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The Periglacial Environment
The Periglacial Environment
Third Edition

Hugh M. French
The University of Ottawa
Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester,
West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England
Telephone (+44) 1243 779777

First Editon published in 1976 by Longman Group Limited © Longman Group Limited 1976
Second Edition published by Addison Wesley Longman Limited 1996 © Addison Wesley Longman
Limited 1996
Email (for orders and customer service enquiries): [email protected]
Visit our Home Page on www.wiley.co.uk or www.wiley.com

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or
otherwise, except under the terms of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms
of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T
4LP, UK, without the permission in writing of the Publisher. Requests to the Publisher should be
addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate,
Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England, or emailed to [email protected], or faxed to
(+44) 1243 770620.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All
brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or
registered trademarks of their respective owners. The Publisher is not associated with any product or
vendor mentioned in this book.

This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject
matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering
professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data


French, Hugh M.
The periglacial environment / Hugh French. – 3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN-13: 978-0-470-86588-0
ISBN-13: 978-0-470-86589-7
1. Frozen ground. 2. Glacial landforms. 3. Cold regions. I. Title.
GB641.F73 2007
551.3′84–dc22
2006022730

Anniversary Logo Design: Richard J. Pacifico

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data


A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-0-470-86588-0 (HB)
ISBN 978-0-470-86589-7 (PB)

Typeset in 9.5/11.5 pt Times by SNP Best-set Typesetter Ltd., Hong Kong


Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe, Chippenham, Wiltshire
This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustainable forestry in which at
least two trees are planted for each one used for paper production.
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Contents

Preface to First Edition xiii


Preface to Second Edition xv
Preface to Third Edition xvii
Acknowledgments xix

Part I The Periglacial Domain 1

1 Introduction 3
1.1 The Periglacial Concept 3
1.2 Disciplinary Considerations 7
1.2.1 The Growth of Geocryology 7
1.2.2 The Changing Nature of Quaternary Science 8
1.2.3 Modern Periglacial Geomorphology 8
1.3 The Growth of Periglacial Knowledge 9
1.4 The Periglacial Domain 11
1.5 The Scope of Periglacial Geomorphology 13
1.5.1 Permafrost-Related Processes and Landforms 13
1.5.2 Azonal Processes and Landforms 14
1.5.3 Paleo-Environmental Reconstruction 14
1.5.4 Applied Periglacial Geomorphology 14
Advanced Reading 15
Discussion Topics 15

2 Periglacial Landscapes? 16
2.1 Introduction 16
2.2 Proglacial, Paraglacial or Periglacial? 16
2.3 Unglaciated Periglacial Terrain 18
2.3.1 Beaufort Plain, Northwest Banks Island, Arctic Canada 18
2.3.2 Barn Mountains, Northern Interior Yukon Territory, Canada 22
2.4 Relict Periglacial Landscapes 25
2.4.1 Chalk Uplands, Southern England and Northern France 25
2.4.2 Pine Barrens, Southern New Jersey, Eastern USA 26
2.5 Conclusions 28
Advanced Reading 28
Discussion Topics 30

3 Periglacial Climates 31
3.1 Boundary Conditions 31
3.2 Periglacial Climates 32
vi CONTENTS

3.2.1 High Arctic Climates 34


3.2.2 Continental Climates 38
3.2.3 Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau 38
3.2.4 Alpine Climates 39
3.2.5 Climates of Low Annual Temperature Range 39
3.2.6 Antarctica: A Special Case 40
3.3 Ground Climates 40
3.3.1 The n-Factor 41
3.3.2 The Thermal Offset 42
3.4 Periglacial Climates and the Cryosphere 44
Advanced Reading 45
Discussion Topics 46

Part II Present-Day Periglacial Environments 47

4 Cold-Climate Weathering 49
4.1 Introduction 49
4.2 Ground Freezing 49
4.2.1 The Freezing Process 50
4.2.2 Ice Segregation 52
4.2.3 The Frozen Fringe 53
4.2.4 Frost Heave 54
4.3 Freezing and Thawing 55
4.4 The Ground-Temperature Regime 57
4.4.1 The Seasonal Regime 57
4.4.2 Short-Term Fluctuations 60
4.5 Rock (Frost?) Shattering 60
4.5.1 Frost Action and Ice Segregation 61
4.5.2 Frost Weathering Models 63
4.5.3 Insolation Weathering and Thermal Shock 64
4.5.4 Discussion and Perspective 67
4.6 Chemical Weathering 68
4.6.1 General 68
4.6.2 Solution and Karstification 69
4.6.3 Salt Weathering 72
4.7 Cryogenic Weathering 75
4.8 Cryobiological Weathering 79
4.9 Cryopedology 79
4.9.1 Cryosols 80
4.9.2 Soil Micromorphology 81
Advanced Reading 82
Discussion Topics 82

5 Permafrost 83
5.1 Introduction 83
5.1.1 Defi nition 83
5.1.2 Moisture and Ice within Permafrost 85
5.2 Thermal and Physical Properties 85
5.2.1 The Geothermal Regime 86
5.2.2 Physical Properties 89
CONTENTS vii

5.2.3 Thermal Properties 90


5.3 How Does Permafrost Aggrade? 90
5.3.1 General Principles 91
5.3.2 The Illisarvik Drained-Lake Experiment 92
5.4 Distribution of Permafrost 94
5.4.1 Latitudinal Permafrost 95
5.4.2 Alpine (Mountain) Permafrost 98
5.4.3 Montane Permafrost of Central Asia and China 101
5.5 Relict Permafrost 103
5.5.1 Sub-Sea Permafrost 103
5.5.2 Relict (Terrestrial) Permafrost 103
5.6 Permafrost Hydrology 104
5.6.1 Aquifers 105
5.6.2 Hydrochemistry 106
5.6.3 Groundwater Icings 106
5.7 Permafrost and Terrain Conditions 107
5.7.1 Relief and Aspect 107
5.7.2 Rock Type 108
5.7.3 Vegetation 108
5.7.4 Snow Cover 109
5.7.5 Fire 110
5.7.6 Lakes and Surface Water Bodies 111
5.8 The Active Layer 111
5.8.1 The Transient Layer 112
5.8.2 The Stefan Equation 114
5.8.3 Active-Layer Thermal Regime 114
Advanced Reading 115
Discussion Topics 115

6 Surface Features of Permafrost 116


6.1 Introduction 116
6.2 Thermal-Contraction-Crack Polygons 116
6.2.1 Coefficients of Thermal Expansion and Contraction 116
6.2.2 Ice, Sand, and Soil Wedges 117
6.2.3 Development of the Polygon Net 119
6.2.4 Polygon Morphology 121
6.2.5 Controls Over Cracking 123
6.2.6 Climatic Significance 124
6.3 Organic Terrain 127
6.3.1 Palsas 128
6.3.2 Peat Plateaus 129
6.4 Rock Glaciers 129
6.4.1 Creeping Permafrost 130
6.4.2 Types and Distribution 131
6.4.3 Origin 131
6.5 Frost Mounds 134
6.5.1 Perennial-Frost Mounds 134
6.5.2 Hydraulic (Open) System Pingos 136
6.5.3 Hydrostatic (Closed) System Pingos 137
6.5.4 Other Perennial-Frost Mounds 140
viii CONTENTS

6.5.5 Seasonal-Frost Mounds 140


6.5.6 Hydrolaccoliths and Other Frost-Induced Mounds 142
6.6 Active-Layer Phenomena 142
6.6.1 Bedrock Heave 143
6.6.2 Needle Ice 144
6.6.3 Cryoturbation and Frost Heave 144
6.6.4 Frost Sorting 146
6.6.5 Patterned Ground 148
Advanced Reading 152
Discussion Topics 152

7 Ground Ice 153


7.1 Introduction 153
7.2 Classification 154
7.2.1 Pore Ice 156
7.2.2 Segregated Ice 157
7.2.3 Intrusive Ice 158
7.2.4 Vein Ice 159
7.2.5 Other Types of Ice 159
7.3 Ice Distribution 159
7.3.1 Amounts 159
7.3.2 Distribution with Depth 161
7.3.3 Ice in Bedrock 162
7.3.4 Ice in Unconsolidated Sediments 162
7.4 Cryostratigraphy and Cryolithology 164
7.4.1 Cryostructures, Cryotextures, and Cryofacies 165
7.4.2 Epigenetic and Syngenetic Cryostructures 167
7.4.3 Thaw Unconformities 171
7.4.4 Ice Crystallography 173
7.4.5 Ice Geochemistry 173
7.4.6 Cryostratigraphy and Past Environments 175
7.5 Ice Wedges 176
7.5.1 Epigenetic Wedges 177
7.5.2 Syngenetic Wedges 179
7.5.3 Anti-Syngenetic Wedges 180
7.6 Massive Ice and Massive-Icy Bodies 181
7.6.1 Nature and Extent 181
7.6.2 Intra-Sedimental Ice 183
7.6.3 Buried Glacier Ice 184
7.6.4 Other Mechanisms 184
Advanced Reading 184
Discussion Topics 185

8 Thermokarst 186
8.1 Introduction 186
8.2 Causes of Thermokarst 187
8.2.1 General 187
8.2.2 Specific 189
CONTENTS ix

8.3 Thaw-Related Processes 191


8.3.1 Thermokarst Subsidence 191
8.3.2 Thermal Erosion 191
8.3.3 Other Processes 193
8.4 Thermokarst Sediments and Structures 193
8.4.1 Involuted Sediments 193
8.4.2 Retrogressive-Thaw-Slumps and Debris-Flow
Deposits 194
8.4.3 Ice-Wedge Pseudomorphs and Composite-Wedge
Casts 195
8.4.4 Ice, Silt, Sand, and Gravel Pseudomorphs 198
8.5 Ice-Wedge Thermokarst Relief 198
8.5.1 Low-Centered Polygons 198
8.5.2 High-Centered Polygons 200
8.5.3 Badland Thermokarst Relief 201
8.6 Thaw Lakes and Depressions 201
8.6.1 Morphology 203
8.6.2 Growth and Drainage 203
8.6.3 Oriented Thaw Lakes 205
8.7 Thermokarst-Affected Terrain 206
8.7.1 The Lowlands of Central and Northern Siberia 207
8.7.2 The Western North American Arctic 209
8.8 Human-Induced Thermokarst 210
8.8.1 Causes 210
8.8.2 Case Studies 213
Advanced Reading 215
Discussion Topics 215

9 Hillslope Processes and Slope Evolution 216


9.1 Introduction 216
9.2 Slope Morphology 216
9.2.1 The Free-Face Model 217
9.2.2 Rectilinear Debris-Mantled Slopes 218
9.2.3 Convexo-Concavo Debris-Mantled Slopes 219
9.2.4 Pediment-Like Slopes 221
9.2.5 Stepped Profi les 223
9.3 Mass Wasting 224
9.4 Slow Mass-Wasting Processes 225
9.4.1 Solifluction 225
9.4.2 Frost Creep 227
9.4.3 Gelifluction 228
9.4.4 Solifluction Deposits and Phenomena 229
9.5 Rapid Mass Wasting 232
9.5.1 Active-Layer-Detachment Slides 232
9.5.2 Debris Flows, Slushflows, and Avalanches 233
9.5.3 Rockfall 235
9.6 Slopewash 237
9.6.1 Snow-Bank Hydrology 238
9.6.2 Surface and Subsurface Wash 239
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