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Physical Science 12th Notes

It contains 12th Physics Notes with Detailed theories and Conceptual Numerical

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Physical Science 12th Notes

It contains 12th Physics Notes with Detailed theories and Conceptual Numerical

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Cricket HYBRID
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PHYSICS Bree mecrene ne Ne gy ? B Nee, x A e Re 7 A e®&, R S Mahato ow. contact 90347-40661 PETETTI TELLIN PEEL ST Unit 1: Blectrostaties Electrostaties: {sth Electrostaties study of charges at rest Charge: Charge is a property ofan object that ‘makes it possible to exert electrical force and Respond to electrical force, ‘There are two kinds of charges: #ve and =ve. The cause of charging isthe transfer of electrons from one body to another (due 10 rubbing) [Comb ‘On rubbing, the body that loses electrons becomes positively charged, and the body that {ains electrons becomes negatively charged Mass of an electron, m,=9.1 10”! kg * vely charged body loses some electrons, 0 its mass reduces slightly. vely charged body gains some electrons 50 its mass increases slightly Properties of charge Any amount of charge (lage or small) isan incgrl multiple of elementary charge unit jie Any #9e or-ve charge qcan be written as ne, wheren=1,2,3, charge onan electton = 16 10" ‘The cause of quantization is that ony integral number of c= 8.85 «10-7 ON? Unitand dimension ofa: From eq (4), we have, 9 = 25 Init of (9 == => Nm Unit of eg = eS foram __ er) a) a3) (LSTA) Dimension of ¢> (eo) = [M-*L*T4A2] Unit of charge: SI system: coulomb (C) gs system: stat-coulomb [1C=3 » 10? sta-coulomb] Definition of 1 coulomb charge From eq (4), we kave F=95 10? Suis Iqi= a= 4, mand F=9 x 10", then 910-9310 x2 gh = 4q== 1 coulomb ‘One coulomb charge is that charge which repels an equal and similar charge with a force of 9X 10° N when placed at a distance of Im in vacwum (or air) Similarly, one stat-coulomb charge is that charge which repels an equal and similar charge with a free of | dyne when placed ata distance of lem in vacuum (or air) Re itv of a medium: tis the ratio of absolute permittivity of the medium to the absolute permittivity of free space. It is denoted by e, ork. Its also called dielectric constant, "RS Mahato, M'Se., Brfech. ~~ for XI, XM, PMT, iT = absolute permittivity of medium £2) = absolute permittivity of free space Another definition of: Force between two point charges in free space is Fo= ae ® Force between the same two point charges in a ‘medium is @ Diving eq (1) by eq (2), we get ee Bee a dium is defined as the ratio of force between two point charges separated bya ceva distance in ir (or vacuum) tthe ere etwenn the sane to point charges paced a the same distance In Coulomb's law in vector form Consider two point like charges q, and qz at a distance rin vacuum. Due to similar nature they repel each other. Let Fra = force on qy due to q2 1. = force on q> due to 4, fiz =unit vector from q, to qp. fax = unit vector from q3 to q: From fig. itis clear that "es fe « Similarly, fe ole ¢ Ba = eae g,, oy contact: 90347-49661 > CHPIPP PPM OPASSAPAAAAALARAAAARRAR ARES "RS Mahato, M.Se., B Tech, =-Ta, from eqs (1) & (2), we get = MICH =F =- Oe p, So, forces exerted by two charges on each other alin magnitude and opposite in direction It verfes Newton's thd law of motion Note: If charges are oF opposite nature Eee ee ear oO lUe forces exerted oni by all te individual hares Let charges Qiao gy on - exer frees Fn, Pere cena) fire carssea sgn Distribution of charges (a) Point charge: Any charge that covers space with dimensions much fess than its distance from observation point of view, then that ch is called a point charge we for XI, Xil, Se <2 Unit 1 Page 3 (H) Discrete change distribution: Distribution of charges with considerable space in between is called dserete charge distribution Con ge distribution: Distribution of eharges with negligible space in between is called continuous charge distribution. ICs of three types () Linear charge distribution: \f the charge i distributed continuously along. a line (straight or curve), itis called linear charge distribution. The distribution of charge per unit length i called linear charge density, denoted by 2 hares” 5s 9 Led Tength ee ee (2) Surface charge distribution: If charge is: distributed continuously over a surface, itis. called surface charge distribution. ‘The distribution of charge per unit area is called surface charge density, denoted by 6. (3) Volume charge distribution: If ch distributed continuously over a volume, itis called volume charge distribution, ‘The distribution of charge per unit volume is charge Volume Concept: Repulsion isthe sure test of charging. PMT, TIT contact: 90347-40661 +2 Unit Paget Chapter: 1(b) Plectrostatic Field Force experienced by charge q is Seva space around a charge in which any: ees other charge experiences electric force of oo ttractionepulsion te-3 Electric Field Intensity Note: Electric field intensity at a point due to many Electric field intensity at a point inn electric field is defined as the force experienced by a unit postive charge placed at that point charges is given by super position prniple (ie. vector sum fel te elect fle) Ifa charge q experiences a force F ata point in is the path along which a unit positive charge an electric field, then electric field intensity at ee e Ce ‘would move ifit is free to do so. meee Pie a its any point gives the direction of electric field intensity at The magnitude oftest charg q shouldbe very small, otherwise it disturbs the source charge Representation of Electric Hines of forces Hence electric field intensity at observation | point changes. So E in be written as a Se > ce Ee sod \ ape Force on a charge in an electri field | IF is the electric field at a point, then force ® ® experienced by a charge q placed at that point is given by F=q CE-a ‘Consider a point charge Q is placed at origin O. We want to calculate electri field intensity a a point P such that OP=r Place a test charge g at point P. Zz (They always originate or terminate normally tothe surface of charge (2) They tar from the +e charge and end at -ve charge {3)They do not form closed toops (4) They never oss eachother (5) They donot passthrough conductors (©) Theyre prateland ually paced the ld (9) Electric ili stronger where the lines of force ate closer; electric field is weaker where the acess Iker where the lines RS Mahato, M.Sc., B'Teeh, forXI, XI, PMT, IIT contact 90347. 40661 SISPIPIPSAPRARAAAAAAASIAISIRL EES I BLOC LA CCCEE tT t21277 74444009449 Of fo equal and opposite point charges separated by very small distance between them is called electric dipole Dipole moment: It isthe product of the magnitude of any one charge and the distanee between the two charges. Itis a vector quantity, denoted by P. Its direction is from —ve charge to +ve charge P=q(2a) Unit of P: coulomb-meter (Cm) i point on axial line ofa dipole, ata distane from the center ofthe dipole Electret intensity (Ea point P wil be the resultant oF electric field intensities Ea) and Foo = ae Tyt vender side cae CO) ateg (ra)? towards left side (+a) > E a) alt ie Gal net ape) towards right cas ne Garceriet SE = kg EEN} (a) ay" 2B hg (zeta) aan (aya Whee Bee eaten "RS Mahato, MSc, Bech, for Xl, XIly PMT 22 Unit 1 Page Boxee) aE SE Ek Me towards ight side Iraipote is shor, te, ac then Eke (amet) =i? for shor dipole Consider P is point on equatorial line ofa dipole, at a distance from the center ofthe dipole. Electric fleld intensity (E) at point P will be the resultant of electric field intensities E,sq) aN4 Eq) Fug = Padang BP in ig ° (oro Vw =r) sigattaalone PA in ig Let t-PE sin PEsin ett In vector form ¢=B = E Direction of ~ is given by Right Hand Serew Rule Note:1=0 ire tismaximum if Fatential energy of a dipole in a uniform electric field: aie ssessed by dipole due to its positiqn in is called potential energy of the Se., B.Tech. RS Mahato, M. for XI, Xil, PMT, 11T +2 Unit Page 6 ‘Consider a dipole is placed in a uniform electric Feld E, making an angle 0 withthe direction of E Torque (x) on the dipole is given by c= PEsin# ‘Small amount of work done (4w) in rotating the dipole through small angle (48) is given by dw=1d9 Total work done in rotating the dipole from 0, to. is sven by Wo fre sing do > W-PEsSsin9 oo > W-PE[-cos],? 3 W=—PE[cose]f = W~—PE [cos 8; ~c0s8,) Potential Energy, U=-P E {cos , -cos | mnceptual Questions: 1; When is an electric dipole in stable equilibrium in an electric field? Sol: At @= 0 ie. ifthe direction of dipole moment P is in the direetion of electric field E 2. What is a net force on a dipole in an electric field? Sol: Zero 3. Why two electric lines of forces do not intersect ‘each other? Sol: If they intersect, then we can draw two tangents atthe point of intersection. It means there would bbe two directions of electric field intensity at the Point of intersection, which is not possible. AL Why do electric lines of force cannot have break? Sol: We know that electric lines of force start from ve charge and end at -ve charge. If they have a break then they cannot start from the break point again 5. How does afr field? ee electron at rest move in an electric Sot In the opposite direction of the electric field, contact: 90347-40661 RARR PPAPPPDHPPPLAAPHP ARADO LOLAL HRSA iti COC TTT TT field E ic F newton, What wi xperinced by proton inthe sa two points between the capaci Sol 1-1 Chapter: 1(¢) Electrostatic Potential Electrostatic potential The electrostatic potential ata point in an electric field is defined as the amount of work from infinity done in bringing a unit +ve char to that point IEW is the amount of work done in bringing a charge +q from infinity to a point, then electric Potential (v) at that point is given by Unit of v: 3c Dimension of v = [y] ta = (y)= [MTA] mur) [aT] = lculation of Electric Potential Consider a point charge Q at point O. We want to find electric potential ata point P at a distance from P. «OP =r Place a test charge q at M. Force experienced by q is F=k 28 towards OM. Consider N is point at a very small distance dx from M RS Mahato, MSc.,B Tech. for XIX * : st rar in bringing the test charge from W=f-Fde Ss W=f5- Har aw 2 W=-koaeH 2W--koght-Cdy) SW--koatt+o) swe E88 i a ‘ =a. Potential differen Potential difference between two points B and A és the amount of work done in moving a unit +ve ccharge from A to B, test charge Tf Wan is the work done in movi 4 {rom point A to B, then potential difference (p.d.) between point B and A is given by Va—V_= Nan a contact: 90347-40661 ny two points is said tobe ‘of work is done in moving one coulomb positive charge between the two points Electric potential due wn of charges Total electric potential ata point due fo a group ‘of charges is equal to the algebraic sum ofall the potentials at that point due to all individual charges. ane Cae Note: Electric potential isa scalar quantity, so algebraic sum is taken. is 2 V=V)+VatVs + Ve Syake kB k2 tk Conservative nature of Electrostatic force: A force is said to be conservative if work done between two points is independent of the path followed between the two points. Work done only depends upon initial and final position. We prove that electrostatic force is conservative by showing that the work done in moving a unit positive test charge over a closed path in electric field is zero. IF Wan isthe work done n moving a charge q from point A to point B, then a er Jf Wq is the work done in moving a charge q from point B to point A, then Va ~ Vp = Mee a Adding these two, we get total work done over the closed path {By definition ofp.) S Mahato, M.Sc., B.Tech, for XI, Xl, (2 Unit 1 Page (e- Va) + (Va Vo) ay Wat 4 WOR 4g — Vn + in — Y= 0. Work done is zer0 in moving, a unit +e test Charge over a closed pa sta : ism conservative field a are conservative force! Blect wial at a poi oe Fresant to calculate electric potential (V) at point P such that OP =r, 2BOP = Potential at P is equal to sum of Vivq) and Vig V= Veg + Veo k x by Cosine mule, we have s ea a x ° e e ‘ ‘ B= 12 + a2 ~2ra.cos(180-6) +a? +2racos® 8) From eq(2), we have genie) mri ieee PMT, IIT contact: 90347-40661 — Smitty = 1- 252%) Potting the values of and in ea (1), we et Ka lta + 8) 72 S228)y) sv Svakgitt+ 2 2-8) y set yee me >v= =V-ka Note: if 8< 90, V is positive if8> 90, Vis negative if @=90, Vis zero Equipotential Surface: It is the surface at every point of which electric potential is same. Properties of equipotential surfaces: (1) No work is done in moving a charge over an equipotential surface, (2) Blectric field is always at right angle to the equipotential surface (3) No two equipotential surfa each other, can intersect RS Mahato, MSe., B.Tech for XI, XI, PMT, 17 42 Unit 1 Page? ipotential surfaces: Relation between E and V. = Consider a charge +Q is located at 0. A and are two close points such that AB = dr. e See IFE is the electric field intensity at point A, then the force experienced by a test charge q at point A is given by F=qE a ‘Small amount of work done in bringing the test charge from A to B is dw =F (4) cos 180° (WF Sos} Fi) Sdw=—9e 2 -E a) > dV = -E (dr) ty Electrical Potential Energy at a point: ‘charge Ttis the amount of work done in bri from infinity to the point, Ealculation of electrical P.E. for two charges (1) Consider the two charges are infinite distance apart from each other. contact; 90347-40661 (2) Bring the charge q, from infinity 0 its location F3.. For this no work has to be done because there was no electric field (3) Bring the charge qs from infinity to its location 73. For this work has to be done because of the presence of electric field of charge 41 W = (work done in bringing unit +ve charge from infinity to point B) = 4: = W= (Blectric potential at B due to q:) * WHS) d0,~EdScos8 do, Eas [8-0,cos0-11 Total ux through the whole surface is given by lux through 4S is de-E do, -EdS 2 dd_~E dS cos {+0-0,cos0-1] Total flux through the whole surface is given by o-$Eds 20-E gas =0-E(nr?) @ By Gauss Theorem, we have 2 se-8 {sine ther 0 charge tide he Gaussian Surface} SEGar)=0 SER ze 3E-0 Electric field inside a spherical shell is zero. rostatc shielding: It isthe phenomenon of p 7 ng] LN Wie hse ic resthntop fom von SO - E xr?) ® i teow ta Sore fol tone Coca ee 64 eer ene protet any instrument from external electric field, we | = inr?)-2 ‘enclose them in a hollow conductor (also called Faraday % & aly ‘cage). They need not to be earthed. 1 @ Note: It is safer to be inside a car or a bus rather than a under a tree or in open during lightening in a thunder ston ‘E outside the shell is same a E. ores anak 4 om ea) @) (b) Eata point om the surface of the shell The point P ison the surface ofthe spherical shell :0P=R. Putting r= R, in eq (3), we get ict aie (c) Eat a point inside the shel The point P is inside the spherical shell ata distance r from the center ofthe shell. We draw a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r with center O. Consider 1 small area dS on the Gaussian surface. Gaussian surface Surface charge density o- RS Mahato, MSe., BoTech, i for XI, XII, PMT, IT ‘Note: Variation of electric field intensity (E) with distance from the center of a uniformly charge shel is shown in the figure given below. Electric field intensity due to a thin infinite plane sheet of charge Consider a thin infinite plane sheet of charge density ©. We want to find electric field intensity E at a point P ata distance r from the sheet. We draw a cylindrical Gaussian surface of length 2r piercing through the she: shown in fig having base area dS as contact: 90347-40661 ee ea a ae AAAAAAAARAARAARARAAAARRA surfaces atthe ends: and curved su 4 ica Electric ux through the two plane surices is pe=2(E AS) = Ope =2( E45 050 pane = 26 dS (:9-0,c08071 Electric Mux through the curved suficeis zero because angle between E and inthis case is 90! Sami ES > Oryea = ES C050) aurea = [0-90 c0890-0) Total fax through the whole surface is given by > r~ Sptne + Scared 3 0,=2E ds +0 30,92 ds By Gauss Theorem, we have, dg = & x i =2Eas-2 s2ngs 24 i jes @ 2e Ifthe plane sheet is thick, electric field at P is eee Note & eee titi S Mahato, M.Se., B.Tech, ®oobL45 ae eee by some insulating material. A cap by connecting the two plates ofthe c two terminals ofa cel je ie icra patent pa me where Cis proportionality constant called capacitance of the capacitor. The value of C depends upon shape and size of conductors, distance between the conductors and. nature of the medium between the conductors. If V=1, from eq(1), we have Q = C “Capacitance of a capacitor is the amount of charge required to raise the p.d. between the plates by unity Unit of © = farad (F) Dimension of (C}=!2 = [c]=(ML-27442} Capacitance of a capacitor is said to be one farad iffone coulomb charge raises its p.d. by one volt. Smaller units of capacitance are: micro-farad, IF = 10° F nano-farad, InF = 10° F pico-farad, IpF = 10°" F Capacitance of an isolated spherical capacitor ‘Consider an isolated spherical conductor of radius r. Charge +Q is given to the conductor This charge spreads uniformly on the surface. The potential at every point on the surface of conductors same, and is given by Fed 2Q=V(tneer) = C= bree Capacitance of Earth: We have, C= 4rccor 3 Onn ts x(64 x 109) Fea aer0) Radius of earth, = 6400km~ 64 « 10%m =0.711 «10 F =711x 10°F Find t We have C= droge r= 0 r= (9x 10%) x 1 HF 9x 10%) x 10° = lus of isolated sphere to have capactt xc = 9x 108m, Note: Another plate ofan isolated spherical capacitor is ‘aid ta be tify Principle of a capacitor ‘An insulated metal plate A is given positive charg tl ts potential becomes maximum Bring another metallic plate B near i, ~ve charge is induced on the nearer ace of B ‘nd equal amount of *ve charge is induced on the outer face of B The induced -ve charge of B tends to lower the potential of plate A, but induced + ve charge tends 10 Increase the potential of A. As-ve charge i nearer, itis ‘more effective. So potential of gets lower by some ‘amount, Now plate A ean hold some more \ve charge. YolaeBis AB earthed, its+ve +| a charge ges neutralized, so *|* — rs only ve charge ie wilbe there +] ce Due tothis Phenomenon, +14 —[* ++ -| ‘potential of A will be lowered ‘more. Now charge can be given to plate A Capacitance of a capacitor gets increased greatly, if another conductor, whose far end is grounded, is placed near it. Thi the principle of a capacitor. R S Mahato, M.Sc., B.Tech, for XI, XI, PMI Parallel plate capacitor: Ina parallel plate capacitor, there are two plates. (Gay A and B) placed parallel toeach = AB other. Let 2 | Jistance between the plates ‘A= area of each plate : | If charge +0 is given to plate A, charge -Q is induced on plate B. = Due to these two charges, an electric field E is developed between the two plates. Ifo is surface charge density and e» is permittivity of free space, then electric field between the plates is a 2 apeh Of Wisse ‘EoA Fa tA toh _ ara 8) Grouping of capacitors: (Capacitors are grouped in two ways. ( Capacitors in series: Capacitors are said to be connected in series if wwe can proceed from one end of the combination to another through only one path Ae kB (gal peg Sloeeaeat cle Te fe iv uy es jee SR Cel Consider charge +Q is given to plate 4 of capacitor C, then charge 0 is induced on inner face of B. Plate B is ‘connected to plate A’ of capacitor Cs, hence plate A gets 1Q charge and charge i induced on inner face of 5 Magnitude of charge is equal on each capacitor. Consider C), C2 and C; are capacitances; and V\, Vaand Vs are pd. across capacitors respectively. Q ana ie and v= & UIT contact: 90347-40661 {from ea (1) SU=U, 12+ Us (2) In parallel combination: \n pai Cp= Cit Ca + Cy oO} (0m e9 (0) su Levistavertov? = U=U; +U, +U3 +: Total energy stored in series or parallel combination of capacitors is equal to the sum of energies stored in individual capacitors. Common Potential: When ta charged capacitors at different potemals are connected by a wire, they share their charges. The charge flows from the capacitor at higher potential tothe ‘capacitor at lower potential. The flow of charge continues ll their potential Becomes equal The equal potential is called common potential, Consider C; and C; are the capacitances of two capacitors; and Vand V> are their pot. diff. Total charge before sharing, Q=+Q Q=C\Vi + CV2 ee) After connection, let V be the common potential, then 7 Q=GV+OV [Vis common potential) SO SU GN CNV: 38 tfth.c2.4i(2) From eq(1) & e4(2), we get (Cy + Cz) V=C\V, + CV, CiVi4 CyVy Qt ,, C, HC arse stn C+; Q) RS Mahato, M.Sc., B.Tech. aaa, for Xi, Xil, PMT, H2unit t Mehactors, no charg is Tort; bul some fom inthe form of heat Conider Cand Cy ars the capacitances of two Capacitors; and Vjand Vz are thie pot dif. Energy on first capacitor, Us=5C, VP Lo vz Energy on second capacitor, U2=+ Cy V3 Total enersy, E=2C; VE +4 Cp VE en capacitor ate Cmtectea te cena | tential is ie Vit CoVz +c After connection, total energy is SENG +G)V = er =8(c +p (SS2)* punting vale of VI econ eee =E-E= EG ve CaVi HCV. 302 Val- r= CAV ECC) 4CV5(C,+6)-(CV 422)? AGH) ava Ch ei 2G #0), Ca¥}. 26,CaVaVs4 ACNE ene 2C463) Gs OF-2VVEWVD 2G) SE-B aCa(a-Va)* >E-B acs 2 Loss of eneray =7 22 (W-Va) (W-¥)*>0,B-P>0sboE ie (otal energy before contact is more than total energy afer contact, So there is some loss in energy which ‘appears in the form ot heat and sparking contact: 90347-80661 CCT TT iit PERLECELELELECE . oe - Behaviour of conductors in Electrostatic field: conductor experience force in opposite direction af the Ae, so et alrcted in oposite direction of te eld Due tolick often, frend ft concn fete‘ chrged Duct two oppose cng an cleric ld ssw nse he emt Tae sig of Glens comin nce el (1) tacoma etal 0 stra eld (E) Tesora oe. So, net eld inside contra ——F, (A) Net electric fk Nowe: Because of absence of etre feline a conductor ‘eres noeecre tines of fore iside a condectr @) At the surface of a conductor, electric field is perpendicular to the surface electric fil at the surface of conductor snot normal the fee sages would experience Yorce and move 'e will a ean (3) Charge resides only on surface ofthe conductor CConsidera Gausian sartace ust inside the sirfoe othe ‘ondiclr. Since there sno lect. lec x tough the Gaussian surface wl be zero. Hence charge inside the Gauss. surface ize. So charge resides oly on th surface (4) The entire body (inside and surface) of a conductor is at constant potential We know electric field inside & ctor is 0. No work is dane in moving est charge between tvo points of the conductor. Tis posible ony when potential inside he ‘ondvctr i constant and asthe sane vl on th surface Behaviour of a dielectric in Electrostatic field: A dielectric slab is paced between two plates ofa parallel Plate capacitor. — ve charge of each molecule gets oriented ‘owards *ve plate ofthe capacitor, and +e charge of each molecule gts oriented towards ve plate ofthe capacitor In the inner ofthe slab, +ve side of one polarized molecule {isnear to the -ve side of neighbouring molecule. So, net charge inside the bulk ofthe slab is zero, The polarization charges induced on the two faces of the slab produces their own electric field E, (called induced clectric field) in opposite direction ofthe applied electric field (Eo) Net electric field inthe dielectric lab is given by = Bp-E, ~_RSMahato,M.Sc., B.Tech. for XI, XI, PMT IIT 42 Unit | Page 17 is also defined as the ratio of applied electric field (Fs) tothe reduced value of electric field in the dielectric medium (F), his denoted by oF k rator>Denominator, k>1 Note: Dielectric gonstant (k) for a conductor: V. imp. Note: cas A) 6-5 (b)eaFe (Cerne (De E Fn Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with diclectric slab in between the plates: Fora parallel plate capacitor, consider ‘A= area of each plate = distance between the two plates E, = electric field between the plates a= surface charge density = permittivity of free space Capacitance of the eapacitor is given by c-ah a a Consider a dielectric slab of thickness tis placed between the two plates. Consider E, is the induced electric field in opposite direction of Eo, Net field inside the slab, E = E)— E, between wo plates ofthe capacitors given by Vendo +8 petaven lou SV=Eo[d-t+ 4] Sld-t+eq be pobre as Fea ost eal =v eA _Q vy ante oA oy A nC aoe bert 2 contact: 90347-40661, Questions from CBSE Board: fof. rs A and B SG wo identical parallel plate eapacitors A a ae Ob Tt to abatey of vols with the switch i {i Sloaed. ‘The switeh is now opened and the free 4 e get ?> C Space between the plates ofthe capacitors is filled Sede ae ith a digleeric of dielectric constant K. Find the :On placing delecirc, capacitance inereases Jo of the total electrostatic energy stored in both Capacitors before and afer the introduction of the dielectric (CBSE 2017) fees (92. Fin equate capac ‘ke cambinlion given Below. Each capactr i of Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with COE eae at conducting slab in between the plates: Seton conn ita souee of is comected eros AB how eee tmuch charge is drawn from the source and what i d= distance between the two plates the energy stored in the network. (2017 Delhi) Elec eld seven the aes ean sures charge density eA, i= perio fe ie al ees space ecitance ofthe *| 3. Two parallel plate capacitors X and ¥ have the eee 1 Sate aa ere meee eres aM I | eo | -| them. X has ai berween the plates while ¥ contains nec) + facie) Consider a conducting Tr] ene (etal) slab of thickness tisplaced between the two + plates. Since electri field inside a conductor is zero, the thickness of airgap is reduced to (4-0). 15V (i) Calculate capacitance of each capacitor if equivalent capacitance of the combination is 4 pF (fi) Calculate the potential difference between the gq . ara + On placing conducting slab, capacitance increases, "RS Mahato,M.Se.,B’Tech, for XI, XII, PMT, IT contact: 90347-40661 UA, | eo PSSESEEEE ~ ILis the average velocity with Unit 2: Current Electricity Current Electricity: Itis the study of charges in motion Electric Current: ‘The rate of flow of charge through any section of wire is called electric current. Ifccharge Q flows through a section of wire in time t, then electric current I is given by eo Unit of current: ampere (A) Current through a wire is said to be one ampere if one coulomb of charge flows through the wire in one second, _ Drift velocity: electrons ina conductor get drifted under the influence of an extemal electric across the conductor. Itis denoted by Va. a Due to random thermal velocity, average thermal velocity of electrons is zero. Tf 4), Ua, Uy, Up are random thermal velocities of n free electrons respectively. Then — 0 a. ‘Avg. thermal vel.= When ends of the conductor is connected to a battery, an electric field is set up and each electron experiences a force F= eE in opposite direction of electric field, wR If m is mass of an electron, then acceleration produced is cf ee raat ae Seripy, Atany instant, velocity of an electron is Vi= uy tary [veut al RS Mahato, M.Se., B.Tech, for XI, XI, PMT, IIT $2 Unit? Page f hermal velocity eceleration. +4 = time elapsed since last collision. Similarly, ee (uy tar )#(uy + ata) Hs + ats) nt at an) oo vy = Metta tug Maley tre tat) | = oe | Sve 04+ g Cattattatet te) {from e@(1)] Sve at : ‘ e) where r= B284°*8 —yelaxation time oe ev Also, viz at = w= SE vem SS ApRetaxa ion Time(t): It is the average time lapsed since each electron suffered its last. collision, It is of order 10" second. Relation between Drift velocity and Current Consider a conductor of fength & and uniform. cross section area A. Volume of conductor = A€ umber density (no. of fie electrons per unit vol.) hharge on an electron, Then, total charge on all free electros of the conductor is Q=neAt oO) Ip 4. Vs applied across the ends ofthe conductor, ‘lect field is developed and fc electrons start moving with drift velocity Vy. Time taken by free electrons to cross the conductor is Q Behl om eq)&O)) Now, current, x @ = 1= 29 => neA(cr) 2 1=nean ohne ‘Mobility: It is the drift velocity per unit electric field. Its denoted by 1. Unit ofz:ms'CN* OR més 'v" For unit of u="2=""—=mstcn! OR E Bee ms'v! Ohm’s Law: Current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the pd. (V) across the conductor, provided physical condition (temp., strain) are constant i.e Vel => V=R 1 where R is proportionality constant, called resistance of the conductor RS Mahato, MSc, B Tech, for XI, XI, PMT, IIT +2 Unit? Page 2 The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length, and inversely proportional to the area of conductor .i.e. Ree a re ® From the eg. (1) and @), we get ‘ Rat =R=ps @) where p is proportionality constant called resistivity (Or specifc resistance) of material of the conductor. From eq. (3), if €= 1m, A= Im? then R= p So, resistivity of the material of a conductor is the resistance offered by unit length and unit area of cross section of a wire of the material Unit of p: Qm Factors affecting resistivity: We have, I=neAVy >1=neA(vg) =1=neA(at) txead, say ek = a l= nea) bet al= nee ¥ a) contact: 90347-40661 Compari this eg. with R= pf, we get p © = charge of an electron pat So, resistivity depends on ‘n’ (no, density ie nature of material); « (relaxation time). Here, m= mass ofan electron constant Also, « depends upon t ® decreases and p increases, rent density Itis the amount of current owing per unit area If Lis the current flowing, Sis the area, then courrent density is (J) is, we 3 Itisa vector quantity. Its direction isin the direction of flow of current Also, I= 7.28 where dS jis elementary area vector. Conductance (G) Its the inverse of resistance, =G=t R Unit of G: mho or siemen (8) Conductivity( 0): It is inverse of resistivity so-t . Unit of a: mho m or $m Relation between J, o and F: Wehave, I=neA Vs a I=neAZ an = I=ne A(a) See ‘ ai=# 2 e ee ene tinea a Pel mee ° Itis called microscopic form of ohm’s law ? Relation between resistivity and electron , mobility: We have, I= ne A Vy ne Ail) leven a) nepE => CH RS Mahato, M.Sc., B.Tech, np. As temp. increases, ~ for XI, XII, PMY, 17 42 nit? Page 3 Effect of temperature on resistance: ‘As temp. inereases, resistivity also increases. IER, = resistance of a conductor at 0°C Raat alec then increase in resistance is (Ry Ra), is found that (R—Ry) & Ry a (RR) & @ From the eq. (1) and (2), we get = (Ri Ro) =a Rot ©) where a is proportionality constant, called temp. coefficient of resistance. fe Be Be Similarly, a= here) ed as the change in resistance per unit per unit degree rise in temperature Unit ofaisk" or From eq(3), we get R=Ro+aRt >R,=Ro(l+ at) Similarly, Ro=Ri[1+o(—t)] Variation of y with temperature: (a) For conductors: Soles p= decreases & p increases, So fora conductor, resistivity inoreases with the increase in temp Also, R: = Ro(l+ at) > P= po (It at) Also, a As temp. increases, (b) For semi-conductors: As temp. increases, resistivity of semiconductor decreases. (c) For Insulators: As temp. increase, resistivity of insulators decreases. Or as temp. decreases. resistivity of insulators increases exponentially At absolute zero, its resistivity becomes infinite. by ie Treg TO» a 4 i ! contact; 90347-40661 ‘Non-Ohmic conductors r The conductors which do not obey ohm’s law are called non ohmic conductor e.g, vacuum tubes, diodes, transistors ele Vek R is valid for ohmic and. The relation non- ohmic both conductors. But for ohmic Conductors R is constant, but R is not constant for non ohmic conductors for different value of Vand I Negative INon-linear resistance, {region [erent cats Voltage V (vJ—> Graph of current and voltage for GaAs Note: Ohmic conductors obey Ohm’s law. Colour code for Carbon resistors: The valies of resistance on carbon resistors are indicated by colour code printed on them. ‘To remember the value of colours, the following sentence is helpful BBROY Great Britain Very Good Wife ORS Sa OE Tali t 9 Black- 0 | Blue—6 Brovn— 1 | Violet-7 Red- 2 Grey- 8 ‘Orange ~ 3 White- 9 Yellow ~ 4 Green~ 5 To calculate the value of resistance: (1) First colour (say Bi) gives first number. (2) 2" colour (say B2) gives second number. (3) Put number of zero represented by 3" colour. Yeusw Red Ofanen Sol: Resistance = 42000 2 £5 % (Or Resistance = 42 « 10° 2 +5% Resistors in series: Resistors are said to be connected in series if the ‘same current passes through each of them, OR Resistors are said to be connected in series if we can proceed from one end of the combination to another through only one path: a unica rage 4 For God eolour= 25% For Silver colour= 210 % Forno colour = 20% * < : , « € « « e « « < ‘ / r Consider three resistors of resistances Ri, Rz and Rj are connected in series. Consider V is the p.d across the combination. The same current (1) flows through each resistor. Pd across resistors are given by Vi=IRi, V2=1R2 and V3=1Rs We know, V = Vi + Vo + V3 IFR, is the equivalent resistance, then SIR, =IR)+1R> +1 Ry SHR, =4(R) +R) +R) Ry +R +Ry RS Mahato, M.Se.,BTech. for XI, XII, PMT, IT contact: 90347-40661 : a 3 Vr=ER-VRSVr=RE-V) Grouping of cell (1) Cells in series 5 Cells are said to be connected in series if they are connected one after another, (-ve terminal of T cell to + ve of 2%, —ve of 2*to +ve of 3 and so on ) as shown ee {HH ree Consider n identical cells, each of emf E and internal resistance r, are connected in series. Let R be the external resistance. Total internal resistance ofthe cells in series = nr ‘Total resistance of ‘Total emFof all the cells = n E Current (I) through the circuit is given by Note: (a) IER<> nF 3 1=3E =n x (curent of I cell) For maximum current from series combi ‘external resistance should be very high compared to internal resistance of the cell. (2) Celts in parallel: Cells are said to be connected in parallel if-+ve terminals of all cells are connected at one point and —ve terminals of all cells are connected to another point. R'S Mahato, M.Sc., B.Tech. for XI, XIL, PMT 17. Consider m identical cells, each of emf E and internal resistance r, are connected in parallel Let R be external resistance. Total internal resistance of all cells in parallel Total resistance of the circuit = R + Total emf of all the cells = E Current (1) through the circuit is given by Note (a) IR resistivity than copper wire. Hence for the same ‘ength it has more resistance than copper. 9 s ‘ ‘ ; contact: 90347-40661 ide Tis the total current given by the cell Currents in different branches are shown, In loop ABDA by KVL, we have IP =1,G+hR=0 a In loop BCDB by KVL, we have = Cl Q * (h#l,)S+1,G =0 @ In balanced condition no current flows through the galvanometer, so |, = 0. Now from eqs(1) and (2), we get AIP FLR=0 = 1,P=LR @ -11Q+bS=0>1,Q=E8 (4) Dividing e4(3) by eq(4), we get bE 0 ks a Meter Bridge or Stide wire Bridge: Construction, R It consists ofa uniform wire of one meter length A meter scale js fitted on the board parallel to the wire. In one of the gaps (say left gap) a resistance box R is connected, In another gap (right gap) unknown resistance § is connected. A galvanometer is connected between points B and D. A cell E and a key K is connected between points A and C RS Mahato, MSe,, B Tech, for XI, Xil, PMT, IIT 42 Unit? Pages R 5, ne [ee oman bead ea ee eee ee ine [ Working: Close the key and take out a suitable resistance R from resistance box. Move the jokey gently ‘on the wire till galvanometer shows no deflection. Let this point be D on the wire Let AL DC=100~¢. K Let resistance of wire AD be P and that of wire DC be Q. Let rbe the resistance per unit length then P=€r and Q=(100-€)r From Wheatstone bridge principle, we have Reece 10028 ‘Ss Goo douse Sa 8 ee Rees : 7 Calculation of resistivity Let L be the length and d be the diameter of the Radius ofthe wire = 4 Area of the wire = x Wehave, Repl =p Ger St Potentiometer: ‘Wis identical to meter bridge except the length of this wi ‘more than one meter. Principle: Weonstant current is passed through a wire of Uniform cross-section, the potential drop across any portion ofthe wire is directly proportio the length of that portion Lo +P PAAAAAAAAASAAAAALAAAAA contact: 90347-40661 oy)

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