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INTRODUCTION TO
MAGNETIC MATERIALS

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 Introduction to Magnetic Materials (2nd Edition) Cullity

IEEE Press
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Piscataway, NJ 08854

IEEE Press Editorial Board

Lajos Hanzo, Editor in Chief

R. Abari T. Chen O. Malik

J. Anderson T. G. Croda S. Nahavandi
S. Basu S. Farshchi M. S. Newman
A. Chatterjee B. M. Hammerli W. Reeve

Kenneth Moore, Director of IEEE Book and Information Services (BIS)

Steve Welch, Acquisitions Editor
Jeanne Audino, Project Editor

IEEE Magnetics Society, Sponsor

IEEE Magnetics Society Liaisons to IEEE Press, Liesl Folks and John T. Scott

Technical Reviewers
Stanley H. Charap, Emeritus Professor, Carnegie Mellon University
John T. Scott, American Institute of Physics, Retired

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 Introduction to Magnetic Materials (2nd Edition) Cullity

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INTRODUCTION TO
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Second Edition

B. D. CULLITY
University of Notre Dame

C. D. GRAHAM
University of Pennsylvania

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Copyright # 2009 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. All rights reserved.
Published simultaneously in Canada

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ISBN 978-0-471-47741-9

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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CONTENTS

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION xiii

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION xvi

1 DEFINITIONS AND UNITS 1

1.1 Introduction / 1
1.2 The cgs – emu System of Units / 2
1.2.1 Magnetic Poles / 2
1.3 Magnetic Moment / 5
1.4 Intensity of Magnetization / 6
1.5 Magnetic Dipoles / 7
1.6 Magnetic Effects of Currents / 8
1.7 Magnetic Materials / 10
1.8 SI Units / 16
1.9 Magnetization Curves and Hysteresis Loops / 18

2 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS 23
2.1 Introduction / 23
2.2 Field Production By Solenoids / 24
2.2.1 Normal Solenoids / 24
2.2.2 High Field Solenoids / 28
2.2.3 Superconducting Solenoids / 31
2.3 Field Production by Electromagnets / 33
2.4 Field Production by Permanent Magnets / 36

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vi CONTENTS

2.5Measurement of Field Strength / 38

2.5.1 Hall Effect / 38
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2.5.2 Electronic Integrator or Fluxmeter / 39
2.5.3 Other Methods / 41
2.6 Magnetic Measurements in Closed Circuits / 44
2.7 Demagnetizing Fields / 48
2.8 Magnetic Shielding / 51
2.9 Demagnetizing Factors / 52
2.10 Magnetic Measurements in Open Circuits / 62
2.11 Instruments for Measuring Magnetization / 66
2.11.1 Extraction Method / 66
2.11.2 Vibrating-Sample Magnetometer / 67
2.11.3 Alternating (Field) Gradient Magnetometer—AFGM or AGM
(also called Vibrating Reed Magnetometer) / 70
2.11.4 Image Effect / 70
2.11.5 SQUID Magnetometer / 73
2.11.6 Standard Samples / 73
2.11.7 Background Fields / 73
2.12 Magnetic Circuits and Permeameters / 73
2.12.1 Permeameter / 77
2.12.2 Permanent Magnet Materials / 79
2.13 Susceptibility Measurements / 80
Problems / 85

3 DIAMAGNETISM AND PARAMAGNETISM 87

3.1 Introduction / 87
3.2 Magnetic Moments of Electrons / 87
3.3 Magnetic Moments of Atoms / 89
3.4 Theory of Diamagnetism / 90
3.5 Diamagnetic Substances / 90
3.6 Classical Theory of Paramagnetism / 91
3.7 Quantum Theory of Paramagnetism / 99
3.7.1 Gyromagnetic Effect / 102
3.7.2 Magnetic Resonance / 103
3.8 Paramagnetic Substances / 110
3.8.1 Salts of the Transition Elements / 110
3.8.2 Salts and Oxides of the Rare Earths / 110
3.8.3 Rare-Earth Elements / 110
3.8.4 Metals / 111
3.8.5 General / 111
Problems / 113

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CONTENTS vii

4 FERROMAGNETISM 115
4.1 Introduction / 115
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4.2 Molecular Field Theory / 117
4.3 Exchange Forces / 129
4.4 Band Theory / 133
4.5 Ferromagnetic Alloys / 141
4.6 Thermal Effects / 145
4.7 Theories of Ferromagnetism / 146
4.8 Magnetic Analysis / 147
Problems / 149

5 ANTIFERROMAGNETISM 151
5.1 Introduction / 151
5.2 Molecular Field Theory / 154
5.2.1 Above TN / 154
5.2.2 Below TN / 156
5.2.3 Comparison with Experiment / 161
5.3 Neutron Diffraction / 163
5.3.1 Antiferromagnetic / 171
5.3.2 Ferromagnetic / 171
5.4 Rare Earths / 171
5.5 Antiferromagnetic Alloys / 172
Problems / 173

6 FERRIMAGNETISM 175
6.1 Introduction / 175
6.2 Structure of Cubic Ferrites / 178
6.3 Saturation Magnetization / 180
6.4 Molecular Field Theory / 183
6.4.1 Above Tc / 184
6.4.2 Below Tc / 186
6.4.3 General Conclusions / 189
6.5 Hexagonal Ferrites / 190
6.6 Other Ferrimagnetic Substances / 192
6.6.1 g-Fe2O3 / 192
6.6.2 Garnets / 193
6.6.3 Alloys / 193
6.7 Summary: Kinds of Magnetism / 194
Problems / 195

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viii CONTENTS

7 MAGNETIC ANISOTROPY 197

7.1 Introduction / 197
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7.2 Anisotropy in Cubic Crystals / 198
7.3 Anisotropy in Hexagonal Crystals / 202
7.4 Physical Origin of Crystal Anisotropy / 204
7.5 Anisotropy Measurement / 205
7.5.1 Torque Curves / 206
7.5.2 Torque Magnetometers / 212
7.5.3 Calibration / 215
7.5.4 Torsion-Pendulum Method / 217
7.6 Anisotropy Measurement (from Magnetization Curves) / 218
7.6.1 Fitted Magnetization Curve / 218
7.6.2 Area Method / 222
7.6.3 Anisotropy Field / 226
7.7 Anisotropy Constants / 227
7.8 Polycrystalline Materials / 229
7.9 Anisotropy in Antiferromagnetics / 232
7.10 Shape Anisotropy / 234
7.11 Mixed Anisotropies / 237
Problems / 238

8 MAGNETOSTRICTION AND THE EFFECTS OF STRESS 241

8.1 Introduction / 241
8.2 Magnetostriction of Single Crystals / 243
8.2.1 Cubic Crystals / 245
8.2.2 Hexagonal Crystals / 251
8.3 Magnetostriction of Polycrystals / 254
8.4 Physical Origin of Magnetostriction / 257
8.4.1 Form Effect / 258
8.5 Effect of Stress on Magnetic Properties / 258
8.6 Effect of Stress on Magnetostriction / 266
8.7 Applications of Magnetostriction / 268
8.8 DE Effect / 270
8.9 Magnetoresistance / 271
Problems / 272

9 DOMAINS AND THE MAGNETIZATION PROCESS 275

9.1 Introduction / 275
9.2 Domain Wall Structure / 276
9.2.1 Néel Walls / 283

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CONTENTS ix

9.3 Domain Wall Observation / 284

9.3.1 Bitter Method / 284
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9.3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy / 287
9.3.3 Optical Effects / 288
9.3.4 Scanning Probe; Magnetic Force
Microscope / 290
9.3.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy with
Polarization Analysis / 292
9.4 Magnetostatic Energy and Domain Structure / 292
9.4.1 Uniaxial Crystals / 292
9.4.2 Cubic Crystals / 295
9.5 Single-Domain Particles / 300
9.6 Micromagnetics / 301
9.7 Domain Wall Motion / 302
9.8 Hindrances to Wall Motion (Inclusions) / 305
9.8.1 Surface Roughness / 308
9.9 Residual Stress / 308
9.10 Hindrances to Wall Motion (Microstress) / 312
9.11 Hindrances to Wall Motion (General) / 312
9.12 Magnetization by Rotation / 314
9.12.1 Prolate Spheroid (Cigar) / 314
9.12.2 Planetary (Oblate) Spheroid / 320
9.12.3 Remarks / 321
9.13 Magnetization in Low Fields / 321
9.14 Magnetization in High Fields / 325
9.15 Shapes of Hysteresis Loops / 326
9.16 Effect of Plastic Deformation (Cold Work) / 329
Problems / 332

10 INDUCED MAGNETIC ANISOTROPY 335

10.1 Introduction / 335
10.2 Magnetic Annealing (Substitutional
Solid Solutions) / 336
10.3 Magnetic Annealing (Interstitial
Solid Solutions) / 345
10.4 Stress Annealing / 348
10.5 Plastic Deformation (Alloys) / 349
10.6 Plastic Deformation (Pure Metals) / 352
10.7 Magnetic Irradiation / 354
10.8 Summary of Anisotropies / 357

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