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Grammar, Meaning and Pragmatics
Handbook of Pragmatics Highlights (HoPH)

The ten volumes of Handbook of Pragmatics Highlights focus on the most salient
topics in the field of pragmatics, thus dividing its wide interdisciplinary spectrum
in a transparent and manageable way. Each volume starts with an up-to-date
overview of its field of interest and brings together some 12–20 entries on its most
pertinent aspects.
Since 1995 the Handbook of Pragmatics (HoP) and the HoP Online (in conjunction
with the Bibliography of Pragmatics Online) have provided continuously updated
state-of-the-art information for students and researchers interested in the science
of language in use. Their value as a basic reference tool is now enhanced with the
publication of a topically organized series of paperbacks presenting HoP Highlights.
Whether your interests are predominantly philosophical, cognitive, grammatical,
social, cultural, variational, interactional, or discursive, the HoP Highlights volumes
make sure you always have the most relevant encyclopedic articles at your fingertips.

Editors
Jef Verschueren Jan-Ola Östman
University of Antwerp University of Helsinki

Volume 5
Grammar, Meaning and Pragmatics
Edited by Frank Brisard, Jan-Ola Östman and Jef Verschueren
Grammar, Meaning and Pragmatics

Edited by

Frank Brisard
University of Antwerp

Jan-Ola Östman
University of Helsinki

Jef Verschueren
University of Antwerp

John Benjamins Publishing Company

Amsterdam / Philadelphia
 TM The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American
8
National Standard for Information Sciences — Permanence of Paper for Printed
Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984.

Cover design: Françoise Berserik

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Grammar, meaning and pragmatics / edited by Frank Brisard, Jan-Ola Östman, Jef Verschueren.
p. cm. (Handbook of Pragmatics Highlights, issn 1877-654X ; v. 5)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Pragmatics. 2. Grammar, Comparative and general. 3. Semantics. I. Brisard, Frank. II. Östman, Jan-Ola.
III. Verschueren, Jef.
P99.4.P72G72   2009
306.44--dc22 2009021346
isbn 978 90 272 0782 1 (pb; alk. paper)
isbn 978 90 272 8918 6 (EB)

© 2009 – John Benjamins B.V.

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means,
without written permission from the publisher.
John Benjamins Publishing Company • P.O. Box 36224 • 1020 me Amsterdam • The Netherlands
John Benjamins North America • P.O. Box 27519 • Philadelphia PA 19118-0519 • USA
 Table of contents

Preface to the series xi

Acknowledgements xiii

Introduction 1
Frank Brisard
1. Theories of grammar 2
2. Topics in pragmatics 9
3. Naturalizing grammar 12

Constructional analysis 16
Kiki Nikiforidou
1. Construction grammar and pragmatic analysis 16
2. The pragmatics of grammar 17
3. Extending the scope: Conventional
pragmatics and conventional discourse 21
4. Constructions in grammaticalization 26
5. Summary and prospects 28

Control phenomena 33
Benjamin Lyngfelt
1. Introduction 33
2. Complement control – object clauses 35
2.1 Control shift 36
2.2 Other kinds of complement control 37
3. Adjunct control 38
4. Arbitrary control 40
5. Less discussed control patterns 43
5.1 Control in noun phrases and adjective phrases 43
5.2 Indirect control 45
5.3 Some other control relations 46
6. Outlook 47
VI Handbook of Pragmatics Highlights

Definiteness 50
Ritva Laury
1. Definite descriptions and reference 50
2. Definiteness and identifiability 52
3. Choice between types of definite expressions 55
4. Definiteness and grammar 59
5. Definiteness marking 60
6. Development of definiteness 61
7. Conclusion 62

Emergent grammar 66
Marja-Liisa Helasvuo
1. Introduction 66
2. Routinization and the emergence of grammar 67
3. Emergent grammar within linguistics 70

Frame analysis 74
Branca Telles Ribeiro & Susan M. Hoyle
1. Introduction 74
2. What are frames? 74
3. Frame and context in interaction 77
4. Frame and footing 79
5. Framing and nonverbal communication 80
6. Framing in everyday talk 80
7. Framing in play 82
8. Framing and institutional discourse 83
8.1 Framing and education 84
8.2 Framing and medicine 84
9. Perspectives for future research 86

Functional Discourse Grammar: pragmatic aspects 91

Mike Hannay & Kees Hengeveld
1. Introduction 91
2. Outline of the model 91
2.1 FDG and verbal interaction 91
2.2 The architecture of FDG 92
2.3 Levels and layers 94
3. The interpersonal level 95
4. Discourse Acts and the relations between them 96
4.1 Introduction 96
4.2 Rhetorical functions 97
 Table of contents VII

4.3 Illocution 102

5. Subacts and the relations between them 105
5.1 Introduction 105
5.2 Pragmatic functions 106
5.3 Ascription and Reference 111
6. Conclusion 114

Generative semantics 117

James D. McCawley†
1. The history of generative semantics 117
2. Tenets of GS 121
2.1 Against deep structure 121
2.2 Derivational constraints 123
2.3 Context and acceptability 123
2.4 Pragmatics integrated in semantics 123
2.5 The status of logic 124
2.6 ‘Transformations’ 125
2.7 The ‘base’ 126
3. Pragmatics in GS 126

Iconicity 129
Elżbieta Tabakowska
1. Introduction 129
2. History 129
3. Iconicity we live by: The state of the art 133
3.1 Iconicity as interpretation 133
3.2 Principles of iconicity 134
3.3 Types of iconicity 136
3.4 Areas of research 139
4. Perspectives 142

Information structure 146

Jeanette K. Gundel & Thorstein Fretheim
1. Introduction 146
2. What is information structure? 147
2.1 Referential givenness/newness 147
2.2 Relational givenness/newness — Topic-focus structure 148
3. How do languages express information structure? 150
3.1 Information structure and sentence intonation 150
3.2 Information structure and morphosyntax 153
4. The grammar-pragmatics interface 155
VIII Handbook of Pragmatics Highlights

Mental spaces 161

Todd Oakley
1. Meanings are not “in” the words themselves 161
2. What are mental spaces? 162
3. Role and value in reference 165
4. Other features of mental spaces theory 166
4.1 Elements, relations, frames 166
4.2 Space builders 167
5. Spaces and the problems of reference,
ambiguity, and presupposition 168
5.1 Referential opacity 168
5.2 Pragmatic ambiguity 169
5.3 Presupposition and optimization 169
6. Mental spaces and perspective in conditionals,
counterfactuals, and deixis 171
6.1 Conditionals and counterfactuals 171
6.2 Deictic expressions 172
7. Mental spaces and discourse management 174
8. Conclusion 177

Modality 179
Ferenc Kiefer
1. Introduction 179
2. Modality in logic 179
3. Necessity and possibility in linguistics 181
3.1 Epistemic modality 182
3.2 Deontic modality 184
3.3 Some further types of modality 185
3.4 The linguistic tradition 188
4. Evidentials 190
5. A possible synthesis 192
6. Syntactic treatments of modality 194
7. Modality and pragmatics 197
7.1 Two readings of ‘possible’ 197
7.2 The illocutionary meaning of modal verbs 197
7.3 Deontic speech acts 199
7.4 Ability and possibility 200
7.5 Modality and grammaticalization 201
8. Prospects 203
 Table of contents IX

Negation 208
Matti Miestamo
1. Scope of negation 208
2. Markedness of negation 210
3. The expression of negation in the world’s languages 214
4. Negative polarity items 219
5. Negation and scalarity 220
6. Metalinguistic negation 221
7. Negative transport 223
8. Negation in diachrony 224
9. The acquisition of negation 226

Prague school 230

Petr Sgall
1. Historical overview 230
2. Main concepts and fields of research 232
3. Prague functionalism and pragmatics 235

Role and Reference Grammar 239

Robert D. Van Valin, Jr.
1. Introduction 239
2. Historical background 239
3. Central concepts 240
3.1 Clause structure 240
3.2 Semantic structure 242
3.3 Focus structure 245
3.4 Grammatical relations and linking 245
4. Some implications of RRG 247

Semantics vs. pragmatics 250

Ken Turner
1. Fregean beginnings 250
2. From then until now 250
3. Current manoeuvres: (Neo-(Post-))Gricean pragmatics 253
3.1 Relevance Theory 254
3.2 The Least Effort Hypothesis 254
3.3 The Q-, I- and M-Principles Hypothesis 255
3.4 Pragmatic intrusion 257
X Handbook of Pragmatics Highlights

4. Current manoeuvres: (Neo-(Post-))Kaplanean semantics 259

5. Postscript: The logical basis of the semantics-pragmatics interface 263
6. Conclusion 263

Tense and aspect 268

Robert I. Binnick
1. The semantics of markers of tense and/or aspect 268
1.1 Tense 268
1.2 Aspect 268
1.3 Aktionsart 269
1.4 Underspecification and the
pragmatics of tense and aspect 270
2. Discourse functions in MTA choice 272
2.1 Genre 272
2.2 Focalization 272
2.3 Function 274
3. Discourse coherence in the interpretation of MTAs 274
3.1 Discourse coherence 274
3.2 The linguistic level 275
3.3 The intentional level 278
3.4 The attentional level 283

Word order 289

Mirjam Fried
1. Syntactic typology 289
2. Pragmatic functions of word order 290
3. Cognitive correlates of theme/rheme notions 293
4. Word order in grammatical descriptions and linguistic theory 294
5. Diachronic perspective 296
6. Concluding remarks 297

Index 301
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