (non-negative number)
The margin all pages have at the outer side if they are part of a book. Has only an
effect if two-sided is set to #t. If unset, outer-margin-default (15 mm, scaled to
paper size) is used in computations. Default: unset.
output-filename (string)
If set, use this value as the output file name for LilyPond output. See also
output-suffix. The default is the input file name (without the file extension).
output-scale (positive number)
Internal. This value globally defines the output scale LilyPond uses while creating
output. Use set-global-staff-size or layout-set-staff-size to change the
scaling. Default: 1.7573, which corresponds to a 20 pt staff size.
output-suffix (string)
If set, use this value as the output file name suffix for LilyPond output, appended to
the output name with a dash inbetween. See also output-filename. The default is
no output suffix if there is only a single book block (either implicit or explicit), and
a running integer starting with value 1 otherwise.
page-breaking (procedure)
The page-breaking algorithm to use. Choices are ly:minimal-breaking,
ly:page-turn-breaking, ly:one-page-breaking, ly:one-line-breaking,
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 929

ly:one-line-auto-height-breaking, and ly:optimal-breaking. Default:

ly:optimal-breaking.
page-breaking-system-system-spacing (association list (list of pairs))
This tricks the page breaker into thinking that system-system-spacing
is set to something different than it really is. For example, if
page-breaking-system-system-spacing.padding is set to something
substantially larger than system-system-spacing.padding, then the page breaker
puts fewer systems on each page. Default: unset.
page-count (non-negative, exact integer)
The number of pages to be used for a score. Default: unset.
page-number-type (symbol)
The type of numerals used for page numbers. Choices include arabic,
roman-ij-lower, roman-ij-upper, roman-lower, and roman-upper. Default:
arabic.
page-post-process (procedure)
If this function is defined (within the \paper block), LilyPond uses it to post-process
pages, for example, to extract the table of contents and writing the information to
an auxiliary file. The call happens after page breaking has been performed.
The syntax is
#(define (page-post-process layout pages) ... )
page-spacing-weight (number)
When using the ly:optimal-breaking algorithm for page breaking, LilyPond has to
make trade-offs between horizontal and vertical stretching so that the overall spacing
is more acceptable. This parameter controls the relative importance of (vertical)
page spacing and (horizontal) line spacing. High values makes page spacing more
important. Default: 10.
paper-height (positive number)
The height of the page. Note that the automatic scaling of some vertical dimensions
is not affected if you set this value directly. Default: 297 mm (A4 paper height).
paper-width (positive number)
The width of the page. While setting paper-width directly has no effect on the
automatic scaling of some horizontal dimensions, it does influence the line-width
variable. If both paper-width and line-width are set, then left-margin and
right-margin also get updated. Also see check-consistency. Default: 210 mm
(A4 paper width).
papersizename (string)
Internal. Use set-default-paper-size or set-paper-size to set the paper size.
print-all-headers (boolean)
If set to #t, print all headers for each \score in the output. If set to #f, only the
piece and opus header variables are printed. Default: #f.
print-first-page-number (boolean)
If set to #t, a page number is printed on the first page. Default: #f.
print-page-number (boolean)
If set to #f, page numbers are not printed. Default: #t.
property-defaults (association list (list of pairs))
This variable holds some settings that are used for top-level markups and as fallback
values if nothing else is specified, for example, the standard fonts or the baseline
skip. The default value is defined in file paper-defaults-init.ly.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 930

pt (positive number)
The point unit, equal to approx. 0.351 mm (0.0139 in).
ragged-bottom (boolean)
If set to #t, systems are set at at their natural spacing, neither compressed nor
stretched vertically to fit the page. Default: #f.
ragged-last (boolean)
If set to #t, the last system in the score does not fill the line width. Instead, the
last system ends at its natural horizontal length. Default: #f.
ragged-last-bottom (boolean)
If set to #f, then the last page, and the last page in each section created with a
\bookpart block, is vertically justified in the same way as the earlier pages. Default:
#t.
ragged-right (boolean)
If set to #t, systems don’t fill the line width. Instead, systems end at their natural
horizontal length. Default: #t for scores with only one system, and #f for scores
with two or more systems.
reset-footnotes-on-new-page (boolean)
If set to #t, footnote and in-note numbers are reset on each page break. For footnotes
and in-notes numbered consecutively across page breaks, set to #f. Default: #t.
right-margin (non-negative number)
The margin between the right edge of the page and the end of the staff lines
in non-ragged systems. If right-margin is not set, and both line-width and
left-margin are set, then right-margin is set to (paper-width - line-width
- left-margin). If only line-width is set, then both margins are set to
((paper-width - line-width) / 2), and the systems are consequently centered
on the page. If unset, right-margin-default (15 mm, scaled to paper size) is
used in computations. Default: unset.
If two-sided is set to #t, this value is ignored. Also see check-consistency.
score-markup-spacing (association list (list of pairs))
The distance between the last system of a score and the (title or top-level) markup
that follows it. The default value is defined in file paper-defaults-init.ly.
score-system-spacing (association list (list of pairs))
The distance between the last system of a score and the first system of the score
that follows it, if no (title or top-level) markup exists between them. The default
value is defined in file paper-defaults-init.ly.
score-title (procedure)
Internal. This is what LilyPond actually uses for handling scoreTitleMarkup.
score-title-properties (association list (list of pairs))
Internal.
scoreTitleMarkup (markup)
The titling markup of a score within a \book, using standard fields from the \header
block. The default value is defined in file titling-init.ly.
short-indent (non-negative number)
The level of indentation for all systems in a score besides the first system. The space
within the line-width available for systems other than the first one is reduced by
this amount. Default: short-indent-default (0 mm).
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 931

staff-height (positive number)

Internal. Use set-global-staff-size or layout-set-staff-size to set the staff
height. Default: 20 pt.
staff-space (positive number)
Internal. One staff height contains four staff spaces. Use set-global-staff-size
or layout-set-staff-size to set this value. Default: 5 pt.
system-count (non-negative, exact integer)
The number of systems to be used for a score. Default: unset.
system-separator-markup (markup)
A markup object that is inserted between systems, often used for orchestral scores.
The \slashSeparator markup, defined in file titling-init.ly, is provided as a
sensible standard value. Default: unset.
system-system-spacing (association list (list of pairs))
The distance between two systems in the same score. The default value is defined
in file paper-defaults-init.ly.
systems-per-page (non-negative, exact integer)
The number of systems that should be placed on a page. This is currently supported
only by the ly:optimal-breaking algorithm. Default: unset.
tagline (markup)
This markup gets placed at the bottom of the last page (via oddFooterMarkup).
The default value is defined in file titling-init.ly.
text-font-size (positive number)
This value globally defines the standard text size for markups. The default depends
on the staff height and is computed as (staff-height / 20 * 11).
tocFormatMarkup (procedure)
How the top-level entries of the table of contents are formatted (if there are several
hierarchical levels). This variable holds a function like make-bold-markup. The
default value is defined in file toc-init.ly.
tocIndentMarkup (markup)
How the outline’s hierarchy in the table of contents is made apparent. This markup
is printed zero, one, or several times depending on the level of each entry. The
default value is defined in file toc-init.ly.
tocItemMarkup (markup)
How an item in the table of contents is formatted. The default value of this markup
is defined in file toc-init.ly.
tocTitleMarkup (markup)
How the title of the table of contents is formatted. The default value of this markup
is defined in file toc-init.ly.
top-margin (non-negative number)
The margin between the top of the page and the top of the printable area. Default:
top-margin-default (10 mm, scaled to paper size).
top-markup-spacing (association list (list of pairs))
The distance from the top of the printable area (i.e., the bottom of the top margin)
to the first (title or top-level) markup on a page, when there is no system between
the two. The default value is defined in file paper-defaults-init.ly.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 932

top-system-spacing (association list (list of pairs))

The distance from the top of the printable area (i.e., the bottom of the top margin)
to the first system on a page, when there is no (title or top-level) markup between
the two. The default value is defined in file paper-defaults-init.ly.
two-sided (boolean)
If set to #t, use inner-margin, outer-margin and binding-offset to determine
margins depending on whether the page number is odd or even. left-margin and
right-margin are then ignored. Default: #f.

B.23 Naming conventions

Naming conventions are used so that it is easier to keep the nature of an object in mind.
Object/property type Naming convention Examples
Keywords aaaa \score, \addlyrics
Music functions and shortcuts aaaa or aaaaAaaaAaaa \time, \stemUp
Markup functions aaaa or aaaa-aaaa-aaaa \bold, \with-dimensions
Paper variables aaaa or aaaa-aaaa-aaaa indent, page-breaking
Music expressions Aaaa or AaaaAaaaAaaa NoteEvent,
SequentialMusic
Music classes aaaa or aaaa-aaaa-aaaa note-event,
rhythmic-event
Music properties aaaa or aaaa-aaaa-aaaa force-accidental,
iterator-ctor
Contexts Aaaa or AaaaAaaaAaaa Staff, GrandStaff
Context properties aaaa or aaaaAaaaAaaa stanza, instrumentName
Engravers Aaaa_engraver or Clef_engraver,
Aaaa_aaaa_aaaa_engraver Note_heads_engraver
Layout Objects Aaaa or AaaaAaaaAaaa Slur, NoteHead
Layout Object Properties aaa or aaa-aaa-aaa direction,
beam-thickness
Interfaces aaa-aaa-interface grob-interface,
break-aligned-interface
Scheme functions defined in aaaa or aaaa-aaaa-aaaa map, for-each
Guile
Scheme functions defined in ly:aaaa or ly:round-filled-box,
LilyPond ly:aaaa-aaaa-aaaa or aaaa music-map
or aaaa-aaaa-aaaa1

B.24 Predefined type predicates

Predicates return #t (true) if their argument is of the named type and #f (false) if it isn’t.

B.24.1 R5RS primary predicates

Primary predicates can be applied to any expression. They can be used on their own as predicates
for LilyPond functions. The predicates here are part of the Scheme standard R5RS.
Type predicate Description
boolean? boolean
char? character
complex? complex number

1
For historical reasons, some but not all of the functions defined by LilyPond start with the ly: prefix.
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 933

eof-object? end-of-file object

input-port? input port
integer? integer
list? list (use cheap-list? for faster processing)
null? null
number? number
output-port? output port
pair? pair
port? port
procedure? procedure
rational? rational number
real? real number
string? string
symbol? symbol
vector? vector

B.24.2 R5RS secondary predicates

Secondary predicates are only applicable to specific expressions (for example, to numbers). They
will throw a type error when applied to expressions they are not intended for. The predicates
here are part of the Scheme standard R5RS.
Type predicate Description
char-alphabetic? alphabetic character
char-lower-case? lower-case character
char-numeric? numeric character
char-upper-case? upper-case character
char-whitespace? whitespace character
even? even number
exact? exact number
inexact? inexact number
negative? negative number
odd? odd number
positive? positive number
zero? zero

B.24.3 Guile predicates

These predicates are defined by Guile but are not part of a Scheme standard.
Type predicate Description
hash-table? hash table

B.24.4 LilyPond scheme predicates

These predicates are only available within LilyPond and defined in Scheme.
Type predicate Description
alist? association list (list of pairs)
boolean-or-symbol? boolean or symbol
cheap-list? list (use this instead of list? for faster processing)
color? color
exact-rational? an exact rational number
fraction? fraction, as pair
grob-list? list of grobs
index? non-negative, exact integer
index-or-markup? index or markup
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 934

key? index or symbol

key-list? list of indices or symbols
key-list-or-music? key list or music
key-list-or-symbol? key list or symbol
ly:skyline-pair? pair of skylines
markup? markup
markup-command-list? markup command list
markup-list? markup list
moment-pair? pair of moment objects
musical-length? non-negative exact rational, fraction (as pair), mo-
ment, or +inf.0
musical-length-as-moment? non-negative moment with no grace part
musical-length-as-number? non-negative exact rational or +inf.0
non-negative-number? non-negative number
number-list? number list
number-or-grob? number or grob
number-or-number-pair? number or pair of numbers
number-or-pair? number or pair
number-or-string? number or string
number-pair? pair of numbers
number-pair-list? list of number pairs
positive-fraction? positive, finite fraction, as pair
positive-musical-length? positive exact rational, fraction (as pair), moment,
or +inf.0
positive moment with no grace part
positive-musical-length-as-moment?
positive exact rational or +inf.0
positive-musical-length-as-number?
positive-number? positive number
rational-or-procedure? an exact rational or procedure
rhythmic-location? rhythmic location
sane-simple-time-signature? simple time signature
sane-time-signature? time signature
scale? non-negative rational, fraction, or moment
scheme? any type
string-or-music? string or music
string-or-pair? string or pair
string-or-symbol? string or symbol
symbol-key-alist? alist, with symbols as keys
symbol-list? symbol list
symbol-list-or-music? symbol list or music
symbol-list-or-symbol? symbol list or symbol
time-signature? time signature
void? void

B.24.5 LilyPond exported predicates

These predicates are only available within LilyPond and usually defined in C++.
Type predicate Description
ly:book? book
ly:context? context
ly:context-def? context definition
ly:context-mod? context modification
ly:dimension? dimension, in staff space
Appendix B: Notation manual tables 935

ly:dir? direction
ly:dispatcher? dispatcher
ly:duration? duration
ly:event? post-event
ly:font-metric? font metric
ly:grob? graphical (layout) object
ly:grob-array? array of grobs
ly:grob-properties? grob properties
ly:input-location? input location
ly:item? item
ly:iterator? iterator
ly:lily-lexer? lily-lexer
ly:lily-parser? lily-parser
ly:listener? listener
ly:moment? moment
ly:music? music
ly:music-function? music function
ly:music-list? list of music objects
ly:music-output? music output
ly:note-scale? note scale
ly:otf-font? OpenType font
ly:output-def? output definition
ly:page-marker? page marker
ly:pango-font? Pango font
ly:paper-book? paper book
ly:paper-system? paper-system Prob
ly:pitch? pitch
ly:prob? property object
ly:score? score
ly:skyline? skyline
ly:source-file? source file
ly:spanner? spanner
ly:spring? spring
ly:stencil? stencil
ly:stream-event? stream event
ly:transform? coordinate transform
ly:translator? translator
ly:translator-group? translator group
ly:unpure-pure-container? unpure/pure container
 936

Appendix C Cheat sheet

Syntax Description Example

 . T U
N h h
1 2 8 16 durations

c4. c4.. augmentation dots

 hP hPP

 h h h h h h
cdefgab scale h

fis bes alteration

  h h

\clef treble \clef bass clefs

 

\time 3/4 \time 4/4 time signature 43 º

r4 r8 rest
  ¢

d~d tie
 h h

 
\key es \major key signature

h
note' raise octave
 h

 h
note, lower octave h
Appendix C: Cheat sheet 937

h h
c( d e) slur
 h

h h
c\( c( d) e\) phrasing slur
 h h

a8[ b] beam
 hh


.
<< \new Staff ... >> more staves  .
m p
c-> c-. articulations
h
 h

 N N
c2\mf c\sfz dynamics mf sfz

a\< a a\! crescendo

 h h h

a\> a a\! decrescendo

 h h h

h
<> chord
 h
h N N
\partial 8 pickup / upbeat
º T N
3

\tuplet 3/2 {f g a} triplets  hhh

†
\grace grace notes
 h h
Appendix C: Cheat sheet 938

\lyricmode { twinkle } entering lyrics twinkle

\new Lyrics printing lyrics twinkle

. .

twin -- kle lyric hyphen
twin kle

h
   hh hhh
\chordmode { c:dim f:maj7 } chords h
\new ChordNames printing chord names C° F

hh hh
<<{e f} \\ {c d}>> polyphony 
s4 s8 s16 spacer rests
 939

Appendix D GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.3, 3 November 2008
c 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
Copyright ⃝
https://fsf.org/

Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies

of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
0. PREAMBLE
The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and useful
document free in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy
and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially.
Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their
work, while not being considered responsible for modifications made by others.
This License is a kind of “copyleft”, which means that derivative works of the document
must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License,
which is a copyleft license designed for free software.
We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because free
software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals providing the
same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals;
it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it is published
as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is
instruction or reference.
1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS
This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that contains a notice
placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms of this License.
Such a notice grants a world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that
work under the conditions stated herein. The “Document”, below, refers to any such manual
or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as “you”. You accept
the license if you copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permission under
copyright law.
A “Modified Version” of the Document means any work containing the Document or a
portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or translated into another
language.
A “Secondary Section” is a named appendix or a front-matter section of the Document
that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers or authors of the Document
to the Document’s overall subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could
fall directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part a textbook of
mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship
could be a matter of historical connection with the subject or with related matters, or of
legal, commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them.
The “Invariant Sections” are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as
being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says that the Document is released
under this License. If a section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not
allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections.
If the Document does not identify any Invariant Sections then there are none.
The “Cover Texts” are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover Texts or
Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License.
A Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25
words.
Appendix D: GNU Free Documentation License 940

A “Transparent” copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented in a

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The “Title Page” means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following pages
as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this License requires to appear in the title page.
For works in formats which do not have any title page as such, “Title Page” means the
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Appendix D: GNU Free Documentation License 941

covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the publisher of these copies. The front
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Texts given in the Document’s license notice.
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at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified Version as given
on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled “History” in the Document, create
one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as given on its
Appendix D: GNU Free Documentation License 942

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the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.
Appendix D: GNU Free Documentation License 943

In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled “History” in the various original
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Appendix D: GNU Free Documentation License 944

Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the licenses of parties
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Appendix D: GNU Free Documentation License 945

ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents

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 946

Appendix E Index
In addition to all the LilyPond commands and keywords, this index lists musical terms and
words that relate to each of them, with links to those sections of the manual that describe or
discuss that topic.

! :
!.................................................. 8 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204, 493
\! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

<
" <. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
"|" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 \< . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
<...> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
<< . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
# << ... \\ ... >> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
#f (false) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932 << ... >> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
#t (true) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932 <> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155, 208, 402

% =
% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568, 573 = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
%{ ... %} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568, 574 \= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164, 922

’ >
> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
'.................................................. 3
\> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
>> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
(
( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 ?
\( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
?.................................................. 8

) [
) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
[ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
\) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
\[ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522

,
,.................................................. 3
\
\\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

–
- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 517, 746 ]
-! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892 ] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
-+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894 \] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
-- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347, 892
-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
-> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892 ˆ
-^ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892 ^ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495, 746
-_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892

.
_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343, 746
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
__ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

/
/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
|
/+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Appendix E: Index 947

˜ accidental, Kievan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543

~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61, 343 accidental, mensural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
accidental, multi-voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
accidental, musica ficta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
1 accidental, on tied note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
accidental, parenthesized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
15ma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 accidental, quarter tone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
15mb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 accidental, reminder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
\accidentalStyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 906
8 AccidentalSuggestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
accordion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
8va . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 accordion discant symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
8vb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 accordion register symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
accordion shift symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
acoustic bass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
A acoustic snare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
a due part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 add-grace-property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
\abs-fontsize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314, 777 add-stem-support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
\abs-hspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789 add-toc-item! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
\abs-vspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789 \addChordShape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455, 906
absolute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 adding custom fret diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
\absolute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906 adding white background, to text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
absolute dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 \addInstrumentDefinition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
absolute octave entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 addition, in chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
absolute octave specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 additional voices in polyphonic music . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
\accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892 additionalPitchPrefix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
‘accent’ articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892 \addlyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337, 339, 340
\accentus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533, 894 \addQuote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256, 906
‘accentus’ Gregorian articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 533, 894 adjusting start and end, slur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
\accepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723, 724, 726 Aeolian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
acciaccatura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 \aeolian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
\acciaccatura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141, 906 \after . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154, 201, 906
acciaccatura, multi-note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 \afterGrace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142, 906
accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 31 afterGraceFraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
\accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817 agogo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
accidental glyph set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886 Aiken shape note head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
accidental style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Aiken shape note head, thin variant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
accidental style, choral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 \aikenHeads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
accidental style, choral-cautionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 \aikenHeadsMinor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
accidental style, default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 32 \aikenThinHeads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
accidental style, dodecaphonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 \aikenThinHeadsMinor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
accidental style, dodecaphonic-first . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 al coda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
accidental style, dodecaphonic-no-repeat . . . . . . . . . . 36 al fine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
accidental style, forget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 al niente, hairpin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
accidental style, modern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 33 \alias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
accidental style, modern-cautionary . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 33 align to object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
accidental style, modern-voice-cautionary . . . . . . . . . 34 \align-on-other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
accidental style, neo-modern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 alignAboveContext . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247, 350, 727
accidental style, neo-modern-cautionary . . . . . . . . . . . 35 alignBelowContext . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247, 350, 360, 727
accidental style, neo-modern-voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 aligning markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
accidental style, neo-modern-voice-cautionary . . . . . 36 aligning markup text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
accidental style, no-reset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 aligning text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
accidental style, piano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 aligning to cadenza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
accidental style, piano-cautionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 alignment, bar numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
accidental style, teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 alignment, breaking vertical, dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . 160
accidental style, voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 alignment, breaking vertical, text scripts . . . . . . . . . 160
accidental, alternate glyphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 alignment, horizontal, lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
accidental, and simultaneous notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 alignment, text, commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
accidental, automatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 alignment, vertical, dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
accidental, cautionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 alignment, vertical, text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
accidental, Gregorian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 alignment, vertical, text scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
accidental, hiding, on tied notes at start of system . 9 alist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
accidental, in cadenzas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 alla coda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
accidental, in chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 \allowBreak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 661
accidental, in unmetered music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 \allowPageTurn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668, 906
Appendix E: Index 948

\allowVoltaHook. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907 arpeggio-direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

alpha transparency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 \arpeggioArrowDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
alteration, figured bass, glyphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 \arpeggioArrowUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
alteration, figured bass, position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 \arpeggioBracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
\alterBroken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749, 907 \arpeggioNormal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
altered chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 \arpeggioParenthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
alternate accidental glyph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 \arpeggioParenthesisDashed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
alternate fretboard table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 arranger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
\alternative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183, 185 Arrastre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
alternative chord name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 \arrow-head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323, 806
alternative ending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 \articulate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
alternative ending, and lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 articulate.ly script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
alternative ending, with ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
alternative melody, switching to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 articulation, accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892
alternative style, of breve notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 articulation, bachschleifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
alto clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887 articulation, default values, modifying . . . . . . . . . . . 151
alto varC clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887 articulation, espressivo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892
‘Amazing Grace’, bagpipe example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 articulation, Gregorian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
ambitus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 articulation, Gregorian, accentus . . . . . . . . . . . . 533, 894
ambitus, line gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 articulation, Gregorian, circulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533, 894
ambitus, multiple voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 articulation, Gregorian, episem finis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
ambitus, per voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 articulation, Gregorian, episem initium . . . . . . . . . . 533
ambitus, placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 articulation, Gregorian, ictus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533, 894
ambitusAfter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42, 907 articulation, Gregorian, semicirculus . . . . . . . . 533, 894
AmbitusLine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 articulation, half-open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894
anacrusis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 articulation, marcato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892
anacrusis, in a repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 articulation, open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 480, 894
analysis bracket, musicological . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 articulation, portato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892
analysis bracket, with label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 articulation, staccatissimo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892
ancient clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 articulation, staccato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892
ancient music clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525, 888 articulation, stopped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 480, 894
angled hairpin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763 articulation, tenuto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892
annotate moving by spacing, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839 articulation-event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
\annotate-moving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839 artificial harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
annotate-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702, 923 \ascendens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535, 540
anthem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 \assertBeamQuant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
\append-to-tag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610, 840 \assertBeamSlope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
\appendToTag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610, 907 associatedVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337, 339, 372
\appendToTagMarkup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611, 907 association list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
\applyContext . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714, 907 \atLeft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150, 907
\applyMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907 \atRight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150, 907
\applyOutput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907 \auctum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535, 540
\applySwing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638 aug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
\applySwingWithOffset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638 augmentation dot, changing number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
appoggiatura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 \augmentum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541, 907
\appoggiatura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141, 907 auto-beaming, properties for time signatures . . . . . . 77
Arabic improvisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 auto-first-page-number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652, 923
Arabic key signatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 \auto-footnote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
Arabic maqam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 autoBeaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101, 708
Arabic music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 \autoBeamOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98, 408
Arabic music example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 \autoBeamOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Arabic music template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 \autoBreaksOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
Arabic note name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 \autoBreaksOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
Arabic semi-flat symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 \autoChange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404, 907
Arabic time signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 \autoChange, and relative music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
\arabicStringNumbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 \autoLineBreaksOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
arpeggio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 \autoLineBreaksOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
\arpeggio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 automatic accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
arpeggio bracket, cross-staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 automatic bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
arpeggio bracket, marking divided voices . . . . . . . . . 379 automatic chord diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
arpeggio symbol, special . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 automatic fret diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
arpeggio, and ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 automatic part combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
arpeggio, cross-staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 automatic replacement, of strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
arpeggio, cross-staff parenthesis-style . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 automatic staff change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
arpeggio, cross-voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 \autoPageBreaksOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
Appendix E: Index 949

\autoPageBreaksOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665 bar number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127, 148

bar number, alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
bar number, alternative, in repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
B bar number, broken measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
bar number, cadenzas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Bézier curve, control points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
bar number, centered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
bachschleifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
bar number, check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
\bachschleifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
bar number, collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
‘bachschleifer’ articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
bar number, modulo bar number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
backslashed digit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
bar number, printed at regular intervals . . . . . . . . . 128
\backslashed-digit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
bar number, printed in first measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
bagpipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
bar number, regular spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
bagpipe, example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
bar number, removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
balance, in MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
bar number, style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
balloon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
bar number, unmetered music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
balloon help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
bar number, with letter, in repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Balloon_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 bar, check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
\balloonGrobText . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290, 908 \bar-line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
\balloonLengthOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 baritone clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
\balloonLengthOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 baritone varC clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
\balloonText . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290, 908 baritone varF clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
banjo tablature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417, 469 BarNumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
banjo tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 \barNumberCheck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135, 908
banjo-c-tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 barNumberVisibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
banjo-double-c-tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 barré indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
banjo-double-d-tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 barré line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
banjo-modal-tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Bartók pizzicato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
banjo-open-d-tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 bartype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
banjo-open-dm-tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 base-shortest-duration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
banjo-open-g-tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 bass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
\bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 124, 908 bass clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
bar check, with repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 bass note, for chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 bass, figured. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
bar line, automatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 bass, thorough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
bar line, avoided by lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 \bassFigureExtendersOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
bar line, between staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120, 237 \bassFigureExtendersOn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
bar line, cadenzas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 \bassFigureStaffAlignmentDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
bar line, caesura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 126 \bassFigureStaffAlignmentNeutral . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
bar line, default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 \bassFigureStaffAlignmentUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
bar line, default, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 basso continuo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
bar line, defining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 \beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
bar line, double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 125, 126, 140 beam, cadenzas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
bar line, final . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 126, 140 beam, cross-staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
bar line, for repeat at start of piece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 beam, customizing rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
bar line, hairpin, stopping at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 beam, endings, in a score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
bar line, in ChordNames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 beam, endings, with multiple voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
bar line, in Gregorian chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 beam, feathered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
bar line, in hymns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 beam, horizontal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
bar line, in Kievan chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 beam, in tablature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
bar line, in markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817 beam, line breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
bar line, invisible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 beam, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98, 110
bar line, list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897 beam, nibs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
bar line, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 beam, \partCombine with \autoBeamOff . . . . . . . . . . 99
bar line, measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 beam, slashed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
bar line, phrase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 126 beam, subdividing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
bar line, repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 beam, unmetered music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
bar line, section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126, 140 beam, with knee gap, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
bar line, segno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117, 126, 191 beam, with lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
bar line, short . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 beam, with melisma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
bar line, single . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 beam, with polymetric meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
bar line, symbols on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 beam-like flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
bar line, text over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 beamed tuplet, line break within . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
bar line, tick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 \beamExceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101, 908
bar line, underlying repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 beaming, strict-beat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
bar line, unmetered music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 beaming, time signature default properties . . . . . . . . 77
Appendix E: Index 950

beamlet, orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 \break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661

beat repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 break, in unmetered music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
beat, grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 break-align symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
beatBase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101, 105 break-align-orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
beats per minute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 break-align-symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
beatStructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101, 105 break-visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
beginners’ music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 breakable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
\bendAfter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170, 908 breakable glissando . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
\bendHold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425, 908 breakbefore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
bending, string, in tablature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 \breakDynamicSpan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
\bendStartLevel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425, 908 breaking lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
big point (bp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747 breaking pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
binding gutter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 breaking vertical alignment of dynamics . . . . . . . . . 160
binding-offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650, 923 breath mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
bisbigliando . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 breath mark symbol, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
bison program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 breath mark symbol, list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
black mensural clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525, 888 \breathe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169, 908
\blackTriangleMarkup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 \breve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51, 66
blank-after-score-page-penalty . . . . . . . . . . 652, 923 breve note, alternative style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
blank-last-page-penalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652, 924 breve rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
blank-page-penalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652, 924 broken chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
block comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568, 574 broken spanner, modifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
blot-diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924
BNF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
\bold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314, 777 C
bongo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
\book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569, 572 C clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
\book, and \layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 cabasa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
\book, and variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 cadenza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 146
book-title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924 cadenza, accidentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
book-title-properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924 cadenza, aligning to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
bookmarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598, 599 cadenza, bar lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
\bookOutputName. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908 cadenza, bar numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
\bookOutputSuffix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908 cadenza, beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
\bookpart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570, 572, 665 cadenza, line breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
\bookpart, and \layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 cadenza, page breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
\bookpart, and variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 \cadenzaOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
bookpart-level-page-numbering . . . . . . . . . . . 653, 924 \cadenzaOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
bookTitleMarkup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583, 924 caesura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Bottom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 \caesura . . . . . . . . . 74, 75, 125, 126, 396, 533, 543, 908
bottom-margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646, 924 caesura bar line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 126
bounding box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748 caesura bar line, in hymns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
bounding box, of glyph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850 caesura bar line, in Kievan chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
bowing indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 callback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
bowing, down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894 canticle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388, 392
bowing, up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894 capo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
\box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322, 777 \caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
\bp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747, 924 cautionary accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
brace, at start of single staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 \cavum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535, 540
brace, in markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843 \center-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317, 790
brace, nested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 \center-column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320, 790
brace, vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 centered dynamics in piano music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285, 293 centering column of text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
\bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162, 322, 807 centering text on page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
bracket, angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 centimeter (cm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
bracket, at start of single staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 \change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
bracket, cross-staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 changing breath mark symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
bracket, horizontal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 changing chord separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
bracket, nested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 changing direction of text column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
bracket, phrasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 changing font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
bracket, phrasing, with label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 changing instrument name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
bracket, square, at start of staff group . . . . . . . . . . . 236 changing number of augmentation dots . . . . . . . . . . . 53
bracket, vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 changing properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732, 738
bracket, vertical, marking divided voices . . . . . . . . . 379 changing staff automatically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
bracket, volta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 changing staff manually . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Appendix E: Index 951

changing tempo without metronome mark . . . . . . . . 85 church mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

changing tuplet number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 church rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388, 392 \circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322, 807
\char . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 circling text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
character name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 \circulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533, 894
chart, fingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 ‘circulus’ Gregorian articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533, 894
check mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 claves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
check-consistency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649, 924 clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 19, 532, 542
Chinese cymbal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 \clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 908
choir staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 clef, alto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
ChoirStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709 clef, alto varC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
choral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 clef, ancient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
‘choral’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 clef, ancient music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525, 888
choral tenor clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 clef, baritone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
choral-cautionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 clef, baritone varC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
‘choral-cautionary’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 clef, baritone varF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207, 492, 497 clef, bass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
chord diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441, 451 clef, black mensural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525, 888
chord diagram, automatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 clef, C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
chord grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 clef, F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
chord mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 clef, french . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
chord name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492, 497 clef, G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
chord name, exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 clef, G2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
chord name, with fret diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 clef, GG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
chord separator, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 clef, Kievan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525, 888
chord shape, for fretted instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 clef, mensural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525, 888
chord step, altering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 clef, mezzo-soprano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
chord, accidentals in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 clef, moderntab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
chord, alternative name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 clef, percussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471, 888
chord, and relative octave entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 clef, Petrucci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525, 888
chord, and tie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 clef, soprano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
chord, broken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 clef, style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525, 887
chord, cross-staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 clef, subbass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
chord, empty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144, 155, 208, 402 clef, tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439, 888
chord, fingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 clef, tenor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
chord, glissando, in tablatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 clef, tenor G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
chord, inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 clef, tenor varC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
chord, jazz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 clef, transposing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
chord, major 7, layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 clef, treble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
chord, modifying a single note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737 clef, tweaking properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
chord, power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 clef, varbaritone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
chord, quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 clef, varC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
chord, relative pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 clef, violin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
chord, repetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209, 421 clef, visibility following explicit change . . . . . . . . . . . 760
chord, rotating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 clef, visibility of transposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
chord, splitting across staves with \autoChange . . 406 clef, with cue notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
chord, suppressing repeated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459, 499 clip-regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622, 924
chord, voicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
chord, volta repeat, below . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 cluster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
chordChanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459, 499 \cm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747, 924
ChordGrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505, 710 coda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
ChordGridScore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709 \coda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 818, 894
\chordmode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 15, 452, 565 ‘coda’ sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894
chordNameExceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 ‘coda’ sign, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
chordNameLowercaseMinor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 ‘coda’ sign, variant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 193, 894
ChordNames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452, 711 ‘coda’ sign, with repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
ChordNames, with bar lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 \codaMark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 191, 198, 908
chordNameSeparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501, 504 collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
chordNoteNamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 collision, bar number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
chordPrefixSpacer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 collision, cross-staff voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
\chordRepeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421, 908 collision, ignoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212, 223
chordRootNamer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
\chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498, 565 color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
chorus level, in MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 color blind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Christian Harmony note head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 color, CSS-like codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Appendix E: Index 952

color, in chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 \cr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

color, list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866 crash cymbal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
color, RGB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 creating a table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
color, suitable for dichromatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871 creating empty text object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
coloring note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 creating horizontal space, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . 789, 796
coloring note, in chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 creating text fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842
coloring object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279, 757 creating vertical space, in text . . . . . . . . . 789, 804, 847
coloring text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849 \cresc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
coloring voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
crescendo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
crescendo-event. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
\column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320, 791
column, text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309, 320 crescendoSpanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
\column-lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850 crescendoText . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
\combine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323, 791 \crescHairpin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
combining parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 \crescTextCresc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
combining parts, changing text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 cross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
comma interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 cross note head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568, 573 cross-staff arpeggio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
common-shortest-duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686 cross-staff arpeggio bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Completion_heads_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93, 549 cross-staff beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Completion_rest_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93, 549 cross-staff chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
composer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 cross-staff collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
compound time signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 cross-staff line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
\compound-meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819 cross-staff note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402, 408
\compoundMeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92, 908 cross-staff parenthesis-style arpeggio . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
\compressEmptyMeasures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
cross-staff stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
compressing music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
cross-staff tremolo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
\compressMMRests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71, 265, 909
\concat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791 cross-voice arpeggio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
concatenating text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791 \crossStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408, 909
condensing rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 CSS color codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
conducting signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 cue clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
conga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 cue note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256, 260
\consists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717, 723 cue note, formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
constante hairpin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 cue note, removing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
contemporary glissando . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 cue, in vocal score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
\context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711, 718 cue, musical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
context definitions, with MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631 \cueClef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260, 909
context property, changing default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718 \cueClefUnset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260, 909
context, adding alias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723 \cueDuring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261, 909
context, creating and referencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 \cueDuring, and tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
context, defining in MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725 \cueDuringWithClef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261, 909
context, defining new . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723 CueVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260, 711
context, implicit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
cuica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
\context, in \layout block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
currentBarNumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127, 148
context, keeping alive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
context, layout order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726 custodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
context, lifetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714 custom fret diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441, 449
context, overlaying multiple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 custom fret diagram, adding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
context, properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732 custom fretboard fret diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
context, Score-level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726 custom metronome mark markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
context-spec-music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 custom rehearsal mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
\contextPropertyCheck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909 custom string tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
continuation, of notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 customized fret diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
control pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 customizing chord name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
control point, Bézier curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769 \customTabClef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
control point, tweaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738 custos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
controlling general text alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793 cymbal, various . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
controlpitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
copyright sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
count visibility, of percent repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
counter, percent repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
countPercentRepeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
cowbell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
Appendix E: Index 953

D diagram, fret, transposing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453

D.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 diamond note head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
D.C., manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 diamond-shaped note head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
D.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 dichromatism, suitable colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
D.S., forced at start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 dim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
D.S., manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 \dim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
da capo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
da capo, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 dimension units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
dimension, of bounding box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
dal segno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
dimension-variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
dal segno, forced at start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
\dimHairpin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
dal segno, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
diminuendo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
dampened note, on fretted instrument . . . . . . . . . . . 466
\dimTextDecr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
dash patterns, slur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165, 166
\dimTextDecresc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
\dashBang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
\dimTextDim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
\dashDash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
\dir-column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
\dashDot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
direction, automatic, of stem, on center line . . . . . . 287
dashed phrasing slur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
direction, default (-) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
dashed slur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
direction, default, of stem, on center line . . . . . . . . . 287
dashed tie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
direction, down (_) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
\dashHat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
direction, up (^) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
\dashLarger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
\discant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
\dashPlus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
discant symbol, accordion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
\dashUnderscore. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 display vertical layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
dead note, percussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 \displayLilyMusic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639, 909
\deadNote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44, 909 \displayMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
\deadNotesOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 \displayScheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
\deadNotesOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 distance, absolute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
debug-beam-scoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654, 925 distance, between staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
debug-slur-scoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654, 925 distance, scaled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
debug-tie-scoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654, 925 divided lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
debugging, vertical spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 divided voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
decorating text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 divisi staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
\decr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 divisio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
\decresc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 \divisioMaior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
decrescendo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 \divisioMaxima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
decrescendoSpanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 \divisioMinima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
decrescendoText. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 divisiones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
dedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 dodecaphonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 ‘dodecaphonic’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
\default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136, 589 dodecaphonic-first . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
‘default’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 32 ‘dodecaphonic-first’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
default bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 dodecaphonic-no-repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
default bar line, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 ‘dodecaphonic-no-repeat’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . 36
default context property, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718 doit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
default note duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Dorian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
default note name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 \dorian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
default pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 \dotsDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
default vertical direction (-) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746 \dotsNeutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
default, offsetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738 \dotsUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
default-staff-staff-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 dotted note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
\defaultchild . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710, 727 dotted note, changing number of dots . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
\defaultTimeSignature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 dotted note, moving horizontally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
\defineBarLine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120, 909 dotted phrasing slur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
defining bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 dotted slur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
defining predefined fretboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 dotted tie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
delayed ‘turn’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 double bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 125, 126, 140
\deminutum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535, 540 double flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
\denies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723, 725, 726 double sharp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
\descendens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535, 540 double slur, for legato chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
desk parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 double-dotted note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Devnull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710, 711 double-time signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
diagram, chord for fretted instruments . . . . . . . . . . . 441 \doubleflat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
diagram, fret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 \doublesharp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
diagram, fret, customized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 doubleSlurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Appendix E: Index 954

down direction (_) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746 dynamics, vertical positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

‘down pralltriller’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 \dynamicUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
‘down-bow’ bowing indication . . . . . . . . . . 149, 414, 894
\downbow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 414, 894
\downmordent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 E
\downprall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
easy notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
\draw-circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323, 807
easy notation, using numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
\draw-dashed-line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
easy play note head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
\draw-dotted-line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
\easyHeadsOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
\draw-hline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
\easyHeadsOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
\draw-line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323, 809
editorial dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
\draw-squiggle-line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
effects, in MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
drawing beam, within text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
electric snare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
drawing box, with rounded corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810
\ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810
drawing box, with rounded corners, around text . 815
embedded graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
drawing circle, within text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
drawing dashed line, within text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808 embedding files, in PDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
drawing dotted line, within text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808 embedding graphic object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
drawing ellipse, around text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810 Emmentaler font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
drawing graphic object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 empty chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144, 155, 402
drawing line, across a page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809 empty staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
drawing line, within text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809 \EnableGregorianDivisiones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922
drawing oval, around text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811 \enablePolymeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
drawing path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812 encapsulated postscript output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
drawing polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813 enclosing text, in box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
drawing solid box, within text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810 enclosing text, in box with rounded corners . . . . . . 815
drawing squiggled line, within text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809 encoding, of text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
drawing triangle, within text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816 end repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
\dropNote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497, 910 \endcr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
drum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471, 473 \enddecr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
drum staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 \endSpanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756, 910
drum, various . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 engraver, including in context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
\drummode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233, 471, 565 Engraver_group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
drumPitchNames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 ensemble music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
drumPitchTable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 entering lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
\drums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471, 565 entering multiple tuplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
DrumStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233, 709 ‘episem finis’ Gregorian articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
drumStyleTable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 ‘episem initium’ Gregorian articulation . . . . . . . . . . 533
DrumVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 \episemFinis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
duration line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 \episemInitium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
duration, default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 EPS image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
duration, isolated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 EPS output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
duration, of note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 \epsfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324, 810
duration, scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 equalization, instrument, replacing MIDI default . 630
\dwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 \espressivo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 155, 892
\dynamic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162, 778 ‘espressivo’ articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 155, 892
dynamic mark, multiple on one note . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 \etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313, 615
dynamic mark, new . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 evenFooterMarkup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
dynamic-event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 evenHeaderMarkup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
\dynamicDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 \eventChords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
DynamicLineSpanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156, 159 exception, chord names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
\dynamicNeutral. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 \expandEmptyMeasures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 expanding music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 explicitClefVisibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
dynamics, absolute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 explicitKeySignatureVisibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
dynamics, breaking vertical alignment . . . . . . . . . . . 160 expression markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
dynamics, centered in keyboard music . . . . . . . . . . . 401 expression, in MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
dynamics, editorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 extended chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
dynamics, extender line, hiding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 extender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
dynamics, in MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 extender line, dynamics, hiding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
dynamics, in MIDI, custom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 extent, of actual inking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
dynamics, parenthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 extent, of bounding box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
dynamics, text spanner, customize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 extra natural sign, preventing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
dynamics, text, style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 extra voice, for handling breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
dynamics, vertical alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 extra-offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
Appendix E: Index 955

extra-spacing-height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693 fingering, right-hand, placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

extra-spacing-width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693 fingering, stem support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
\eyeglasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 fingering, symbols, for wind instruments . . . . . . . . . 480
Ez_numbers_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 fingering, thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 273, 894
fingeringOrientations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
first-page-number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652, 926
F \first-visible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
\fixed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 910
\f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
flag, beam-like . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
F clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
flag, mensural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
flag, modern straight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
false (#f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932
flag, old straight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
false note, percussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
flag, stacked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
\featherDurations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113, 910
\flageolet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894
feathered beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
‘flageolet’ harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894
feature, OpenType font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329, 783
flags, flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
fermata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 \flagStyleDefault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
\fermata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75, 149, 821, 893 \flagStyleStacked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
fermata, Henze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 flared hairpin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
fermata, long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
fermata, on bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 \flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
fermata, on multi-measure rest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 flat flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
fermata, short . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 flat, double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Ferneyhough hairpin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 flex program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
Feta font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871 \flexa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
\ff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 flexa, in mensural ligatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
\fff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 floor tom tom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
\ffff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 follow voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
\fffff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 followVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
figured bass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
figured bass, alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 font family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
figured bass, alteration, glyphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 font family, setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
figured bass, alteration, position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 font feature, OpenType . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329, 783
figured bass, extender lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512 font size (markup) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
figured bass, vertical distance of elements . . . . . . . . 515 font size (notation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
\figured-bass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778 font size (notation), scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
FiguredBass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 font size (notation), standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
figuredBassAlterationDirection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 font size, setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
figuredBassPlusDirection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 font, changing for entire document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
figuredBassPlusStrokedAlist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 font, Emmentaler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
\figuremode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510, 565 font, external files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
\figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510, 565 font, Feta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
files, embedding in PDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 font, finding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
\fill-line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321, 792 font, Parmesan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
\fill-with-pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601, 793 font, switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
\filled-box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323, 810 font-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
final bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 126, 140 font-size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269, 271
final bar line, in Gregorian chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 \fontCaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
final bar line, in Kievan chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 FontConfig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
finalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
\finalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 \fontsize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314, 779
fine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 fontSize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
\fine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126, 140, 186, 188, 543 foot mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894
\finger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272, 779, 910 footer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
finger change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 footer, page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
fingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 footnote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
fingering chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 \footnote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588, 841, 910
fingering number, vs. string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 footnote, event-based . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
fingering, adding to fret diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 footnote, in music expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
fingering, and multi-measure rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 footnote, in stand-alone text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
fingering, glide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 footnote, time-based . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
fingering, inside of staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 footnote-footer-padding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
fingering, line between . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 footnote-number-raise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
fingering, orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 footnote-numbering-function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
fingering, right-hand, for fretted instruments . . . . . 464 footnote-padding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
Appendix E: Index 956

footnote-separator-markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654, 926 G

Forbid_line_break_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 G clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
forced vertical direction of grobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746 \general-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318, 793
forget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 \germanChords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
‘forget’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 ghost note. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
formatting, cue notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 ghost note, percussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
formatting, in lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 \glide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
formatting, rehearsal mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 gliding fingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
formatting, text spanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 glissando . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
four-bar music. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663 \glissando . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
four-string-banjo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 glissando, across repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
\fp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 glissando, and repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
\fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842 glissando, breakable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
fragment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 glissando, chords in tablatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
fragment, music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622 glissando, contemporary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
fragment, quoting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 glissando, timing marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
framing text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 \glissandoMap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
\freeBass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835 Global . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
French clef. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887 global replacement, automatic, of strings . . . . . . . . . 620
\frenchChords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 global variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
Frenched score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 glyph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
Frenched staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244, 248 glyph set, accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886
fret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 glyph, alternate accidentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
fret diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441, 451 glyph, bounding box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
fret diagram, adding custom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 glyph, for figured bass alteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
fret diagram, adding fingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 \grace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141, 910
fret diagram, automatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 grace note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141, 482
fret diagram, changing orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 grace note, and lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
fret diagram, custom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 grace note, and strict spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
fret diagram, customized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448, 449 grace note, changing layout settings . . . . . . . . . 143, 144
fret diagram, left-handed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 grace note, following . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
fret diagram, mandolin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 grace note, synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
grace note, tweaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143, 144
fret diagram, markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
grammar, for LilyPond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
fret diagram, transposing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
grand staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
fret diagram, ukulele . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
GrandStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
fret diagram, with chord names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
graphic notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
\fret-diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442, 829
graphic object, drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
fret-diagram-interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
graphic object, embedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
\fret-diagram-terse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444, 830 graphical object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
\fret-diagram-terse markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 graphical object interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
\fret-diagram-verbose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446, 831 graphics, embedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322, 324
\fret-diagram-verbose markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 Gregorian accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
fretboard fret diagram, customized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 Gregorian articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
fretboard, alternate table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 Gregorian articulation, accentus . . . . . . . . . . . . 533, 894
fretboard, define predefined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Gregorian articulation, circulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533, 894
FretBoards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451, 710 Gregorian articulation, episem finis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
fretted instrument, chord shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 Gregorian articulation, episem initium . . . . . . . . . . . 533
fretted instrument, dampened note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 Gregorian articulation, ictus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533, 894
fretted instrument, harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 Gregorian articulation, semicirculus . . . . . . . . . 533, 894
fretted instrument, indicating position and Gregorian key signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
barring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 Gregorian music, modern transcription . . . . . . . . . . 393
fretted instrument, predefined string tunings . . . . . 437 Gregorian square neumes ligature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
fretted instrument, right-hand fingering . . . . . . . . . . 464 Gregorian transcription staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
\fromproperty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842 GregorianTranscriptionLyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
full score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 GregorianTranscriptionStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234, 710
full-measure rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 GregorianTranscriptionVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
funk shape note head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 grid line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
\funkHeads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 grid lines, changing appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
\funkHeadsMinor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Grid_line_span_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Grid_point_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
gridInterval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
grob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729, 903
grob, and whiteout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63, 757
Appendix E: Index 957

grob, overwriting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63, 757 hidden note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

grob, property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734 \hide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757, 911
grob, vertical position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746 \hideKeySignature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
grob, visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756 \hideNotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
grob-interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 \hideSplitTiedTabNotes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
\grobdescriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911 \hideStaffSwitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
grouping beats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 hiding accidentals, on tied notes at start of system . 9
grow-direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 hiding ancient staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
guiro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 hiding dynamics extender line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
guitar note head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 hiding rhythmic staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
guitar tablature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 hiding staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
guitar, chord chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 hiding Vaticana staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
guitar, strumming rhythm, showing . . . . . . . . . . . 95, 96 high bongo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
gutter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 high conga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
high hat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
high hat, half-open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 475, 895
H high hat, open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 895
hairpin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 high hat, pedal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 475, 895
hairpin, al niente . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 high hat, pedal splash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
hairpin, aligning ends to NoteColumn directions . . 158 high timbale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
hairpin, angled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763 high tom tom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
hairpin, constante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 highlight, staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
hairpin, Ferneyhough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 horizontal alignment, lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
hairpin, flared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 horizontal beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
hairpin, minimum length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 horizontal bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
hairpin, moving ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 horizontal movement, in markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
hairpin, stopping at bar lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 horizontal ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
‘half-open’ articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894 horizontal shift of notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
half-open high hat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 475, 895 horizontal spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
\halfopen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 475, 894 horizontal spacing, between columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
\halign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317, 794 horizontal spacing, between non-musical items . . . 690
hammer on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 horizontal text alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
hand clap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 horizontal-shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650, 926
Harmonia Sacra note head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Horizontal_bracket_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
\harmonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44, 415, 424 HorizontalBracketText . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
harmonic indication, in tablature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 horizontally centering text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
harmonic note head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 \hspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318, 796
\harmonicByFret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424, 911 Hufnagel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520, 521
\harmonicByRatio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424, 911 \huge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271, 317, 779
\harmonicNote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911 hymn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388, 392
harmonics, artificial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 hymn, and partial measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
harmonics, flageolet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894 hyperlink, as QR code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
harmonics, in tablatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 hyphen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
harmonics, natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
harmonics, on fretted instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
\harmonicsOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 I
\harmonicsOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414, 911 \ictus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533, 894
harp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 ‘ictus’ Gregorian articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533, 894
harp, pedal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 \if . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586, 829
harp, pedal diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 \iij . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
\harp-pedal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412, 832 \IIJ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
‘Haydn turn’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 \ij . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
\haydnturn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 \IJ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
\hbracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322, 811 image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
\hcenter-in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795 \image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
header . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 image, embedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
\header . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572 immutable object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
header, page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582 immutable property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
‘heel’ pedal mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894 implicit context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
Hel-arabic note name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 importing stencil, into text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
help, balloon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 improvisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Henze fermata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 improvisation, Arabic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
\henzelongfermata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 \improvisationOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50, 95
\henzeshortfermata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 \improvisationOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50, 95
Appendix E: Index 958

\in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747, 926 J

in-note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 jazz chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
in-note-direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 \jump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199, 912
in-note-padding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597, 926 \justified-lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312, 851
in-note-system-padding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597, 926 \justify . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321, 796
inch (in) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747 \justify-field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
\incipit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544, 911 \justify-line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
incipit, adding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544 \justify-string. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
incipit-width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926 justifying lines of text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
\inclinatum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535, 540 justifying text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321, 796
\include . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573, 603
include settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
including files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603 K
indent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254, 650, 695, 926 \keep-with-tag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610, 842
indicating ‘No Chord’, in ChordNames . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 keepAliveInterfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
indicating position and barring for fretted keeping tagged music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 \keepWithTag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606, 912
individual parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 \key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 47, 912
\inherit-acceptability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724, 911 key cancellation, before bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
\initialContextFrom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911 key signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 23
inner-margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650, 927 key signature, Gregorian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
inserting music, into text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826 key signature, mensural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
inserting PostScript directly, into text . . . . . . . . . . . 814 key signature, non-traditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
inserting URL link, into text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817 key signature, preventing natural signs . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
\inStaffSegno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 126, 198, 911 key signature, visibility following explicit change . 760
instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 keyboard instrument staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
instrument equalization, in MIDI, replacing keyboard music, centering dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 keyed instrument staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
instrument name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253, 632 Kievan accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Kievan clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525, 888
instrument name, adding to other contexts . . . . . . . 255
Kievan ligature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
instrument name, centering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Kievan_ligature_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
instrument name, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
\kievanOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
instrument name, complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
\kievanOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
instrument name, short . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 KievanStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541, 710
instrument, transposing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 KievanVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541, 710
\instrumentSwitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912 \killCues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264, 912
interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 Kirchenpause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
interface, layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729 knee gap, with beams, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
interleaved music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 koron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Internals Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
\inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 912 L
inversion, modal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 \label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599, 912
\invertChords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497, 912 label-alist-table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
invisible note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 label-page-table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
invisible rest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 laissez vibrer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
invisible stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 \laissezVibrer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Ionian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
\ionian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 \language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
irregular measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 language, note names in other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
is-last-bookpart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927 language, pitch names in other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
isolated duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 \languageRestore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
isolated percent repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 \languageSaveAndChange. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
isolated pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 \large . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271, 317, 780
\italianChords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 \larger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314, 317, 780
\italic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314, 780 last-bottom-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648, 927
item, musical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
item, non-musical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 \layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572, 655, 708, 718
layout object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
\layout, and \book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
\layout, and \bookpart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
\layout, and paper variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
layout, file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
Appendix E: Index 959

layout, interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729 lute tablature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470

layout, major 7 chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 lute tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
layout, vertical, debugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 ly:minimal-breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
layout-set-staff-size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 ly:one-line-auto-height-breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
lead sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 ly:one-line-breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
ledger line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 ly:one-page-breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
ledger line, internal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 ly:optimal-breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
ledger line, modifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 ly:page-turn-breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
\left-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317, 798 Lydian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
left-aligning text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798 \lydian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
\left-brace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843 \lyricmode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336, 337, 565
\left-column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799 Lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
left-handed fret diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 \lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
left-margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649, 927 lyrics, aligning to a melody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
length of multi-measure rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 lyrics, aligning with sporadic melody . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
length of note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 lyrics, and markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
lexer, for LilyPond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 lyrics, and melodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
\lheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894 lyrics, and tied notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
ligature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 lyrics, assigned to one voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
\ligature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912 lyrics, avoid bar lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
ligature, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791 lyrics, divided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
ligature, Kievan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 lyrics, entering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
ligature, mensural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 lyrics, formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
ligature, square neumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 lyrics, horizontal alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Ligature_bracket_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529, 543 lyrics, increasing space between . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
LilyPond grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 lyrics, keeping inside margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301, 357
LilyPond lexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 lyrics, on grace notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
\line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312, 799 lyrics, positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247, 349
line break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 lyrics, punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
line break, beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 lyrics, repeating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
line break, cadenzas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 lyrics, repeats with alternative endings . . . . . . . . . . . 361
line break, managing with extra voice . . . . . . . . . . . . 664 lyrics, separate, on single line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
line break, unmetered music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 lyrics, shared among voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
line comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568, 573 lyrics, skip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
line, barré . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 lyrics, skipping notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
line, between fingerings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 lyrics, using variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
line, cross-staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 lyrics, version 2.12 spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
line, grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 lyrics, with beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
line, indicating duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 \lyricsto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337, 339
line, staff-change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
line, staff-change follower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
line, vertical, between staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
line-thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
M
line-width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321, 648, 695, 927 m (in chord) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
\linea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535, 540 magnification->font-size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270, 657
\lineprall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 \magnify . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314, 780
list of colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866 magnifying text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
list of keys, in woodwind diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 \magnifyMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268, 912
list of markups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 \magnifyStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657, 912
list of woodwind diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 magstep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270, 657, 748
Locrian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 maj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
\locrian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 major . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
long fermata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 \major . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
\longa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51, 66 major 7 chord, layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
longa rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 major seven symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
\longfermata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 majorSevenSymbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501, 503
\lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843 makam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552, 558
low bongo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 makam, example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
low conga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 makamlar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552, 558
low timbale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 make-dynamic-script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
low tom tom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 make-footer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
\lower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318, 799 make-header . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
‘lower mordent’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 make-relative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
lowering text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799 \makeClusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212, 913
\ltoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894 \makeDefaultStringTuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
Appendix E: Index 960

manual bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 markup-system-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647, 928

manual beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98, 110 \markuplist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309, 312
manual beam, direction shorthand for . . . . . . . . . . . 110 \markupMap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
manual beam, grace notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 matter, optional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
manual engraving, of ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 matter, prefatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
manual line break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661 max-systems-per-page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651, 928
manual measure line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 \maxima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51, 66
manual rehearsal mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 maxima rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
manual repeat mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 measure counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
manual staff change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 measure line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 126
maqam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 measure line, invisible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
maracas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 measure line, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
\marcato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892 measure number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127, 148
‘marcato’ articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892 measure number, and repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
margin, text running over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 measure number, check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
\mark. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136, 304, 913 measure number, style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
mark, on every staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 measure position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 148
mark, phrasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 measure repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
mark, rehearsal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 measure, check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
mark, rehearsal, below staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 measure, grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
mark, rehearsal, format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 measure, irregular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
mark, rehearsal, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 measure, partial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
mark, rehearsal, style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 measure, partial, in hymns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
mark, text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 measure, pickup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Mark_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 measure, subgrouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
\markalphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843 Measure_grouping_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
\markLengthOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84, 306 measureBarType . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
\markLengthOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84, 306 measureLength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101, 148
\markletter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843 measurePosition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 measuring units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
\markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298, 304, 309, 310, 566 Medicaea, Editio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520, 521
markup list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 medium interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
markup mode, quoted text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 melisma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343, 347
markup mode, special characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 \melisma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
markup object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 melisma, with beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
markup text, aligning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 \melismaEnd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
markup text, alignment commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 melismata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
markup text, decorating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 melody rhythm, showing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
markup text, framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 mensural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520, 521
markup text, justified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 mensural clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525, 888
markup text, line width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 mensural flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
markup text, multi-page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 mensural ligature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
markup text, padding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 mensural ligature, flexa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
markup text, size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 mensural music, transcription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
markup text, word-wrapped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 mensural notation, signum congruentiae . . . . . . . . . 894
markup, aligning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Mensural_ligature_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
markup, centering on page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 MensuralStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234, 524, 709
markup, conditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 MensuralVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524, 710
markup, expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 mensuration sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
markup, horizontal movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 Mensurstriche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
markup, image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811 Mensurstriche, layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
markup, in lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 \mergeDifferentlyDottedOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
markup, multi-line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 \mergeDifferentlyDottedOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
markup, multi-measure rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
markup, multi-page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
markup, music notation inside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 merging notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
markup, on multi-measure rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 merging rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
markup, rhythm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825 merging text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791, 800
markup, score inside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
markup, syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
markup, text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 meter, polymetric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
markup, text, inside slurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 meter, style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
markup, two-column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 metronome mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
markup, vertical movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318, 319 metronome mark, below staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
markup-markup-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648, 928 metronome mark, custom markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Appendix E: Index 961

mezzo-soprano clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887 moderntab clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

\mf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 modifier, in chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
microtone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 modifying contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
microtone, in tablature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 modifying properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
mid tom tom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 \mordent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
\midi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572, 708 ‘mordent’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 626 ‘mordent, lower’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
MIDI, balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 ‘mordent, upper’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
MIDI, block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627 movement in markup, horizontal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
MIDI, channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 movement in markup, vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318, 319
MIDI, chorus level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 movement, multiple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
MIDI, context definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631 \mp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
MIDI, custom dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 multi-line comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568, 574
MIDI, dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 multi-line markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
MIDI, effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 multi-line text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
MIDI, equalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629 multi-measure rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
MIDI, expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 multi-measure rest, and fingerings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
MIDI, instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632 multi-measure rest, attaching fermata . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
MIDI, metadata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 multi-measure rest, attaching text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
MIDI, one channel per voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 multi-measure rest, contracting multiple . . . . . . . . . 265
MIDI, pan position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 multi-measure rest, expanding multiple . . . . . . . . . . 265
MIDI, replacing default instrument equalization . . 630 multi-measure rest, length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
MIDI, reverb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 multi-measure rest, markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
MIDI, stereo balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 multi-measure rest, numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
MIDI, supported notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626 multi-measure rest, positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
MIDI, tracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 multi-measure rest, script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
MIDI, transposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 multi-measure rest, style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
MIDI, unsupported notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
multi-measure rest, with markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
MIDI, using repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
multi-measure rest, within text, by duration . . . . . 823
MIDI, volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
multi-measure rest, within text, by number of
midiBalance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
midiChannelMapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
\multi-measure-rest-by-number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
midiChorusLevel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
multi-note acciaccatura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
midiDrumPitches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
multi-page markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
midiExpression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
multi-voice accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
midiInstrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
MultiMeasureRestScript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
midiPanPosition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
midiReverbLevel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 MultiMeasureRestText . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
millimeter (mm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747 multiple dynamic marks, on one note . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
min-systems-per-page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651, 928 multiple phrasing slurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
minimum length, hairpin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 multiple slurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
minimum-Y-extent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 multiple voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
minimumFret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420, 463 music expression, copying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
minor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 music expression, sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
\minor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 music fragment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
minorChordModifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 music, beginners’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
mirroring markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816 music, inside markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Mixolydian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 music, unmetered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
\mixolydian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 musica ficta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
\mm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747, 928 musical cue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
modal inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 musical item . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
modal transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 musical theater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
modal transposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 \musicglyph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
\modalInversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 913 \musicLength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
\modalTranspose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 913 \musicMap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 musicological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
modern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 musicQuotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
modern accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 mutable object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
‘modern’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 33 mutable property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
modern transcription of Gregorian music . . . . . . . . . 393 mute bongo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
modern-cautionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 mute conga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
‘modern-cautionary’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 33 mute timbale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
modern-voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 muted note, percussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
modern-voice-cautionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
‘modern-voice-cautionary’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . 34
Appendix E: Index 962

N note duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
\n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 note duration, default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
N.C. symbol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 note grouping bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
N.C. symbol, customizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 note head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
\name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723 note head, Aiken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
name, character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 note head, Aiken, thin variant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
name, of singer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 note head, ancient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526, 542
\natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822 note head, Christian Harmony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
note head, cross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
natural harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
note head, diamond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
natural pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
note head, diamond-shaped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
natural sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
note head, easy notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
natural sign, extra, preventing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
note head, easy play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
natural sign, preventing in key signatures . . . . . . . . . 25
note head, funk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
neo-modern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
note head, guitar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
‘neo-modern’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
note head, Harmonia Sacra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
neo-modern-cautionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
note head, harmonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
‘neo-modern-cautionary’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . . 35
note head, improvisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
neo-modern-voice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
note head, parlato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
‘neo-modern-voice’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
note head, practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
neo-modern-voice-cautionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
note head, Sacred Harp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
‘neo-modern-voice-cautionary’ accidental style . . . . 36
note head, shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
neomensural. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
note head, shape, merging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
nesting repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 note head, slashed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
nesting, staff bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 note head, Southern Harmony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
nesting, staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 note head, special . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
\new . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 note head, style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43, 886
new context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 note head, Walker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
new dynamic mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 note length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
new spacing section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687 note name, Arabic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
new staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 note name, default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
\newSpacingSection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687 note name, Dutch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
niente, al, hairpin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 note name, Hel-arabic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
‘No Chord’ symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 note name, other languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
‘No Chord’ symbol, customizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 note name, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
no-reset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 note pitch, default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
‘no-reset’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 note, colored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
\noBeam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 note, colored, in chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
\noBreak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663 note, cross-staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402, 408
noChordSymbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 note, dotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
non-ASCII character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 note, dotted, moving horizontally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
non-default tuplet numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 note, double-dotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
non-empty text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 note, ghost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
non-musical item . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 note, hidden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
non-musical item, horizontal spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 note, horizontal shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
non-musical symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 note, invisible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
NonMusicalPaperColumn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 note, parenthesized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
nonstaff-nonstaff-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 note, smaller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
nonstaff-relatedstaff-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 note, spacing horizontally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
nonstaff-unrelatedstaff-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 note, splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
\noPageBreak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665, 913 note, transparent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
\noPageTurn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668, 913 note, transposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
\normal-size-sub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781 note, within text, by duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
\normal-size-super . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316, 781 note, within text, by log and dot-count . . . . . . . . . 823
\normal-text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781 \note-by-number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
\normal-weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781 note-event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
\normalsize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269, 271, 317, 782 Note_heads_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
notation, explaining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Note_name_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
notation, font size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 NoteColumn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
notation, graphic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 \notemode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
notation, inside markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 noteNameFunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
\note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822 NoteNames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288, 711
note cluster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 noteNameSeparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
note collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 \null . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
note continuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 NullVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367, 711
Appendix E: Index 963

\number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782 ornament, down pralltriller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893

number, bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 ornament, Haydn turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
number, in easy notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 ornament, horizontally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
number, measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 ornament, lower mordent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
number-footnote-table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928 ornament, mordent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
\numericTimeSignature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 ornament, mordent, lower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
ornament, mordent, upper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
ornament, pralltriller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
O ornament, pralltriller, down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
object, colored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279, 757 ornament, pralltriller, long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
object, markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 ornament, pralltriller, up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
object, overwriting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757 ornament, reverse turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
object, rotating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763 ornament, signum congruentiae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
object, visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756 ornament, slash turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
octavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 ornament, trill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
octave changing mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 ornament, turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
octave check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 ornament, turn, delayed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
octave correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 ornament, up pralltriller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
octave entry, absolute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 ornament, upper mordent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
octave entry, relative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 orphan-penalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
octave specification, absolute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 ossia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244, 252
octave specification, relative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 ossia, positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
octave transposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 ottava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
octave transposition, optional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
\ottava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 914
\octaveCheck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 913
ottava spanner, modifying slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
oddFooterMarkup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
ottava text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
oddHeaderMarkup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
ottava, for single voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
\offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738, 913
offsetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738 ottavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
\omit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756, 914 ottavation-numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
\on-the-fly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844 ottavation-ordinals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
\once . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735, 740, 749, 914 ottavation-simple-ordinals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
OneStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235, 709 ottavationMarkups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
\oneVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Ottoman music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
\open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 414, 475, 480, 894 Ottoman, classical music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
‘open’ articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 480, 894 outer-margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650, 928
open bongo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 output definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
open conga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 output-count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
open high hat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 895 output-def . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
open string indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 output-filename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571, 928
open timbale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 output-scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
OpenType, font feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329, 783 output-suffix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571, 904, 928
opera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 outside-staff-horizontal-padding . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
operation, inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 outside-staff-padding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
operation, modal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 outside-staff-priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684, 901
operation, modal inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 \oval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
operation, retrograde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 \overlay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
operation, transposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 overlaying contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
optional material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 \override . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734, 736, 844
optional octave transposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 override, reverting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
optional passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
\override-lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
opus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
\overrideProperty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736, 914
oratorio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
\overrideTimeSignatureSettings . . . . . . . . . . . 78, 914
orchestra, notation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
overriding property, within text markup . . . . . . . . . 844
orchestral music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
orchestral strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 \overtie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
ordering, vertical, of scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 overtie-ing text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
organ pedal mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894 overwriting grob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
orientation, of fingerings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 overwriting object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
orientation, of fret diagram, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
orientation, of string numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
orientation, of stroke finger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
\oriscus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535, 540
ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Appendix E: Index 964

P part combiner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

\p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 part combiner, changing text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
\pad-around . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323, 800 part song. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
\pad-markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323, 800 part, desk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
\pad-to-box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323, 801 part, individual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
\pad-x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323, 801 part, section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
padding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731 \partCombine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224, 367, 915
padding around text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 \partCombine, and lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227, 367
\partCombineApart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
padding text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
\partCombineAutomatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
padding text horizontally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
\partCombineChords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
page break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
\partCombineDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
page break, cadenzas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
\partCombineForce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
page break, managing with extra voice . . . . . . . . . . . 664
partCombineListener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
page break, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
\partCombineSoloI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
page break, unmetered music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
\partCombineSoloII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
page break, within markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
\partCombineUnisono . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
page footer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
\partCombineUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
page header . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
\partial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86, 148, 182, 915
page layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
partial measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
page number, auto-numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
partial measure, in hymns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
page number, in roman numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
\path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812
page number, independent for introduction . . . . . . 653
path, drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812
page number, per book part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653 \pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
page number, referencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598 pause mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74, 169
page number, specify first . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652 PDF, embedding files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
page number, suppress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652 PDF, metadata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
page size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 pedal diagram, harp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
page, orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645 pedal high hat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 475, 895
page-breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651, 928 pedal indication, bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
page-breaking-system-system-spacing . . . . 651, 929 pedal indication, mixed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
page-count. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651, 929 pedal indication, style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
\page-link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844 pedal indication, text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
page-number-type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652, 929 pedal mark, heel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894
page-post-process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929 pedal mark, organ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894
\page-ref . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599, 844 pedal mark, toe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894
page-spacing-weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651, 929 pedal splash high hat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
\pageBreak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665, 914 pedal sustain, style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
\pageTurn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668, 914 pedal, harp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
pageTurnMinimumRepeatLength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668 pedal, piano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
pageTurnMinimumRestLength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667 pedal, sostenuto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
\palmMute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914 pedal, sustain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
\palmMuteOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914 pedalSustainStyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
pan position, in MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 percent repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Pango . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 percent repeat, count visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
\paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572, 644 percent repeat, counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
paper column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 percent repeat, isolated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
paper size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 percussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471, 473
paper size, landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645 percussion clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471, 888
paper size, orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645 percussion staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
paper variable, predefined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 percussion, custom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
paper variables, in \layout block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 percussion, dead note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
paper-height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646, 929 percussion, false note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
paper-width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648, 929 percussion, ghost note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
papersizename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929 percussion, muted note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
parallel music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 percussion, silenced note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
\parallelMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230, 914 Performer_group. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
parenthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Persian accidentals (sori, koron) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
\parenthesize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285, 812, 915 Persian classical music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
parenthesized accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Persian makam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
parlato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 \pes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
parlato note head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Petrucci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520, 521
Parmesan font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871 Petrucci clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525, 888
parser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 PetrucciStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530, 710
parser variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 PetrucciVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530, 710
Appendix E: Index 965

phrase bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 126 polymetric meter, with beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

phrase bar line, in Gregorian chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 polymetric signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
phrase bar line, in hymns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 polyphonic music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
phrase bar line, in Kievan chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 polyphony, additional voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
phrasing bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 polyphony, in tablatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
phrasing mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 polyphony, shared lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
phrasing slur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164, 167 polyphony, single-staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
phrasing slur, dashed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 \popContextProperty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733, 916
phrasing slur, defining dash patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 \portato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892
phrasing slur, dotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 ‘portato’ articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892
phrasing slur, half solid and half dashed . . . . . . . . . 168 position, figured bass alteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
phrasing slur, multiple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 position, in measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 148
phrasing slur, simultaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 position, lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
phrasing, in lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 position, multi-measure rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
\phrasingSlurDashed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 position, ossia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
\phrasingSlurDashPattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168, 915 position, vertical, of grobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
\phrasingSlurDotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 post-event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
\phrasingSlurDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
\phrasingSlurHalfDashed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 \postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324, 814
\phrasingSlurHalfSolid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 power chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
\phrasingSlurNeutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 \pp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
\phrasingSlurSolid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 \ppp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
\phrasingSlurUp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 \pppp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Phrygian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 \ppppp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
\phrygian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 practice note head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
piano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 \prall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
‘piano’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 \pralldown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
piano music, centering dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 \prallmordent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
piano pedal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 \prallprall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
piano staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235, 401 ‘pralltriller’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
piano-cautionary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 ‘pralltriller, down’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
‘piano-cautionary’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 ‘pralltriller, long’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
PianoStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401, 404, 709 ‘pralltriller, up’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
pickup measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 \prallup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
pickup, in a repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 \preBend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425, 916
piece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 \preBendHold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425, 916
pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 predefined paper variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
pitch name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 predefined string tuning, for fretted instruments . 437
pitch name, other languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 predefinedDiagramTable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
pitch range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 \predefinedFretboardsOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
pitch, default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 \predefinedFretboardsOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
pitch, isolated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 prefatory matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
pitch, transposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 prima volta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Pitch_squash_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 print-all-headers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653, 929
pitched trill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 print-first-page-number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652, 929
pitched trill, with accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 print-page-number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652, 929
\pitchedTrill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179, 916 printAccidentalNames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
pitches, ‘smart’ transposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 printing chord name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
pitchnames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 printing order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
pizzicato, Bartók . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 printing reserved character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
pizzicato, snap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 printing special character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
placeholder event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 printNotesLanguage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
placement, lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 printOctaveNames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
placement, right-hand fingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 prob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
placing horizontal brackets, around text . . . . . . . . . 811 properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
placing parentheses, around text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812 property object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
placing vertical brackets, around text . . . . . . . . . . . . 807 property, grob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
PNG image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811 property, modifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
poet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 property-defaults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929
point (pt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747 \property-recursive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
point, big (bp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747 \propertyOverride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
\pointAndClickOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916 \propertyRevert. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
\pointAndClickOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916 \propertySet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
\pointAndClickTypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916 \propertyTweak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
\polygon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813 \propertyUnset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917
Appendix E: Index 966

psalm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388, 392 \remove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717

\pt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747, 930 remove-empty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
pull off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 remove-first . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
punctuation, in lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 remove-grace-property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
\push-to-tag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610, 845 remove-layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
\pushContextProperty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733, 917 \remove-with-tag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610, 846
\pushToTag. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610, 917 \RemoveAllEmptyStaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249, 923
\pushToTagMarkup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611, 917 \RemoveEmptyStaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249, 923
\put-adjacent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801 \removeWithTag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606, 917
putting space around text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800 removing bar numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
removing cue notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
removing tagged music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Q Renaissance music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
q (chord repetition) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209, 421 repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
\qr-code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845 \repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181, 182, 183
QR code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845 repeat bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
quarter tone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 repeat bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
quarter tone accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 repeat bar line, underlying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
quarter tone, in tablature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 repeat number, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
\quilisma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535, 540 \repeat percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
quote, in lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336, 343 \repeat segno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 126, 188
\repeat tremolo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
quote, voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
\repeat unfold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
quoted text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
\repeat volta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 126, 182, 183
quoted text, in markup mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
repeat volta, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
quotedCueEventTypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
repeat, al fine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
quotedEventTypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
repeat, alla coda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
\quoteDuring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256, 260, 917
repeat, alternative bar numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
\quoteDuring, and tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
repeat, ambiguous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
repeat, and glissandi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174, 196
repeat, and lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
R repeat, and measure number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
r (rest) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 repeat, and slur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
R (full-measure rest) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 repeat, bar line at start of piece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
ragged-bottom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646, 930 repeat, bar numbers with letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
ragged-last . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649, 695, 930 repeat, beat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
ragged-last-bottom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646, 930 repeat, D.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
ragged-right. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649, 695, 930 repeat, D.C., manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
\raise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318, 802 repeat, D.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
\raiseNote. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497, 917 repeat, D.S., forced at start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
raising text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802 repeat, D.S., manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
range of pitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 repeat, da capo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Ratisbona, Editio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 repeat, da capo, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
\reduceChords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96, 917 repeat, dal segno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
referencing context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 repeat, dal segno, forced at start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
referencing page label, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849 repeat, dal segno, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
referencing page number, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844 repeat, double, style for volta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
register symbol, accordion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 repeat, e poi la coda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
regular line break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663 repeat, end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
rehearsal mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 repeat, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
rehearsal mark, below staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 repeat, measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
rehearsal mark, format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 repeat, nested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
rehearsal mark, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 repeat, percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
rehearsal mark, style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 repeat, percent, count visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
relative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 repeat, percent, counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
\relative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 6, 15, 405, 617, 917 repeat, percent, isolated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
relative music, and \autoChange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 repeat, short . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
relative octave entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 repeat, simple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
relative octave entry, and chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 repeat, slash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
relative octave entry, and transposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 repeat, start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
relative octave specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 repeat, timing information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
relative pitch, chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 repeat, tremolo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
religious music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 repeat, unfolded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
reminder accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 repeat, with alternative endings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
removal, in chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 repeat, with anacrusis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Appendix E: Index 967

repeat, with bar checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 \right-brace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846

repeat, with pickup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 \right-column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
repeat, with segno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 right-hand fingering, for fretted instruments . . . . . 464
repeat, with ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 right-hand fingering, placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
repeat, with upbeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 right-margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649, 930
repeat, written-out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 \rightHandFinger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464, 918
repeatCommands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 \romanStringNumbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414, 419
repeatCountVisibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 root of chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
repeated chords, suppressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459, 499 \rotate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
repeating lyrics, with alternative endings . . . . . . . . 361 rotating object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
repeating tie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 rotating text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
repeats, in MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 \rounded-box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322, 815
\repeatTie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62, 363 \rtoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894
repetition, using q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209, 421
\replace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
replacing strings, automatically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 S
reserved character, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
s (invisible rest) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
reset-footnotes-on-new-page . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653, 930
Sacred Harp note head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
\resetRelativeOctave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 917
resizing of staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 \sacredHarpHeads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
\responsum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536, 917 \sacredHarpHeadsMinor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 \sans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
\rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 823 SATB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
rest, ancient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 scalable vector graphics output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
rest, church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 \scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
rest, collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 \scaleDurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 89, 918
rest, condensing ordinary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 scaling duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
rest, entering durations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 scaling markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
rest, full-measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 scaling text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
rest, invisible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Scheme object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
rest, merging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Scheme variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
rest, multi-measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 70 Score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
rest, specifying vertical position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 \score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568, 572, 826
rest, splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Score context, replacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
rest, style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 score, inside markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
rest, whole, for a full measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 score, vocal, adding cues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
rest, whole-measure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 \score-lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
rest, within text, by duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823 score-markup-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648, 930
rest, within text, by log and dot-count . . . . . . . . . 824 score-system-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648, 930
\rest-by-number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824 score-title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930
rest-event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 score-title-properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930
restNumberThreshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Score_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
restoring default properties for time signatures . . . . 79 Score_performer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
restrainOpenStrings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 scoreTitleMarkup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583, 930
\retrograde. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 918 Scottish highland bagpipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
retrograde transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
reverb, in MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 script, on multi-measure rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
‘reverse turn’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 script, vertical ordering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
\reverseturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 script-priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151, 902
\revert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734 seconda volta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
reverting override . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734 \section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126, 140, 543
\revertTimeSignatureSettings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79, 918 section bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126, 140
\rfz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 section bar line, in Gregorian chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
rgb-color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 section bar line, in Kievan chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
RGB color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 section label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
\rheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894 section parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
\rhythm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709, 710, 711, 825 \sectionLabel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188, 304, 918
rhythm, in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825 segno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
rhythm, showing melody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 \segno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 826, 894
rhythmic staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 segno bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117, 126, 191
RhythmicStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234, 709 ‘segno’ sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894
ride bell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 ‘segno’ sign, bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117, 191
ride cymbal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 ‘segno’ sign, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
\right-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317, 802 ‘segno’ sign, with repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188, 191
right-aligning text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802 segno, forced at start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191, 199
Appendix E: Index 968

\segnoMark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 126, 191, 198, 918 sign, coda, with repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
self-alignment-X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 sign, conducting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
semai form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 sign, segno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894
semi-flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 11 sign, segno, bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117, 191
semi-flat symbol, appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 sign, segno, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
semi-flat symbol, Persian (koron) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 sign, segno, with repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188, 191
semi-sharp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 11 sign, snappizzicato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894
semi-sharp symbol, Persian (sori) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 sign, variant coda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 193, 894
semi-transparent colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 signature, polymetric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
\semicirculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533, 894 ‘signum congruentiae’ mensural notation . . . . . . . . . 894
‘semicirculus’ Gregorian articulation . . . . . . . . 533, 894 ‘signum congruentiae’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
\semiflat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826 \signumcongruentiae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894
\semiGermanChords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 silenced note, percussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
\semisharp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827 \simple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
separate text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 simple repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
separator mark, system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 simple text string, with tie characters . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
\serif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785 simultaneous notes and accidentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
sesqui-flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 simultaneous phrasing slurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
sesqui-sharp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 simultaneous slurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
\sesquiflat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827 singer name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
\sesquisharp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827 \single . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592, 736, 738, 741, 918
\set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101, 732, 736 single bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
set-global-staff-size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 single staff, with bracket or brace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
setting extent of text object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849 single-line comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568, 573
setting horizontal text alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794 single-staff polyphony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
setting subscript, in standard font size . . . . . . . . . . . 781 skip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
setting superscript, in standard font size . . . . . . . . . 781 \skip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68, 362, 918
\settingsFrom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918 skip typesetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
seventh chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 skipBars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
\sf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 skipping notes, in lyrics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
\sff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 skipTypesetting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
\sfz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 slash repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
\shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770, 918 ‘slash turn’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
shape note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 slashChordSeparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
shape note, merging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 slashed beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
shaping slurs and ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770 slashed digit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
shared property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 slashed note head. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
sharp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 slashed stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
\sharp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827 \slashed-digit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
sharp, double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 \slashedGrace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141, 918
shift note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 \slashSeparator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
shift rest, automatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 \slashturn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
shift symbol, accordion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 slide, in tablature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
shift, fingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 slope, ottava spanner, modifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
\shiftDurations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918 slur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
shifting voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 slur, above notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
\shiftOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 slur, adjusting start and end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
\shiftOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 slur, and repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
\shiftOnn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 slur, below notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
\shiftOnnn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 slur, dashed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
short bar line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 slur, dashed phrasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
short bar line, in Gregorian chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 slur, defining dash patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165, 166
short fermata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 slur, defining dash patterns for phrasing . . . . . . . . . 168
short-indent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254, 650, 930 slur, dotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
shortened volta brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 slur, dotted phrasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
\shortfermata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 slur, double, for legato chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
show vertical layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 slur, for tuplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
showFirstLength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622, 904 slur, half dashed and half solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
\showKeySignature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 slur, half solid and half dashed phrasing . . . . . . . . . 168
showLastLength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622, 904 slur, manual placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
\showStaffSwitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 slur, modifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
sidestick. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 slur, multiple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
sign, coda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894 slur, multiple phrasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
sign, coda, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 slur, phrasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164, 167
sign, coda, variant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 193, 894 slur, phrasing, defining dash patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Appendix E: Index 969

slur, simultaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Sprechgesang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

slur, simultaneous phrasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 square bracket, at start of staff group . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
slur, solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 square neumes ligature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
slur, style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 \staccatissimo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892
slur, text markup inside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 ‘staccatissimo’ articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892
slur-event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 \staccato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892
\slurDashed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 ‘staccato’ articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892
\slurDashPattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165, 918 stacked flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
\slurDotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 stacking text, in a column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
\slurDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
\slurHalfDashed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 staff brace, in markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
\slurHalfSolid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 staff change, automatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
\slurNeutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 staff change, manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
\slurSolid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 staff group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
\slurUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 staff group, with square bracket at start . . . . . . . . . 236
\small . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271, 317, 785 staff line, modifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
\smallCaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785 staff line, stopping and starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
\smaller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314, 317, 785 staff symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
smaller note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 staff, choir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
smob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905 staff, distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
snap pizzicato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 staff, drum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
\snappizzicato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894 staff, empty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
‘snappizzicato’ sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894 staff, Frenched . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
snare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 staff, grand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Solesmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 staff, hiding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
solid slur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 staff, highlight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
solo part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 staff, initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
soprano clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887 staff, instantiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
sori . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 staff, keyboard instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
sos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 staff, keyed instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
sostenuto pedal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 staff, metronome mark below . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
\sostenutoOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 staff, multiple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
\sostenutoOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 staff, nested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626 staff, new . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
\sourcefileline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573 staff, percussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
\sourcefilename. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573 staff, piano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235, 401
Southern Harmony note head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 staff, resizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
\southernHarmonyHeads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 staff, single . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
\southernHarmonyHeadsMinor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 staff, single, with bracket or brace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
\sp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 staff, size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
space, between staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 staff, switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
space, in lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336, 343 staff-affinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
space, inside systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 staff-change line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
space-alist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 staff-height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931
spacer note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 staff-padding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
spacer rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 \staff-space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747, 931
spacing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686 staff-staff-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
spacing section, new . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687 Staff_collecting_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137, 308
spacing, display of layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 Staff_symbol_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
spacing, horizontal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686 StaffGroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
spacing, lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 staffgroup-staff-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
spacing, vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 StaffGrouper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
span bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 \staffHighlight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281, 919
Span_stem_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 stand-alone text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
spanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748, 905 StandaloneRhythmScore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
spanner, modifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748 StandaloneRhythmStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
special arpeggio symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 StandaloneRhythmVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
special character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 standard font size (notation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
special character, in markup mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 stanza number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
special note head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 start of system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
splash cymbal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 start repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
splicing, into tagged music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 start-repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
splitting notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 startAcciaccaturaMusic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
splitting rests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 startAppoggiaturaMusic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
\spp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 startGraceMusic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Appendix E: Index 970

\startGroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 style, bar number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

\startOptionalMaterial. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 style, double repeat for volta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
\startStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241, 244, 709 style, measure number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
\startTextSpan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302, 755, 756 style, multi-measure rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
\startTrillSpan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 style, note heads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
staves, divisi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 style, rehearsal mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
\stdBass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835 style, rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
\stdBassIV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836 style, slur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
\stdBassV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837 style, text dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
\stdBassVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838 style, voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 \styledNoteHeads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
stem, automatic direction on center line . . . . . . . . . 287 \sub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316, 786
stem, cross-staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 subbass clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
stem, default direction on center line . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 subdivideBeams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
stem, direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 subdividing beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
stem, down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 subscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
stem, in tablature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 subscript text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
stem, invisible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 substitution function, and relative octave entry . . 617
stem, neutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 subsubtitle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
stem, up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 subtitle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
stem, with slash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 suggestAccidentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152, 529
stem-spacing-correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686 \super . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316, 786
\stemDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 superscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
stemLeftBeamCount. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110, 111 superscript text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
\stemNeutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 suppressing repeated chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459, 499
stemRightBeamCount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110, 111 sus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
\stemUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 sustain pedal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
stencil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905 sustain pedal, style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
\stencil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847 \sustainOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
stencil, removing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756 \sustainOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
stereo balance, in MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 SVG output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
stopAcciaccaturaMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 swing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
stopAppoggiaturaMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 swing.ly script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
stopGraceMusic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 switching font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
\stopGroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 syllable duration, automatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
\stopOptionalMaterial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 symbol, break-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
\stopped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 475, 480, 894 symbol, breath mark, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
‘stopped’ articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 480, 894 symbol, major seven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
\stopStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241, 244, 248, 709 symbol, non-musical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
\stopStaffHighlight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 syntax, markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
\stopTextSpan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302, 755, 756 system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
\stopTrillSpan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 system separator mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
\storePredefinedDiagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455, 460, 919 system start delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
straight flags, modern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 system start delimiter, nested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
straight flags, old . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 system-count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651, 931
strict spacing, and grace notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 system-separator-markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653, 931
strict-beat beaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 system-system-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648, 931
strictBeatBeaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 systems-per-page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651, 931
string bending, in tablature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
string number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414, 418
string number, orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
string number, vs. fingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
T
string, automatic replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 tab clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439, 888
string, indicating open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 \tabChordRepeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421, 919
\string-lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851 \tabChordRepetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
stringNumberOrientations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 \tabFullNotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
strings, orchestral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 tablature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234, 417
strings, writing for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 tablature, and beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
\stringTuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438, 919 tablature, and harmonic indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
stringTunings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437, 451 tablature, and harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
stroke finger, orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 tablature, and polyphony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
strokeFingerOrientations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273, 465 tablature, and slides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
\stropha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535, 540 tablature, and stems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
strumming rhythm, showing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95, 96 tablature, and string bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
\strut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847 tablature, banjo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417, 437, 469
Appendix E: Index 971

tablature, basic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 text object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

tablature, bass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 text script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
tablature, bass guitar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 text script, breaking vertical alignment . . . . . . . . . . 160
tablature, cello . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 text script, vertical alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
tablature, chord glissando . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 text size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
tablature, custom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 text spanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
tablature, custom string tunings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 text spanner, dynamics, customize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
tablature, default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 text spanner, formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
tablature, double bass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 text, aligning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
tablature, guitar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417, 437 text, at beginning of line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
tablature, hammer on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 text, at end of score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
tablature, lute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 text, between notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
tablature, mandolin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 text, centering on page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
tablature, microtones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 text, decorating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
tablature, predefined string tunings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 text, framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
tablature, pull off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 text, horizontal alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
tablature, quarter tones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 text, in columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309, 320
tablature, ukulele . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 text, in volta bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
tablature, viola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 text, justified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
tablature, violin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 text, keeping inside margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
\table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852 text, line width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
table of contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599 text, multi-line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
table of contents, customized functions . . . . . . . . . . . 601 text, on bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
\table-of-contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602, 852 text, on multi-measure rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
TabStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234, 419, 709 text, other languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
TabVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419, 711 text, ottavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
tag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606 text, outside margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
\tag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606, 847, 919 text, padding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
tag groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 text, separate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
\tag, and quoting music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607 text, spread over multiple pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
\tag-list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612, 852 text, stand-alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
\tagGroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609, 919 text, top-level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
tagline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578, 931 text, vertical alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
tam tam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 text, word-wrapped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
tambourine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 \text-accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
\taor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 \text-doubleflat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
taqasim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 \text-doublesharp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 \text-flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
‘teaching’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 text-font-size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314, 931
\teeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271, 317, 786 \text-natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
template, Arabic music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 \text-sharp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
tempo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Text_mark_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
\tempo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 \textEndMark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304, 919
tempo, change, without metronome mark . . . . . . . . . 85 \textLengthOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71, 73, 301
tempo, with rhythm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825 \textLengthOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71, 73, 159, 301
\temporary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740, 749, 919 \textMark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304, 919
tenor clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887 \textSpannerDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
tenor clef, choral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 \textSpannerNeutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
tenor G clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887 \textSpannerUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
tenor varC clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887 thorough bass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
\tenuto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892 \thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 273
‘tenuto’ articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 892 ‘thumb’ fingering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 273, 894
text alignment, commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 tick bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
text column, left-aligned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799 tick bar line, in Gregorian chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
text column, right-aligned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802 tick mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
text dynamics, style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 tie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
text encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 \tie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
text item, non-empty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 tie, alternative endings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
text mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 tie, and volta bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
text mark, alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 tie, appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
text mark, below staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 tie, dashed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
text mark, on every staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 tie, dotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
text mark, vertical stacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 tie, from nothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
text markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 tie, in chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
text markup, inside slurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 tie, in lyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Appendix E: Index 972

tie, in repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 transformation, modal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

tie, laissez vibrer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 transformation, retrograde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
tie, manual engraving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 \translate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318, 803
tie, modifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769 \translate-scaled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318, 803
tie, placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 translating text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
tie, repeating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 transparency, semi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
tie, to nothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 \transparent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
tie, with arpeggios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 transparent note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
tie-ing text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786 transparent objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
TieColumn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 \transpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 13, 15, 920
tied note, accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 transposed clef, visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
\tied-lyric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828 \transposedCueDuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263, 920
\tieDashed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 transposing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
\tieDashPattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62, 920 transposing clef. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
\tieDotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 transposing fret diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
\tieDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 transposing instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 29
\tieHalfDashed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 transposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
\tieHalfSolid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 \transposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 256, 920
\tieNeutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 transposition, and relative octave entry . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
\tieSolid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 transposition, instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
\tieUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 transposition, MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
tieWaitForNote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 transposition, modal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
timbale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 transposition, of notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
\time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76, 101, 920 transposition, of pitches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
time administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 transposition, pitches, ‘smart’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
time signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 tre corde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
time signature, and volta repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 treble clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
time signature, compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 \treCorde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
time signature, default settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 tremolo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
time signature, double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 tremolo beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
time signature, mensural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526 tremolo mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
time signature, mid-measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 tremolo, cross-staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
time signature, polymetric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 triad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
time signature, printing only numerator . . . . . . . . . . . 80 triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
time signature, properties, restoring default values . 79 \triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323, 816
time signature, style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77, 526 trill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
time signature, visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 \trill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 178, 893
\times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920 ‘trill’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
timeSignatureFraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 trill, pitched . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 trill, with accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148, 708 triplet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
timing information, and repeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 triplet, formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
timing mark, for glissando . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 \tripletFeel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
timing, within score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 true (#t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932
\tiny. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271, 317, 787 tuning, banjo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 tuning, lute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 tuning, non-Western . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
toc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599 tuplet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
tocFormatMarkup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602, 931 \tuplet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54, 89, 920
tocIndentMarkup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602, 931 tuplet bracket, note head side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
\tocItem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602, 920 tuplet bracket, placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
tocItemMarkup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602, 931 tuplet bracket, visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 57
\tocItemWithDotsMarkup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 tuplet number, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
tocTitleMarkup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602, 931 tuplet number, non-default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
‘toe’ pedal mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 894 tuplet number, visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
tom tom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 tuplet slur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
top-level text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 tuplet, beamed, line break within . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
top-margin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646, 931 tuplet, entering multiple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
top-markup-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648, 931 tuplet, formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
top-system-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648, 932 tuplet, grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
toplevel-bookparts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 tuplet-slur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
toplevel-scores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904 \tupletDown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
transcription, mensural to modern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 \tupletNeutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
transcription, modern of Gregorian music . . . . . . . . 393 TupletNumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
transcription, of mensural music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 \tupletSpan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 920
Appendix E: Index 973

tupletSpannerDuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 V
\tupletUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 varbaritone clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Turkish makam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 varC clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
Turkish makam, example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559 \varcoda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 828, 894
Turkish music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Turkish note name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 variable, and \book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
Turkish, classical music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 variable, and \bookpart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
\turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 variable, using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
‘turn’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 variant ‘coda’ sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 193, 894
‘turn’ ornament, delayed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Vaticana, Editio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520, 521
\tweak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736, 921
VaticanaLyrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531, 710
\tweak, relation to \override . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
VaticanaScore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531, 709
tweaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
VaticanaStaff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234, 531, 709
tweaking control point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
VaticanaVoice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531, 710
tweaking grace note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143, 144
\vcenter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804
two-column text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
\verbatim-file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
two-sided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650, 932
\version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
\type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723, 724
\versus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536, 921
typeface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
vertical alignment, dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
typesetting text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
vertical alignment, dynamics, breaking . . . . . . . . . . . 160
typesetting, skip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
vertical alignment, text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
\typewriter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
vertical alignment, text scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
vertical direction, default, of grobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
vertical direction, forced, of grobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
U vertical distance, figured bass elements . . . . . . . . . . . 515
U.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 vertical line, between staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
ukulele . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 vertical movement, in markup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318, 319
ultima volta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 vertical ordering, of scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
una corda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 vertical positioning, of dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
\unaCorda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 vertical spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669, 695
\underline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314, 787 vertical spacing, debugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
underlining text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787 VerticalAxisGroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
underlying repeat bar line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 vertically centering text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804
\undertie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788 \verylongfermata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
undertie-ing text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788 \veryshortfermata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
\undo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741, 921 vibraslap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
\unfolded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185, 921 violin clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 887
unfolding repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 \virga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535, 540
\unfoldRepeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185, 633, 921 \virgula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
\unHideNotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 visibility of object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
Unicode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 visibility of transposed clef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
units, of measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747 visibility of tuplet brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
universal-color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280, 871 visibility of tuplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
\unless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586, 829 vocal score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
unmetered music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 148 vocal score, adding cues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
unmetered music, accidentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
unmetered music, bar lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
unmetered music, bar numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213, 710
unmetered music, beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 ‘voice’ accidental style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
unmetered music, line breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 voice style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
unmetered music, page breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 voice, additional, in polyphonic music . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
\unset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732 voice, ambitus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
up direction (^) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746 voice, divided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
‘up pralltriller’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893 voice, extra, for handling breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
‘up-bow’ bowing indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 414, 894
voice, following . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
upbeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
voice, multiple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
upbeat, in a repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
voice, \partCombine with \autoBeamOff . . . . . . . . . . 99
\upbow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 414, 894
voice, quoting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256, 260
\upmordent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
voice, shifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
‘upper mordent’ ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
voice, with ottavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
\upprall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 893
\voiceFour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
\upright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788
\voiceFourStyle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
URL link, as QR code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
\voiceNeutralStyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
UTF-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
\voiceOne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Appendix E: Index 974

\voiceOneStyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 whole rest, for a full measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

\voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217, 921 wind instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
\voiceThree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 wind instrument, fingering symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
\voiceThreeStyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 \with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717, 721
\voiceTwo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 \with-color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279, 849
\voiceTwoStyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 \with-dimension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
\void . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639, 921 \with-dimension-from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
volta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182, 183 \with-dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
\volta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183, 185, 922 \with-dimensions-from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
volta bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 \with-link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
volta bracket, and tie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 \with-outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
volta bracket, in additional staves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 \with-string-transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
volta bracket, shortened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 \with-true-dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
volta bracket, with text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 \with-true-dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
volta repeat, and time signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 \with-url . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
volta repeat, bar line at start of piece . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 \withMusicProperty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922
volta repeat, below chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 \withRelativeDir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922
volta, double repeat style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 woodblock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
volta, prima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 woodwind diagram, key lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
volta, seconda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 woodwind diagram, list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
volta, ultima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 woodwind diagram, modifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
\volta-number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789 \woodwind-diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
Volta_engraver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 word-wrapping text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
vowel transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 \wordwrap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321, 804
\vowelTransition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
\wordwrap-field. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
\vshape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771, 922
\wordwrap-lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312, 853
\vspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319, 804
\wordwrap-string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
writing music in parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
W written-out repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Walker shape note head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

\walkerHeads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
\walkerHeadsMinor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
X
whistle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 x11-color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280, 281, 868
white mensural ligature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 X-offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
whiteout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63, 757 X11 color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280, 281
\whiteout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848 \xNote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43, 922
whitespace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574 \xNotesOff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
\whiteTriangleMarkup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 \xNotesOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43