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Third Edition

Statistical and
Data Handling
Skills in Biology
Roland Ennos
Statistical and Data Handling
Skills in Biology

Visit the Statistical and Data Handling Skills in Biology,

Third Edition, Companion Website at
www.pearsoned.co.uk/ennos
to find valuable student learning material including:

• An Introduction to SPSS version 19 for Windows

• An Introduction to MINITAB version 16 for Windows
Statistical and Data Handling
Skills in Biology
Third Edition

Roland Ennos
Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester
Pearson Education Limited

Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England

and Associated Companies throughout the world

Visit us on the World Wide Web at:

www.pearson.com/uk

First published 2000

Second edition published 2007
Third edition published 2012

© Pearson Education Limited 2012

The right of Roland Ennos to be identified as author of this Work have been asserted by him
in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a
licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright
Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6‐10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.

All trademarks used therein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any
trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership
rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation
with or endorsement of this book by such owners.

Pearson Education is not responsible for the content of third‐party internet sites.

ISBN 978‐0‐273‐72949‐5

British Library Cataloguing‐in‐Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
15 14 13 12 11

Typeset in 9/12.5 by 75
Printed by Ashford Colour Press Ltd., Gosport
 Dedication

For my father
 Brief contents

List of figures and tables xiii

Preface xvii
Publisher’s acknowledgements xix

1 An introduction to statistics 1
2 Dealing with variability 10
3 Testing for normality and transforming data 31
4 Testing for differences between one or two groups 43
5 Testing for difference between more than two groups: ANOVA and
its non‐parametric equivalents 83
6 Investigating relationships 132
7 Dealing with categorical data 164
8 Designing experiments 187
9 More complex statistical analysis 203
10 Dealing with measurements and units 213

Glossary 228
Further reading 232
Solutions 233
Statistical tables 258
Index 267

vii
 Contents

List of figures and tables xiii

Preface xvii
Publisher’s acknowledgements xix

1 An introduction to statistics 1
1.1 Becoming a research biologist 1
1.2 Awkward questions 1
1.3 Why do biologists have to repeat everything? 2
1.4 Why do biologists have to bother with statistics? 3
1.5 Why is statistical logic so strange? 3
1.6 Why are there are so many statistical tests? 4
1.7 Using the decision chart 6
1.8 Using this book 8

2 Dealing with variability 10

2.1 Introduction 10
2.2 Examining the distribution of data 10
2.3 The normal distribution 13
2.4 Describing the normal distribution 16
2.5 The variability of samples 17
2.6 Confidence limits 19
2.7 Presenting descriptive statistics and confidence limits 21
2.8 Introducing computer packages 22
2.9 Calculating descriptive statistics 26
2.10 Self‐assessment problems 30

3 Testing for normality and transforming data 31

3.1 The importance of normality testing 31
3.2 The Kolgomorov–Smirnov test 31
3.3 What to do if your data has a significantly different
distribution from the normal 34
3.4 Examining data in practice 35
3.5 Transforming data 37
3.6 The complete testing procedure 42
3.7 Self‐assessment problems 42

4 Testing for differences between one or two groups 43

4.1 Introduction 43
4.2 Why we need statistical tests for differences 43
ix
Contents

4.3 How we test for differences 44

4.4 One‐ and two‐tailed tests 46
4.5 The types of t test and their non‐parametric equivalents 46
4.6 The one‐sample t test 46
4.7 The paired t test 51
4.8 The two‐sample t test 56
4.9 Introduction to non‐parametric tests for differences 64
4.10 The one‐sample sign test 64
4.11 The Wilcoxon matched pairs test 69
4.12 The Mann–Whitney U test 75
4.13 Self‐assessment problems 80

5 Testing for difference between

more than two groups: ANOVA and its non-parametric
equivalents 83
5.1 Introduction 83
5.2 One‐way ANOVA 84
5.3 Deciding which groups are different – post hoc tests 90
5.4 Presenting the results of one‐way ANOVAs 95
5.5 Repeated measures ANOVA 96
5.6 The Kruskall–Wallis test 101
5.7 The Friedman test 106
5.8 Two‐way ANOVA 112
5.9 The Scheirer–Ray–Hare test 117
5.10 Nested ANOVA 122
5.11 Self‐assessment problems 129

6 Investigating relationships 132

6.1 Introduction 132
6.2 Examining data for relationships 132
6.3 Examining graphs 133
6.4 Linear relationships 133
6.5 Statistical tests for linear relationships 135
6.6 Correlation 135
6.7 Regression 145
6.8 Studying common non‐linear relationships 152
6.9 Dealing with non‐normally distributed data: rank correlation 156
6.10 Self‐assessment problems 161

7 Dealing with categorical data 164

7.1 Introduction 164
7.2 The problem of variation 164
7.3 The x2 test for differences 166
7.4 The x2 test for association 171

x
 Contents

7.5 Validity of x2 tests 178

7.6 Logistic regression 180
7.7 Self‐assessment problems 185

8 Designing experiments 187

8.1 Introduction 187
8.2 Preparation 188
8.3 Excluding confounding variables 188
8.4 Replication and pseudoreplication 188
8.5 Randomisation and blocking 190
8.6 Choosing the statistical test 192
8.7 Choosing the number of replicates: power calculations 194
8.8 Dealing with your results 200
8.9 Self‐assessment problems 200

9 More complex statistical analysis 203

9.1 Introduction to complex statistics 203
9.2 Experiments investigating several factors 204
9.3 Experiments in which you cannot control all the variables 204
9.4 Investigating the relationships between several variables 208
9.5 Exploring data to investigate groupings 211

10 Dealing with measurements and units 213

10.1 Introduction 213
10.2 Measuring 213
10.2 Converting to SI units 214
10.4 Combining values 218
10.5 Expressing the answer 219
10.6 Doing all three steps 219
10.7 Constants and formulae 220
10.8 Using calculations 221
10.9 Logarithms, graphs and pH 222
10.10 Self-assessment problems 224

Glossary 228
Further reading 232
Solutions 233

Statistical tables 258

Table S1: Critical values for the t statistic 258
Table S2: Critical values for the correlation coefficient r 259
Table S3: Critical values for the x2 statistic 260
Table S4: Critical values for the Wilcoxon T distribution 261

xi
Contents

Table S5: Critical values for the Mann–Whitney U distribution 263

Table S6: Critical values for the Friedman x2 distribution 264
Table S7: Critical values for the Spearman rank correlation coefficient r 265

Index 267

Supporting resources
Visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/ennos to find valuable online resources

Companion Website for students

• An Introduction to SPSS version 19 for Windows
• An Introduction to MINITAB version 16 for Windows

For more information please contact your local Pearson Education sales
representative or visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/ennos

xii
 List of figures and tables

Figures
1.1 Decision chart for statistical tests 7
1.2 Flow chart showing how to deal with measurements
and rank data 8
2.1 Methods of presenting the distribution of a sample 11
2.2 Different ways in which data may be distributed 12
2.3 Measurements of the distribution of data 13
2.4 A normal distribution 14
2.5 Length distributions for a randomly breeding population of rats 15
2.6 The effect of sample size 18
2.7 Normal distribution and t distribution 20
2.8 Changes in the mean and 95% confidence intervals for the
mass of the bull elephants from example 2.2 after different
numbers of observations 21
2.9 Presenting descriptive statistics using error bars 23
4.1 Sample means different from an expected value 44
4.2 Mean ( { standard error) of the pH of the nine ponds at dawn
and dusk 56
4.3 Overlapping populations 57
4.4 The mean ( { standard error) of the masses of 16 bull and
16 cow elephants 63
4.5 Box and whisker plot showing the levels of acne of patients
before and after treatment 74
4.6 Box and whisker plot showing the numbers of beetles caught
in traps in the two fields 79
5.1 The rationale behind ANOVA: hypothetical weights for two
samples of fish 85
5.2 Two contrasting situations 86
5.3 Bar chart showing the means with standard error bars of the
diameters of bacterial colonies subjected to different antibiotic
treatments 95
5.4 Mean sweating rates of soldiers before, during and after exercise 101
5.5 Box and whisker plot showing the medians, qaurtiles and range
of the test scores of children who had taken different CAL
packages 106

xiii
List of figures and tables

5.6 Box and whisker plot showing the medians, quartiles and range
of the numbers of different flavoured pellets eaten by birds 112
5.7 The yields of wheat grown in a factorial experiment with or
without nitrate and phosphate 117
5.8 Box and whisker plot showing the medians, quartiles and
range of the numbers of snails given the different nitrate and
phosphate treatments 122
5.9 Mean ± standard error lengths of the lice found on fish in
fresh water and sea water 129
6.1 The relationship between the age of eggs and their mass 133
6.2 Ways in which variables can be related 134
6.3 A straight line relationship 135
6.4 Effect of sample size on the likelihood of getting an apparent
association 136
6.5 Correlation 137
6.6 Graph showing the relationship between the heart rate and
blood pressure of elderly patients 144
6.7 Regression 146
6.8 How to describe a power relationship 152
6.9 How to describe an exponential relationship 153
6.10 Graph showing the relationship between the density of
tadpoles and dragonfly larvae in 12 ponds 161
7.1 The binomial distribution 165
8.1 The Latin square design helps avoid unwanted bunching of
treatments 190
8.2 Blocking can help to avoid confounding variables: an agricultural
experiment with two treatments, each with eight replicates 190
8.3 (a) An effect will be detected roughly 50% of the time if the
expected value is two standard errors away from the actual
population mean. (b) To detect a significant difference between
a sample and an expected value 80% of the time, the expected
value should be around three standard errors away from the
population mean 195
10.1 Using logarithms 223
A1 Mean birth weight 233
A2 Graph showing the mean { standard error of calcium‐binding
protein activity before and at various times after being given
a heat stimulus 239
A3 Graph showing the aluminium concentration in tanks at five‐
weekly intervals after 20 snails had been placed in them (n = 8) 240
A4 Mean { standard error of yields for two different varieties of
wheat at applications of nitrate of 0, 1 and 2 (kg m - 2) 244

xiv
 List of figures and tables

Tables
4.1 The effect of nitrogen treatment on sunflower plants. The results
show the means { standard error for control and high nitrogen
plants of their height, biomass, stem diameter and leaf area. 63
7.1 The numbers of men and women and their smoking status 178
7.2 The numbers of models eaten and left uneaten by the birds 185
10.1 The base and supplementary SI units 214
10.2 Important derived SI units 215
10.3 Prefixes used in SI 215
10.4 Conversion factors from obsolete units to SI 217
10.5 Some useful constants and formulae 220

xv
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