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• formation on ophthalmology books. VISit our websltl' www.jilypPtbrothPrs.com, for dNailrd mformat,on on ophth.Jirro 0qy boo> 1 'IS tour :.ebs,tl' www.j•ypubrothtrl.rom
Sudha Seetharam
Answers with ~recise Explanations
All Recent Questions 2015
All India (2012- 2000)
AIIMS (Nov 2015-2000)
PGI (2015-2000)
DNB (2012-2000)
APPG, JIPMER, Bihar PG, PGMCET,
WBPG, COMEDK (2015)
• Other State Exams (2015-2000)
j Image-based questions
A must-buy book for AI/ India, AIIMS, PGI, JIPMER, DNB, FMGE & State entrance exams
. .
Self Assessment and
Review of Ophthalmology
j
'
·I
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. .. . .. 1,
Self Assessment and
Review of Ophthalmology
Acknowledgements
Writing this book was a big challenge, considering the amount of time, research and reading
that it entailed. I was always skeptical as to whether I would be able to dedicate so much time
for this endeavor within my busy schedule as a clinical practitioner. I would like to express my
heartfelt gratitude to everyone who has helped me in my journey so far.
First and foremost, The Almighty God whose blessings have always been with me in what-
ever I have done.
My parents: It is because of them that I am what I am today.
My dear husband: He has been a constant source of encouragement at every step in writing
this book, never letting me give up. He has also helped me in typing out and arranging the text.
Had it not been for him, I would not have seriously considered writing this book.
My parents-in-law: Their blessings and encouragement keep me going.
My brother: My childhood companion and perhaps, my greatest critic, whose honest
advice is priceless.
My son: The greatest joy of my life whose smile is enough to make my day. I must acknowl-
edge the many precious personal moments between us that were lost to this difficult task.
My grandparents and grandparents-in-law who, from somewhere in heaven, continue to
shower their blessings on me even today.
My teachers at Guru Nanak Eye Centre, Maulana Azad Medical College, especially
Dr Jawaharlal Goyal and Dr Ritu Arora who have taught me almost all the ophthalmology that
I know today. My teachers at Medical College, Kolkata and South Point High School who
have been instrumental in shaping me. My English teacher, Mrs Leena Guha Roy deserves
special mention.
Dr Suhas Haldipurkar, Medical Director, Laxmi Eye Institute who initiated me into private
practice and opened up a new arena of knowledge.
Mr Ganesh LN, Ms Janaki, Dr Suyog Sahoo, Mr Niraj Salunkhe, Dr Debdatta Mazumdar,
Dr Ritupama Mukherjee, Dr Pritesh Singh and all the staff at PGEI whose valuable inputs have
helped me during my journey.
I acknowledge Shri Jitendar P Vij {Group Chairman) M/s Jaypee Brothers Medical
Publishers (P) Ltd., and his team for the keen interest in publishing this book.
And last but not the least, my students who are the inspiration for this book.
Thank you very, very much!
Contents
1. Ocular Embryology 1
2. Conjunctiva, Sclera and Cornea 4
3. Glaucoma 34
4. Lens 54
5. Retina 71
6. Uveal Tract 111
7. Ocular Adnexa 124
8. Optics and Refraction 146
9. Strabismus 157
10. Neuro-ophthalmology 169
11. Ocular Manifestations of Systemic Diseases 195
12. Miscellaneous Topics 197
Image-based Questions
Plate 1
Ocular Embryology
The eye is formed from three different germ layers, namely neuroectoderm, surface ecto-
derm and mesoderm with contribution from the neurai crest cells. The structures originat-
ing from the different layers are:
Neuroectoderm
Optic nerve'o
•;.c' .
·.
... :
'.
.~:-
.. ... . . ":
·<·
.
,,. ..
. .'
,.. ·...
.
.
.
.
lacrimal glands
·:
.
~.
. .•. · '·;
. . . . c.
.• ~
Skin of ey_
elids ' .. ··.· ; ' .A --~-
.
Neural crest cells
Stroma~ Descemet's membrane and endoth_elium of the cornea . ..
..
Angle of anterior chambef'O
... .. '.•
- ....
<
' '
...... :
~
·~ '- )_
Stroma of the iris0 ...... ~ .. -~
~
. -~
'
·, '
Ciliary body and choroid ~ ~ ·~ - ~\.
.. '•'
~
Primary vitreous . . ~
.. ~
Mesoderm
·-
Sclera ; .
Walls of the orbit .
.,
Extraocular muscles
Connective tissue of the orbit
-
Eyelids .. '
.,
2 SelfAssessmenl ami I:er ,iew ofOfllltlw/mology _..~
Optic stalk
Lens
placode
Cornea
Optic stalk
Lens
vesicle
• The development of the eye starts at about the third week of gestation. The neural tube
which forms the forebrain gives rise to one diverticulum on either side known as the
optic vesicleQ.
• The optic vesicle (neuroectoderm) meets the surface ectoderm which shows an area of
thickening called the lens placode.
• The optic vesicle invaginates to form the two layered optic cupQ. Eventually, the in-
ner layer of the cup forms the neurosensory retinaOwhereas the outer layer forms the
retinal pigment epitheliumQ. It then continues backward as the optic nerve with its
meninges to the brain. The anterior end of the cup later differentiates into the ciliary
epithelium, iris epithelium and muscles of the irisQ.
• The invagination of the optic cup however remains incomplete inferonasally in the
form of a fissure known as the embryonic fissureO. Through this fissure, the hyaloid
artery passes to provide nutrition to the developing ocular structures. Eventually, the
hyaloid artery disappears and the embryonic fissure closes. The space between the
lens and optic cup becomes filled by a clear jelly called the vitreous which is mainly
secreted by the neuroectoderm.
• The lens placode invaginates into the optic cup and ultimately gets detached from the
surface ectoderm to form the lens vesicleQ. This eventually forms the crystalline lens.
• After formation of the l(·n:1 V(•flidt·, th('n· h mi~~riJtion ,,f thf· Vla w .;, ,tf m:uraJ c:r":".t u:n·:.:'·,
'f'IH.'S(' CC'II"' <·vcontunlly diHen·n tiate into th<: cornea, a ngJc htru cturc~ and ~t rfJr.1.4 r!! th~
iriH and ciliary bmJyo.
• While.· th<' l'Ctodcormnlcv ·ntHnrc tuking plat (·, the m c(jodcrm '.urruunding tr.f: (};:;~~c.:?
differen tia tes to form the Hclcra, cxtnwcuJar mu,cJct; and orbHa J ~tructure·{-'.
Oufl_;r la'lr;'
of opt1c cvp
-•~- fnnr:r f-3:tt:r
of optic wp
Embryonic fissure
CONJUNCTIVA
Conjunctiva is a translucent mucous membrane lining the posterior surface of the eyelids
and anterior surface of the sclera. The parts of the conjunctiva are:
• Palpebral: It lines the posterior surface of the eyelid and is firmly attached to the tarsus
• Forniceal: It is the loose fold of conjunctiva at the fornix
• Bulbar: It covers the sclera.
Structure of Conjunctiva
It has the following layers:
• Epithelium: It is stratified squamous nonkeratinized epitheliumQ
• Adenoid layer: It is also called the lymphoid layer and contains the lymphocytes.
• Fibrous layer: Consists of collagenous and elastic fibers, vessels and nerves.
Glands of Conjunctiva .
The glands present here are:
• Mucin producing: Goblet cells , Crypts of Henle and Glands of Manz
• Accessory lacrimal glands: Glands of KrauseQ (in the fornices) and Wolfring<2 (along
tarsal borders).
ALLERGIC CONJUNCTIVITIS
Vernal Keratoconjunctivitis (VKC)
• It is an allergic keratoconjunctivitis seen in boys between 5-15 years of age
• It is a Type I hypersensitivityQ reaction mediated by IgE and mast cellsQ
• It is also called as spring catarrhQ
• Symptoms: Itching<2 associated with ropy discharge
• Signs
• Conjunctival features:
- Flat topped papillae are seen on the upper tarsal conjunctiva. The typical appear-
ance is called cobblestone appearanceQ.
- In the limbal variety, there is hypertrophy of the superior limbal conjunctiva.
This gives rise to raised white nodules close to the upper limbus called Horner-
Trantas spotsQ
• Corneal features
- Superficial punctate keratitis
- Shield ulcerO
- Curved white line close to the upper limbus called pseudogerontoxon°
- Keratoconuso is an association
• Treatment
• Acute episode: The following drugs are given topically:
- Antihistaminics
- Steroids
- Cyclosporine
• Prophylaxis: The following drugs are given topically:
• Sodium cromoglycateO
• Ketotifen
• Olopatadine
• Epinastine
Phlyctenular Conjunctivitis
• It is a Type IV hypersensitivityQ reaction, mainly to tuberculous antigen°. However
in western countries, it is said to be mainly associated with Staphylococcus0 •
• It is seen in children (8-15 years)
• It begins as a well-circumscribed nodule at the limbus but it may encroach upon the
cornea. This is known as fascicular ulce~
• Treatment is topical steroids. Systemic evaluation and ATI is usually considered in our
country.
INFECTIVE CONJUNCTIVITIS
Acute Bacterial Conjunctivitis
This is a very common self-limiting condition seen mainly in children. The symptoms are
redness, grittiness, discharge, sticking of lashes. On examination, there is conjunctival con-
gestion, more in fornices, associated with purulent or mucopurulent discharge. FolliclesO
may be seen (Follicles are collections of lymphocytes ~n the adenoid layer surrounded
by blood vessels).The condition is usually self-limiting. Local antibiotics and lubricants
may be prescribed. The different types of bacterial conjunctivitis are:
• Membranous conjunctivitis: This is caused by organisms of very high virulence like
Corynebacterium diphtheria, Streptococcus haemolyticus. A thick yellowish-grey
membrane is formed in the palpebral conjunctiva which bleeds on peeling. The raw
area left after sloughing of the membrane may lead to complications like symblepharon
and entropion due to cicatrisation. Systemic antibiotics and anti-diphtheric serum are
also given in addition to local therapy.
• Pseudomembranous conjunctivitis: This is the common variety where a pseudomem-
brane is seen on the palpebral conjunctiva due to organisation of the exudates. It is
6 SelfAssessment and Review oJOplltlzalmology • - -_, ·-. · :·
adhered loosely to the underlying conjunctiva and may bleed slightly on peeling ~
no raw area is seen beneath it. It is seen in conjunctivitis caused by Staphylococcus
aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus of low virulence etc.
• Angular conjunctivitis: This is a condition where the redness is limited to the inner
and outer canthi and excoriation is seen at the lateral eye margins. It is caused br
Moraxella axenfeldQ. It is treated with zinc and oxytetracycline topically. ·
Trachoma
It is a specific type of keratoconjunctivitis which is characterized by formation of follicles
and pannus followed by resolution by cicatrisation. The causative organism is Chlamydia
trachomatis serotypes A, B, Ba and CQ. It is seen in children < 5 years of age especially in
areas of poverty, overcrowding and poor hygiene.
Pathology
• Chlamydia is an epitheliotropic microorganism which affects the conjunctival and cor-
neal epitheliumQ.
• It can be seen in the epithelial cells as HP inclusion bodiesQ
• Trachoma is characterized by intense infiltration of lymphocytes in the adenoid layer of
the conjunctiva. Aggregation of lymphocytes results in the formation of follicles. Sago
grain follicles are seen on the upper tarsal conjunctivaQ.
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