SOLAR ENERGY [PYE 416]

SOLAR RADIATION
The Sun, a great thermonuclear reactor of the atmosphere. It is situated at the
center of the solar system whereby it emits energy as electromagnetic radiation
at extremely large and relatively constant rate 24hours per day through 365 days
of each year. The energy radiated to the space per day is about 83.3 quadrillion
kilowatt hours 8.33x1025KWh. The energy contribution from other stars and
celestial bodies is negligible. Sun is the primary source of all energies. The energy
got burnt either domestically or industrially is stored up energy from the Sun as
the coal is a fossil (remains of plants buried in the ground some thousands years
ago). The growth of plants depends on the radiant energy (from the Sun) for
photosynthesis. The oil and gases are derived from livings buried some thousands
years ago. These animals also depend on Sun. The waterfalls which are due to
evaporation- precipitation cycle cannot occur without the Sun. The existence of
man would have been impossible without the Sun as there will be no food from
plant, aquatic animals in the sea, or animals in the bush.
The amount of solar energy received daily is infinitesimally small (about 4.14 x
105 Kwh) as a result of endless distance from the Sun and Sunspot activity on the
solar surface.
NOTE: The sun spots are dark patches seen on the Sun’s surface that are regions
of cool gas. They appear in cycles having a period of about 11 years. The energy
released by 10 hectares (25 acres) of the surface of the Sun is sufficient to supply
current energy demand of the whole world. We cannot get so much energy from
the Sun because of the following reasons:
(1) The earth is displaced from the Sun and since the Sun’s energy spreads out
like light from a candle only a small fraction of the energy leaving an area of
the sun reaches an equal area on the earth.
 The rate at which solar energy reaches a unit area on the earth is called
INSOLATION OR SOLAR IRRADIANCE.

(2) Second reason: The earth rotates about its POLAR AXIS thus any collection
device located on the earth’s surface can receive the sun’s radiant energy
for only about one-half of each day.

1
(3) Third reason: The least predictable factor is the condition of the thin shell
of the atmosphere that surrounds the earth’s surface. At best, the
atmosphere accounts for 30% reduction in the Sun’s energy. The weather
condition can stop all but a minimal amount of solar radiation from
reaching the earth’s surface for many days.

(4) Fourth reason: OZONE LAYER

The ozone layer is some 12 – 20 miles ( km) above the earth’s
surface. The region serves as a protective layer.

The region consists of ozone (O3), molecule oxygen (O2) which we breathe
in and the elemental oxygen (O).
The ozone layer concentration in our atmosphere vary with time and
location in response to plethora of forces not yet understood.
The net result of the passage of solar radiation through the ozone layer is a
change in the strength and character of the radiation. The layer absorbs
and hence reduces (prevents) the effects of the ultraviolet radiation (such
as Sunburns, skin cancer, blindness and loss of life), cosmic radiation and x-
type radiation.

(5) The incoming photons are absorbed, scattered (and deflected) and
redirected away from earth back into space.

(6) Water vapour also further screen the solar energy as it affects the longer
infrared wavelengths.

(7) The clouds cause about 80% of solar incident on them to bounce back into
space.

The effective thickness of atmosphere that sunlight must penetrate to reach

the earth’s surface is a crucial factor in determining its final intensity at the
surface.

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 DIAGRAM. The earth and atmosphere.

THE ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS:

The earth’s atmosphere is characterized by five layers. They are as enumerated

below:

(1)Troposphere: The most turbulent layer

(2) Stratosphere

(3) Mesosphere

(4) Thermosphere (Chemosphere)

(5) Exosphere

 Troposphere: It is the most turbulent layer; the cloud precipitation and

other meteorological phenomena occurs in the layer.

 Stratosphere: There is relatively high temperature at the upper boundary as

a result of absorption of ultraviolet radiation by the ozone.

 Ionosphere: The ionosphere extends from the stratosphere to the

exosphere.

Extent: from 50Km (the top of stratosphere) to over 1000Km.

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 D-layer (a region) from 50-90Km above the earth which
contains low concentration of free electrons.
It reflects low frequency waves.

E-layer (a region) or Heaviside layer from 80-150Km above the

earth’s surface. It reflects medium frequency waves.

F-layer (a region) or Appleton layer from 150-1000Km above

the earth’s surface. It has the highest concentration of free electrons.

At night the electron concentration in the D-layer and E-layer fall due to the
absence of sunlight and recombination of electrons and ions.
F-layers. This F- region can be used for radio transmission at all times.

The figure showing solar position angles is used to determine the incident angle:

Solar altitude (B) < HOQ

Solar azimuth 0, HOS

Incident angle on vertical surface

Wall azimuth

Wall solar azimuth

MOTION OF THE EARTH AND SEASONS

The earth has two significant movements namely, rotation and revolution. It has
two additional movements which are of little significance. These are pressional
and solar motion.

4
The earth revolves in anticlockwise direction round the sun every 365.242 days in
an elliptical orbit with a mean earth – sun distance of 1.496x10 11m (or 92.9x106
miles). The seasonal changes as shown below are due to the revolution of the
earth.

DIAGRAM: The movement of the earth and solar season

The plane in which the apparent motion of the sun is observed is called ECLIPTIC
PLANE. The earth’s orbit reaches a maximum distance from the sun (APHELION)
of about 1.52x1011m (or 94.4x106 miles) around July 3rd (i.e. during summer) in the
northern hemisphere.
The minimum earth – sun distance, the PERIHELION occurs on the 2 nd of January
(i.e. during winter) when the earth is 1.47x1011m (or 91.3x106miles) from the sun.
The earth rotates anticlockwisely about its polar axis making a complete rotation
about 24hours. The polar axis is inclined at an angle (δ) of 23.450 to the ecliptic
plane.
The rotation of the earth causes day and night. The tilt of the polar axis relative to
the ecliptic plane produces solar declination.

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DIAGRAM: variation of time showing aphelion and perihelion

INSOLATION
The word insolation means solar radiation. The amount of radiant energy
striking the atmosphere per seconds per square meter is 1350Joules.
The term solar constant means the amount of solar radiation incident on a
unit surface area exterior to earth’s atmosphere during a unit time interval has
a value 1350Watt/metre2
Solar constant consists of direct beam of solar radiation, the significant
portions of it energy is deflected by the atmospheric scattering effect causing
the radiation to approach earth’s surface from all positions above the horizon.
This is diffuse radiation. This becomes dominant type of solar flux on cloudy or
hazy days.
REFLECTED RADIATION:- This is the portion of the solar energy that rebounded
from terrain, surface water, vegetation or manmade structures. This is always
small (negligible).

The three different components of solar radiation that strike any collection
surface include direct, diffuse and reflected radiation.
Direct radiation:- This is the radiation that comes directly from the disc of the
sun.
Diffused or scattered radiation:- Radiation that appears to come from all
directions.
TOTAL (GLOBAL) RADIATION: The total or global radiation is the sum of direct
and diffuse radiations

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SOLAR DECLINATION
The plane that includes the earth’s equator is called EQUATORIAL PLANE.
If a line is drawn between the center of earth and the sun, the angle between this
line and the earth’s equatorial plane is called the DECLINATION ANGLE (δ).

Diagram showing variation of declination angle with seasons

At the time of the year when the northern part of the earth’s rotational axis is
inclined towards the sun, the earth’s equatorial plane is inclined 23.45 degrees to
the earth – sun line.
Around June 21, it will be observed that the noontime sun is at its highest point in
the sky and the declination angle (δ) is +23.450 .This condition is called summer
solstice and it marks the beginning of summer in the northern hemisphere. Three
months later, a line from the earth to the sun lies on the equatorial plane and an
observer on the equator will notice that the sun is directly overhead at noon time.
This condition is called equinox since anywhere on the earth the time during
which the sun is visible (day) is 12hours and the time when the sun is invisible
(night) is another 12hours (equal day and night).
There are two such conditions during a year
(i) Autumnal equinox, about September 23, marking the start of the fall.
(ii) Vernal equinox, about March 22, marking the beginning of spring.
At the equinoxes, the declination angle (δ) is zero. The winter solstice occurs
about Dec 22. It marks the point where the equatorial plane is tilted relative to

7
the earth - sun line such that the northern hemisphere is tilted away from the
sun. We say that the noontime sun is at its “lowest point” in the sky. Here, the
declination is negative (-23.450).
An accurate knowledge of the declination angle is important in navigation and
astronomy.

INSOLATION (SOLAR IRRADIANCE)

By insolation, we mean the rate at which the total solar energy strikes a unit area
of the earth surface.
An appreciable amount of the total radiant energy does not get to the
atmosphere directly from the sun. This is called SKY RADIATION. About 1350 J of
radiant energy strikes the atmosphere normally per second per square meter.
The insolation depends on solar constant. The distance from the sun, the
inclination of the sun’s rays and the amount depleted by the atmosphere.
The SOLAR CONSTANT is the amount of solar radiation incident on a unit surface
area exterior to earth’s atmosphere during the day per unit time. It has a value of
1350 Watts/square meter.
The solar constant consists of direct radiation, diffused or scattered radiation and
reflected radiation.
DIRECT RADIATION is the radiation that comes directly from the disc of the sun.
DIFFUSED OR SCATTERED RADIATION is the radiation that appears to come from
all directions of the entire sky. A significant portion of the solar radiation is
scattered by atmospheric particles (e.g. dust) and gasses.
REFLECTED RADIATION is the portion of the solar energy that rebounded from
the terrain, surface water, vegetation or man-made-structures. This is always
small.

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DIAGRAM: The total (global) radiation consist mainly of direct and diffused radiations.

SOLAR SPECTRUM
The spectrum of solar energy reaches the earth surface as it passes through the
atmosphere. A radiation coming directly overhead is said to pass through an air-
mass of 1.0 at sea level.
Key note: The process that takes place in the atmosphere include Rayleigh and
particulate (i.e. Dust and water) scattering and absorption by ozone, water vapour
and carbon dioxide.
For an altitude other than sea-level, the air-mass calculated above is multiplied by
the ratio of the local atmospheric pressure to standard sea level pressure.

Table: Sea-level air mass and Zenith angle.

Solar Zenith angle (In degree) Air-mass
80 5.63
85 10.69
86 12.87
87 16.04
88 20.84
89 28.35
90 29.94
Equation of time (EOT):
EOT = 0.258 cos x – 7.416 sin x -- 3.648 cos2x –9.228 sin2x
Angle x is a function of number of days numbers (N).
X = 360 (N -1) in degrees

365.252
The scattering is responsible for change of colour of the sky blue, (red at sun rise
or sun set)

UNIVERSAL TIME (OR) GREENWISH MEAN TIME

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 This is a 24hours clock time system, based on mean time, according to
which the length of a day is 24 hours and midnight is 0 hour.
MEAN TIME: This the time based on the length of an average day.
MEAN SECOND: A mean second is 1/86,400 of the average time between one
complete transit of the sun average over the entire year.
Write down the EOT
EQUATION OF TIME (EOT)
The difference between mean time and solar time is called the equation of
time (EOT); it is measured in minutes. The level of accuracy required in the
correlation between time of day and the solar time depends on whether the
designer is doing;
(a) Performance predictions,
(b) System correlations and
(c) Developing tracking equations
The EOT given by Woolf (1968), has an accuracy of thirty seconds.
EOT = 0.258cosx – 7.416sinx – 3.648cosx – 9.228sin2x
Time conversion
The conversion between solar time (ts) and clock time (CL) requires knowledge of
i the location
ii the day of the year
iii the standards to which local clocks are set. The conversion between solar
time (ts) and local time (LCT) (in 24hour rather than AM/PM format)
LCT = ts – EOT/60 + LC +D hours, D = 1 or 0
Where LC is longitude correction
The longitude correction is given by:
LC = (local longitude) – (longitude of standard time zone meridian) hours
15
D is equal to 1hour; D is the daylight savings time
D = 1 for a region daylight savings time is in effect
D = 0 for a region daylight savings time is not in use

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Example: if ts = 12.00, EOT = -14.29
LC = 118.3 – 120 ; D=0 LCT = ts = E O T + LC + D
15 60
LCT = 12 – (-14.29) + 118.3 – 120
60 15

= 12:07:29
=12hrs

Diagram showing the equation of time(EOT).

This is the difference between the local apparent solar time and the local mean
solar time
TIME MEASUREMENT
The hour angle (ω) this is the angle between the plane of the meridian that
touches the earth-sun.
To describe the earth’s rotation about its polar axis, we use a clock.
By definition, the hour angle is the angle between the plane of the meridian
containing the point of interest and the meridian that touches the relation. The
hour angle is given by:
ω = 15(t s -- 12)
where ts = solar time in hours.
Solar time is used to predict the direction of the spin’s hour relatively to a point
on earth. The solar time is a 24hours clock with 12:00 as the exact time that the
sun is due south.
The difference between solar time and clock time may be up to 24hours.
Example:
(i) At solar moon (12:00), the hour angle (ω) is ω = 15(ts - 12)

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ω = 15(12 -12) = 00
(ii) 4hrs after solar moon, the hour angle (w) is w = 15(16 - 12) is (4)
w =15 (ts - 12) = 600
(iii) the hour angle (ω) 3hrs before solar noon
ω = 15(9 - 12) = 15(-3) = -45

SUN’S ANGLES:
S= unit direction vector
A = solar azimuth angle
α = solar altitude angle
ϴz = The solar zenith angle (θz) is used to describe the sun’s elevation.
Θz= 900 –α
The direction vector (Ṡ), can be expressed as
Ṡ = Szi + SEj + SNK
The direction cosines to Z, E and N axes are SZ, SE, and SN respectively.
SZ = sinα, SE= cosα sinA and SN = cosαcosA
Insolation coming from a zenith angle of 600 would have twice the perpendicular
path length of air mass. Therefore, air mass = 2.0
At zenith angle θZ up to 800, air mass from sea level is the secant of the zenith
angle. That is
Air mass = secθZ; (θZ ≤ 800)
For zenith angle greater than 800 (air mass = 5.63), the air mass does not
approach infinity.
CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS
The operation of any solar thermal energy collector can be described as an energy
balance between the solar energy absorbed by the collector and the thermal
energy removed or lost from the collector. A concentrating collector employs
either refraction (through lenses) or reflection (by mirrors or reflective surfaces)

12
to channel natural concentration of energy falling on an area into a significantly
smaller area, the focus of the system.
Thus, the energy intensity at the focus is much greater than that of natural
sunlight, allowing the absorption surface or solar cell reception area to operate at
much higher temperatures. The area that receives this augmented insolation is
called HOT SPOT and may be a small circle, a rectangle, a thin line or some other
shape, depending on the techniques used.
The extent to which concentration is accomplished is called concentration
ratio [C] and is given by C = qf/qo . i.e. augmented insolation at hot spot divided
by unconcentrated direct isolation. For example, a device having a C= 6 would
have a hot spot that is receiving solar energy that is six times as intense as that
which a flat plate collector would receiver, without concentration at the same
location.
Devices with low C -factors can operate with minimal or no adjustment of
orientation while high C-factor devices require increasingly more elaborate and
precise sun tracking capability.
Diffuse sunlight can be collected with low concentration devices but its
concentration for high powered concentrators shrinks to insignificance very
quickly.
Note:
I. Optical concentration ratio (CR0): This is the ratio of insolation incident on
the collector aperture Ia to the irradiance (radian flux) at a point on the
receiver, Ir.
CRo = Io / Ir
II. Geometric concentration Ratio (CRg): The ratio of the area of the collector
aperture to the surface area of receiver Ar:
CRg = Aa / Ar

LIQUID HEATING BY SOLAR ENERGY

Domestic water heating:
Solar heat can be used to produce domestic hot water (DHW). All the collectors
used for these systems have the same design objectives for heating and cooling
and indeed. The tilt angle used to mount collectors for this application is
approximately equal to angle of the local latitude.
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DIAGRAM: Typical Solar DHW System

While a properly sized solar DHW system can supply essentially all the summer
demand, auxiliary energy input should be provided for effective year round DHW
demand satisfaction.
The figure above shows a typical solar DHW system.
 The Solar heat is deposited in the storage tank.
 The Storage water is fed to a second heat exchanger in the “preheat” tank.
 The water in the tank is withdrawn and fed to the conventional DHW tank
where hot water is used.
 The main storage equalizes solar availability.
 The fluid flowing through the DHW heat exchange allows the water in the
preheat tank to heat up to as high a temperature as the stored solar energy
can produce
 The preheat tank gives the dwelling a great DHW storage capacity than that
provided by the conventional DHW heater alone. It gives the water within it
a longer period of time during which it can absorb solar stored heat,
lessening the instantaneous heating load on the preheat tank were left out
of the system.
 Solar heat is used to preheat the water, and it greatly lessening the energy
demand upon the conventional DHW heater.

COOLING OF BUILDINGS
The best way for sun’s heat to cool a building is to use it to drive an
“absorption cooling cycle”, this system accomplishes cooling by boiling an
appropriate liquid.
NOTE: Cooling occurs when boiling water is evaporating.

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 Cooling occurs when alcohol (i.e. Methylated spirit) is rubbed with one’s skin
as it withdrawn heat of evaporation from the skin.
The major portion of the burner`s heat is being absorbed and carried away in
the rising steam. In effect, the steam is actually cooling the burner since
cooling is a heat removal process.
Many fluids boil at much lower temperature than water. Such fluids absorb
their heat of vaporization when boiling.
The room temperature of air surrounding the pot (i.e. container) supplies
enough heat to boil off the fluid, with net result of a vaporized fluid and some
cooled room air.
Such fluids are called REFRIGERANTS.
They have boiling points extending substantially below zero degree Celsius.
To save the refrigerant for later reuse, the absorptive cooling system used with
solar heat are of the close-loop type. In most cooling system, the refrigerant
mixtures used are Lithium Bromide and water (LiBr.H 2O) or Ammonia and
water (NH3.H2O).
DIAGRAM: COOLING CYCLE USING LITHIUM BROMIDE

SOLAR POND (Collector)

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Solar pond is the least expensive type of solar collector. They have been
considered primarily for large industrial applications as their cost decrease
considerably with increase in size.
Types
(i) Shallow pond and
(ii) Salt- gradient pond
Both are equivalent to horizontal flat-plate collectors since they are non-
concentrating, accept both direct and diffuse solar energy and are limited to
low temperature application.
SHALLOW PONDS:
A shallow pond consists of a group of collectors made of black plastic liners
lying on top of insulation that has been laid on flat graded ground.
DIAGRAM: A SHALLOW SOLAR POND COLLECTOR

Above the water bag is at least one translucent cover sheet, supported by size
curbs.
When there is adequate sunshine, water is pumped into the collector from an
underground storage tank
The water inside the collector is heated by solar radiation absorbed by the
pond liner and can attain temperature up to 600C.
The heated water may now be pumped to an industrial demand or a hot
storage tank for later use.
At night or during period of low insolation, the water in the collector may be
drained back into the underground tank thereby conserving the heat collected.

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SALT-GRADIENT POND: (Concentration)
A salt gradient solar pond employs a salt concentration gradient to suppress
natural convection.

In practice, salt-gradient solar pond consist of three layers or zones

(i) A surface convecting zone of low-salinity water typically 0.2 – 0.4m
thick.
(ii) A non-convecting or salinity-gradient zone beneath the surface zone in
which salt concentration increases with depth, typically 1.0 – 1.5m thick.
(iii) A storage zone at the bottom of the pond of uniform high salt
concentration that heat and is typically 1.0 - 3.0m thick.
For utilization of the heat stored at the bottom of the pond, hot brine is drawn
from the storage zone (bottom layer) of the pond and pumped through a heat
exchanged and back to the bottom of the storage zone.
For power production applications, condenser cooling water is drawn off the
top of the pond and passed through the condenser and back to the surface
where it cools.
SOLAR FURNANCE
Solar furnace due to Lavoisier consist of a hollow double convex glass vessel
filled with alcohol forming a liquid lens.
In conjunction with a smaller solid lens, the furnace achieved temperatures as
high as 32000F.

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 SOLAR ENERGY
If hot dense gas, called the PHOTOSPHERE (0.0005 – solar ----- its temperature
ranges from 7300K at the bottom to about 6000K at the surface)
 When we see the sun, this is the surface we see
 Diameter of photosphere is _1.39x109m (864000 miles)
 The photosphere appears as a bright disc with some “limb darkening”
(brighter near the center)
After the photosphere we have CHROMOSPHERE ------ and the CORONA ;- see
table1

There regions are characterized by low density gased, higher temperature and
timeinse variation in energy and diameter.
Due to the low density and minimal energy emission from these regions they
are of little significance earth-based solar thermal applicat

AIR HEATERS
The purpose of any space heating system is to attain an approximate equilibrium
temperature in the occupied space that is comfortable to the occupants.

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Now, every building loses heat to the atmosphere, in most conventional air
heating systems, a furnace {fired by oil, gas or coal} is used to heat the air to
about 120 to 150oF or more. The heated air is then blown through air ducting
system and delivered to various rooms through outlets in the floor , ceiling or
wall. The heated air then mixed with the air in the rooms, surrendering its heat
until some equilibrium mixed temperature is reached. The collectors are often
receiving usable energy, the quality of the energy is variable. The variability
cannot be eliminated but it can be minimized by releasing the solar heat at a
controlled rate when needed.
A pile of rocks is an appropriate medium used for storage e.g. a pile of washed
gravel (1 to 2 Inches diameter) dense rock with a specific heat of approximately
0.2 Inch.
The heated air is blown to the occupied spaces through a ducting system which is
routed through a conventional (auxiliary) heat source (furnace) or the auxiliary
heat can be added with an in-line heater (electric resistance heating coils water –
to – air heat exchanger etc.)
The ducting system can now serve the house.

HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer is the science which deals with the rate of exchange of heat
between hot and cold bodies called the SOURCE and RECEIVER.
The science of heat transfer seeks not merely to explain how heat energy
may be transferred but also to predict the rate at which the exchange will take
place under certain specified conditions.
MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER
There are three distinct ways by which heat may pass from a source to
receiver.
These are:
(i) Conduction
(ii) Convection and
(iii) Radiation

CONDUCTION

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The fundamentals of heat conduction were established over a century ago and
are generally attributed to Fourier.
DEFINITION- Conduction is the transfer of heat through fixed material such as a
stationary wall and heat transfer rate per unit area is proportional to the normal
Q ∂T
temperature gradient: A
α ∂x
Q ∂T
So A = - K ∂ x K is constant of proportionality. Therefore,

Q = - KA dT /dx --------------(1) Fourier’s law

Where: K is called thermal conductivity
Q is the heat transfer rate
dT/dX is the temperature gradient
The negative sign is to show that temperature is assumed to be higher at face x =0
than at face x=x, otherwise the negative sign (-ve) will not be there.

CONVECTION
Convection is the transfer of heat between relatively hot and cold portion of a
fluid by mixing.
Suppose a can of liquid was placed over a hot flame, the liquid at the bottom of
the can becomes heated and less dense than before, because of its thermal
expansion. The liquid adjacent to the bottom is also lighter than the cold- upper
portion and rises through it, then transfer its heat by mixing as it rises. The
transfer of heat from the hot liquid at the bottom of the can to the remainder is
“NATURAL OR FREE CONVECTION”
If any agitation occurs such as that caused by stirrer, it is “FORCED CONVECTION”
This heat transfer (convection) can be express as:
Q α Adt By introducing constant h called heat transfer coefficient.
Q = hAdt Where h depends on
(i) Nature of the fluid and
(ii) Nature of the agitation
Calculation Examples:

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{1}If one face of a copper plate 4cm thick is maintained at 500 0c, and the other
face is maintained at 1000c. How much heat is transferred through the plate?
{Given: Thermal conductivity for copper = 370w/moc at 25oc
Solution: using Fourier’s law Q= -kAdT/dx

Q/A = -KdT/dx = -(370)(100 - 500) = 3700000w/m2

4x10-2
{2}If air at 200c blows over a hot plate 60cm by 80cm and maintained at 250 0c.
The convection heat transfer coefficient is 25w/m0c. Compute the heat transfer.
Solution:
Q = hA (Tw – T∞) = 25(0.6)(0.8)(250 - 20) =

Example 3:
Two slabs of thicknesses LI and L2 and thermal conductivities K1 and K2 are in
thermal contact with each other. The temperatures of their outer surfaces are T 1
and T2 respectively but T2 ¿ T1. Determine (a)the temperature at the interface and
(b) the rate of thermal energy transfer through the slabs in the steady state
condition.
Solution:
Let T be the temperature at the interface, then the rate at which thermal energy
is transferred through slab1 is

Q1 = K,A(T-T1) -----------------(α)
L1
Similarly, the rate at which thermal energy is transferred through slab 2 is
Q2 = k2A (T2- T) β
L2
K 1 A(T −T 1) K 2 A(T 2−T )
At steady state Q1 must be equal to Q2, so =
L1 L2

K 1 L 2T 1+ K 2 L1 T 2
T= K 1 L2+ K 2 L1
………………………………………… (ɣ)

Substituting ( ɣ) into either (α) or (β) gives the Q

CONVECTION OVER A TUBE ( for laminal flow)

The wall temperature Tw
Radius of tube r
Velocity at centre uo

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It is assumed that pressure is uniform at any cross- section

The velocity distribution may be derived by cons

The pressure forces are balanced by the viscous shear forces so that
πr 2dp = r2πrdx = 2πrµdx du/dr
Or du = 1 r dp dr
2µ dx
And U = 1 dp r2 + const , by integration
4µdx
U = 0 at r = ro
Boundary condition u = 1dp/4µdx (r2 – r02)
The velocity at the centre of the tube is given by
Uo = ro2 dp
4µ dx (19)
So the velocity distribution may be written
U = 1 – r2
uo ro2 (20)
Heat transfer process for such flow system; assuming that there’s a constant heat
flow at the wall of the tube
dqw
dx =0
heat flow conducted into the annular element is dqr = -K2πrdxdT/dr
heat conducted out is
dqr+dr = -K2π(r+dr)dx (dT + d2T dr)
(dr dr2)
The net heat convected out of the element is
2πrdrƿcƥudt dx
dx
Energy balance:
Net energy convected out = net conducted in OR neglecting 2 nd order differentials
rƿcƿu(dt/dx)dxdr = -k(dt + rd2T)
(dr dr2)
Which may be rewritten as
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1(d/dr) (r dT) = 1 dT
urdr ( dr) α dx
Bound cond dT = ᴕ at r = o; k drdt] r=ro = qw const
dr

CONDUCTION THROUGH THIN WALL

Fourial Law: q= -KAdT/dx
q= -KA(T2 – T1)
x
Thermal conductivity (K) is constant. Thickness of the wall is dx and T 1 &T2 are
wall face temperature
If the termal conductivity varies with temperature such that
K= K0 (1 + BT) then
2
q= k0A[(T2 – T1)+ β(T2 - T1)]
dx 2
Cylinder (hollow cylinder)
Inner radius ri
Outer radius ro
And let temperature of inner and outer cylinder surfaces be T 1 and T0.
Heat flow through a hollow cylinder
Heat does not flow in the longitudinal direction (z) because the top and bottom
cross sections are perfectly insulated
The calculation would be simple
The total heat transfer rate in the area integral of the floor
Qq= (2πril)qi
q = -K(dT)
( dr ) r = r2
Considering the temp the distribution (T) ,
1/r(d/dr(r dT/dr) = 0 --------------------------------------(5)
Boundary conditions:
T = T2 at r = r1 -----------------------------------------------(6)
T = T0 at r = r0 ----------------------------------------------(7)
To obtain the solution we have to integrate(5) twice in r
d/dr(rdT/dr) = 0 -----------------------------(8)
rdT/dr = C1/r ---------------------------------(9)
dT/dr = C1/r --------------------------------(10)
T = C1 in r + C2
T = C1 in r + c2 -----------------------------(11)
Using the boundary conditions (6) & (7)
T1 = C1 in r1 + C2 ------------------(12)
23
 T0 = C1 in r0 +C2
After eliminating C2,
C1 = T1 – T0/in(ri/r0)-----------------(14)
Subtracting (12) from (ii) gives
T = T1 – (TI – T0) in r/or1--------------------(15)
in r/ri
In combination with equ (∞) and (4) ,the solution is
q = 2πKd (Ti –T0)--------------------(16)
In (r0/r1)

CONVECTION OVER FLAT PLATE

In order to derive the equ. Of motion for the boundary layer by making a fone – and
momentum balance on this element we have to assume:
i. The fluid is incompressible and the flow is steady
ii. There are no pressure variations in the direction perpendicular to the plate
iii. The viscosity is constant
iv. Vicous –shear forces in the y direction are negligible
Applying Newton’s second law of motion
ꜪFx = d(mV)x
dr
the force balance is
ꜪFx = increase in momentum flux in x direction
The mass entering the left face of the element per unit time is

Assuming unit dept in the Z – direction, the momentum entering the left face per
unit time is
Pudy u = pu2dy
The mass flow leaving the right face is ƿ(ʯ +dʯ dʯ)dy
dx
the mass flow entering the bottom face is ƥvdx
while the mass flow leaving the top face is ƥ(v + dv dy)dx
dy
a mass balance on the element yields
ƥudy + ƥvdx = ƥ(u + du dx)dy + ƥ(v + dv dy)dx
dx dy
or du + dv = 0
dx dy

Solution to 2i
24
2i may be written as a0

d (rdT) =1 dt Uo (1 - r2 ) r
dr dr α dx ro 2
integrating: rdT = 1 dT Uo (r2 – r4) + C1
dr α dx 2 4ro2
integrating as second time gives
T = 1 dT Uo (r2 – r4 ) + C1 ln r + C2
a dx 4 16ro2
First boundary condition => C1 = 0
Finally, temp distribution may be written in terms of the temperature at the
center of the tube:
T= Tc at r= 0 so that C2 = Tc
T – Tc = 1 dT Uoro2
α dx ------------(22)
NATURAL CONVECTION
Natural or free convection is due to the motion of the fluid due to density changes
arising from the heating process.
 For example, a hot radiator (heater) used for heating a room transfers heat
by free convection.
 zThe movement of the fluid in free convection whether it is a gas or liquid,
results from the buoyancy forces imposed on the fluid when its density is
decreased due to heating process.
 The buoyancy forces which gives rise to the free convection currents are
called body forces.

NATURAL CONVECTION OVER VERTICAL PLATE

25
 Fig 1 is a flat plate subjected to heat.
When the plate is heated, a free convection boundary layer is formed and
shown above
 The velocity profile here is not like that of forced convection.
 At the wall the velocity is zero due to no-slip condition
The initial boundary-layer development is laminar but later turbulent
boundary layer begins.
There’s a need to determine the weight of the element of the fluid,
so we equate the sum of the external force in the x-direction to the change
in momentum flux through the control volume dx dy.
Ƿ(u du + v du ) = dƿ – pg + µd2u
dx dy dx dy2
Where pg= weight force exerted on the element.
The pressure gradient in the x-direction results from the change in
elevation up the plate.
Hence dp = p∞g
dx
Change in pressure over a height dx = weight per/ unit area
Substituting (24) in (23) gives
P(u du + v du) = g (p∞ - p) + d2u
Dx dy dy2

Density difference (p -p) is expressed in volume coefficient of expansion (β);

Β = 1 (dv) =1 v - v∞ = p∞ - p
V (dt)p v T – T∞ = p(T- T∞)
So that
Ƿ (u du + v du) = ǥƿβ(T - T∞) + µd2u
dx dy dy2 --------------- -----(26)

The energy equation for free convection is the same as that for forced
convection at low velocity

26
 Ƿcƿ (u dT + v dT) = Kd2T
dx dy dy2
β = 1 ; T = absolute temp for ideal gases.

T
CONVECTION OVER VERTICAL CYLINDER

A vertical cylinder can be treated as a vertical flat plate if

D ≥ 35 Gr = Grazh of numbers
1
L Gr 4
Where D = diameter of cylinder; L= Height

EMPIRICAL RELATIONS FOR FREE CONVECTION

Average free convection heat transfer coefficient can be represented, for
many circumstances
Ŋu = Nuselt no
Gr = grashof no
Pr = Prandtl no
The subscript f indicates that the properties in the dimensionless groups are
evaluated at the film Temp.
Tf = T∞ + Tῳ
2
 The product of the Grash of and Prandtl numbers is called the Rayleigh
number.
Ra = GrPr
Convection from horizontal cylinder can be expressed in accordance to Churchill
and ……..
1
Ŋ 2 = 0.6 + 0.387 [GrPr]

{ [(1+(0.559/Pr)9/16)]16/9}
For 10-5 < GrPr < 1012
A simpler equation which is restricted to the laminar range of 10 -6 < GrPr < 109 is
Nud = 0.36 + 0.518 (GrdPr)
[1 + (0.559/Pr)9/16]4/9
27
Properties in (32) & (33) are usually evaluated at the film temperature.
Heat transfer from horizontal cylinder to liquid metals may be calculated from
Nud = 0.53 (GrdPr 2d) 1/4

RADIATION
Unlike conduction and convection which require material media, transfer of heat
by radiation does not involve any medium.
The mechanism here is electromagnetic radiation that is propagated due to
temperature difference. This radiation is referred to as thermal radiation.
It is worth mentioning at the juncture that any objects at any temperature above
absolute zero radiate electromagnetic waves from their surfaces, objects also
absorb energy radiated by other bodies.
The power (P) that is the rate at which energy is emitted by an object is directly
proportional to the four power of its absolute temperature, area and the
composition of the object.
An empirical formula due to Josef Stefan and Ludwig Boltzmann (Stefan-
Boltzmann law) is
Q
P = t = eσAT4

Where e = emissivity of the object (value ranges from 0 - 1)

σ= 5.6703 x 10-8Wm-2k-4 Universal constant (Stefan-Boltzmann
constant)
For very blackbodies like charcoal e = 1
For bright or shinning bodies e is very small (e = 0)
e depends on the composition (characteristics) of material.
e also depends somewhat on the temperature of the
body. If a body of area (A) and emissivity (e) is at temperature T1, its
radiation rate is eσAT14. If the environment of the object has emissivity (e =1) and
temperature (T2), the rate at which energy is radiated by environment is eσAT14
The net rate of radiant heat flow from body is

28
 ∆Q
Q = ∆t = eσA (T14 – T24)

Example 1: Determine the net rate of heat energy from a spacecraft of surface
area 45m2 and a temperature of 295k giving that the radiation it receives from the
Sun is equivalent to a temperature 50oK assuming that the spacecraft is a perfect
black body.
Solution: The net rate of energy is given by q = eσA {T14 – T
q = 1x (5.6703x 10-8) x45 x (2954 -504) =19308.4788Watts

Example 2
A body sitting nakedly in a locked room with dark walls` temperature of 16 0C .
Determine the rate of heat loss by radiation taking the boy’s skin temperature to
be 360C and emissivity (e) of 0.70 if his surface area is 2.0m2

There is a need to take into account that not all radiation leaving one surface
reaches the other surface since electromagnetic radiation travels in a straight
lines and some can be lost to the surroundings.
As a result, these factors can be FE and FG can be introduced to

Where
FE = emissivity function (or simply FE = e)
FG = Geometric “view factor” function
Constants for use

29
Geometry Grf Prf e M Ref
Vertical planes and cylinder 10-1- 104
104 - 109 0.59 1/4
109 - 1013 0.021 2/5
109 - 1014 0.10 1/3
Horizontal cylinder 0 – 10-5 0.4 0
10-5 - 104
0.53
104 - 109 1/4
0.13
109 - 1012 1/3
0.675
10-10 - 10-2 0.058
1.02
10-2 - 102 0.148
0.850
102 - 104 0.188
0.480
104 - 107 1/4
0.125
107 - 1012 1/3
0.54
Upper sfc of heated plates 2*10-4 - 8*106 1/4
or lower sfc of cooled
plates
0.15
8*106 – 1011 1/3
Upper ““ “”
0.27
105 - 1011 1/4
“” “”
0.775
104 - 106 0.21
Vertical cylinder
Height =diameter
Xtic length = diameter
Irregular solids, Xtic length
distance fluid particles
travels in boundary layers 0.52
104 - 109 ¼

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