foods

Article
The Impacts of Standardized Flaxseed Meal (XanFlax) on the
Physicochemical, Textural, and Sensory Properties of Muffins
Ju Hui Lee 1,† , Youn Young Shim 2,3,4,† , Martin J. T. Reaney 2,3,4 and Jin A Yoon 1, *

1 Department of Food and Nutrition, Gangseo University, Seoul 07661, Republic of Korea
2 Department of Food and Bioproduct Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A8, Canada;
[email protected] (Y.Y.S.); [email protected] (M.J.T.R.)
3 Prairie Tide Diversified Inc., Saskatoon, SK S7J 0R1, Canada
4 Department of Food and Biotechnology, Korea University, Sejong 30019, Republic of Korea
* Correspondence: [email protected]
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Abstract: Flaxseed is becoming increasingly popular as a superfood due to its many health benefits.
While flaxseed is considered an oilseed, flaxseed meal (the by-product of flaxseed oil extraction) also
contains many nutritional compounds not found in the oil. This study explored the use of a Canadian
flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) meal product to fortify bakery foods and improve their nutritional
properties. Muffins were made using a control recipe as well as four different formulations that
included varying amounts of a standardized flaxseed meal supplement called XanFlax (5, 10, 20, and
40%). The physicochemical properties of the muffins, including their texture, color, sugar content,
pH, specific gravity, loss rate, and moisture, were evaluated. Additionally, the sensory attributes
contributing to muffin quality were thoroughly examined. The lightness (L*) and yellowness (b*) of
the muffins, which were highest in the control group at 82.22 and 34.69, respectively, decreased as the
amount of XanFlax increased (p < 0.05). Additionally, the redness (a*) of the muffins increased as the
amount of XanFlax increased (p < 0.05). The muffins’ sugar content (2.00 brix%) remained consistent
across all treatments and controls except for those prepared with 20% XanFlax (2.17 brix%). As the
amount of XanFlax powder increased, the pH of the muffins increased significantly. The moisture
content in the muffins was highest at 23.71 ± 0.79% in the 10% XanFlax treatment and lowest at
Citation: Lee, J.H.; Shim, Y.Y.; Reaney,
22.06 ± 0.30% in the 40% XanFlax treatment. The muffins enriched with 5% XanFlax had an average
M.J.T.; Yoon, J.A. The Impacts of
height of 5.35 cm and volume of 131.33 mL, surpassing the results for the muffins made with other
Standardized Flaxseed Meal
formulas (p < 0.05). Additionally, the cohesiveness and gumminess of the muffins tended to increase
(XanFlax) on the Physicochemical,
with the addition of XanFlax. The most favorable attributes, namely the appearance, flavor, taste,
Textural, and Sensory Properties of
Muffins. Foods 2023, 12, 4085.
texture, and overall acceptance, were consistently associated with the 5% and 10% XanFlax treatments
https://doi.org/10.3390/ (p < 0.05). This study marks the first time a standardized flaxseed gum product, XanFlax, has been
foods12224085 described in a functional baking application.

Academic Editor: Emma Chiavaro

Keywords: flaxseed; Linum usitatissimum L.; XanFlax; muffin; baking; sensory evaluation
Received: 6 October 2023
Revised: 5 November 2023
Accepted: 7 November 2023
Published: 10 November 2023 1. Introduction
Due to the increasing interest in healthy functional foods and the demand for simple
and nutritious meals, the use of superfood ingredients has become more diverse. There is a
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
growing need for the development of healthy functional foods using natural ingredients.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This trend has led to an increase in demand for healthier confectionery and baked goods [1].
This article is an open access article The baking industry has evolved due to various factors such as economic changes and
distributed under the terms and consumer needs, and products with enhanced health functionality are driving the market,
conditions of the Creative Commons reflecting the needs of health-conscious consumers [2,3]. Muffins are popular due to their
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// soft texture and rich taste [4], and they are widely consumed as a snack or meal because of
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ their simple and convenient preparation method. As people become more health-conscious,
4.0/). the demand for healthy functional foods that have physiological effects is also increasing.

Foods 2023, 12, 4085. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12224085 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/foods

Foods 2023, 12, 4085 2 of 12

Studies have been conducted on muffins with enhanced health functionalities, such as
those containing Aronia powder [5] and tangerine peel powder [6], among others. Research
on the quality characteristics of muffins with various ingredients added has been ongoing,
including muffins with mulberry concentrate [7], coffee ground extract and powder [8],
various types of rice flour replacing wheat flour [9], ‘Fuji’ apple peel powder [10], and
barley water [11].
Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) is a rich source of nutrients that are important for
the modern diet, including protein, minerals, omega-3 fatty acids, lignans, dietary fiber,
vitamins, and tocopherols [12]. It is also considered a high-protein food due to its high
protein content (20%) and energy density level (4.5 kcal/g). However, flaxseed contains
cyanogenic compounds that release cyanide, which is toxic. It is desirable to reduce or
remove these compounds before using flaxseed meal products in food [13]. Flaxseed
lignans inhibit cancer development and proliferation and have antioxidant effects [14].
In fact, flaxseed contains 75–800 times more lignans than cereals, legumes, fruits, and
vegetables [15]. While secoisolariciresinol is the main flaxseed lignan, other lignans, in-
cluding matairesinol, pinoresinol, lariciresinol, and isolariciresinol, are also present in
small amounts [16]. Orbitides known as linusorbs are present in flaxseed, and 45 different
linusorbs have been described [12]. Among them, [1–9-NαC]-linusorb B3 has antioxidant
and anti-inflammatory effects. It also can inhibit the formation of the actin cytoskeleton,
which is important for cancer progression, invasion, and metastasis and has in vitro anti-
cancer effects, where it delays the migration of C6 cells [17]. Recently, Lee et al. [18] found
that flaxseed-derived XanFlax is an excellent substitute for commercial thickeners such as
Xanthan gum, guar gum, corn starch, and gluten-free flour, and can also be used as an egg
substitute in various baked goods [18,19]. In addition to its physical thickening properties,
this flaxseed-derived high-fiber product lowers the cholesterol and blood triglyceride levels
in diabetic and control subjects [20,21]. XanFlax is a flaxseed meal derived from the cold
pressing of flaxseed that is standardized so that it is an effective high-viscosity thickener,
gelling agent, texture modifier, suspending agent, and stabilizer. As a flaxseed meal, it
is an excellent source of omega-3, lignan, orbitides, tocopherol, protein, and dietary fiber,
among others. Thus, it can add to the nutritional benefits or physicochemical “thickener”
properties of flaxseed [18].
Flaxseed, traditionally used for medicinal purposes, has gained popularity in recent
years as a functional food ingredient due to its nutritional and pharmacological benefits.
However, the research on its utilization in confectionery and baking remains limited. The
goal of this study was to increase the utility of this standardized flaxseed gum product,
XanFlax (high-fiber flaxseed powder), in functional baking applications by making the
first attempt to use it as an ingredient in muffin baking. The physicochemical quality
characteristics and acceptability of the formulated muffins were investigated, and the
results of this study could provide experimental data necessary for the development of
new products with this ingredient.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
The XanFlax powder, an additive or ingredient used for formulating muffins in this
study, was provided by Prairie Tide Diversified Inc. (Saskatoon, SK, Canada). Table 1
presents the information presented on the nutritional facts label detailing the constituents
of the product “XanFlax”. Other muffin ingredients were purchased from commercial
marts and used in the preparation of muffins. The brands used were Sajodongaone Co.,
Ltd. (Seoul, Republic of Korea), for refined soft wheat flour (white); Farming Association
Haemil Co., Ltd. (Yeoju, Republic of Korea), for fresh whole eggs; Beksul (Seoul, Republic
of Korea) for white sugar; Hanju Salt Co., Ltd. (Ulsan, Republic of Korea), for refined salt;
Galimfood Co., Ltd. (Incheon, Republic of Korea), for unsalted butter and baking powder;
and Seoul Milk (Seoul, Republic of Korea) for non-fat dry milk.
Foods 2023, 12, 4085 3 of 12

Table 1. XanFlax nutritional facts label.

Nutrition Facts Serving Size 4 Tbsp (30 g)

Calories 141 1
Total Fat 5.4 g
Polyunsaturated fat 3.8 g
Monounsaturated fat 1.1 g
Saturated fat 0.7 g
Trans fat 0.0 g
Cholesterol 0.0 mg
Total Carbohydrate 10.1 g
Dietary fiber 7.4 g
Crude fiber 1.4 g
Protein 10 g
1 Amount per serving.

2.2. Preparation of Muffins

An optimal muffin formulation was previously described by Song et al. [9], in which
the mixing of ingredients was achieved by modifying the creaming method. XanFlax
was added to the muffins in various concentrations of 0, 5, 10, 20, and 40% by partially
substituting the total amount of 200 g of refined soft wheat flour (Table 2). Using a kneader
(Horno Panadero, BS-201, Busung, Bucheon, Republic of Korea), butter and sugar were
mixed for 1 min in the first stage, then increased to the second stage and mixed for 1 min
more. Then, the melted butter and sugar were added in three portions to prevent the egg
from separating from the rest of the mix. The cream was added in three portions and mixed
for a total of 3 min to maintain the shape of the cream. Refined soft wheat flour, XanFlax
powder, refined salt, and baking powder were then sieved through a 35-mesh sieve and
added to the mixed cream and mixed for 1 min in the first stage of the kneading. Finally,
milk was added and remixed in the first stage for 1 min to complete the dough. The finished
dough was poured into tinfoil cups and lined with parchment paper (Φ60 mm × 45 mm),
divided into 5 portions of 70 g each, and baked in an electric oven (Horno Panadero, BS-023,
Busung, Bucheon, Republic of Korea) preheated to 175 ◦ C for 25 min. The baked muffins
were cooled at room temperature (22 ◦ C) for 1 h and then used as samples.

Table 2. Formulations for the muffins made with XanFlax powder.

XanFlax Content in Mix with Refined Wheat Flour (%)

Ingredients (g)
01 5 10 20 40
Refined soft wheat flour 200 190 180 160 120
XanFlax powder 0 10 20 40 80
White sugar 130 130 130 130 130
Unsalted butter 100 100 100 100 100
Whole egg 100 100 100 100 100
Non-fat dry milk 100 100 100 100 100
Baking powder 4 4 4 4 4
Refined salt 1 1 1 1 1
1 0%: Flour without XanFlax powder (control).

2.3. Weight, Height, and Volume Measurements

The muffins with added XanFlax powder at concentrations of 0, 5, 10, 20, and 40%
were evaluated. The height of the muffins was measured three times with a vernier caliper
(150 × 0.05 mm, Eagle Vernier Caliper, Beijing, China) by cutting the center of the muffin
and measuring the top height from the bottom of the cross-section. The volume of the
muffins was measured three times using the seed displacement method with white rice [22]
and the results are expressed as the average value.
Foods 2023, 12, 4085 4 of 12

2.4. Measurements of Specific Gravity and Baking Loss of Dough

The specific gravity of the dough was determined according to the AACC method
26–10 [22] by comparing the weight of the muffin dough to the weight of water. The baking
loss of the muffins was calculated by measuring the weight of the dough before baking and
the weight of the muffin after baking using an electronic balance (IB-410, Ohaus, Seoul,
Republic of Korea). The difference between the two values was then calculated using
Equations (1) and (2):
g

Density of muffin dough mL
Specific gravity = g
(1)
Density of water mL

Weight of muffin dough (g) − Weight of muffin(g)

Baking loss rate (%) = × 100 (2)
Weight of muffin dough (g)

2.5. Moisture Content, Sugar Content, and pH Measurement

The moisture content of the muffins was determined in triplicate using the AOAC
method [23] by heating and drying 5 g of a powdered sample at 105 ◦ C in a drying oven
(KC0-150, Kuk Je Eng Co., Goyang, Republic of Korea) to a constant weight. After cooling
in a vacuum desiccator (BA.42025-0000, Bel-Art Scienceware, NJ, USA) for 30 min, the
weight was measured with an electronic balance (IB-410, Ohaus, Seoul, Republic of Korea).
To measure the sugar content (%), 5 g samples at concentrations of 0, 5, 10, 20, and 40%
were suspended in 50 mL of distilled water, filtered through an 8 µm paper filter (1002-150,
Whatman, Incheon, Republic of Korea), and measured three times with a saccharimeter
(Pocket Refractometer, Atago Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). The pH values of the dough and
muffins were also measured three times using a pH meter (pH7110, Inolab Especialistas,
Mexico City, Mexico) for a solution obtained by adding 5 g of each sample to 50 mL of
distilled water and filtering the suspension through an 8 µm paper filter.

2.6. Chromaticity and Section Measurements

The color of the muffins was analyzed using a colorimeter (CR-400, Konica Minolta
Sensing Inc., Osaka, Japan) to measure the L* value (lightness), a* value (redness), and b*
value (yellowness) according to the Hunter scale. Three measurements were taken for each
sample, with a white calibration plate used as the standard for comparison. The exterior
cross-sections were then photographed and examined using a camera (LG wing, LG, Seoul,
Republic of Korea) for a further analysis.

2.7. Texture Measurement

Following the method of Yoon [24] with some modifications, the texture of the muffins
was evaluated using a texture analyzer (TA.XT plus/50 Stable Micro Systems, Godalming,
UK) with a cylindrical probe of 75 mm diameter and a wide bottom plate. The sample
(2 × 2 × 2 cm) was collected from the center of the muffin. The trigger force and test
distance were 5 g and 10 mm, respectively. The pre-test and post-test speeds were both
2.0 mm/s and the test speed was 1.0 mm/s. The texture was measured using seven
parameters: hardness, adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess, chewiness,
and resilience. The measurements were taken five times for each concentration of 0, 5, 10,
20, and 40% of XanFlax powder, and the average and standard deviation were recorded.

2.8. Sensory Evaluation

A total of 35 assessors (25 women and 10 men) aged between 21 and 24 years (mean
age: 22 ± 2 years) were selected from the students of the Department of Food and Nutri-
tion of Gangseo University. Only subjects who were regular muffin consumers (muffin
consumption corresponding to 1–2 muffins per week) were involved in the study. None of
the participants had previous or present taste or smell disorders. Informed consent was
Foods 2023, 12, 4085 5 of 12

obtained from all subjects. The selected assessors majoring in food and nutrition had the
ability to perform sensory tasks and had interacted in discussions of sensory attributes
during six 1-h training sessions conducted to train the assessors to be familiar with the muf-
fin products and the prescribed sensory evaluation procedures related to taste and tactile
sensations. The training sessions were performed in a collective room and sensory booths
of the Department of Food and Nutrition (Gangseo University, Seoul, Republic of Korea),
designed under ISO guidelines [25]. The assessors were asked to rate their acceptability
using a 7-point scale, with 1 indicating “dislike very much”, 4 indicating “average”, and
7 indicating “like very much”. The muffins were cut into 2 × 2 × 2 cm pieces and served
on a white plate, and the participants were instructed to rinse their mouths with water after
trying each sample. The acceptance test evaluated five attributes: appearance, flavor, taste,
texture, and overall acceptability [24].

2.9. Statistical Anaysis

All statistical analyses were performed using the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS) version 18.0 (IBM SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Mean comparisons were
made using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Duncan’s multiple range
test. The data are presented as means ± standard deviations (SDs) (n = 3), and p < 0.05 was
considered statistically significant.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Measuring the Baking Properties of Muffins Prepared with XanFlax Powder and Observing
Their Appearance
Table 3 illustrates the weight, height, and volume of muffins made with varying
levels of XanFlax powder. The weights of the muffins were similar across all groups, with
mean weights of 64.72 ± 0.50 g for the control group and 65.21 ± 0.58 g, 65.24 ± 0.40 g,
65.22 ± 0.24 g, and 65.09 ± 0.38 g for the muffins with 5, 10, 20, and 40% XanFlax powder
added, respectively. This was likely because the addition of XanFlax powder did not
have a notable impact on the weights of the muffins [6]. The heights of the muffins also
varied, with the highest height of 5.35 ± 0.05 cm in the 5% added group and the lowest of
4.68 ± 0.08 cm in the 40% XanFlax powder group, while the other groups showed insignifi-
cant differences. As the concentrations of XanFlax powder increased to 5% and 10%, the
muffin volumes increased to 131.33 ± 4.20 mL and 123.33 ± 5.20 mL compared to the
control group (120.77 ± 2.66 mL). However, the volumes gradually decreased to 116.33 mL
and 100.20 ± 1.92 mL in the 20% and 40% groups, respectively. This trend was similar to
previous studies on muffins made with added Suaeda japonica Makino powder [24] and
flaxseed [26], which showed that the volume decreased as the added material increased
due to the gluten-free properties of the flaxseed. The reduced volume can be attributed
to the gluten-free properties of flaxseed, which may affect the structural integrity and
gas-trapping ability during baking, resulting in more compact muffin structures.

Table 3. Baking properties of muffins prepared with XanFlax powder.

XanFlax Content in Mix with Refined Wheat Flour (%)

Property
0 5 10 20 40
Weight (g) 64.72 ± 0.50 a 65.21 ± 0.58a 65.24 ± 0.40 a 65.22 ± 0.24 a 65.09 ± 0.38 a
Height (cm) 5.23 ± 0.08 b 5.35 ± 0.05 a 5.22 ± 0.10 b 5.20 ± 0.11 b 4.68 ± 0.08 c
Volume (mL) 120.77 ± 2.66 bc 131.33 ± 4.20 a 123.33 ± 5.20 b 116.33 ± 3.88 c 100.20 ± 1.92 d
Specific gravity (unitless) 0.41 ± 0.00 b 0.41 ± 0.00 b 0.41 ± 0.00 b 0.41 ± 0.00 b 0.43 ± 0.00 a
Loss rate (%) 7.55 ± 0.72 a 6.84 ± 0.83 a 6.81 ± 0.57 a 6.83 ± 0.35 a 7.01 ± 0.54 a
Values (means ± SDs) within rows followed by different lower-case superscript letters are significantly different
at p < 0.05 as shown by Duncan’s multiple range test.

Table 3 also shows the results of measuring the specific gravity and baking loss rate
values of muffins with varying levels of XanFlax powder. The specific gravity values
of muffins with 0, 5, 10, 20, and 40% of XanFlax powder added were 0.41, 0.41, 0.41,
Foods 2023, 12, 4085 6 of 12

0.41, and 0.43, respectively. The values significantly increased as the amount of XanFlax
powder added increased (p < 0.05). This observation suggests that the incorporation of
XanFlax powder influenced the overall density and structure of the muffins. Notably, a
higher specific gravity indicates a decrease in air content within the muffin, leading to
the formation of smaller pores and potentially resulting in muffins with poorer chewiness.
On the other hand, a lower specific gravity would imply an increased air content, which
may contribute to improved chewiness of the muffin [27,28]. The baking loss rates were
7.55 ± 0. 72%, 6.84 ± 0. 83%, 6.81 ± 0.57%, 6.83 ± 0.35, and 7.01 ± 0.54, respectively,
showing no significant difference. The baking loss occurs when heat is applied to the
dough and the vapor pressure increases, causing liquid with a low boiling point to expand
and escape as gas [29]. The similar baking loss rates suggest that the addition of XanFlax
powder did not substantially affect the vaporization and loss of volatile components during
the baking process, which is an important factor to consider in the overall texture and
quality of the final product. This observation suggests that XanFlax powder may not
substantially impact the dough’s consistency, texture, or moisture-retaining properties.

3.2. Measurements of Moisture Content, Sugar Content, and pH of Muffins

Table 4 shows the results in terms of the measured moisture content, sugar content,
and pH values of muffins with varying levels of XanFlax powder. The moisture contents of
the muffins were 24.17 ± 0.39% in the control group, 23.31 ± 0.60% in the 5% XanFlax group,
23.71 ± 0.79% in the 10% group, 22.35 ± 0.60% in the 20% group, and 22.06 ± 0.30% in the
40% group. As the concentration of XanFlax powder increased, the moisture content of the
muffins tended to decrease (p < 0.05). Previous studies have shown a direct relationship
between the dietary fiber content and moisture content, with a reported moisture content
of 14.02% [30]. Therefore, it is anticipated that the binding force between the moisture
and XanFlax powder increased due to the high dietary fiber content in XanFlax, leading
to a decrease in moisture content as the ratio of bound water increased relative to the
control [31]. This variation in the water retention abilities of the samples, depending on the
dietary fiber and its water-binding capacity, is thought to have affected the water content
of the muffins [32]. The sugar contents of the doughs exhibited no significant differences
among the different groups, although interestingly the sugar content of the muffins was the
highest with 40% XanFlax powder (2.17 ± 0.14, Brix%) (p < 0.05). This finding suggests that
the sugar content of the XanFlax powder may have influenced the overall sugar content
of the muffins. Although the exact mechanism behind this observation requires further
investigation, it is reasonable to assume that the inherent sugar content of the XanFlax
powder contributed to the elevated sugar levels in the muffins. There were no significant
differences in the pH levels of the doughs, although the pH of the muffins increased as
XanFlax powder was added. The pH of the muffins was the lowest in the control group
at 6.31 ± 0.06, and as the amount of XanFlax powder increased, the pH of the muffins
increased significantly (p < 0.05). The pH of the muffins was influenced by the pH and
moisture content of the added ingredients [24], and in this case, the pH increased because
of the pH and moisture content of the XanFlax powder.

Table 4. Characteristics of muffins prepared with XanFlax powder.

XanFlax Content in Mix with Refined Wheat Flour (%)

Characteristic
0 5 10 20 40
Moisture (Baking, %) 24.17 ± 0.3 a 23.31 ± 0.6 b 23.71 ± 0.79 ab 22.35 ± 0.60 c 22.06 ± 0.30 c
Sugar (Dough, Brix%) 1.67 ± 0.29 a 1.78 ± 0.29 a 1.83 ± 0.14 a 1.90 ± 0.25 a 2.00 ± 0.25 a
Sugar (Baking, Brix%) 2.00 ± 0.00 b 2.00 ± 0.00 b 2.00 ± 0.00 b 2.00 ± 0.00 b 2.17 ± 0.14 a
pH (Dough) 5.73 ± 0.05 a 6.05 ± 0.47 a 6.06 ± 0.47 a 5.75 ± 0.56 a 6.11 ± 0.64 a
pH (Baking) 6.31 ± 0.06 d 6.88 ± 0.18 b 6.71 ± 0.03 c 6.98 ± 0.13 ab 7.13 ± 0.00 a
Values (means ± SDs, n = 3) in each row followed by different lower-case superscript letters are significantly
different at p < 0.05 as shown by Duncan’s multiple range test.
Foods 2023, 12, 4085 7 of 12

3.3. Chromaticity and Cross-Section Appearance

The lightness (L*) and yellowness (b*) values of the muffins were the highest
(82.22 ± 0.85 and 34.69 ± 0.86, respectively) in the control group (Table 5). These val-
ues tended to decrease as the amount of XanFlax powder increased (p < 0.05). Relatively
low redness (a*) values (–2.29 ± 0.21 and 1.54 ± 0.17) were observed in the control group
and the 5% added group, which increased significantly as the amount of XanFlax pow-
der increased (p < 0.05). The color change was attributed to the dark brown color of the
XanFlax. Various factors influence the color of muffins, including the type of flour, the
quality and quantity of ingredients used, and the temperature and time of baking [33]. The
decrease in L* value and increase in a* value were due to the inherent dark brown color of
the flaxseed, the main component of XanFlax. This finding was consistent with previous
studies, wherein the amount of added material increased and the color of the material
became darker, affecting the L*, a*, and b* values [25,32,34]. This effect can be attributed to
the higher concentration of XanFlax powder, which introduces more dark brown pigments
into the muffin batter, resulting in the observed color shifts. The color changes in muffins
due to the incorporation of XanFlax powder may affect consumer perceptions and their
acceptability. While some consumers may appreciate darker, richer colors as a sign of
the addition of natural ingredients, others may prefer lighter-colored muffins. Therefore,
further research could explore the sensory aspects of these supplemented muffins to assess
the impact of supplementation on the overall product’s appeal and acceptability.
Table 5. Variation of color characteristics in muffins with varying levels of XanFlax powder addition.

XanFlax Content in Mix with Refined Wheat Flour (%)

Color
0 5 10 20 40
82.22 ± 0.85 a b 62.11 ± 1.48 c d 47.85 ± 1.92 e
L* 67.93 ± 0.74 54.89 ± 1.10
a* –2.29 ± 0.21 e 1.54 ± 0.17 d 3.61 ± 0.26 c 5.41 ± 0.20 b 6.87 ± 0.09 a
b* 34.69 ± 0.86 a 21.09 ± 0.45 b 18.20 ± 0.06 c 16.67 ± 0.15 d 15.02 ± 0.42 e
Values (means ± SDs) within rows followed by different lower-case superscript letters are significantly dif-
ferent at p < 0.05 by Duncan’s multiple range test. L*, brightness/darkness; a*, (+) redness/(−) greenness;
b*, (+) yellowness/(−) blueness.

As the concentration of XanFlax powder increased, the muffins appeared to rise less
(Figure 1). A cross-sectional examination of the muffins revealed that the internal structure
of the muffins in the additive group was denser with irregularly distributed pores as
compared to the control group. A similar result was also reported in a study on muffins
made with added kaniwa powder [32]. The substitution of gluten in the gluten network
with dietary fiber in XanFlax powder seems to weaken the three-dimensional network
structure in the dough [32]. This results in the volume of the muffin being reduced and the
gluten dilution effect interfering with the formation of an optimal gluten network, leading
to small, irregular pores. Thus, the addition of high-fiber XanFlax powder may improve
Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the overall quality of the muffins by directly impacting external factors such as 8the
of 13
volume
and height, as well as the interior structure.

Figure 1. Muffins with various levels of supplemental XanFlax powder: control (flour without
Figure 1. Muffins
XanFlax powder) with various
(A); flour with 5%levels of supplemental
XanFlax XanFlax
powder (B); flour powder:
with 10% XanFlax control (flour
powder (C); without
flour
XanFlax powder)
with 20% (A);
XanFlax flour with
powder 5% XanFlax
(D); flour with 40%powder (B);powder.
(E) XanFlax flour with 10% XanFlax powder (C); flour
with 20% XanFlax powder (D); flour with 40% (E) XanFlax powder.
3.4. Texture Properties
The texture profile analysis (TPA) of the muffins made with XanFlax powder was
conducted by evaluating seven parameters: hardness, adhesiveness, springiness,
cohesiveness, gumminess, chewiness, and resilience (Table 6). The TPA provided valuable
Foods 2023, 12, 4085 8 of 12

3.4. Texture Properties

The texture profile analysis (TPA) of the muffins made with XanFlax powder was con-
ducted by evaluating seven parameters: hardness, adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness,
gumminess, chewiness, and resilience (Table 6). The TPA provided valuable insights into
how the XanFlax powder influenced the muffins’ texture attributes.

Table 6. Texture properties of muffins made with XanFlax powder.

XanFlax Content in Mix with Refined Wheat Flour (%)

Property
0 5 10 20 40
852.25 ± 93.18 a b b ab 831.23 ± 31.82 a
Hardness (g) 486.31 ± 53.66 502.29 ± 73.22 728.95 ± 57.07
Adhesiveness (gs) −0.59 ± 0.08 a −0.45 ± 0.32 a −1.14 ± 0.25 ab −1.38 ± 0.19 ab −2.33 ± 0.09 b
Springiness (%) 1.00 ± 0.01 a 1.00 ± 0.00 a 1.00 ± 0.00 a 1.00 ± 0.00 a 1.00 ± 0.00 a
Cohesiveness (%) 0.77 ± 0.02 c 0.91 ± 0.03 b 1.01 ± 0.07 a 0.88 ± 0.09 b 0.98 ± 0.04 ab
Gumminess (g/s) 833.32 ± 98.70 b 512.63 ± 79.47 c 583.59 ± 75.87 c 862.00 ± 85.62 ab 981.52 ± 86.09 a
Chewiness (g) 837.49 ± 93.06 b 512.63 ± 78.92 c 583.59 ± 76.90 c 862.00 ± 84.95 ab 983.14 ± 62.05 a
Resilience (g) 0.24 ± 0.04 a 0.13 ± 0.01 b 0.13 ± 0.01 b 0.11 ± 0.03 b 0.12 ± 0.01 b
Values (means ± SDs, n = 5) in each row followed by different lower-case superscript letters are significantly
different at p < 0.05 as shown by Duncan’s multiple range test.

The hardness of the muffins increased as the concentration of XanFlax powder in-
creased, with the 5% group having a value of 486.31 ± 53.66 g, the 10% group having a
value of 502.29 ± 73.22 g, the 20% group having a value of 728.95 ± 57.07 g. and the 40%
group having a value of 831.23 ± 31.82 g (p < 0.05). A similar pattern was observed in a
study using flaxseed as part of a muffin recipe [35]. In a study of muffins that incorporated
peach dietary fiber, it was reported that the muffin hardness increased with the substitution
of flour with greater amounts of peach fiber [36]. Based on these reports, it is possible that
the increase in muffin hardness with the addition of increasing amounts of XanFlax is due
to the dilution of gluten [37]. It was observed that as the concentration of XanFlax powder
increases, the volume of the muffin becomes smaller and the internal structure becomes
denser, resulting in a harder texture.
The adhesiveness was highest in the control group (−0.59 ± 0.08 gs) and gradually
decreased as the amount of XanFlax powder increased, being the lowest in the 40% group
(−2.33 ± 0.09 gs) (p < 0.05). Regarding the cohesiveness, the highest score was found
in the 10% XanFlax powder group (1.01 ± 0.07%) (p < 0.05), and a similar pattern was
also found in a study by Jang et al. [38]. Although there was no significant difference in
cohesiveness between the 20% and 40% XanFlax powder added groups, it significantly
decreased (p < 0.05). A decrease in adhesiveness of the XanFlax muffins with respect to
the controls could arise from several factors. First, the muffins would have an elevated
fat content, and the fat could lubricate their surfaces. Second, the flaxseed muffins would
contain less gluten and the this could produce a less adhesive product. Third, flaxseed
polymers form coacervates with proteins, and the soluble fiber of the flaxseed might coat
the protein particles in the muffin. Similarly, the decreased cohesiveness with increasing
XanFlax contents can be attributed to the high soluble dietary fiber content of XanFlax
and the formation of coated protein in the muffin recipe. The soluble fiber also affects
the muffins’ water binding properties. Similarly, the higher gumminess and chewiness
levels in muffins with higher XanFlax concentrations were consistent with the influence
of dietary fiber on these texture attributes. The ability of XanFlax to impact these textural
characteristics is similar to what has been observed in studies pertaining to tangerine peel
powder [6] and rice-bran-enriched muffins [38].
The springiness levels were similar between the control group and the XanFlax powder-
added groups. A similar trend was found in muffins made with tangerine peel powder and
domestic blueberries [6,39]. In another study using black rice powder [40], the cohesiveness
and springiness of the muffins gradually decreased as the amount of added black rice
powder increased. Similarly, the elasticity of the muffins was significantly reduced upon
Foods 2023, 12, 4085 9 of 12

the addition of corn to the mix [41]. On the other hand, the springiness levels of the muffins
showed no significant difference between the control group and the XanFlax powder-added
groups, indicating that the elasticity of the muffins’ structure was not substantially affected
by the XanFlax incorporation. This contrasts with findings from studies involving black
rice powder [40] and corn [41], which reported a gradual decrease in springiness with
increasing amounts of added materials.
The gumminess and chewiness were the highest in the 40% XanFlax powder group
(981.52 ± 86.09 g/s and 983.14 ± 62.05 g, respectively) (p < 0.05). It was found that the
high content of dietary fiber in the XanFlax affected the adhesiveness and adhesion as the
concentration increased. This pattern is similar to previous reports of muffins produced
with added tangerine pericarp [6] or added rice bran powder [38].
The resilience, which indicates the property of returning to the original shape and form
after pressing the muffin, was twice as high in the control group (0.24 ± 0.04 g) as compared
to the XanFlax powder groups (p < 0.05), and there were no significant differences between
the groups with added XanFlax.
These contradictory results can be attributed to the properties of the added ingredi-
ents. As the amount of XanFlax powder increases, the cooked appearance in the muffins
increases. The structure becomes denser, leading to increased hardness, gumminess, and
chewiness [34]. However, when XanFlax powder was added at the 5% level, this resulted
in the production of muffins with the most desirable texture properties, which were soft
and moist.

3.5. Sensory Evaluation

The sensory characteristics of muffins made with XanFlax powder were analyzed in
terms of their appearance, flavor, taste, texture, and overall acceptance, as shown in Table 7.
The appearance of the control group muffins (6.08 ± 1.08) was considered the best, with no
significant differences among the muffins containing XanFlax powder.

Table 7. Sensory characteristics and acceptability of muffins made with XanFlax powder.

XanFlax Content in Mix with Refined Wheat Flour (%)

Property
0 5 10 20 40
a c 4.54 ± 1.71 c
Appearance 6.08 ± 1.08 4.89 ± 1.65 b 5.19 ± 1.43 b 4.74 ± 1.21
Flavor 5.11 ± 1.21 a 5.22 ± 1.27 a 5.00 ± 1.59 ab 4.74 ± 1.40 ab 4.35 ± 1.76 b
Taste 5.25 ± 1.44 a 4.89 ± 1.30 a 5.19 ± 1.24 a 4.00 ± 1.52 b 3.97 ± 1.73 b
Texture 4.83 ± 1.46 ab 5.08 ± 1.05 a 5.17 ± 1.16 a 4.56 ± 1.26 ab 4.24 ± 1.81 b
Overall acceptability 4.94 ± 1.60 ab 5.00 ± 1.35 a 4.92 ± 1.44 ab 4.18 ± 1.55 bc 4.06 ± 1.86 c
Values (means ± SDs, n = 3) within rows followed by different lower-case superscript letters are significantly
different at p < 0.05 as shown by Duncan’s multiple range test.

The flavor score was highest (5.22 ± 1.27) in the group with 5% XanFlax powder and
lowest (4.35 ± 1.76) in the group with 40% XanFlax powder. The flavor score decreased as
the XanFlax content increased (p < 0.05). A similar trend was also observed in terms of the
taste scores, where the control and the 5% and 10% XanFlax powder groups scored higher
(5.25 ± 1.44, 4.89 ± 1.30, and 5.19 ± 1.24, respectively) but the groups with 20% and 40%
XanFlax powder scored lower (4.00 ± 1.52 and 3.97 ± 1.73, respectively) (p < 0.05).
The scores for texture were highest in the groups with 5% and 10% XanFlax powder
(5.08 ± 1.05 and 5.17 ± 1.16, respectively) and lowest in the group with 40% XanFlax
powder (4.24 ± 1.81) (p < 0.05). In terms of the overall acceptability, the group with 5%
XanFlax powder had the highest score (5.00 ± 1.35) and the group with 40% XanFlax
powder had the lowest score (4.06 ± 1.86).
Apart from their appearance, the 5% and 10% XanFlax powder muffins were the
most acceptable, while the 40% muffins had the lowest acceptability. Similar changes in
rheological properties were reported in previous studies involving the addition of whole
flaxseed powder to sponge cake [42,43]. Therefore, it is concluded that using XanFlax
Foods 2023, 12, 4085 10 of 12

powder in the confectionery industry at concentrations of 5% to 10% is likely to produce

muffins of the highest overall quality.

4. Conclusions
In this study, we evaluated the impacts of varying levels of XanFlax powder on the
quality attributes of muffins. Our analysis provided valuable insights into the physical,
chemical, and sensory characteristics of muffins across a range of XanFlax concentrations,
from 0% to 40%. Notably, the muffin weights remained similar, indicating that the incor-
poration of XanFlax powder did not significantly affect the overall mass. However, our
investigation revealed significant variations in other critical parameters. Muffins with 5%
XanFlax powder exhibited increased height and volume, showing promise in terms of
product development and consumer appeal. Additionally, the specific gravity was notably
higher in the muffins containing 40% XanFlax powder, suggesting potential advantages
in specific applications. While no significant differences were observed in terms of the
baking loss rate, moisture content, dough sugar content, or pH, there were substantial
changes in the muffin characteristics with increasing XanFlax powder levels. Notably, the
color darkened as the XanFlax powder content increased, affecting the lightness (L* value),
yellowness (b* value), and redness (a* value). These findings underscore the importance
of visual appeal when utilizing XanFlax powder. The texture analysis revealed that the
hardness, cohesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness increased, while the restoration and
adhesion decreased with higher XanFlax powder levels. The elasticity remained relatively
consistent, offering insights into the desired mouthfeel and sensory experiences of the
muffins. In taste tests, the appearance ratings were highest in the control group, with
no significant differences in taste among the XanFlax groups. This suggests that XanFlax
powder can be added to muffin recipes without compromising the taste. In conclusion,
XanFlax powder holds significant potential to impact the quality of muffins. The sen-
sory test data demonstrate that its incorporation leads to distinct changes in the sensory
characteristics and overall acceptability of muffins. As the XanFlax content increased,
we observed a gradual decline in the appearance, flavor, taste, and texture ratings, ul-
timately affecting the muffins’ overall acceptability. These findings underline the need
for a nuanced approach when utilizing XanFlax powder in bakery product development.
The unique properties of XanFlax, including its water-soluble gums, play a significant
role in influencing these sensory attributes. To further optimize its application in bakery
product development, future studies should explore its interactions with various ingredi-
ents in muffin formulations. Investigating its synergistic effects will help identify ideal
use cases and applications for this promising ingredient. It is important to acknowledge
that this study did not explore the full spectrum of XanFlax powder concentrations and
possible adjustments to the recipe. Therefore, future studies could seek to balance the
health benefits of flaxseed and the sensory preferences of consumers. Additionally, further
research studies could investigate potential ingredient modifications or complementary
flavors to mitigate the sensory changes associated with higher XanFlax powder contents.
Considering consumer acceptance and nutritional analyses in future research will provide
a more holistic perspective of XanFlax powder’s incorporation in bakery products. These
analyses could help strike a balance between the health benefits associated with flaxseed
and the sensory expectations of consumers, ultimately making bakery products enriched
with XanFlax more appealing to a broader audience. This research marks the first time that
XanFlax, a standardized flaxseed flour containing water-soluble gums, has been reported
in functional baking applications. It is expected to contribute to the ongoing innovation
and enhancement of baked goods while meeting the evolving demands of both consumers
and the food industry. In summary, while our current study sheds light on the initial effects
of XanFlax powder on the quality of muffins, it opens the door for continued research in
this area. These findings provide valuable insights for the food industry in developing
nutritious and palatable baked goods. The limitations highlighted and future perspectives
Foods 2023, 12, 4085 11 of 12

outlined in this discussion are essential for fine-tuning the use of XanFlax powder in muffin
production and addressing the multifaceted challenges and opportunities it presents.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.A.Y.; validation, Y.Y.S. and M.J.T.R.; data curation; Y.Y.S.;
formal analyses, J.H.L.; writing—original draft preparation, J.H.L. and Y.Y.S.; writing—review and
editing, Y.Y.S., M.J.T.R. and J.A.Y.; visualization, Y.Y.S.; supervision, J.A.Y.; project administration,
J.A.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The sensory evaluation of this study was carried out in
December 2021 with the approval of the Institutional Bioethics Committee of Gangseo University
(202109-HR12-12).
Data Availability Statement: The data from the current study are available from the corresponding
author on reasonable request.
Acknowledgments: The XanFlax was kindly provided by Prairie Tide Diversified Inc. (Saskatoon,
SK, Canada).
Conflicts of Interest: M.J.T.R. is the founder of, and has an equity interest in, Prairie Tide Diversified
Inc. (PTD, Saskatoon, SK, Canada). Y.Y.S. is the Korea Branch Representative for PTD in the Republic
of Korea. The terms of this arrangement have been reviewed and approved by the University of
Saskatchewan in accordance with its conflict of interest policies. The other authors declare no conflict
of interest.

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