Journal of Environmental Sustainability

Volume 3 Article 3
Issue 3 (2013/2014)

2013

GDP Alternatives and their Correlations

Cecilia Szigeti
Széchenyi University, Hungary, [email protected]

Gergely Tóth
University of Pannonia, Georgikon, [email protected]

Anita Borzán
Budapest Business School College of Finance and Accountancy, [email protected]

Szilveszter Farkas
Budapest Business School College of Finance and Accountancy, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.rit.edu/jes

Recommended Citation
Szigeti, Cecilia; Tóth, Gergely; Borzán, Anita; and Farkas, Szilveszter (2013) "GDP Alternatives and their
Correlations," Journal of Environmental Sustainability: Vol. 3: Iss. 3, Article 3.
DOI: 10.14448/jes.03.0002
Available at: https://repository.rit.edu/jes/vol3/iss3/3

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the RIT Libraries. For more information, please contact
[email protected].
GDP Alternatives and their Correlations

Cover Page Footnote

This research was supported by the European Union and the State of Hungary, co-financed by the
European Social Fund in the framework of TÁMOP 4.2.4. A/1-11-1-2012-0001 'National Excellence
Program'.

This article is available in Journal of Environmental Sustainability: https://repository.rit.edu/jes/vol3/iss3/3

 GDP Alternatives and their Correlations¹
Cecília Szigeti2 Anita Borzán4
Széchenyi University Budapest Business School
[email protected] [email protected]

Gergely Toth3 Szilveszter Farkas5

University of Pannonia Budapest Business School
[email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT: In our study we wanted to find an answer to the question whether we can find
sustainable countries if we compare the values of different composite indicators? The target of our
study is to examine the possibilities as well as the limits of the application alternative composite
indicators. Our study focuses on what kind of relations the indicators are in and to what extent
they can substitute the GDP and what kind of morals can be indicated for Hungary. The basic
question of our research is how possible is to group countries clearly based on the values of
alternative indicators. In this study were examined three composite indicators (HDI, HPI, EPI) and
the ecological footprint and GDP trends. In the first phase of our research we revealed that these
indicators can be observed in pairs to linear relationship, the Pearson’s correlation index values are
shown in the correlation matrix. Based on our analysis two indicators independent of each other
and also independent of the GDP, these are the HPI and the EPI. The classification of countries was
performed using cluster analysis. Based on the three-cluster model is determined a specific path of
development in Latin America and useful experience for Hungary.

KEYWORDS a need for this due to the fact that the „book” of
the society (or let us say the economy) was written
HDI, HPI, EPI, Ecological Footprint, Latin America based on the language of mathematics.”
-Mérő L.2
“The social sciences also work with models and
often with mathematical models. However, the I. INTRODUCTION
social scientists have never thought that there is
What you can measure – you can improve! - Says
1 “This research was supported by the European
the common wisdom. However, the one who said
Union and the State of Hungary, co-financed by the
this might not have been so wise. As the fact is true
European Social Fund in the framework of TÁMOP 4.2.4.
A/1-11-1-2012-0001 ‘National Excellence Program’.” 2 Hungarian mathematician, psychologist.

GPD Alternatives and their Correlations 35

in most cases, but the meaning is easily distorted to findings of alternative economists (Kerekes 2011)
this: What you want to improve, measure first! Most but also in the decision making of economic policy.
important things in life are felt, but not measurable. In recent years, several assessments and criticisms
Still, there is a strong need in our positivist world have been published about the research of Stiglitz,
to measure the quality of life and sustainability, to mainly as a result of social studies (Tsai M. 2011).
translate them into heavily measurable and numerical Even from the beginning, the measuring
categories. We often feel that not the citizens of experiments and their standpoints presented
the richest countries are the happiest and severe considerable variety, the basis of the measurements
problems can be found in the developed countries was the industrial achievement in England and
despite the economic development. However, the mainly the agricultural performance in France.
economic crisis queries the success of the model The contemporary measuring system based on
resting on conventional market operation as well as GDP started to be established in the 1930s and its
private ownership and the values of those communal difficulties came out even in the first years: „In
characteristics, which previously have not belonged 1931 a group of governmental and private experts
to the features of successful countries, are rising. In was called for congressional audition in order to
Central Europe, including Hungary, the economical provide answers to basic issues in connection with
aims as well as the exemplary developmental way economy. It came to light that they were not able
must be reassessed. The influences of the economic to do this: the latest facts and figures had reference
crisis beginning in 2008 can be experienced even to 1929 and they were also incomplete. In 1932, in
today (Csiszárik-Kocsir 2012, Kerekes 2012); the last year of Hoover administration, the senate
the most significant crisis of the new Millennium called upon the Ministry of Commerce to conduct
has unusual effect on every participant of the an overall estimation about the national income.
macroeconomy. The public budget was hard hit by Soon after, a young economist, Simon Kuznets
the financeability of the public debt and the economic was commissioned by the ministry to develop the
crisis has meant significant events for the enterprises unified system of the national clearing of accounts.
and for the household, for instance the rise in the This became the prototype of the today called GDP.
price of loan costs and the decline of consumption Simon Kuznets had serious reservations about the
as well as investments3, which can ultimately be clearing of accounts system of the national economy
recognised as the damaging factor of the welfare aided by him. In his first report of 1934 to the
(Csiszárik-Kocsir 2011). Due to the impact of the congress, he tried to draw the nation’s attention to the
economic crisis, the professional interest toward the limits of the new system. » Hardly can we conclude
reform of macroeconomic indicators has increased about the welfare of a nation from the measure of
and since the report of Stiglitz – Sen – Fitoussi national income determined above«– drawing his
(Stiglitz et al. 2009) dealing with the limits of the conclusions. (…) Simon Kuznets rejected the most
GDP index, the accepted opinion is that the present leading economic priori conceptual schema. When
clearing of accounts system cannot be maintained, an economy starts to increase, as he claimed, the
which appears not only in the theories and research parts of that economy must increase as well. The
economists ought to attempt to conduct the measure
3 The effects of these phenomena can be
of more and varied items. In his book of The New
significantly felt in the construction industry, where state
Republic, 1962, Kuznets set down in writing that
programs may have remarkable positive effects on the
there is a need for the basic reconsideration of the
long run (Szabó 2014).

36 Journal of Environmental Sustainability – Volume 3

national clearing of accounts. » We need to pay and its various clustering opportunities. The study
attention to the distinction between the quantity of Vačkář D. (2012) is outstanding related to the
and the quality of increase, between the costs examinations aiming at exploring the connections
and the yields and the differences between the among the indicators in which the correlation matrix
long and short term considerations« according to of 27 alternative indicators was prepared. Detailed
Kuznets. » The targets of the ’larger’ increase must analysis about the relation among the GDP, the
be determined specifically, in other words, what ecological footprint and happiness can be read in
should be increased and for what reason (Cobb et the article of Kocsis (2010), in which the influences
al. 1995).” The situation has not changed for a long and consequences of the varied developmental
time: „After the GDP was welcomed completely ways are outlined for Hungary. The environmental
in the United States, the calculation system of the sustainability would often requires the decrease of the
national economy represented above was accepted GDP per capita in the so-called developed countries
globally. In the previous forty years this system had among the possible and positive future prospects.
not been modified at all while the mankind and the The various indicators are important at global level,
face of the Earth transformed to some extent which but we think that it could be also at macro regional
had not been experienced before. Only just some of level too, for example the interpretation of the indicators
the dynamic changes constitute the conquest as well could be also important in the cohesion policy of the EU.
as the exhaustion of the environment, the denial of Also the local actors (civil organisations, firms, etc.)
the existence of the subsystem of the economy and can contribute to the success of the cohesion policy
the incorporation of other social factors (family, (Reisinger 2012), so they can also contribute to the
politics, public administration) by the economy, utilizations of the indicators in a wide range of the
the huge population explosion and the incredible actors.
financial differentiation” (Dabóczi 1998). The
development of national accounts was set in many
ways due to the concerns related to environmental II. MATERIAL AND METHODS
problems caused by the increasing economy from
the 1970s (Lawn 2007). It should also be noted that In our study we examined the indicators belonging
this development approach had a powerful impact to the group of alternative indicators of substituting
on land use sustainability gained more attention the GDP. We took into consideration two factors
than ever (Lazányi 1999 and 2005, Hetesi 2008, when we selected the indicators, we were in
Kerekes 2012). This case stimulates scientific study search of such indexes which can evaluate at least
of the urban structures and the scientific debate two pillars (environmental, economic and social)
on the sustainability of these areas (Pintér 2011). of sustainability and they are available in most
The researchers have developed several indicators countries. Below we are presenting the components
in the past decades as a result of the improvement of the examined alternative indicators:
of additional GDP or substituting alternative
indicators. One of the most completed overview i). Human Development Index (HDI)
of the findings of recent years can be found in the
article of Bleys (2012). The author is not willing to The Human Development Index (HDI), an overall
determine the exact number of alternative indicators complex index including four indicators and three
however, Brent Bleys presents almost 200 indicators dimensions, evaluates the developmental level of

GPD Alternatives and their Correlations 37

certain countries with the combination of GNI per New Economic Foundation (NEF) includes 3
capita, life time expected by birth, combined gross factors: expected life time, ecological footprint
school enrolment and the index of adult literacy. The and satisfaction with the life, in other words, it
HDI index is the member of a four-member index- complements the ecological footprint with objective
family (HDI, IHDI, GII and MPI) of the United and subjective factors determining the people’s
Nations Development Programme-UNDP. In 2010, quality of life. The database of the Happy Planet
an overall reform of indexes was accomplished Index (HPI) contains the data of 151 countries. The
which can be recognised in their renaming and values of indexes can be from 0 to 100. The higher
content change. Although it is characteristic of every the value of the indicator is, the better the case is.
indicator that they provide more precise picture
about the welfare of a country comparing with the iv). Ecological footprint (EF)
GDP, none of the indexes contain direct data about
the state of the environment. The HDI index ensures The Ecological Footprint means how much
wide variety of possibilities of comparisons, detailed productive field is needed for a human society to
HDI data of 187 countries can be downloaded from maintain itself and to process the manufactured
the homepage of the UNDP. The values of indexes waste beside given technological development. The
can be from 0 to 1. The higher the value of the measurement unit of the Ecological Footprint is the
indicator is, the better the case is. global hectare/person (gha). Footprint tendencies
show the impossibility of sustaining long term
ii). Environmental Performance Index (EPI) economic growth. We have long been aware of the
overconsumption of developed countries, but the
The researchers of the Universities of Yale and ‘under-consumption’ of lesser developed countries
Columbia with the scientists of the EU created used to compensate for this. Even in 1960, bio-
together the Environmental Performance Index capacity – the output from biologically valuable
which is the successor of the Environmental land - was 2-3 times greater than that consumed per
Sustainability Index. The index of 2010 divides person globally.
altogether 163 countries based on 25 performance According to the opinion of the European
indicators, which are listed into 10 categories Commission, the ecological footprint and the
including environment, public health and the health carbon-dioxide footprint are together those
of the ecosystem. Among the indexes the DALY environmental indexes, which can fill the role of
(Disability-Adjusted Life Year Index) index appears an overall environmental index however, its circle
with 25%. These indicators show how close the of application is restricted. We can download the
governments are in order to set up a comprehensive ecological footprint data of 142 countries from the
environmental package of measures. In the database homepage of the Global Footprint Network and
the data of 132 countries can be found. The values of estimations about further 9 countries can be found
indexes can be from 0 to 100. The higher the value in the database including the calculation of the
of the indicator is, the better the case is. Happy Planet Index. The most widespread criticism
against the Ecological Footprint Index is that it does
iii). Happy Planet Index (HPI) not contain neither the social factors nor people’s
satisfaction. This index is not suitable for catching
The HPI (Happy Planet Index) measured by the all the aspects of sustainability although it is often

38 Journal of Environmental Sustainability – Volume 3

mentioned among the sustainability indicators. and reclined upon the data analysis manual of Sajtos
However, this criticism is irrelevant since the – Mitev (2007) in case of selecting the methods and
creators of the ecological footprint have never assessing the results. The basic question of our study
claimed that for instance it would be a composite if it is possible to group the countries based on their
indicator, such as the HDI or ESI which include ecological footprint structure. We accomplished
more pillars of sustainability. The Ecological the grouping of countries as well as regions with
Footprint gives information about the application of the help of cluster analysis. In the first phase of
hypothetic area, it does not promise anything more our study we revealed if linear connection can be
or less (Csutora 2011a).The Ecological Footprint noticed among the alternative indicators in pairs.
is applied on more levels from the beginning of We conducted the examination with the data of those
measurement by its creators (Rees-Wackernagel 126 countries whose all indicator values included in
1996). Besides global evaluation, they also use the calculation are available. We indicated the values
national, regional, settling and individual EF of the correlation index of Pearson in a correlation
indicators in order to compare the spatial demands matrix. Since the cluster analysis is sensitive to
of the consumption with the disposable biological the presence of outliers, in the second phase of
capacity. The general recognition of this index our research we checked the prominent data with
differs considerably in the different application average linkage method and excluded these values
areas while the global EF is considered to be the best from our study. From the point of the assessment of
index of the „sustainability”(Stiglitz et al. 2009) its the findings, it is significant that we did not exclude
spatial application is criticised from more sides.4 For the prominent values of single data however those
this reason the national use of Ecological Footprint creating one member team during the examination,
must be treated with increased caution. The values so after the elimination we continued the study with
of this indicator are more than 0 although it does not the data of 122 countries. We set two conditions,
have a top limit. The smaller the value of the index which mean that we take it as a relevant division: (1)
is, the more favourable the case is. the spreading within the cluster is smaller than the
By selecting the methodology of our spreading of the whole mass as it refers to the fact
examination, we relied upon the research of Mostafa that we managed to establish homogeneous group
(2010) to a large extent. We have uncovered if linear according to the examined factor, (2) if the findings
relation can be observed among the alternative of at least two examinations are similar.
indicators in pairs.5 We conducted our analyses with
the help of the software package of IBM SPSS20 III. THE RESULTS OF OUR FIRST
4 Van den Bergh, J.C.M.J.; Verbruggen, H. (1999)
EXAMINATION
Spatial sustainability, trade and indicators: an evaluation
of the ecological footprint, Ecological Economics29 pp.
Based on the values of the correlation coefficient
61–72. and McDonald, G. W., Patterson, M. G. (2004):
of Pearson (Table 1.), there is close connection
Ecological Footprints and interdependencies of New
between certain indicators (these are indicated
Zealand regions (analysis), Ecological Economics 50 pp.
by the highlighted cells). Two indicators, the HPI
49-67.
and the EPI can be considered independent from
5 The availability of the above-mentioned
GDP and all the other indexes. As a result of this,
database applied by the calculations can be found in the
besides these two indicators, the GDP or any other
reference list by indicators.
indicators can be included in the cluster analysis

GPD Alternatives and their Correlations 39

Figure 1: The relation between the ecological footprint and the HPI
without the deformation of the findings. The other the economic development and the extent of the
essential aspect of the assessment of the findings is ecological footprint is higher than the average based
that the close connection between the Ecological on the correlation between the ecological footprint
Footprint and the GDP can question the suitability and the GDP (York et al 2004). The other significant
of the Ecological Footprint. aspect of the assessment of the findings is that the
close relationship between the ecological footprint
n=92 HDI FP HPI EPI GDP and the GDP questions the appropriateness of the
HDI 1 0.744 0.145 0.535 0.758 ecological footprint to be able to replace the GDP
FP 1.00 -0.336 0.377 0.909 since we receive the same results, however with
another indicator. Not the question is to be blamed
HPI 1.00 0.174 -0.189
but the two measures are not suitable for reaching
EPI 1.00 0.484
the goals. Due to the close and stochastic (and both
GDP 1.00 indicators have close correlation with the GDP)
Table 1.: The correlation coefficient of Pearson connection between the HDI and the ecological
footprint, the analyses about the relationship
In the estimation of Vačkář D (2012) the value of between the HDI and the ecological footprint (e.g.
the correlation coefficient is 0,289 between the WWF 2012) do not lead to substantive outcome in
ecological footprint and the EPI which confirms mapping the countries with developed society as
that only weak-medium relation can be noticed well as with low environmental load. With the help
between the two indicators. According to the of partial correlation measurement and with filtering
study of Csutora (2011b), the correlation is 0,356 the effect of GDP, the relationship between the HDI
between the ESI (the predecessor of the EPI) and and the ecological footprint disappears, in practice.
the ecological footprint. Our research confirms It is interesting and professionally surprising that
the hypothesis that the likely relationship between there is no close correlation between the HPI and

40 Journal of Environmental Sustainability – Volume 3

the ecological footprint despite the fact that the • 2nd cluster (all of the Members of the
ecological footprint is part of the HPI. European Union): decreasing of both
We can receive more significant result from indicators.
the analysis including the two indicators in case of • 3rd cluster (e.g. Angola, Kenya): holding the
comparing the values of HPI and FP. The Figure 1 ecological footprint on level, increasing HPI.
is placed in the intersection point (2; 50) of axes. If we exclude the impact of the GDP with partial
Since the value of the ecological footprint can be correlation calculation, the connection between
maintained under 2 gha / person and the value of the HDI and the ecological footprint practically
the HPI is favourable above 50, (according to the disappears. It is interesting –surprising for
usual naming) the countries belonging to the 2nd professionals - that there is no close connection
quarter (e.g. Jamaica, El Salvador and Columbia) between the values of HPI and the ecological
are in the most favourable position based on the footprint nevertheless the ecological footprint is part
two indicators. Different strategy can be determined of the HPI.
for those countries belonging to the other three In our contemporary study we conducted
horizontal quarters: the cluster analysis of countries based on the trio of
• 1st cluster (e.g. Costa Rica, Venezuela, EPI-HPI-HDI. (Figure 1)
Norway and Switzerland): decreasing the
ecological footprint, holding the HPI on IV. THE RESULTS OF OUR
level. SECOND EXAMINATION

Country Index Value Source Information

Qatar Ecological 11.68 HPI database The value of the index is better if it is
Afghanistan footprint 0.54 smaller (The value of the sustainable
Hungary (gha/person)3,59 ecological footprint is under 2 gha/person)
Botswana HPI 22.59 The values of indexes can be from 0 to 100.
Costa Rica 64.03 The higher the value of the indicator is, the
Hungary 37.4 better the case is.
Democratic Republic GDP/ person 347
of the Congo ($ PPP)
Luxemburg 50700
Hungary 20545
Democratic Republic HDI 0.286 HDI database The values of indexes can be from 0 to 1.
of the Congo The higher the value of the indicator is, the
Norway 0.943 better the case is.
Hungary 0.816
Iraq EPI 25.32 EPI database The values of indexes can be from 0 to 100.
Switzerland 76.92 The higher the value of the indicator is, the
Hungary 57.06 better the case is.
Table 2: The most and the least favourable values of the examined alternative indexes and the data of Hungary

GPD Alternatives and their Correlations 41

 the European Union, Japan and the USA belong to
The extreme outliers excluded by simple chain this cluster. These are the richest countries examined
method are Costa Rica, Botswana, Iraq and in the study. Among the Latin American countries
Switzerland. The value of the HPI index of Costa Uruguay can be listed in this cluster.
Rica is the highest in the world (64,0359) and the Cluster 2: the values of the ecological
lowest value of the HPI index is Botswana’s footprint and the HPI indicators of the countries of
(22.5912). The highest value of the EPI index is this cluster are more favourable than the average
in Switzerland and the lowest is in Iraq (25.32) while the GDP is lower than the average and
(Table 2, page 41). typically Latin American countries belong to this
After the exclusion of countries consisting cluster. The happiest countries belong to this cluster.
of the four prominent data, we accomplished a Cluster 3: the values of the ecological
cluster analysis and we are presenting the findings footprint of these countries are the most favourable
by the between-group linkage method in Table 3. In while their GDP and EPI are lower than the average.
the grouping of the three clusters, it is true for all the The unhappiest countries belong to this cluster.
three variables of the examination that their spreading Among the Latin American countries Haiti is part of
is lower than the spreading of the whole mass and this cluster.
we received similar findings with the help of Ward’s
method, for this reason the grouping is suitable for V. CONCLUSIONS
the original conditions. In Table 3 the values of the
non-examined indicators are indicated as well. We As the result of the criticism of the GDP and the
examined the deviation from the average of the values increasing changing demand, different scientist
of certain indicators (expect from the ecological teams have established several alternative
footprint the higher value is the more favourable). In indicators. Some of these (e.g. HDI or the ecological
the cell highlighted with black the values of at least footprint) strongly correlate with the GDP despite
15% more favourable than the average and in the cells the unlike counting methods. The significant surplus
highlighted with grey the values of at least 15% more information in the indicators can be useful completion
unfavourable can be found. in relation to the judgement of the sustainability of
certain countries; however, this fact can question
HDI FP HPI GDP EPI the substitution of GDP. The independence from
means 0.70 3.18 43.36 15800.99 53.07 the GDP provides a possibility for two complex
Cluster 1 0.79 4.45 41.68 25954.03 61.12 indicators, namely for the EPI and for the HPI to
conduct analysis based on other points. In our study
Cluster 2 0.71 2.14 55.03 9266.40 55.08
besides these two independent indicators the values
Cluster 3 0.61 2.43 39.64 8856.92 44.26
of the HDI index were placed in our examination.
Table 3: The findings of the cluster analysis On the basis of the three indicators, the countries
can be grouped clearly.
Cluster 1: the indicators of the GDP and Countries of cluster 2 represent a specific
EPI of the countries of the first cluster are more and significantly different development way
favourable than the average, in this sector the from the European one. They can live happier by
highest is the value of the HDI and Ecological regularly GDP with lower than the average, with
Footprint indicators. Among others, the Members of smaller environmental problems. (Latin-American

42 Journal of Environmental Sustainability – Volume 3

countries, Costa Rica, the extreme outlier excluding
from the study, is the happiest state of the world.) VI. THOUGHTS FOR FURTHER
It is interesting that the HPI index (50.34) of the THINKING
happiest European state, Switzerland lags behind
the HPI index (50.65) of the least happy Latin 1. Not everything important could be measured.
American country, namely Dominican Republic. Returning to the original sentence ‘What you
In the 21st century, a paradigm shift happened in can measure, you can improve’, we must see
the economic policy thinking of the Latin American our research findings from a certain distance.
countries. It is a common belief among the Latin- May important things, which can and should
American politicians and economists that it is not be improved, are not measurable. We could
appropriate to take the neoliberal economic policy well calculate the firmness and the weight of
as without alternative and it is not obvious that the the rail, it is also assessable what temperature
steps initiated by the IMF mean a long-term solutions it can resist in summer heat. But – apart from
for the region. It would be worth considering for extremes and big catastrophes – this is not a
Hungary as well as for the European countries that priority issue for the society, in worst case we
besides the economic development represented need to cool the rail with irrigation or change
by GDP, they should prefer improvement based some curvy pieces. On the other hand, if
on community building and local cooperation, the love connections with the closest family
which are characteristics in the high number of the members are corrupted, if families are only
local trading systems (LES) in Venezuela.6 On the brought together by economic efficiency, or
website of the Complementary Currency Resource pairs do not even determine to stay together
Center, we can find some detailed information of forever, if communities of friends, villages,
163 Local Exchange Systems of only 27 countries. around hobby or religion are dissolved or
The number of the members of the LES is altogether not established at all, it creates a major
more than 792 000. 47 different types of LES system problem. However, this phenomena is hardly
can be distinguished, however, the most common measurable, and much less spectacular or
(including 43 organisations) is the Local Exchange visible, than a curved rail.
Trading System – LETS. The datum of 3 Hungarian 2. Measuring often causes oversimplifications.
organisations can be found in the database: Bakonyi For sustainability scientist the most striking
Cserekör, Charity Exchange Shop (Szolnok), story of drawing the wrong conclusions
Soproni Kékfrank. In those countries where the could be the Tragedy of the commons.
LES system is more widespread, people are more The example (Lloyd 1833, Hardin 1968)
satisfied with their life. There is no absolute relation itself could be known only for experts, but
of cause and effect between the two factors, so it the consequences are known for all. There
is likely that the many-coloured local relationships seems to be a consensus that the two major
can promote the establishment of LES, which can problems of the unsustainability of our Earth
contribute to the satisfaction of demands on higher are overpopulation and overconsumption.
levels as well as to the contentment with life, on Still, almost all analysts mix the cows
even lower income level. (consumption) with the farmers (people on
Earth). And everybody seems to promote
the third factor of the IPAT equation, the
6 http://complementarycurrency.org/

GPD Alternatives and their Correlations 43

 technology or eco-efficiency. This seems to
be the least regret option. BIBLIOGRAPHY
3. The control panel is more or less working.
Most probably we cannot expect a shift [1] Bleys, B. (2012): Beyond GDP:
to the sustainable paradigm from simply Classifying Alternative Measures for
Progress Social Indicators Research
changing GDP for one or more alternative
109:355–376 Link
indicators (or profit for a Corporate Social [2] Cobb, C.; Halstead T.; Rowe J. (1995):
Responsibility performance index). This has If the GDP is Up, Why America down?
a triple meaning: Atlantic online: Link
a. Alternative indicators are far from [3] Csiszárik-Kocsir Á. (2011): A gazdasági
being methodologically perfect, but this válság hatásainak vizsgálata életkor
szerint egy primer kutatás eredményeinek
also holds for GDP, the power of GDP
tükrében Erdei Ferenc VI. Scientific
does not lie in its scientific accuracy; Conference, Hungary, Kecskemét, Kecskeméti
b. Most of the alternative indices heavily Főiskola, Kertészeti Főiskolai Kar,
correlate with GDP statistically, mostly [4] Csiszárik-Kocsir Á. (2012): A gazdasági
because of the higher life expectancy válság hatására kialakult recesszió
and more health. This also holds true érzékelése egy kérdőíves kutatás
eredményeinek tükrében, Humánpolitikai
for happiness indices, at least in terms
Szemle, 2012. (3) 52.-60.,
of trials to measure objective well-being [5] Csutora M. (2011a): Az ökológiai lábnyom
(Amanda W. Vemuri, Robert Costanza, számításának módszertani alapjai in:
2006; Ruut Veenhoven, 2011). This Csutora (ed): Az ökológiai lábnyom
makes questionable all the gigantic ökonómiája, Aula Kiadó p. 12. Link
efforts to change GDP technically (new [6] Csutora M. (2011b): From eco-efficiency
to eco-effectiveness? The policy –
statistical system), not to speak about
performance paradox in Society and
the decades it would take. Economy (ISSN: 1588-9726) 33: (1) pp.
c. Happiness, health, expected lifetime 161-181. Link
(and the hope in salvation) are much [7] Dabóczi K. (1998): A mérhető balgaság,
more noble and higher values than avagy miért nincs olaj a közgazdaságtan
GDP or any other indicator showing the lámpásában? Kovász II. évfolyam, 2. szám
Nyár, pp. 32-57.
performance of the economy or society.
[8] Hetesi Zs. (2008): A felélt jövő – A
At no rate we should mix these values, Fenntartható Fejlődés Egyetemközi
otherwise we will degrade these higher Kutatócsoport helyzetértékelője. FFEK,
values, not improve GDP, despite our Budapest. Link
best effort. (A good example is when [9] Kerekes S. (2011): Happiness,
environmental economics try to measure environmental protection and market
economy. Society and Economy 33: (1) p.
the value of human life, it gives a value
5-13. Link
of ten thousand, hundred thousand or [10] Kerekes S. (2012): A fenntartható
million dollars value, however, not fejlődésről válság idején. In: Kerekes
instead of zero, but instead if infinite Sándor, Jámbor Imre (szerk.) Fenntartható
value, putting a price tag on it.) fejlődés, élhető régió, élhető települési táj.
Budapesti Corvinus Egyetem, p. 15-36.
[11] Kocsis T. (2010): Hajózni muszáj” A GDP,

44 Journal of Environmental Sustainability – Volume 3

 az ökológiai lábnyom és a szubjektív jóllét [23] Reisinger A. (2012): Civil/nonprofit
stratégiai összefüggései Közgazdasági szervezetek a kohéziós politikában –
Szemle, LVII. évf., június 536–554. Link elméleti alapok. Tér és Társadalom 1:
[12] Lawn, P. (2007): A stock-take of green 41–66. Link
national accounting initiatives. Social [24] Sajtos L.- Mitev A. (2007): SPSS kutatási
Indicators Research 80: 427–460. Link és adatelemzési kézikönyv Alinea Kiadó
[13] Lazányi K., Lazányi J., Wiwczaroski T. Budapest Link
(1999): New economy and sustainable land [25] Szabó, D. R. (2014): Állami programok
use. In: Lazányi J, Dobránszki J (szerk.) építőipari vállalkozásokra gyakorolt
Agricultural Research in Nyírség Region. várható keresletnövelő hatásai. The
Nyíregyháza. Nyíregyháza: Debreceni Publications of the MultiScience XXVIII.
Egyetem Kutató Központja, 1767-1770. MicroCad International Multidisciplinary
[14] Lazányi, K. (2005): Precíziós Scientific Conference. Miskolc
mezőgazdasági üzemek stratégiája. In: [26] Stiglitz, J. E.; Sen, A.; Fitoussi, J.-P.
Lazányi J (szerk.) Fenntartható homoki (2009): Report by the Commission on the
gazdálkodás megalapozása a Nyírségben. Measurement of Economic Performance
Nyíregyháza: Westsik Vilmos Nyírségi and Social Progress Link
Tájfejlesztési Alapítvány, 336-379. [27] Tsai M.-C. (2011): If GDP is Not the
[15] Lehoczki B. (2008): Latin- Amerika és Answer, What is the Question? The
Kína: a kapcsolatok új rendszere, PhD Juncture of Capabilities, Institutions
Thesis Corvinus University, Budapest and Measurement in the Stiglitz-Sen-
[16] Lloyd, W. F. (1833): Two Lectures on the Fitoussi Report Social Indicators Research
Checks to Population, Oxford University Press. 102:363–372. Link
[17] Hardin G. (1968): The Tragedy of the [28] Vačkář D. (2012): Ecological Footprint,
Commons, Science, 162 (1968), 1243- environmental performance and
1248. o. Link biodiversity:A cross-national comparison.
[18] McDonald, G. W., Patterson, M. G. Ecological Indicators16 :40-46. Link
(2004): Ecological Footprints and [29] van den Bergh, J.C.M.J.; Verbruggen, H.
interdependencies of New Zealand regions (1999) Spatial sustainability, trade and
(analysis) Ecological Economics 50 pp. indicators: an evaluation of the ecological
49-67. Link footprint, Ecological Economics29 pp.
[19] Michalos A.C. (2011): What Did Stiglitz, 61–72. Link
Sen and Fitoussi Get Right and What [30] Veenhoven V. (2011): World Database
Did They Get Wrong? Social Indicators of Happiness, Continuous Register
Research 102:117–129. Link of Scientific Research on Subjective
[20] Mostafa M. M. (2010): Clustering the Appreciation of Life. Erasmus University
ecological footprint of nations using Kohonen’s Rotterdam, Link
self-organizing maps Expert Systems with [31] Vemuri A. W., Costanza R. (2006): The
Applications 37: 2747–2755. Link Role of Human, Social, Built, and Natural
[21] Pintér, T. (2011): Policentrizmus, Capital in Explaining Life Satisfaction
nagyvárosi terek Magyarországon és at the Country Level. Toward a National
világszerte. Acta Scientiarum Socialum. 2: Well-Being Index (NWI). Ecological
23-32. Link Economics, 58. 119−133. o. Link
[22] Rees, W.; Wackernagel M. (1996): Urban [32] York R., Rosa E. A., Dietz T. (2004): The
ecological footprints: why cities cannot Ecological Footprint Intensity of National
be sustainable and why they are a key to Economies Journal of Industrial Ecology
sustainability, Environ. Impact Assess. Volume 8. Issue 4. 139–154 o. Link
Rev. 16 pp. 223-248. [33] WWF (2012): Living Planet Report Link

GPD Alternatives and their Correlations 45

 CITED DATABASES:

[1] EPI database: Link

[2] HDI database: Link
[3] HPI database: Link

46 Journal of Environmental Sustainability – Volume 3