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(Ebook) Self Assessment and Review of Ophthalmology by Sudha Seetharam ISBN 9789385999291, 938599929X Full Access

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Self Assessment and Review of

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. .
Self Assessment and
Review of Ophthalmology

j
'
·I

' .

. .. . .. 1,
Self Assessment and
Review of Ophthalmology

Sudha Seetharam MBBS MS (OphthaJ)


Consultant Ophthalmologist
Laxmi Eye Institute
Panvel, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

The Health Sciences Publisher


New Delhi I London I Panama I Philadelphia

i
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Sell Assessment and Rewew of Ophthalmology
First Edition: 2016
ISBN: 978-93-85999-29-1
Prinled at Sanat Printers
Dedictlted to
My lucky charm;
Our son, Sreejit
Preface
Dear Students,
Postgraduate medical entrance preparation is undoubtedly one of the most challenging
phases in the life of a medico. There are over nineteen subjects to be covered, time is limited
and the competition is tremendous. A PG seat in a subject and institution of choice is a dream
for every MBBS graduate. But trust me; this dream can become a reality for you. What you
need is organized preparation in the right direction; motivation to keep up the grueling task
and most importantly, the belief that you will succeed.
Ophthalmology has always been a very scoring subject in entrance examinations. Over
the past 4-5 years, the trend of questions in Ophthalmology has changed tremendously. The
reason is that Ophthalmology is a rapidly evolving subject with new developments taking
place at a very fast pace. Thus, diagnostic and treatment modalities keep changing too.
Keeping all this in mind, I have made an attempt to write this book. It is primarily intended
for students preparing for PG medical entrance examinations. But it can be useful for MBBS
students for a quick revision before their examination. It can also be used by Ophthalmology
residents and practitioners as a ready reference.
In this book, I have attempted to include the theoretical discussions relevant for
entrance examinations, with special emphasis on recent trends after referencing from stand-
ard textbooks like Clinical Ophthalmology: Kanski, Ophthalmology: Yanoff and Duker and
Comprehensive Ophthalmology: A K Khurana. I have also provided MCQs from important
examinations like AIIMS, PGI, COMEDK, State PG entrances, DNB. I have carefully chosen the
representative questions from each topic so that after going through this book, the students
should be able to answer not only the repeat questions but also any new questions that may
be asked.
One common mistake that students make in this regard is trying to go through all ques-
tions of a particular subject that have been asked in the past 15-20 years. But many of these
questions have actually no relevance today because that particular diagnostic or treatment
modality may have changed. So those questions will never be asked again. Memorizing these
only adds to the confusion and leads to waste of time. With this in mind, I have prepared a con-
cise collection of representative questions mainly from recent examinations. I have also added
a picture quiz as there is a rising trend of questions based on photographs. However, despite
my best efforts there may be some inadvertent errors which I sincerely regret.
I sincerely hope that you will enjoy reading this book as much as I enjoyed writing it.
Best of luck for your exams and for life!
Sudha Seetharam
l

Acknowledgements
Writing this book was a big challenge, considering the amount of time, research and reading
that it entailed. I was always skeptical as to whether I would be able to dedicate so much time
for this endeavor within my busy schedule as a clinical practitioner. I would like to express my
heartfelt gratitude to everyone who has helped me in my journey so far.
First and foremost, The Almighty God whose blessings have always been with me in what-
ever I have done.
My parents: It is because of them that I am what I am today.
My dear husband: He has been a constant source of encouragement at every step in writing
this book, never letting me give up. He has also helped me in typing out and arranging the text.
Had it not been for him, I would not have seriously considered writing this book.
My parents-in-law: Their blessings and encouragement keep me going.
My brother: My childhood companion and perhaps, my greatest critic, whose honest
advice is priceless.
My son: The greatest joy of my life whose smile is enough to make my day. I must acknowl-
edge the many precious personal moments between us that were lost to this difficult task.
My grandparents and grandparents-in-law who, from somewhere in heaven, continue to
shower their blessings on me even today.
My teachers at Guru Nanak Eye Centre, Maulana Azad Medical College, especially
Dr Jawaharlal Goyal and Dr Ritu Arora who have taught me almost all the ophthalmology that
I know today. My teachers at Medical College, Kolkata and South Point High School who
have been instrumental in shaping me. My English teacher, Mrs Leena Guha Roy deserves
special mention.
Dr Suhas Haldipurkar, Medical Director, Laxmi Eye Institute who initiated me into private
practice and opened up a new arena of knowledge.
Mr Ganesh LN, Ms Janaki, Dr Suyog Sahoo, Mr Niraj Salunkhe, Dr Debdatta Mazumdar,
Dr Ritupama Mukherjee, Dr Pritesh Singh and all the staff at PGEI whose valuable inputs have
helped me during my journey.
I acknowledge Shri Jitendar P Vij {Group Chairman) M/s Jaypee Brothers Medical
Publishers (P) Ltd., and his team for the keen interest in publishing this book.
And last but not the least, my students who are the inspiration for this book.
Thank you very, very much!
Contents
1. Ocular Embryology 1
2. Conjunctiva, Sclera and Cornea 4
3. Glaucoma 34
4. Lens 54
5. Retina 71
6. Uveal Tract 111
7. Ocular Adnexa 124
8. Optics and Refraction 146
9. Strabismus 157
10. Neuro-ophthalmology 169
11. Ocular Manifestations of Systemic Diseases 195
12. Miscellaneous Topics 197
Image-based Questions
Plate 1

Mature cataract Morgagnian cataract

Normal Fundus (arrow points to the fovea) Retinal detachment

Splashed tomato appearance (CRVO) Cherry red spot


Plate 2

Exudative ARMD/CNVM (indicated by black arrow)


Chapter

Ocular Embryology

The eye is formed from three different germ layers, namely neuroectoderm, surface ecto-
derm and mesoderm with contribution from the neurai crest cells. The structures originat-
ing from the different layers are:

Neuroectoderm
Optic nerve'o
•;.c' .
·.
... :
'.

Retina including the retinai pigme~t epithelium0


Epithelium of ·Ciliary body ' .
Epithelium of the iris
Sphincter and dilator pupillae muscles0
Ciliary zonules
Secondary and tertiary vitreous
Surface ectoderm
'~ .
Epithelium of conjunctiv~
Epithelium of cornea ·
lens0

.

.~:-
.. ... . . ":
·<·
.
,,. ..
. .'

,.. ·...
.
.
.

.
lacrimal glands
·:
.
~.

. .•. · '·;
. . . . c.

.• ~

Skin of ey_
elids ' .. ··.· ; ' .A --~-
.
Neural crest cells
Stroma~ Descemet's membrane and endoth_elium of the cornea . ..
..
Angle of anterior chambef'O
... .. '.•
- ....
<

' '
...... :
~

·~ '- )_
Stroma of the iris0 ...... ~ .. -~
~

. -~
'
·, '
Ciliary body and choroid ~ ~ ·~ - ~\.
.. '•'
~

Primary vitreous . . ~
.. ~

Mesoderm
·-
Sclera ; .
Walls of the orbit .
.,
Extraocular muscles
Connective tissue of the orbit
-
Eyelids .. '
.,
2 SelfAssessmenl ami I:er ,iew ofOfllltlw/mology _..~

Optic stalk
Lens
placode

Cornea
Optic stalk

Lens
vesicle

Development of the eye

• The development of the eye starts at about the third week of gestation. The neural tube
which forms the forebrain gives rise to one diverticulum on either side known as the
optic vesicleQ.
• The optic vesicle (neuroectoderm) meets the surface ectoderm which shows an area of
thickening called the lens placode.
• The optic vesicle invaginates to form the two layered optic cupQ. Eventually, the in-
ner layer of the cup forms the neurosensory retinaOwhereas the outer layer forms the
retinal pigment epitheliumQ. It then continues backward as the optic nerve with its
meninges to the brain. The anterior end of the cup later differentiates into the ciliary
epithelium, iris epithelium and muscles of the irisQ.
• The invagination of the optic cup however remains incomplete inferonasally in the
form of a fissure known as the embryonic fissureO. Through this fissure, the hyaloid
artery passes to provide nutrition to the developing ocular structures. Eventually, the
hyaloid artery disappears and the embryonic fissure closes. The space between the
lens and optic cup becomes filled by a clear jelly called the vitreous which is mainly
secreted by the neuroectoderm.
• The lens placode invaginates into the optic cup and ultimately gets detached from the
surface ectoderm to form the lens vesicleQ. This eventually forms the crystalline lens.
• After formation of the l(·n:1 V(•flidt·, th('n· h mi~~riJtion ,,f thf· Vla w .;, ,tf m:uraJ c:r":".t u:n·:.:'·,
'f'IH.'S(' CC'II"' <·vcontunlly diHen·n tiate into th<: cornea, a ngJc htru cturc~ and ~t rfJr.1.4 r!! th~
iriH and ciliary bmJyo.
• While.· th<' l'Ctodcormnlcv ·ntHnrc tuking plat (·, the m c(jodcrm '.urruunding tr.f: (};:;~~c.:?
differen tia tes to form the Hclcra, cxtnwcuJar mu,cJct; and orbHa J ~tructure·{-'.

Oufl_;r la'lr;'
of opt1c cvp
-•~- fnnr:r f-3:tt:r
of optic wp

~~- Hyaloid arthry

~~,..,--- Embryonic fi~ure

Embryonic fissure

Embryonic Remnants in the Eye


• Mittendorf's dot<l: It is the remnant of the anterior end of the hyaloid artery a-~
remains attached to the posterior pole of the lens.
• Bergmeister papiJiaQ: It is the remnant of the posterior end of the hyaloid arter::-.·-
Jt remains attached to the optic disc associated with some glial tissue.
• Persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous (PHPV): Failure of the foetal '•ta..<culzture
to regress is calleJ PHPV (explained in detail in the chapter on Retina).
• Coloboma: Failure of the embryonic fissure to close gives rise to ocular coloboma.

Iris coloboma Chorioretinal coloboma


Chapter

Conjunctiva, Sclera and Cornea

CONJUNCTIVA
Conjunctiva is a translucent mucous membrane lining the posterior surface of the eyelids
and anterior surface of the sclera. The parts of the conjunctiva are:
• Palpebral: It lines the posterior surface of the eyelid and is firmly attached to the tarsus
• Forniceal: It is the loose fold of conjunctiva at the fornix
• Bulbar: It covers the sclera.

Structure of Conjunctiva
It has the following layers:
• Epithelium: It is stratified squamous nonkeratinized epitheliumQ
• Adenoid layer: It is also called the lymphoid layer and contains the lymphocytes.
• Fibrous layer: Consists of collagenous and elastic fibers, vessels and nerves.

Glands of Conjunctiva .
The glands present here are:
• Mucin producing: Goblet cells , Crypts of Henle and Glands of Manz
• Accessory lacrimal glands: Glands of KrauseQ (in the fornices) and Wolfring<2 (along
tarsal borders).

ALLERGIC CONJUNCTIVITIS
Vernal Keratoconjunctivitis (VKC)
• It is an allergic keratoconjunctivitis seen in boys between 5-15 years of age
• It is a Type I hypersensitivityQ reaction mediated by IgE and mast cellsQ
• It is also called as spring catarrhQ
• Symptoms: Itching<2 associated with ropy discharge
• Signs
• Conjunctival features:
- Flat topped papillae are seen on the upper tarsal conjunctiva. The typical appear-
ance is called cobblestone appearanceQ.
- In the limbal variety, there is hypertrophy of the superior limbal conjunctiva.
This gives rise to raised white nodules close to the upper limbus called Horner-
Trantas spotsQ
• Corneal features
- Superficial punctate keratitis
- Shield ulcerO
- Curved white line close to the upper limbus called pseudogerontoxon°
- Keratoconuso is an association
• Treatment
• Acute episode: The following drugs are given topically:
- Antihistaminics
- Steroids
- Cyclosporine
• Prophylaxis: The following drugs are given topically:
• Sodium cromoglycateO
• Ketotifen
• Olopatadine
• Epinastine

Phlyctenular Conjunctivitis
• It is a Type IV hypersensitivityQ reaction, mainly to tuberculous antigen°. However
in western countries, it is said to be mainly associated with Staphylococcus0 •
• It is seen in children (8-15 years)
• It begins as a well-circumscribed nodule at the limbus but it may encroach upon the
cornea. This is known as fascicular ulce~
• Treatment is topical steroids. Systemic evaluation and ATI is usually considered in our
country.

INFECTIVE CONJUNCTIVITIS
Acute Bacterial Conjunctivitis
This is a very common self-limiting condition seen mainly in children. The symptoms are
redness, grittiness, discharge, sticking of lashes. On examination, there is conjunctival con-
gestion, more in fornices, associated with purulent or mucopurulent discharge. FolliclesO
may be seen (Follicles are collections of lymphocytes ~n the adenoid layer surrounded
by blood vessels).The condition is usually self-limiting. Local antibiotics and lubricants
may be prescribed. The different types of bacterial conjunctivitis are:
• Membranous conjunctivitis: This is caused by organisms of very high virulence like
Corynebacterium diphtheria, Streptococcus haemolyticus. A thick yellowish-grey
membrane is formed in the palpebral conjunctiva which bleeds on peeling. The raw
area left after sloughing of the membrane may lead to complications like symblepharon
and entropion due to cicatrisation. Systemic antibiotics and anti-diphtheric serum are
also given in addition to local therapy.
• Pseudomembranous conjunctivitis: This is the common variety where a pseudomem-
brane is seen on the palpebral conjunctiva due to organisation of the exudates. It is
6 SelfAssessment and Review oJOplltlzalmology • - -_, ·-. · :·

adhered loosely to the underlying conjunctiva and may bleed slightly on peeling ~
no raw area is seen beneath it. It is seen in conjunctivitis caused by Staphylococcus
aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus of low virulence etc.
• Angular conjunctivitis: This is a condition where the redness is limited to the inner
and outer canthi and excoriation is seen at the lateral eye margins. It is caused br
Moraxella axenfeldQ. It is treated with zinc and oxytetracycline topically. ·

Acute Viral Conjunctivitis


This is a common self-limiting condition seen in both children and adults. It presents with
redness, watering and foreign body sensation. It is a foUicular conjunctivitisQ and mar
be associated with subconjunctival haemorrhage and pseudomembrane. Pre-auricul~
lymphadenopathy is seenQ. It is self limiting and lubricants are prescribed for relief. The
different types are:
• Haemorrhagic conjunctivitis: It is associated with petechial haemorrhages in the
conjunctiva. The causative organisms are AdenovirusQ, EnterovirusQ, EchovirusQ,
CoxsakieQ virus
• Keratoconjunctivitis: This is commonly seen with adenovirus "''here numnlUlar
lesions are seen on the cornea associated with conjunctivitis. It is associated with pho-
tophobiaQ and blurring of vision. Nummulae resolve spontaneously over a period of
time but topical steroids are prescribed for quick resolution.

Adult Inclusion Conjunctivitis


• The causative organism is Chlamydia trachomatis serotypes D-KQ.
• The primary source of infection is urethritis in males and cervicitis in females because
these serotypes are sexually transmitted
• It may also be transferred through contaminated water of swimming pools. Hence, it
is also called swimming pool conjunctivitisQ
• It is a type of follicular conjunctivitisQ associated with preauricular lymphadenopathy.

Trachoma
It is a specific type of keratoconjunctivitis which is characterized by formation of follicles
and pannus followed by resolution by cicatrisation. The causative organism is Chlamydia
trachomatis serotypes A, B, Ba and CQ. It is seen in children < 5 years of age especially in
areas of poverty, overcrowding and poor hygiene.

Pathology
• Chlamydia is an epitheliotropic microorganism which affects the conjunctival and cor-
neal epitheliumQ.
• It can be seen in the epithelial cells as HP inclusion bodiesQ
• Trachoma is characterized by intense infiltration of lymphocytes in the adenoid layer of
the conjunctiva. Aggregation of lymphocytes results in the formation of follicles. Sago
grain follicles are seen on the upper tarsal conjunctivaQ.
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