Introduction to Educational Psychology

(Handout I&II)

What is Psychology?

The word, ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words, ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’. Psyche means
‘soul’ and ‘Logos’ means ‘science’. Thus psychology was first defined as the ‘science of soul”.

Psychology as the Science of Soul. In ancient days, the Greek philosophers like Plato and
Aristotle interpreted Psychology as the science of the soul and studied it as a branch of
Philosophy. But soul is something metaphysical. It cannot be seen, observed and touched and
we cannot make scientific experiments on soul.

Psychology as the Science of the Mind. It was the German philosopher Emmanuel Kant who
defined Psychology as the science of the mind. William James (1892) defined psychology as the
science of mental processes. But the word ‘mind’ is also quite ambiguous as there was
confusion regarding the nature and functions of mind.

Psychology as the Science of Consciousness. Modern psychologists defined psychology as the

“Science of Consciousness”. James Sully (1884) defined psychology as the “Science of the Inner
World”. Wilhelm Wundt (1892) defined psychology as the science which studies the

“internal experiences’. But there are three levels of consciousness – conscious, subconscious
and the unconscious and so this definition also was not accepted by some.

Psychology as the Science of Behaviour. At the beginning of the 20th century, when
psychologists attempted to develop psychology into a pure science, it came to be defined as the
science of behaviour. The term behaviour was popularized by J.B. Watson. Other exponents are
William McDugall and W.B. Pillsbury. According to R.S. Woodworth, “First Psychology lost its
soul, then it lost its mind, then lost its consciousness. It still has behaviour of a sort.”

Definitions of Psychology

B.F. Skinner defined, “Psychology is the science of behaviour and experience.” Crow and
Crow, “Psychology is the study of human behaviour and human relationships.” William Mc
Dougall, “Psychology is the science which aims to give us better understanding and control of
the behaviour of the organism as a whole.” Kurt Koffka, “Psychology is the scientific study of the
behaviour of living creatures in their contact with the outer world.”

Meaning of Educational Psychology

Educational psychology is one of the branches of psychology to study the behaviour of the
learner in relation to his education. As specialized branch of psychology concerns itself with
suggesting ways and means of improving the process and products of education, enabling the
teacher to teach effectively and the learners to learn effectively with the minimum effort.

It is thus designated as the service of education. It has simplified the tasks and improved the
efficiency of the teacher or all those connected in the process and products of education by
supplying them with the essential knowledge and skills in much need the same way as science
and technology has helped in making possible maximum output through minimum input in
terms of time and labour in our day-to-day activities.

Educational psychology is that branch of psychology which deals with the application of
psychological findings in the field of education. In other words it deals with the human
behaviour in educational situations. It is the systematic study of the development of the
individual in the educational settings.

It is the scientific study of human behaviour by which it can be understood, predicated and
directed by education to achieve goals of life.

Definitions of Educational Psychology

• C.E. Skinner: “Educational psychology is the branch of psychology which deals with
teaching and learning”.
• Crow and Crow: “Educational psychology describes and explains learning experience of
an individual from birth to old age”.
• E. A. Peel: “Educational psychology is the science of education”.
• Trow describes, “Educational psychology is the study of psychological aspects of
educational situations”.
• Stephens says, “Educational psychology is the study of educational growth and
development”.
 • Judd describes educational psychology as, “a scientific study of the life stages in the
development of an individual from the time he is born until he becomes an adult.”

In the words of E.A. Peel, “Educational psychology helps the teacher to understand the
development of his pupils, the range and limits of their capacities, the processes by which they
learn and their social relationships.”

(In this way, the work of the Educational Psychologist resembles with that of an Engineer, who
is a technical expert. The Engineer supplies all the knowledge and skill essential for the
accomplishment of the job satisfactorily… for example, construction of a bridge.). In the same
way Educational Psychologists, who is a technical expert in the field of Education, supplies all
the information, principles and techniques essential for:

· Understanding the behaviour of the pupil in response to educational environment and

· Desired modification of his behaviour to bring an all-round development of his personality.

Thus, Educational Psychology concerned primarily with understanding the processes of

teaching and learning that take place within formal environments and developing ways of
improving those methods. It covers important topics like learning theories; teaching methods;
motivation; cognitive, emotional, and moral development; and parent-child relationships etc.

In short, it is the scientific discipline that addresses the questions: “Why do some students learn
more than others?” and “What can be done to improve that learning?”

The Nature of Educational Psychology:

Its nature is scientific as it has been accepted that it is a Science of Education. We can
summarize the nature of Educational Psychology in the following ways:

1. Educational Psychology is a science. (Science is a branch of study concerned with

observation of facts and establishment of verifiable general laws. Science employs certain
objective methods for the collection of data. It has its objectives of understanding, explaining,
predicting and control of facts.) Like any other science, educational psychology has also
developed objective methods of collection of data. It also aims at understanding, predicting and
controlling human behaviour.
2. Educational Psychology is a natural science. An educational psychologist conducts his
investigations, gathers his data and reaches his conclusions in exactly the same manner as
physicist or the biologist.
3. Educational psychology is a social science. Like the sociologist, anthropologist,
economist or political scientist, the educational psychologist studies human beings and their
sociability.
4. Educational psychology is a positive science. Normative science like Logic or Ethics
deals with facts as they ought to be. A positive science deals with facts as they are or as they
operate. Educational psychology studies the child’s behaviour as it is, not, as it ought to be. So
it is a positive science.
5. Educational psychology is an applied science. It is the application of psychological
principles in the field of education. By applying the principles and techniques of psychology, it
tries to study the behaviour and experiences of the pupils. As a branch of psychology it is
parallel to any other applied psychology. For example, educational psychology draws heavily
facts from such areas as developmental psychology, clinical psychology, abnormal psychology
and social psychology.
6. Educational psychology is a developing or growing science. It is concerned with new
and ever new researches. As research findings accumulate, educational psychologists get better
insight into the child’s nature and behaviour.

Thus, educational psychology is an applied, positive, social, specific and practical science. While
general science deals with behaviour of the individuals in various spheres, educational
psychology studies the behaviour of the individual in educational sphere only.

Nature of Educational psychology as scientific because:

The nature of educational psychology is regarded as scientific because it is organized,

systematic and universally accepted body, wherein the facts remain constantly in search of
truth through research and experimentation. Employs scientific methods in its study and its
results are subjected to further verification and modification.

1. Laws of educational psychology are universal: Educational psychology possesses a well-

organized, systematic and universally accepted body of facts supported by the relevant
psychological laws and principles.
2. Scientific methods: Educational psychology employs scientific methods and adopts a
scientific approach for studying the learner’s behaviour such as observation,
experimentation, clinical investigation and generalization, etc.
 3. Constant search of the truth: The results of any study in educational psychology can be
challenged and are modified or altered in terms of the latest explanations and findings.
So the findings of any study are never taken as absolute and permanent.
4. Reliability: Educational psychology does not accept hearsay and not take anything for
granted. It emphasizes that essentially there is some definite causes linked with a
behaviour and the causes of this behaviour are not related to supernatural phenomena.
5. Positive science: Educational psychology is a positive science rather than a normative
science.
6. Applied behavioural science: Educational psychology is an applied/behavioural science.
7. Developing positive science: Educational psychology cannot claim the status of a
developed positive science like other natural or applied sciences. It is considered as one
of the developing positive sciences of the learner’s behaviour.

Objectives of Educational Psychology:

The general objectives of educational psychology are:

1. To provide a body of facts and methods which can be used in solving teaching problems.
2. To develop a scientific and problem-solving attitude.
3. To train in thinking psychologically about educational problems.

Education vs Schooling

Even though schooling is frequently misidentified as education, there is much

difference between education and schooling. The term education encompasses
basically two meanings. They are formal and informal ways of gaining knowledge
while schooling stands for the initial and secondary stage of formal education
system that take place in school. Education as mentioned above can take place
not only through informal ways such as learning from peers, life experiences, by
reading or learning things through online sources but also through formal means.
For instance, through educational institutions like school, university or even training
colleges. Thus, it becomes clear schooling is one branch of formal education in the
wide arena of education.

Teaching Objectives of Educational Psychology:

1. To develop an understanding and appreciation of the dietary and environmental factors
which underline learning ability.
2. To provide base for understanding the nature and principles of learning and to supply the
techniques for its improvement.
3. To understand and appreciated factors influencing individual ability to learn.
4. To provide understanding of the external factors like training aids, libraries, classrooms
which are largely within the control of the teacher and the institution.
5. To evaluate teaching efficiency.
6. To develop an appreciation of the individual and importance of the individual with their
individual differences.

Scope of Educational Psychology:

Scope of educational psychology tells us the areas of application. In other words, it can be
called the subject matter of educational psychology.

1. Human Behaviour. It studies human behaviour in the educational context. Psychology is

the study of behaviour and education aims at modification of behaviour. Hence the
influence of Educational Psychology has to be reflected in all aspects of education.
2. Growth and development. It studies the principles governing growth and development.
The insight provided by the study will help in scientifically planning and executing
learner oriented programmes of education.
3. The Learner. The subject-matter of educational psychology is knitted around the
learner. Therefore, the need of knowing the learner and the techniques of knowing him
well. The topics include – the innate abilities and capacities of the individuals, individual
differences and their measurements, the overt, covert, conscious as well as unconscious
behaviour of the learner, the characteristics of his growth and development and each
stage beginning from childhood to adulthood.
4. The Learning Experiences. Educational Psychology helps in deciding what learning
experiences are desirable, at what stage of the growth and development of the learner,
so that these experiences can be acquired with a greater ease and satisfaction.
5. Learning process: After knowing the learner and deciding what learning experiences are
to be provided, Educational Psychology moves on to the laws, principles and theories of
learning. Other items in the learning process are remembering and forgetting,
perceiving, concept formation, thinking and reasoning, problem solving, transfer of
learning, ways and means of effective learning etc.
6. Learning Situation or Environment. Here we deal with the environmental factors and
learning situations which come midway between the learner and the teacher. Topics like
 classroom climate and group dynamics, techniques and aids that facilitate learning and
evaluation, techniques and practices, guidance and counselling etc. For the smooth
functioning of the teaching-learning process.
7. Evaluation of learning process: Some forms of evaluation inevitable in teaching. Also in all
fields of activity when judgments used to be made, evaluation plays an important role. Even
when we want to cross a road we make a judgment whether it is safe to cross the road.
Effectiveness of learning process always depends on the evaluation as it gives the
knowledge of result which helps the learner as well as the teacher to modify or correct
oneself. Educational psychology guides are by explaining the different methods of
assessment contributing to the effectiveness of learning process. Knowing the learner,
acquiring the essential skill in teaching and evaluation are the focal points in the study of
educational psychology.
8. Individual differences. It is universally accepted that every individual differs from every
other individual. This idea has been brought to light by Educational Psychology.
9. Personality and adjustment. Education has been defined as the all-round development of
the personality of an individual. If educational has to fulfil this function all instructional
programmes have to be based on the principles governing the nature and development of
personality.
10. The Teacher: The teacher is a potent force is any scheme of teaching and learning process.
It discusses the role of the teacher. It emphasizes the need of ‘knowing thyself’ for a teacher
to play his role properly in the process of education. His conflicts, motivation. Anxiety,
adjustment, level of aspiration etc. It throws light on the essential personality traits,
interests, aptitudes, the characteristics of effective teaching etc. so as to inspire him for
becoming a successful teacher.
11. Guidance and Counselling. Education is nothing by providing guidance and counselling
required for the proper development of the child. This is very true, especially in the light of
the extremely complex and problematic situation one has to face in the fast growing world.
Educational psychology has come to the rescue by developing principles and practical
measures helpful for providing effective guidance and counselling.
We can conclude by saying that Educational Psychology is narrower in scope than general
psychology. While general psychology deals with the behaviour of the individual in a general
way, educational psychology in concerned with the behaviour of the learner in an educational
setting.

Relevance of Educational Psychology for Teachers

Educational psychology has contributed considerably to the creation of the modern system of
education. The knowledge of educational psychology helps the teacher in the following ways:
1. To understand the Stages of Development: Psychology has clearly shown that human
life passes through different stages of development before it reaches adulthood. They are
infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Psychologists have also thoroughly studied the
characteristic behaviour patterns in these different periods of life. Identification of these
periods with different sets of characteristics and attributes as regards physical, mental and
emotional development greatly help educationists to design curriculum and determine
appropriate methods of teaching for students at different stages.
2. To Know the Learner: The child or the learner is the key factor in the teaching-learning
process. Educational psychology helps the teacher to know his interests, attitudes, aptitudes
and the other acquired or innate capacities and abilities; to know the stage of development
linked with his social, emotional, intellectual, physical and aesthetic needs; to know his level of
aspiration, his conscious and unconscious behaviour; his motivational and group behaviour; his
conflicts, desires and other aspects of his mental health. So that perfect guidance and help can
be provided and positive attitude towards the learner can be formed.
3. To Understand the Nature of Classroom Learning: Educational Psychology helps the
teacher to adapt and adjust his teaching according to the level of the learners. A teacher is
teaching in a class but a large number of students do not understand the subject-matter which
is being taught. To deal with the students effectively in the class the teacher must have the
knowledge of the various approaches to the learning process, principles, laws and factors
affecting it then only he/she can apply remedial measures in the learning situation.
4. To Understand the Individual Differences: No two persons are exactly alike. Pupils differ
in their level of intelligence, aptitudes, likes and dislikes and in other propensities and
potentialities. There are gifted, backward, physically and mentally challenged children. Thus,
psychology tells the teacher about the individual differences among the students in the class
and the procedure, methodology and techniques to be adopted for them.
5. To Solve Classroom Problems: There are innumerable problems like truancy, bullying,
peer pressure, ethnic tensions, cheating in tests etc. Educational Psychology helps to equip the
teacher by studying the characteristics of the problem children, the dynamics of the group,
behavioural characteristics and adjustments.
6. To develop Necessary Skills and Interest in Teaching: Educational psychology helps the
teacher to acquire and develop necessary qualities and skills to deal with the problems created
by the pupils, maintain a healthy atmosphere in the classroom and show concern regarding the
progress of the child.
7. To Understand Effective Methods of Teaching: Educational Psychology has discovered
several new approaches, principles. methods and techniques of teaching which are very helpful
in today’s teaching-learning process. Educational psychology tells us how significant play and
recreation are for the children and how play-way methods turn learning into an interesting
task. 8. To Understand the Influence of Heredity and Environment on the Child: Educational
psychology helps the teacher to know that the child is the product of heredity and
environment. They are the two sides of a coin. Both play a prominent part in the all-round
development of the child. While the child is born with a number of hereditary qualities,
environment helps them to be modified according to the requirements of the society.
9. To Understand the Mental Health of the Child: Educational Psychology helps the
teacher to know what are the factors responsible for the mental ill-health and maladjustment
of a student and to suggest improvement thereof. Besides this, it also provides the teacher with
necessary insight to improve his own mental status to cope up with the situation.
10. To Understand the Procedure of Curriculum Construction: Curriculum is an integral
part of the teaching-learning process. Curriculum should be child-centred and fulfil the motives
and psychological needs of the individual because child capacities differ from stage to stage.
Educational psychology helps the teacher to suggest ways and means to curriculum framers to
prepare sound and balanced curriculum for the children.
11. To Provide Guidance and Counselling: Today guidance to a child at every stage of life is
needed because psychological abilities, interests and learning styles differ from person to
person. Similarly, what courses of study the child should undertake in future is also a vital
question. All these can be answered well if the teacher knows the psychology of children.
12. To Understand Principles of Evaluation and Assessment: Evaluation is an integral part
of the teaching-learning process. How to test the potentialities of the child depends upon the
evaluation techniques. The development of the different types of psychological tests for the
evaluation of the individual is a distinct contribution of educational psychology.
13. To inculcate Positive and Creative Discipline: The slogan of the traditional teachers was
“spare the rod and spoil the child.” Flogging the child was the chief instrument. Educational
Psychology has replaced the repressive system with the preventive system. Now teachers
adopt a cooperative and scientific approach to modify the behaviour of the students. Emphasis
is laid on self-discipline through creative and constructive activities.
14. Educational Psychology and Research: Educational psychologists conduct research to
improve the behaviour of human beings in the educational situation. For this purpose it helps in
developing tools and devices to measure the performance and suggest remedial measures
thereof.
15. To Know Himself/Herself: Educational Psychology helps the teacher to know about
himself/herself. His/her own behaviour pattern, personality characteristics, likes and dislikes,
motivation, anxiety, conflicts, adjustment etc. All this knowledge helps him in growing as a
successful teacher.
16. Educational Psychology Helps in Professional Growth, Changing Attitude and
Innovative Thinking: Inside the classroom, educational psychology has enabled the teacher to
achieve proper conditioning of pupils by achieving and directing classroom programmes on
human lives. Not only this, educational psychologists are busy in finding out innovations in the
field of education. These innovations will bring about professional growth of the teacher.
In Conclusion, we can say that educational psychology has contributed considerably to the
creation of the modern system of education. In teaching, we are dealing with three elements –
the teacher, the student, and the subject. It has helped teachers, headmasters, administrators,
inspectors, guidance and counselling workers, social workers to significantly develop an
impartial and sympathetic attitude towards children and form them into integrated
personalities.

__________________________________________________________________

Methods

Educational psychology like any other science, makes use of scientific methods in collecting
data about learner, learning process and evaluation.

1. To get facts about learning behaviour rather than opinions.

2. To get good information so that the learner can be guided.

Educational psychology as a science of education deals with the problems of teaching and
learning and helps the teacher in his task of modifying the learners behaviour and bringing
about an all-round development of his personality.

Therefore, while in psychology the scope of study and the field of operation are extended to
cover the behaviour of all living organisms related to all their life activities in educational
psychology, the scope of such behavioural study is limited within the confines of the teaching,
learning processes, i.e. studying the behaviour of the learners in relation to their educational
environment and the all-round development of their personality.

Thus the subject of educational psychology must be centred around the process of teaching and
learning for enabling the teacher and learner to do their jobs as satisfactory as possible. Thus
educational psychology definitely covers the topics helpful in suggesting principles and
techniques for the selection of the learning experience appropriate to each developmental
stage of the childhood.

Hence it includes the study of the behavior of the learner in the educational environment. It
also includes the topics and content which are specifically meant for improving the process and
products of education mainly centred around the teaching learning process.
Therefore, this study includes:

1. In knowing the learner.

2. Enabling the teacher to know their self-strengths, limitations and to acquire essential
teaching skills.
3. Selection and organization of proper learning.
4. Experiences suited to the individuality and developmental stages of the learner.
5. Suggesting suitable methods and techniques for providing the desired learning experience.
6. In arranging proper learner situation.

Methods of Educational Psychology:

Educational psychology is the scientific or systematic study of the behaviour of the learner in
relation to his educational environment. This behaviour can be studied by a simple approach
called observation. However, this observation method has to be adjusted depending upon the
conditions in which observations have to be made, the procedure and tools adopted.

The following are the various methods of observation under different situations:

1. Introspection method: This method which is the oldest method of studying behaviour
where the learner should make a self-observation, i.e. looking inwards. For example, when a
person is angry he may be asked to determine how he felt during that period of anger by his
own observation.

This method is simple, direct, cheap and reveals one’s behaviour. But this method lacks
reliability and can be used only for adult normal human beings. This method requires the
support of other methods which are more reliable.

2. Observation method: In this method the learner’s behaviour is observed under natural
conditions by other individuals. Such observation will be interpreted according to the
perception of the observer. This helps to find out behaviour by observing a person’s external
behaviour.
For example, if a person frowns we can say that he is angry. But when we are studying
behaviour in natural conditions we have to wait for the event to take place. This method is
helpful in studying the behaviour of the children. However, this method will explain only
observed behaviour, subjectivity of the investigation may affect the results.
3. Experimental method: In this method, behaviour is observed and recorded under
controlled conditions. This is done in psychological laboratory or in classrooms or outside the
classrooms in certain physical or social environment. Accordingly the cause and effect
relationships are established.
Theories of behaviour can be developed. These experiments require the creation of artificial
environment. Therefore, the scope is limited. Human behaviour is very dynamic and
unpredictable. This method is also costly and time consuming.

4. Case history method: This method is one of the steps used in the clinical method of
studying behaviour. This method is used for those who are suffering from physical or mental
disorders. For this the case history has to be made of the earlier experiences of the individual
which may be responsible for the present behaviour. Information is also collected from his
parents, family, relatives, guardians, neighbours, friends, teachers, and from reports about the
individual’s past. This information will enable the clinical psychologists to diagnose and suggest
treatment if there is any problem. However, this method will be successful only if the clinical
researcher is technically efficient. The findings are limited to the individuals observed and the
findings cannot be generalized.

Relationship Between Education and Psychology

Psychology is closely related to education. Education is the modification of behaviour in a

desirable direction or in a controlled environment and psychology is the study of behaviour or
science of behaviour. To modify the behaviour or to bring about some changes in the behaviour
it is necessary to study the science of behaviour. Thus, education and psychology are logically
related.

The developmental stages of children and characteristics are very essential factors which the
teacher must know in order to be a successful teacher. The traditional education was subject
centred and teacher dominated. But the modern concept of education has been changed into
learning centred to learner centred.

Today’s education has become child centred:

It is the child who is to learn according to his needs, interests and capacities. Hence, there is no
doubt that a knowledge of psychology is quite essential for planning and organizing any
educative effort. For this purpose all the great educators emphasize that education must have a
psychological base.

Pestalozzi tried to psychologies education. Montessori and Froebel also advocated that
education must be based on psychological principles. Almost all the aspects of education are
guided by psychological principles.

Different aspects of education related to psychological principles are as follows:

1. The objectives of education at different stages have a psychological base.

2. Preparation of curriculum for different stages as per the age, ability and capacities of the
learner must be based on some of the psychological principles.
3. The teacher employs some of the suitable methods of teaching, appropriate motivational
techniques and teaching devices which are also the contributions of educational psychology.
4. Solution of different educational problems through research are also the contribution.
5. Preparation of school time table and timing have also a psychological base.
6. Effective school administration and organization needs a knowledge of psychology.
7. Knowledge of psychology is necessary to study the gifted or the retarded child, the problem
child and the maladjusted child.
8. The problem of discipline in the school can be tackled psychologically.
9. Educational psychology provides knowledge about mental health of the teacher.
10. Psychology provides knowledge about evaluation procedure for better learning in the
school.
11. Better guidance can be provided for effective learning by studying the psychological
traits of the learner.

Besides the above, better students participation in classroom teaching, individualized

instruction, group activity, learning by doing etc. has a psychological base. So, we cannot think
of education without psychology in modern education scenario.

A Brief History

According to the modern definition of psychology, mind can be analysed functionally into
different mental processes—cognitive, conative and emotive and is .expressed through
behaviour of the interacting person. Hence psychology is a science of behaviour.
Psychology emerged as a scientific discipline as and when Wilhelm Wundt—the founder of
experimental psychology— established the first psychological laboratory at Leipzig in Germany
in the year 1879. From that time onward the learned world witnessed a host of renowned
psychologists working in different aspects of mental performances and a long intellectual
pursuit of psychological discoveries ensured.

This led more and more to the application of theories, branching, specialization, specification of
methods as well as more and more qualitative and quantitative sophistication of techniques.
One such branching encompasses the educational field and has been termed as Educational
Psychology which emerged as a separate discipline, involving the general principles of
experimental psychology applied in the field of education.

A great name in the history of educational thoughts in the early 19th century was Pestalozzi
who psychologised education by emphasizing upon ‘education’ as a process of drawing out the
functional mind of the individual.

The next great advance in educational psychology came about mid-nineteenth century when
Johann Frederich Herbart, a German professor, formulated an approach to education based
directly and avowedly upon psychology.

From the end part of nineteenth century till the beginning of twentieth century a number of
famous psychologists started working in different lines of education applying the principles and
techniques of general psychology. Among them mention may be made of Francis Galton, the
oldest of the founders of educational psychology.

He conducted the first experimental investigation of associationism, tests on reaction time and
sensory acuity. Stanley Hall, meanwhile, published his papers using the questionnaire to
investigate the minds of children. In 1885, Ebbinghaus published his study on memory and,
within the span of six years, events of importance like objective measurement, child psychology
and learning experiments, all took place.

To add to the list enriching the movement was Galton’s studies on nature-nurture problem,
mental inheritance of ability, studies of twins, widespread realizations of individual differences
in the psychological sense, various mental and physical developments as well as use of
psychological tests and their statistical interpretation (particularly the correlational studies
which was later followed by Karl Pearson), rating scales and questionnaires. “His most
important theoretical contribution was the distinction in the ‘Structure of mind’ between a
general broad ability of intelligence and special abilities entering only into narrower ranges of
activity”.

The next major contributor to the foundation of educational psychology was Alfred Binet in the
field of intelligence testing. With assistance of Theophile Simon, he developed the first Binet
Scale. Then comes John Dewey whose contribution is rather noteworthy in the field of
educational philosophy than in the general psychological field.

After Dewey, from the year 1900 to some ten or twelve years more, educational psychology
remained more or less in incubation till Edward L. Thorndike came out with his revolutionary
‘laws of learning’.

He was possibly the first man to be called an educational psychologist in the modern sense of
the term. He studied the art and science of learning very systematically and consistently. Then
joined Woodworth with Thorndike and together they worked on transfer of training at the turn
of the century.

Thorndike then published three volumes of Educational Psychology between 1913-14 consisting
of his original work arising from experimental research. His studies in various related fields of
education opened up new vistas to be trekked by later educational psychologists.

More about Educational Psychology’s Scope

Educational psychology embraced over the years various fields of education e.g. intelligence
testing, mental abilities, achievement testing, child psychology, developmental psychology,
school performance, mental deficiency, curriculum, personality, character, educational
measurement and so on and so forth.

In 1910, the Journal of Educational Psychology was first published, to reveal experimental
researches on various psychological issues regarding education and their interpretations.

In the recent past the field of educational psychology has become more complex as the vision
of what it encompasses has broadened. Originally concerned with learning and measurement
its scope has been extended with each succeeding generation to the point where now the
newest extension is in social-educational field and a new branch emerged in educational
psychology known as educational social psychology.
In conclusion, we may note that the aim of educational psychology is to apply psychological
concepts and principles in order to improve educational practice. Educational psychology that
has evolved as a new discipline tends to represent all the areas within psychology in general.

These include some distinct areas dealing with human development, individual difference in
ability, aptitude and temperament, perception, motivation, learning, thinking, problem-solving,
psychopathology, the dynamics of personality and group interactional processes.

The educational scientists have employed two strategies for applying psychology in education.
Consequently, two kinds of researches had been advanced in the field of educational
psychology; the first is the direct experimental investigation of learning in laboratory and school
settings.

The second has been an attempt to distil from basic psychological research the educational
proceedings to be employed in teaching-learning situation, implication of learning in its broader
perspective (formal and informal learning), and also human nature and its interactions.

In this process educational psychology deals not only with the individual’s own psychology and
its functioning, but also an awareness of his interacting counterpart, the changing environment
—both physical and social.
Any educational endeavour is actually a learning situation; the task of educational psychology is
to study the learner in that situation. The first learning situation outside the family a child (or a
learner) encounters is the school, which is again teaching-learning condition oriented. The
teacher’s duty in this setting is to apply the general propositions received from psychology and
apply them in the classroom.

But not one single strategy employed so far had yielded any fruitful result. A more practical
oriented strategy is required in order to synthesize the learner, the teacher the instructional
techniques and the educational managers on the one hand and producing qualified students to
meet the demand of the day, on the other.

The world we live in today is shaped to a considerable degree by the decisions people make—
individually and collectively. Any decision-making needs possessing some knowledge and use
them in solving problems. In other words, the kind of perceiving, thinking and evaluating that
goes into the problem solving has to be considered.
Historically, possession of knowledge and its utilization are learned during the developmental
years of the children through interacting with parents, employers, religious and political leaders
as well as teachers in the classroom.

The interaction with the teachers is no less important in the process of our lifelong learning
even if the exposure to school be brief and transitory (this is stated considering the number of
dropouts at the school level in our country). It has an impact in their lives, nevertheless.

Specially in the developing countries like India and South Asia the involvement of young people
with teachers and schools is certainly increasing as revealed by survey reports at Governmental
level for the last two decades. Teachers do play an active role in the teachinglearning system.

It will not be unreasonable to say that the kind of future we and our children will experience is
influenced more by teachers than by any other professional groups.

The world of tomorrow will be shaped not only by what today’s children are learning from their
teachers, but also by the ‘way’ they are learning it, for it is the way knowledge is presented that
determines how children will learn to solve problems. Thus according to Lindgren (1980), the
‘how’ of teaching includes not only teaching methods, but also teachers’ attitudes and values,
and full range of teachers’ classroom behaviours.

They serve as ‘models’ whose way of thinking, behaving, attitudes, advice and manner, the
process of acquiring and imparting knowledge are imitated in more ways than they can
imagine. Hence they are influential far beyond their immediate awareness. Therefore, it is
necessary that the teachers know consciously their personal psychology in order to understand
the psychology of their students.

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Educational psychology is an emerging branch of psychology that has become quite

popular in the past few years. It applies psychological principles to understand how
people learn. Every individual’s mind takes in information differently. Knowing how a
person’s mind works to help them understand concepts better, gets us closer to
achieving the best result. Educational psychology comes in handy here and boosts
learning outcomes and teaching processes in the following ways:

Development of the learner: The educational psychologist tries to understand the

learner’s inner traits, life experiences from childhood to the present, and their behavior
in different situations. These insights help them to tailor learning programs suitable for
the learner, supporting their overall development.

● Effective learning experiences: Educational psychology finds ways to make

learning experiences effective and enjoyable. It helps in deciding which experiences
are required at which stage of the learner’s development, so that they learn
appropriate concepts at a suitable age.

● Development of learning processes: Educational psychologists play an important

role in developing new learning processes depending upon the individual’s
characteristics and skills. This can include finding new ways for memorizing,
reasoning, thinking, perceiving, or problem-solving.

External environment: Learning outcomes are affected by the external environment

as well, and not just by the individual’s characteristics. Classroom environment, team
dynamics, communication skills, and how knowledge is being shared – are all factors
influencing their learning capacity. If provided with a suitable environment, the
individual can learn and perform to the best of their abilities. Educational
psychology helps in creating this helpful environment for learning.

● Personality development: Educational psychology can shape a child’s personality

development from a very early age. With proper techniques and a classroom
environment that is based on psychological principles, the child’s overall development
is benefited.

● Mental well-being: The world has become a competitive and stressful place. To
keep up, we forget our mental health and end up feeling depressed or burnt out. This
has become a sad reality for today’s school kids as well. Educational psychologists
can come to the rescue by providing proper guidance and simple ways to learn. This
extends to the workplace too, where people may need counseling to deal with
challenges.

● Adapting to changing education landscape: The way instructions are imparted in

schools is also changing. Smart classrooms and online learning are swiftly replacing
the traditional classroom setup. Research on the new methods of teaching and
learning is needed to adapt to these changes. Educational psychology examines how
technology can facilitate education as well.
● Developing a changing curriculum: Educational psychology also assists in
reimagining the school curriculum and deciding how instructions can be imparted to
students for maximum benefit. There are many options available for preparing study
material these days, in the form of audio, videos, quizzes, presentations, case studies,
etc. Educational psychology searches for the most efficient combination of these
options to make learning productive.

● Redesigning teaching for special needs: Educational psychology also helps in

designing new teaching methods catering to individuals with special needs.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT IN PSYCHOLOGY

1. Development is Continuous:
The process of growth and development continues from the conception till
the individual reaches maturity. Development of both physical and mental
traits continues gradually until these traits reach their maximum growth. It
goes on continuously throughout life. Even after maturity has been attained,
development does not end.

2. Development is Gradual:
It does not come all on a sudden. It is also cumulative in nature.

3. Development is Sequential:
Most psychologists agree that development is sequential or orderly. Every
species, whether animal or human, follows a pattern of development
peculiar to it. This pattern in general is the same for all individuals. The
child crawls before he creeps, stands before he walks and babbles before he
talks.

4. Rate of Development Varies Person to Person:

Rate of development is not uniform. Individuals differ in the rate of growth
and development. Boys and girls have different development rates. Each
part of the body has its own particular rate of growth. There are periods of
great intensity and equilibrium and there are periods of imbalance.

5. Development Proceeds from General to Specific:

Development proceeds from general to specific. In all areas of development,
general activity always precedes specific activity. For example, the fetus
moves its whole body but is incapable of making specific responses. With
respect to emotional behaviour infants approach strange and unusual
objects with some sort of general fear response.Later, their fears become
more specific and elicit different kinds of behaviour, such as, crying, turning
away and hiding etc.

6. Most Traits are Correlated in Development:

Generally, it is seen that the child whose mental development is above

average, is also superior in so many other aspects like health, sociability
and special aptitudes.

7. Growth and Development is a Product of Both Heredity and

Environment:
Development is influenced by both heredity and environment. Both are
responsible for human growth and development.

8. Development is Predictable:
The difference in physiological and psychological potentialities can ‘ be
predicated by observation and psychological tests.

9. Development:
Development brings about both structural and functional changes.
10. There is a Constant Interaction Between All Factors of
Development:
Development in one area is highly related to development in other areas.
For example, a child who has a good health can be active socially and
intellectually.

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENTY

Theories of Language Development

Humans, especially children, have an amazing ability to learn language. Within the first
year of life, children will have learned many of the necessary concepts to have
functional language, although it will still take years for their capabilities to develop fully.
Some people learn two or more languages fluently over their lives (often starting from
childhood); these people are bilingual or multilingual. Multiple theories have been
proposed to explain the development of language, and related brain structures, in
children.

Skinner: Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner believed that children learn language through operant conditioning; in

other words, children receive “rewards” for using language in a functional manner. For
example, a child learns to say the word “drink” when she is thirsty; she receives
something to drink, which reinforces her use of the word for getting a drink, and thus
she will continue to do so. This follows the four-term contingency that Skinner believed
was the basis of language development—motivating operations, discriminative stimuli,
response, and reinforcing stimuli. Skinner also suggested that children learn language
through imitation of others, prompting, and shaping.

Chomsky: Language Acquisition Device

Noam Chomsky’s work discusses the biological basis for language and claims that
children have innate abilities to learn language. Chomsky terms this innate ability the
“language acquisition device.” He believes children instinctively learn language without
any formal instruction. He also believes children have a natural need to use language,
and that in the absence of formal language children will develop a system of
communication to meet their needs. He has observed that all children make the same
type of language errors, regardless of the language they are taught. Chomsky also
believes in the existence of a “universal grammar,” which posits that there are certain
grammatical rules all human languages share. However, his research does not identify
areas of the brain or a genetic basis that enables humans’ innate ability for language.

Piaget: Assimilation and Accommodation

Jean Piaget’s theory of language development suggests that children use both
assimilation and accommodation to learn language. Assimilation is the process of
changing one’s environment to place information into an already-existing schema (or
idea). Accommodation is the process of changing one’s schema to adapt to the new
environment. Piaget believed children need to first develop mentally before language
acquisition can occur. According to him, children first create mental structures within the
mind (schemas) and from these schemas, language development happens.

Vygotsky: Zone of Proximal Development

Lev Vygotsky’s theory of language development focused on social learning and the
zone of proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD is a level of development obtained when
children engage in social interactions with others; it is the distance between a
child’s potential to learn and the actual learning that takes place. Vygotsky’s theory also
demonstrated that Piaget underestimated the importance of social interactions in the
development of language.

Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories are often compared with each other, and both have
been used successfully in the field of education.

Language and Cognition

The following timeline gives an overview of the ages at which children generally acquire
language:

 4–6 months: Babbling using all sounds.

 6–9 months: Babbling becomes more focused—narrowing of sounds.
 10–12 months: First words develop.
 18–24 months: Children begin using two-word phrases (example: “Me up” or “Get
milk”).
 2–3 years: Children begin using three-word phrases in correct order with
inflection.
 4–5 years: Children start speaking with nearly complete syntax.
 5–7 years: Children begin using and understanding more complex language.
 9 years and older: Children understand almost all forms of language.

In language acquisition, there is a hypothesis that a “critical period,” or a time when it is

optimal to learn a language, exists in children. Part of this hypothesis is that if a child is
not exposed to a language in the early years of life, he or she will never have full
intuitive command of a first language.

One of the canonical case studies that supporters of the critical-period hypothesis turn
to is Genie the “feral child,” a young girl born in 1957 who, due to horrible abuse and
neglect, never learned a language. She never managed to fully acquire verbal language
as a result.

THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

PIAGET’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Moral development refers to the process through which children develop

the standards of right and wrong within their society, based on social and
cultural norms, and laws.
Lawrence Kohlberg describes moral development as a process of
discovering universal moral principles, and is based on a child's intellectual
development.
Piaget conceptualizes moral development as a constructivist process,
whereby the interplay of action and thought builds moral concepts.
Piaget (1932) was principally interested not in what children do (i.e., in
whether they break rules or not) but in what they think. In other words he
was interested in children’s moral reasoning.
Piaget was interested in three main aspects of children’s understanding of
moral issues. They were
Children’s understanding of rules. This leads to questions like
• Where do rules come from?
• Can rules be changed?
• Who makes rules?
Children’s understanding of moral responsibility. This leads to questions like
• Who is to blame for “bad” things?

• Is it the outcome of behavior that makes an action “bad”?

• Is there a difference between accidental and deliberate wrongdoing?
Children’s understanding of justice. This leads to questions like
• Should the punishment fit the crime?
• Are the guilty always punished?
Piaget found that children’s ideas regarding rules, moral judgements and
punishment tended to change as they got older. In other words just as there
were stages to children’s cognitive development so there were also
universal stages to their moral development.
Piaget (1932) suggested two main types of moral thinking:

1. Heteronomous morality (moral realism)

2. Autonomous morality (moral relativism)
Heteronomous Morality (5-9 yrs)
The stage of heteronomous morality is also known as moral realism –
morality imposed from the outside. Children regard morality as obeying
other people's rules and laws, which cannot be changed.
They accept that all rules are made by some authority figure (e.g. parents,
teacher, God), and that breaking the rules will lead to immediate and severe
punishment (immanent justice).
The function of any punishment is to make the guilty suffer in that the
severity of the punishment should be related to severity of wrong-doing
(expiatory punishment).
During this stage children consider rules as being absolute and unchanging,
i.e. 'divine like'. They think that rules cannot be changed and have always
been the same as they are now.
behavior is judged as “bad” in terms of the observable consequences,
regardless on the intentions or reasons for that behavior. Therefore, a large
amount of accidental damage is viewed as worse than a small amount of
deliberate damage.

Research Findings
Piaget (1932) told the children stories that embodied a moral theme and
then asked for their opinion. Here are two examples:
There was once a little girl who was called Marie. She wanted to give
her mother a nice surprise and cut out a piece of sewing for her. But
she didn’t know how to use the scissors properly and cut a big hole in
her dress.

and

A little girl called Margaret went and took her mother’s scissors one
day when her mother was out. She played with them for a bit. Then,
as she didn’t know how to use them properly, she made a little hole in
her dress.

The child is then asked, “Who is naughtier?”

Typically younger children (pre-operational and early concrete

operational i.e. up to age 9-10) say that Marie is the naughtier child.
Although they recognise the distinction between a well-intentioned act that
turns out badly and a careless, thoughtless or malicious act they tend to
judge naughtiness in terms of the severity of the consequence rather than in
terms of motives. This is what Piaget means by moral realism.
Piaget was also interested in what children understand by a lie. Here he
found that the seriousness of a lie is measured by younger children in terms
of the size of the departure from the truth.
So a child who said he saw a dog the size of an elephant would be judged to
have told a worse lie than a child who said he saw a dog the size of a horse
even though the first child is less likely to be believed.
With regard to punishment Piaget also found that young children also had
a characteristic view. Firstly they saw the function of punishment as make
the guilty suffer. Paint called this retributive justice (or expiatory
punishment) because punishment is seen as an act of retribution or
revenge.
If you like young children have a very Old Testament view of punishment
(“an eye for an eye”). Punishment is seen as a deterrent to further
wrongdoing and the stricter it is the more effective they imagine it will be.
They also believe in what Piaget called immanent justice (that punishment
should automatically follow bad behavior). For example one story he told
was of two children who robbed the local farmer’s orchard (today we might
take the example of children who robbed cars).
The farmer saw the children and tried to catch them. One was caught and
the farmer gave him a thrashing. The other, who could run faster, got away.
However on the way home this child had to cross the stream on a very
slippery log. This child fell off the log and cut his leg badly.
Now when you ask younger children why the boy cut his leg they don’t say,
“because the log was slippery,” they say, “because he stole from the
farmer”. In other words young children interpret misfortune as if it were
some kind of punishment from God of from some kind of superiour force.
For young children justice is seen as in the nature of things. The guilty in
their view are always punished (in the long run) and the natural world is
like a policeman.
Piaget (1932) described the morality described above as heteronomous
morality. This means a morality that is formed out of being subject to
another’s rules.
Of course for young children these are the rules that adults impose upon
them. It is thus a morality that comes from unilateral respect. That is to say
the respect children owe to their parents, teachers and others.
However as children get older the circumstances of their lives change and
their whole attitude to moral questions undergoes a radical change. An
example of this is is how children respond to a question about the
wrongdoing of a member of their peer group.
Young children typically “tell” on others. They believe their primary
obligation is to tell the truth to an adult when asked to do so. Older children
typically believe that their first loyalty is to their friends and you don’t
“grass” on your mates. This would be one example of the two moralities of
the child.

Autonomous Morality (9-10 yrs)

The stage of autonomous morality is also known as moral relativism –
morality based on your own rules. Children recognize there is no absolute
right or wrong and that morality depends on intentions not consequences.
Piaget believed that around the age of 9-10 children’s understanding of
moral issues underwent a fundamental reorganisation. By now they are
beginning to overcome the egocentrism of middle childhood and have
developed the ability to see moral rules from other people’s point of view.
A child who can decentre to take other people’s intentions and
circumstances into account can move to making the more independent
moral judgements of the second stage. As a result children’s ideas on the
nature of rules themselves, on moral responsibility and on punishment and
justice all change and their thinking becomes more like that of adults.
Children now understand that rules do not come from some mystical
“divine-like” source. People make rules and people can change them – they
are not inscribed on tablets of stone. With regard to the “rules of the game”
older children recognise that rules are needed to prevent quarrelling and to
ensure fair play.
Indeed sometimes they even become quite fascinated with the whole issue
and will for example discuss the rules of board games (like chess,
Monopoly, cards) or sport (the off-side rule) with all the interest of a lawyer.
They also recognise that rules can be changed if circumstances dictate (e.g.
“You’ve got one player less so we will give you a three goal start”) and if
everybody agrees.
With regard to issues of blame and moral responsibility older children
don’t just take the consequences into account they also consider motives.
Children begin to realize that if they behave in ways that appear to be
wrong, but have good intentions, they are not necessarily going to be
punished. Thus for them a well-intentioned act that turned out badly is less
blameworthy than a malicious act that did no harm.
So in the previous research study children of 10 and over typically consider
Margaret the naughtier child. Although Marie made a much bigger hole in
her dress she was motivated by the desire to please her mother whereas
Margaret may have caused less damage but did not act out of noble
intentions.
It all goes to show, in Piaget’s opinion, that children are now able to
appreciate the significance of subjective facts and of internal responsibility.
Children’s views on lying also change. The seriousness of a lie is judged in
terms of betrayal of trust. They now recognise that all lies are not the same
and, for example, you might tell a “white lie” in order to spare someone’s
feelings.
They also recognise that if someone says something that they know not to
be the case this doesn’t necessarily mean the other person is telling a lie. It
could be that they made a mistake or that this is a difference of opinion.
Overall lying is now considered wrong not because you get punished for it
by adults (the younger children’s view) but because it is a betrayal of trust
and undermines friendship and co-operation.
With regard to punishment the emphasis now moves from retribution to
restitution. It’s purpose is not primarily to make the guilty suffer but to put
things right again.
In other words punishment should be aimed at helping the offender
understand the harm (s)he has caused so that (s)he will not be motivated to
repeat the offence and, wherever possible, punishment should fit the crime
– say for example when a vandal is required to make good the damage (s)he
has caused.
Older children also recognise that justice in real life is an imperfect system.
Sometimes the guilty get away with their crimes and sometimes the
innocent suffer unfairly. For younger children collective punishment is seen
as acceptable.
For example they would not disagree with a whole class being punished for
the misdeeds of a single child. For the older children it is always considered
wrong to punish the innocent for the misdeeds of the guilty.
Overall Piaget describes the morality of the older child as an autonomous
morality i.e. a morality that is subject to its own laws. The change is partly
seen as a result of the child’s general cognitive development partly due to
declining egocentrism and partly to the growing importance of the peer
group.
The reference group for children’s moral beliefs is increasingly focused on
other children and disputes between equals need to be negotiated and
compromises made. In place of the unilateral respect the younger children
owed to their parents an attitude of mutual respect governs relations
between peers.

Critical Evaluation
Piaget’s theory of children’s moral development can be seen as an
application of his ideas on cognitive development generally. As such his
theory here has both the strengths and weaknesses of his overall theory.
1. Reliability
Piaget uses qualitative methods (observation and clinical interviews). His
research is based on very small samples. His methods are not standardised
and therefore not replicable.
It is impossible to say from his research how generalizable the results are.
His is exploratory research, which is useful for generating new ideas rather
than for the rigorous testing of hypotheses.
2. Validity
Is Piaget testing what he thinks he is testing? This isn’t clear. For example
in his story of the broken cups Piaget claims to find a difference in
children’s views of what is right or fair.
However it may be that the answer the children give is based on their view
of what would actually happen in such circumstances not what they think
should happen.
3. Underestimating children’s rate of development
Piaget argues that the shift from “moral realism” to “moral relativism”
occurs around the age of 9 to 10 and that children younger than this do not
take motives into account when judging how much someone is to blame.
Other research suggests that children develop an understanding of the
significance of subjective facts at a much earlier age. Nelson (1980) found
that even 3-year olds could distinguish intentions from consequences if the
story was made simple enough.
4. What do children’s replies to a story actually mean?
This again isn’t necessarily clear. Do they understand the story? Are they
able to remember it correctly? Do they give the answer that they think will
please the experimenter? Is their reply governed by the substantive aspects
of the story (what actually happens) or by the moral principle embedded in
it?
5. Does Piaget tell us what we want to know?
Piaget’s research is about children’s moral reasoning. Many psychologists
argue that what is far more important is not what children think about
moral issues but how they actually behave.
And we should not forget that there is no one to one relationship between
attitudes and behavior. La Pierre (1934) proved that in his research with the
Chinese couple driving round America.

KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Kohlberg's theory of moral development is a theory that focuses on how

children develop morality and moral reasoning. Kohlberg's theory suggests
that moral development occurs in a series of six stages and that moral logic
is primarily focused on seeking and maintaining justice.

Here we discuss how Kohlberg developed his theory of moral development

and the six stages he identified as part of this process. We also share some
critiques of Kohlberg's theory, many of which suggest that it may be biased
based on the limited demographics of the subjects studied.

Test Your Knowledge

At the end of this article, take a fast and free pop quiz to see how much
you've learned about Kohlberg's theory.

What Is Moral Development?

Moral development is the process by which people develop the distinction
between right and wrong (morality) and engage in reasoning between the
two (moral reasoning).

How do people develop morality? This question has fascinated parents,

religious leaders, and philosophers for ages, but moral development has also
become a hot-button issue in psychology and education. 1 Do parental or
societal influences play a greater role in moral development? Do all kids
develop morality in similar ways?

American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg developed one of the best-known

theories exploring some of these basic questions. 2 His work modified and
expanded upon Jean Piaget's previous work but was more centered on
explaining how children develop moral reasoning.
Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development is a
continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan. Kohlberg's theory
outlines six stages of moral development within three different levels.

In recent years, Kohlberg's theory has been criticized as being Western-

centric with a bias toward men (he primarily used male research subjects)
and for having a narrow worldview based on upper-middle-class value
systems and perspectives.3
What Is Objective Morality?

How Kohlberg Developed His Theory

Kohlberg based his theory on a series of moral dilemmas presented to his
study subjects. Participants were also interviewed to determine the
reasoning behind their judgments in each scenario. 4

One example was "Heinz Steals the Drug." In this scenario, a woman has
cancer and her doctors believe only one drug might save her. This drug had
been discovered by a local pharmacist and he was able to make it for $200
per dose and sell it for $2,000 per dose. The woman's husband, Heinz, could
only raise $1,000 to buy the drug.

He tried to negotiate with the pharmacist for a lower price or to be extended

credit to pay for it over time. But the pharmacist refused to sell it for any less
or to accept partial payments. Rebuffed, Heinz instead broke into the
pharmacy and stole the drug to save his wife. Kohlberg asked, "Should the
husband have done that?"

Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to whether Heinz was
wrong or right but in the reasoning for each participant's decision. He then
classified their reasoning into the stages of his theory of moral development. 5

Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory is broken down into three primary levels. At each level of
moral development, there are two stages. Similar to how Piaget believed
that not all people reach the highest levels of cognitive development,
Kohlberg believed not everyone progresses to the highest stages of moral
development.

Levels of Moral Age Stages Included in This Level

Development
Preconventional 0 to 9 Stage 1: Obedience and punishment Stage 2:
Morality Individualism and exchange
Conventional Morality Early adolescence to Stage 3: Developing good interpersonal
adulthood relationships Stage 4: Maintaining social order
Postconventional Some adults; rare Stage 5: Social contract and individual rights stage
Morality 6: Universal principles

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts
until around the age of 9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily
shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences of breaking the
rules. There are two stages within this level:

 Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment): The earliest stages of moral

development, obedience and punishment are especially common in
young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of
reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at this stage see rules as
fixed and absolute.6 Obeying the rules is important because it is a way
to avoid punishment.
 Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange): At the individualism and
exchange stage of moral development, children account for individual
points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual
needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of
action was the choice that best served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is
possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's
own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social
rules regarding what is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and
adults internalize the moral standards they have learned from their role
models and from society.

This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming to

the norms of the group. There are two stages at this level of morality:

 Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships): Often

referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of the
interpersonal relationship of moral development is focused on living up
to social expectations and roles.6 There is an emphasis on conformity,
being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
 Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order): This stage is focused on
ensuring that social order is maintained. At this stage of moral
development, people begin to consider society as a whole when
 making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by
following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of
abstract principles of morality. The two stages at this level are:

 Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights): The ideas of a

social contract and individual rights cause people in the next stage
to begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of
other people.6 Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but
members of the society should agree upon these standards.
 Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg’s final level of moral
reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and abstract
reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of
justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

Kohlberg believed that only a relatively small percentage of people ever

reach the post-conventional stages (around 10 to 15%). 6 One analysis found
that while stages one to four could be seen as universal in populations
throughout the world, the fifth and sixth stages were extremely rare in all
populations.7

Applications for Kohlberg's Theory

Understanding Kohlberg's theory of moral development is important in that it
can help parents guide their children as they develop their moral character.
Parents with younger children might work on rule obeyance, for instance,
whereas they might teach older children about social expectations.

Teachers and other educators can also apply Kohlberg's theory in the
classroom, providing additional moral guidance. A kindergarten teacher
could help enhance moral development by setting clear rules for the
classroom, and the consequences for violating them. This helps kids at stage
one of moral development.

A teacher in high school might focus more on the development that occurs in
stage three (developing good interpersonal relationships) and stage four
(maintaining social order). This could be accomplished by having the
students take part in setting the rules to be followed in the classroom, giving
them a better idea of the reasoning behind these rules.
Criticisms for Kohlberg's Theory of Moral
Development
Kohlberg's theory played an important role in the development of moral
psychology. While the theory has been highly influential, aspects of the
theory have been critiqued for a number of reasons:

 Moral reasoning does not equal moral behavior: Kohlberg's

theory is concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference
between knowing what we ought to do versus our actual actions. Moral
reasoning, therefore, may not lead to moral behavior.
 Overemphasizes justice: Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's
theory of moral development overemphasizes the concept of justice
when making moral choices. Factors such as compassion, caring, and
other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral
reasoning.8
 Cultural bias: Individualist cultures emphasize personal rights,
while collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and
community. Eastern, collectivist cultures may have different moral
outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not take into account.
 Age bias: Most of his subjects were children under the age of 16 who
obviously had no experience with marriage. The Heinz dilemma may
have been too abstract for these children to understand, and a
scenario more applicable to their everyday concerns might have led to
different results.
 Gender bias: Kohlberg's critics, including Carol Gilligan, have
suggested that Kohlberg's theory was gender-biased since all of the
subjects in his sample were male.9 Kohlberg believed that women
tended to remain at the third level of moral development because they
place a stronger emphasis on things such as social relationships and
the welfare of others.

Gilligan instead suggested that Kohlberg's theory overemphasizes concepts

such as justice and does not adequately address moral reasoning founded on
the principles and ethics of caring and concern for others.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Individual Differences
stand for “The
variation or
deviations among
individual is regard
to a single
characteristics or a
number of
characteristics, those
differences which in
their totality
distinguish one
individual from
another.”
Types of Individual
Differences (Specific
Types or Varieties):
 1. Physical differences:
Shortness or tallness of
stature, darkness or
fairness of complexion,
fatness, thinness, or
weakness are various
physical individual
differences.
 2. Differences in
intelligence:
There are differences in
intelligence level among
 different individuals. We
can classify the individuals
from supernormal (above
120 I.Q.) to idiots (from 0
to 50 I.Q.) on the basis of
their intelligence level.
 3. Differences in
attitudes, beliefs &
opinions:
Individuals differ in their
attitudes towards different
people, objects, institutions
and authority(-ve, +ve or
indifferent)
 4. Differences in
achievement:
It has been found through
achievement tests that
individuals differ in their
achievement abilities.
These differences are very
much visible in reading,
writing and in learning
mathematics.
These differences in
achievement are even
visible among the children
who are at the same level
of intelligence. These
differences are on account
of the differences in the
various factors of
 intelligence and the
differences in the various
experiences, interests and
educational background.
 5. Differences in motor
ability:
There are differences in
motor ability. These
differences are visible at
different ages. Some
people can perform
mechanical tasks easily,
while others, even though
they are at the same level,
feel much difficulty in
performing these tasks.
 6. Emotional
differences:
Individuals differ in their
emotional reactions to a
particular situation. Some
are irritable and aggressive
and they get angry very
soon. There are others who
are of peaceful nature and
do not get angry easily. At
a particular thing an
individual may be so much
enraged that he may be
prepared for the worst
crime like murder, while
 another person may only
laugh at it.
 7. Differences on account of
sex:
McNemar and Terman discovered
the following differences
between men and women, on
the basis of some studies:
(i) Women have greater skill in
memory while men have greater
motor ability.
(ii) Handwriting of women is superior
while men excel in mathematics and
logic.
(iii) Women show greater skill in
making sensory distinctions of taste,
touch and smell etc., while men
show greater reaction and conscious
of sizeweight illusion.
(iv) Women are superior to men in
languages, while men are superior
in physics and chemistry.
(v) Women are better than men in
mirror drawing. Faults of speech etc.
in men were found to be three times
of such faults in women.
(vi) Women are more susceptible to
suggestion while there are three
times as many colour blind men as
there are women.
(vii) Young girls take interest in
stories of love, fairy tales, stories of
the school and home and day-
dreaming and show various levels in
their play. On the other hand boys
take interest in stories of bravery,
science, war, scouting, stories of
games and sports, stories and
games of occupation and skill.
8. Racial differences:
There are different kinds of
racial differences.
Differences of environment
 is a normal factor in
causing these differences.
9. Differences due to
nationality:
Individuals of different
nations differ in respect of
physical and mental
differences, interests and
personality etc. ‘Russians
are tall and stout’;
‘Ceylonese are short and
slim’; ‘Germans have no
sense of humour’; ‘Yellow
races are cruel and
revengeful’; ‘Americans are
hearty and frank’; Indians
 are timid and peace-loving’
and the like observations
enter into our common
talk.
 10. Differences due to
economic status:
Differences in
children’s interests,
tendencies and
character are caused
by economic
differences. 11.
Differences in
interests &
aptitute:
Factors such as sex, family
background level of
development, differences
of race and nationality etc.,
cause differences in
interests.
 12. Personality
differences:
There are differences in
respect of personality. On
the basis of differences in
personality, individuals
have been classified into
many groups
Spranger, for example,
has classified
personalities into six
types:
(i)Theoretical,(ii) Economic
( ), (iii) Aesthetic, (iv)
পরিরিতব্যয়ী

Social, (v) Political, and

(vi) Religious.
Jung classified people
into three groups:
(i) Introverts, (ii) Extroverts,
and (iii) Ambiverts.
Trottor divided
individuals into:
(i) Stable minded, and (ii)
Unstable minded.
Jordon thinks of
personalities into:
(i) Active, and (ii) Reflective
type.
Thorndike has classified
people into four
categories on the basis
of thinking:
(i) Abstract thinkers,(ii)
Ideational thinkers,(iii)
Object thinkers, and (iv)
Thinkers in whom sensory
experience is predominant.
Terman has classified
people into nine classes
according to their level
of intelligence:
(i) Genius, (ii) Near genius,
(iii) Very superior, (iv)
Superior, (v) Average, (vi)
Backward, (vii)
Feebleminded, (viii) Dull,
and (ix) Idiot.
13. Differences in
learning Styles:
Fast Learner, Slow Learner,
Learning at Moderate Speed.
Some are good at
Memorisation, some in
Reflection.
Some are good at analysis,
some in synthesis, some
in evaluation etc.
Some prefer learning in
group, some prefer learning
alone.
14. Differences in Social
& Moral Development:
Proper social adjustment
leads to haapy social life
while others are socially
handicapped, unsocial or
antisocial.
People also differ in respect
of ethical and moral
sense and judgement.
Conclusion:
It is an admitted fact that
some people are honest,
others are dishonest,
some are aggressive,
others are humble, some
are social, others like to
be alone, some are
critical and others are
sympathetic. As a hole
personality of an
individual is unique in
itself. Thus we see that
 the differences in
behaviour & personality
are dependent on
personality traits. Hence,
no one can be said be
exactly similar to another.
Teacher should keep in mind
these differences while
imparting education to
the pupils.
Distribution of Individual Diffe
Normal Probability
Follows
Curve

Lowest Avera
Highest
ge
Determinants/Causes of
Individual Differences:
1. Hereditary (Nature)
 Individuals have various
endowments, abilities, and
capacities provided by
hereditary. Which decide
the path of progress and
development of an
individual.
 Hereditary contributes
significantly towards
Physical Constitution
 Hereditary also put limits
upon individuals’ growth
and development in
various dimensions.
 Hereditary also
contributes to sex
 Role of hereditary ends
with conception
2. Environment (Nurture)
 Environment also plays
key role in individual
differences. No person
from conception (start of
life) to death gets the same
environment. Individual
differences occur on the
basis of simulation
received by individual from
his or her internal and
external environment. This
may include family set up,
peer group, economic
statues, education etc.
It is debatable that whether natu
or stronger
nurture playrole
vitalin development o
specific direction.
an individual in Both are strong
distinguish
contenders one individual
in order to
from other.

Educational Implications
of Individual
Differences:
 i. Aims of education,
curriculum, method of teaching
should be linked with individual
differences considering the
different abilities and traits
individual.
 ii. Curriculum should be
designed as per the interest,
abilities and needs of different
students.
 iii. The teacher has to adopt
different types of methods of
teaching considering individual
difference related to interest,
need, etc.
 iv. Some co-curricular
activities such as Drama,
music, literary activities (Essay
 & Debate Competition) should
be assigned to children
according to their interest.
 v. Boys and girls are to play
different roles in society.
Hence the factor of sexual
biasness should be kept in
mind.
 vi.Teacher uses certain
specific teaching aids which
will attract the children
towards teaching considering
their interest and need.
 vii.Various methods such as
playing method, project
method, Montessori method,
story telling methods are to
 be used
considering/discovering how
different children respond to
a task or a problem.
 viii.The division of pupils
into classes should not be
based only on the mental
age or chronological age of
children but the physical,
social and emotional
maturity should be given due
consideration.
 ix. In case of vocational
guidance the counsellor is to
plan the guidance technique
keeping in view the needs
 and requirements of the
students.
Role of Individual
Differences in
Education:
One of the important
objectives of modern
education is the
complete development
of the individual.
Individuals have
different goals, different
interests, different
 emotional problems and
different abilities.
We cannot afford to
ignore these individual
differences in imparting
education to children.
Since school work is
planned on group basis
it presents a formidable
challenge to all
teachers.
Hence some practical
procedures for adapting
school work to individual
differences are suggested:
 1. Limited size of the
class: Generally there are 50
or more than 50 students in a
class. In such a large class, it is
not possible for the teacher to
pay individual attention to the
students. The size of the class
should be small. It should be
divided into various units so
that after class-room work their
various difficulties may be
found out.
 2. Proper Knowledge of
Individual’s Potentialities:
Every teacher should try to
have the desired knowledge of
the abilities, capacities,
interests, attitudes, aptitudes
and other personality traits of
his/her pupils. For this purpose
frequents assessment in the
form of intelligence tests,
cumulative record card,
interest inventories, attitude
scales, aptitude tests &
measures for assessing
personality traits shall be
carried out.
3. Proper division of
the class (ability
grouping): Now, the
students can be divided
into different classes
regarding their differences
in intelligence, attitude,
 interest, aptitude, etc
forming homogenous
groups.
Such classification is
beneficial in adjusting the
method of instruction to
varying individual
differences.
While bringing about this
classification, the teacher
should keep in mind the
difference in age,
emotional and social
qualities.
 4. Home task: The
teacher should assign
home task to the students
while keeping in view the
individual differences
 5. Factor of sex: Boys
and girls are to play
different roles in society.
Hence the factor of sex
should be kept in mind.
 6. Curriculum: The
curriculum should be
modified to suit the needs
of all types of children. A
large number of subjects
should be included in the
 curriculum so that
education can be provided
to each child according to
his interests, needs and
abilities. Curriculum should
not be rigid but it should be
flexible.
If we lay down the same
curriculum for all the
students, the brilliant
students will not be able to
have full mental diet, and
the backward students and
the students of lower I.Q.
will lag far behind in the
class, and they may start
 playing truancy from the
school.
 7. Methods of
Teaching: Methods of
teaching should be chosen
on the basis of individual
differences. It is not
advisable to use the same
method of education in the
case of all children-gifted
or backward.
 8. Educational
Guidance: Teacher should
impart educational
guidance to the students
while keeping in view their
individual differences. He
can assist them in the
selection of educational
career, selection of
subjects, selection of
books, selection of hobbies
and co-curricular activities
and in many other areas
connected with education.
9.Vocational
Guidance: While keeping
in view the individual
differences the teacher can
guide the students in the
vocation that they should
adopt.
 10. Individual Training:
Many plans and techniques for
individualizing instructions
have been advocated.
Some of these plans are as
under:
(i) Dalton Plan:
 This plan was introduced by
Miss Helen Parkhurst at Dalton.
According to this plan, the
school is regarded as a
‘children house.’ The principles
underlying the plan are
freedom, cooperation and
allocation of time. The pupils
are free to continue without
interruption the work in which
 they are absorbed, unhindered
by time tables.
 They are not taught in class-
rooms. They are given subjects
that suit their interests. The
advantage of this plan is that
each pupil is allowed to
proceed at his own rate and in
accordance with this individual
ability. Thus the instructions
are completely individualized.
(ii) Morrison Plan:
This Plan was devised by
Professor H.Q. Morrison of the
University of Chicago. This plan
is based on directed guidance
and stresses unit assignment.
To establish learning unit is an
 important task in the Morrison
plan. The plan is based on
individual needs and interests.
(iii) Winnetka Plan:
 This plan was instituted by
C.W. Washburne in the school
of Winnetka, Illinois. This plan
is based on the principle that
the pupils should be allowed to
follow his own rate of learning
in each of the subjects of his
curriculum. Before instituting
this plan it is observed through
an examination that how much
an individual already knows.
On the basis of it, specific
learning unit is planned for
him.
 Progress is checked by the
pupils himself by means of
selfadministered tests. The
advantages of this plan are
that the backward and the
intelligent are to proceed at
their own rates. Moreover,
there are no failures since the
pupil is measured against his
own progress.
(iv) Contract Plan:
In this plan, the subjects of
study are determined like the
Dalton method; the pupil’s
progress is measured through
tests like the Winnetka
method. Thus this plan is a
 synthesis of Dalton and
Winnetka methods.
(v) Project method:
This method was suggested by
Kilpatrick. In this method each
member of the group can work
in terms of his interest and
ability. Hence this method is
also in the direction of
individualization of
instructions.

Thank Yo
 MOTIVATION

Motivation, forces acting either on or within a person to initiate behaviour.

The word is derived from the Latin term motivus (“a moving cause”), which
suggests the activating properties of the processes involved
in psychological motivation.

Psychologists study motivational forces to help explain observed changes in

behaviour that occur in an individual. Thus, for example, the observation
that a person is increasingly likely to open the refrigerator door to look for
food as the number of hours since the last meal increases can be
understood by invoking the concept of motivation. As the above example
suggests, motivation is not typically measured directly but rather inferred
as the result of behavioral changes in reaction to internal or external
stimuli. It is also important to understand that motivation is primarily a
performance variable. That is, the effects of changes in motivation are often
temporary. An individual, highly motivated to perform a particular task
because of a motivational change, may later show little interest for that task
as a result of further change in motivation.

Motives are often categorized into primary, or basic, motives, which are
unlearned and common to both animals and humans; and secondary, or
learned, motives, which can differ from animal to animal and person to
person. Primary motives are thought to include hunger, thirst, sex,
avoidance of pain, and perhaps aggression and fear. Secondary motives
typically studied in humans include achievement, power motivation, and
numerous other specialized motives

Types of Motivation

The two main types of motivation are frequently described as being either
extrinsic or intrinsic.

 Extrinsic motivation arises from outside of the individual and often involves external
rewards such as trophies, money, social recognition, or praise.
 Intrinsic motivation is internal and arises from within the individual, such as doing a
complicated crossword puzzle purely for the gratification of solving a problem. 2
Why Motivation Is Important

Motivation serves as a guiding force for all human behavior. So,

understanding how motivation works and the factors that may impact it can
be important for several reasons.

Understanding motivation can:

 Increase your efficiency as you work toward your goals

 Drive you to take action
 Encourage you to engage in health-oriented behaviors
 Help you avoid unhealthy or maladaptive behaviors, such as risk-
taking and addiction
 Help you feel more in control of your life

Impro Components of Motivation

If you've ever had a goal (like wanting to lose 20 pounds or run a marathon),
you probably already know that simply having the desire to accomplish these
things is not enough. You must also be able to persist through obstacles and
have the endurance to keep going in spite of difficulties faced.

These different elements or components are needed to get and stay

motivated. Researchers have identified three major components of
motivation: activation, persistence, and intensity. 4

 Activation is the decision to initiate a behavior. An example of

activation would be enrolling in psychology courses in order to earn
your degree.
 Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though
obstacles may exist. An example of persistence would be showing up
for your psychology class even though you are tired from staying up
late the night before.
 Intensity is the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a
goal.5 For example, one student might coast by without much effort
(minimal intensity) while another student studies regularly,
participates in classroom discussions, and takes advantage of research
opportunities outside of class (greater intensity).

The degree of each of these components of motivation can impact whether

you achieve your goal. Strong activation, for example, means that you are
more likely to start pursuing a goal. Persistence and intensity will determine
if you keep working toward that goal and how much effort you devote to
reaching it.
Causes of Low Motivation

There are a few things you should watch for that might hurt or inhibit your
motivation levels. These include:

 All-or-nothing thinking: If you think that you must be absolutely

perfect when trying to reach your goal or there is no point in trying,
one small slip-up or relapse can zap your motivation to keep pushing
forward.
 Believing in quick fixes: It's easy to feel unmotivated if you can't
reach your goal immediately but reaching goals often takes time.
 Thinking that one size fits all: Just because an approach or method
worked for someone else does not mean that it will work for you. If you
don't feel motivated to pursue your goals, look for other things that will
work better for you.

Theories of Motivation

Throughout history, psychologists have proposed different theories to

explain what motivates human behavior. The following are some of the major
theories of motivation.

1. Instincts
What Is Instinct Theory?
According to the instinct theory of motivation, all organisms are born with
innate biological tendencies that help them survive. This theory suggests
that instincts drive all behaviors. So, what exactly is instinct?
Instincts are goal-directed and innate patterns of behavior that are not the
result of learning or experience.

For example, infants have an inborn rooting reflex that helps them seek out
a nipple and obtain nourishment,1 while birds have an innate need to migrate
before winter. Both of these behaviors occur naturally and automatically.
They do not need to be learned in order to be displayed.

The Power of Instinctive Behaviors

In animals, instincts are inherent tendencies to engage spontaneously in a

particular pattern of behavior. Examples of this include a dog shaking after it
gets wet, a sea turtle seeking out the ocean after hatching, or a bird
migrating before the winter season.

Ethologist Konrad Lorenz famously demonstrated the power of instincts when

he was able to get young geese to imprint on him. He noted that geese
would become attached to the first moving thing they encountered after
they hatched, which in most cases would be their mothers. However, by
ensuring that he was the first thing the geese encountered, they instead
became attached or imprinted, on him.2

In humans, many reflexes are examples of instinctive behaviors. The rooting

reflex, as mentioned earlier is one such example, as is the suckling reflex (a
reflex in which babies begin sucking when a finger or nipple places pressure
on the roof of their mouth).

The Moro reflex is a startle reaction seen in babies less than 6 months of
age, and the Babkin reflex is when babies open their mouths and flex their
arms in response to rubbing the palms of their hands. 3 Infants display these
instinctive reactions when confronted by stimuli in their environment. For
example, brushing an infant's cheek will cause the child to turn their head
and search for a nipple.

The Instinct Theory of Motivation

Psychologist William McDougall was one of the first to write about the
instinct theory of motivation. He suggested that instinctive behavior was
composed of three essential elements: perception, behavior, and emotion.
He also outlined 18 different instincts that included curiosity, maternal
instinct, laughter, comfort, sex, and food-seeking. 4

Psychiatrist Sigmund Freud used a broad view of motivation and suggested

the human behavior was driven by two key forces: the life and death
instincts.5 Psychologist William James, on the other hand, identified a number
of instincts that he believed were essential for survival. These included such
things as fear, anger, love, shame, and cleanliness. 6
Observations on Instinct Theory

The instinct theory suggests that motivation is primarily biologically based.

We engage in certain behaviors because they aid in survival. Migrating
before winter ensures the survival of the flock, so the behavior has become
instinctive. Birds who migrated were more likely to survive and therefore
more likely to pass down their genes to future generations.

So, what exactly qualifies as an instinct?

In his book Exploring Psychology, author David G. Meyers suggests that in

order to be identified as an instinct, the behavior "must have a fixed pattern
throughout a species and be unlearned."

In other words, the behavior must occur naturally and automatically in all
organisms of that species. For example, infants have an innate rooting reflex
that leads them to root for and suck on a nipple. This behavior is unlearned
and occurs naturally in all human infants.

Doctors often look for an absence of such instinctive reflexes in order to

detect potential developmental issues.3

Criticisms of Instinct Theory

While instinct theory could be used to explain some behaviors, critics felt
that it had some significant limitations. Among these criticisms: 7

 Instincts cannot be readily observed or scientifically tested

 Instincts don't explain all behaviors
 Just labeling something as instinct does nothing to explain why certain
behaviors appear in certain instances but not in others

While there are criticisms of instinct theory, this does not mean that
psychologists have given up on trying to understand how instincts can
influence behavior.

Modern psychologists understand that while certain tendencies might be

biologically programmed, individual experiences can also play a role in how
responses are displayed.
For example, while we might be more biologically prepared to be afraid of a
dangerous animal such as a snake or bear, 8 we will never exhibit that fear if
we are not exposed to those animals.

2. Drives and Needs

According to the drive theory of motivation or drive theory, people behave a certain
way to reduce the internal tension created in the body as a result of unfulfilled
biological needs. The arousal or the state of inner tension that develops within the
body due to these needs is known as a ‘drive’. The drive reduction theory believes
the primary motivation behind all human action is the reduction of drives.

The drive theory of motivation has been given by behaviorist Clark Hull and further
expounded upon by Hull’s collaborator Kenneth Space. When Hull first started
working on the drive reduction theory of motivation, he was inspired by the ideas of
many prominent thinkers such as Edward L. Thorndike, John. B. Watson, Ivan
Pavlov and Charles Darwin. The basis of Hull’s drive reduction theory is
homeostasis—a phenomenon that helps an organism maintain a balance or a
stable internal state under challenging conditions to ensure its survival. For
example, in extremely hot temperatures, a person starts sweating, which is the
human body’s natural reaction to cool itself down, reduce discomfort and return to a
state of equilibrium.
The Clark Hull drive reduction theory works on the same principle. As soon as there’s
an unmet need within the body, a person starts behaving in a manner that allows them
to address this need, reduce the drive and achieve a state of balance.

As a neo-behaviorist, Hull explained human behavior in terms of conditioning and

reinforcement. In terms of the drive reduction theory, the reduction of the drive functions
as a reinforcement of the behavior that helped the person to satisfy their unfulfilled
need. Such reinforcement increases the likelihood of the person behaving in the same
manner in the future to address that particular drive. The drive theory, therefore, works
on the same stimulus-response relationship that is the premise of the conditioning form
of learning.

Drive Theory Of Motivation Examples

Once those needs are met, it expands to our other needs, such as those
related to safety and security, social needs, self-esteem, and self-
actualization.
Now that we know the meaning of the drive reduction theory of motivation, let’s look at a
few examples of drive theory of motivation in everyday life:

 The Feeling Of Thirst Creates An Unpleasantness Within Our Bodies. To

Reduce This Internal Tension And Return To A State Of Balance, We’re
Motivated To Reach Out For A Glass Of Water To Quench Our Thirst. This Is A
Drive Reduction Theory Example
 We Eat When We’re Hungry To Reduce The Discomfort That Hunger Causes
Within Our Bodies. This Is A Significant Example Of Drive Reduction Theory
 When We’re Cold, We Put On A Sweater To Address Our Need For Warmth And
Maintain Our Body Temperature. This Is Another Common Example Of Drive
Reduction Theory
The drive reduction theory of motivation works on the premise of the body’s constant
need to achieve homeostasis or balance. Once a state of stability is reached, the
discomfort or the internal tension within the body subsides and the drive prompting the
behavior is no longer there.

Criticism Of Drive Reduction Theory

While the drive theory was quite popular in the mid-20th century, over the years critics
have identified a number of flaws in Hull’s theory of motivation. Here are a few:

1. The Primary Drawback Of The Drive Theory Is That It Doesn’t Explain Why A
Human Being Behaves In A Particular Manner Without Being Prompted By An
Internal Unmet Need. For Instance, A Person May Indulge In A Three-Course
Meal Even When They’re Not Feeling Hungry.
2. Sometimes Human Beings Participate In Risky Activities Such As Adventure Sports
That Actually Increase Internal Tension Instead Of Reducing It. Hull’s Drive
Reduction Theory Offers No Explanation For Such Risky Behavior.
3. Psychologists Say Drives Can Be Of Two Kinds—Primary And Secondary. Primary
Drives Are Innate Biological Needs Such As Hunger Or Thirst, While Secondary
Drives Are Learned Through Conditioning Or Association With A Primary Drive.
Money And Social Acceptance Are Examples Of Secondary Drives. Hull’s Drive
Reduction Theory Doesn’t Explain Why Secondary Drives Act As Reinforcers For A
Particular Behavior Even When They Do Nothing To Reduce Biological Needs.
Despite these drawbacks, Hull’s theory of motivation has been extensively used as the
basis of further research into human behavior and psychology. Other theorists have
come up with their own alternatives to the Clark Hull drive reduction theory over the
years, one such example being Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

3. Arousal Levels
The arousal theory of motivation states that people are motivated to seek
out activities or situations that maintain or increase their level of arousal.

Arousal can be thought of as a continuum, with low levels of arousal being

associated with boredom and high levels of arousal being associated with
anxiety.

What Is Arousal Theory?

The Arousal Theory of Motivation is a psychological theory that suggests that

one's levels of arousal play an important role in determining one's level of
motivation.

This theory states that individuals are motivated to seek out stimulation
when they have low levels of arousal, but will become bored and
unmotivated when they become too highly aroused (APA).

The Arousal Theory of Motivation was first proposed by Henry Murray in

1938. Murray's theory was based on his observations of humans' needs for
achievement, power, and affiliation. He believed that these needs were
motivated by a desire to reduce one's levels of arousal.

The Arousal Theory of Motivation has been further developed over the years
by other psychologists, such as Robert Zajonc (1965) and John Atkinson
(1957).

Zajonc proposed that there is an optimal level of arousal for task

performance, and that individuals will seek out stimulation when they are
below this optimum level.
Atkinson suggested that people have different "arousal thresholds" -
meaning that some people require more stimulation than others to perform
at their best.

According to the Arousal Theory, there are two main factors that influence
one's level of arousal: challenge and threat. When people face challenges or
threats in their environment, it causes them to experience heightened levels
of arousal. In turn, these higher levels of arousal can motivate people to take
action or increase their efforts toward achieving a goal or objective.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

: Discuss the nature and scope of Educational Psychology

Discuss Twelve (12) circumstances under which Educational Psychology is relevant to a practicing

Teacher

what are the principles of development in Educational Psychology?

Examine the role of Educational Psychology

Explain the theory of moral Development according to Kholberg. What is the relevancy of this theory to

the Education system of Uganda?

What are the education implications of Defense mechanisms?

Examine the role of defense mechanisms in Education

with specific examples, Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic Motivation

Discuss the intrinsic theory of motivation and bring out the education implication of this theory in the

Uganda