João Simões

George Stilwell

Calving
Management and
Newborn Calf Care
An interactive Textbook for
Cattle Medicine and Obstetrics
Including
SN Flashcards
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Calving Management and Newborn Calf Care
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João Simões • George Stilwell

Calving
Management
and Newborn
Calf Care
An interactive Textbook for Cattle Medicine
and Obstetrics
João Simões George Stilwell
Department of Veterinary Sciences Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
School of Agrarian and Veterinary University of Lisbon
Sciences, University of Trás-os- Lisbon
Montes e alto Douro Portugal
Vila Real
Portugal

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 V

..      Fragments of the Kahun Papyrus. The earliest known writing on veterinary medicine
around 1900 BC from Africa. Original from Petrie Museum, University of London.
(Adapted from Arey (2014) with permission from Elsevier. Arey BJ. A historical intro-
duction to biased signaling. In: Arey BJ (ed.). Biased Signaling in Physiology, Pharma-
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org/10.1016/B978-­0-­12-­411460-­9.00001-­X)
 VII

“Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I remember. Involve me and I learn.”

Uncertain origin. Probable ancient Chinese proverb popularized by

Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)
Foreword 1

As experienced veterinarians and researchers in bovine health man-

agement and reproduction we felt immensely proud to be invited to
foreword a textbook dealing with this highly relevant and decisive,
physiologic (unfortunately, sometimes pathological) phase of calving.
We observe very frequently that the “repro-experts” in the field, or even
in the Academy, pay extensive attention to the reproductive process:
puberty, oestrus cycle, synchronization, insemination, pregnancy diag-
nosis… but our work and specialty in the bovine reproduction is far
from finished after a pregnancy is achieved. However, the next processes
and events in the pregnant cows up to the calving are very often under-
estimated or even ignored.
Parturition is an essential phase in bovine production, both dairy
and beef. Besides the relevance of the newborn itself (it constitutes the
rearing or replacement animals, that is, the future or our herds), in dairy
cattle parturition supposes the entry of the cow into a new lactation.
The consequences of a calving have an important impact on the health
of the cow, its future and, consequently, the economy of the farm.
Therefore, a delivery in good conditions is the basis for the success of
the next pregnancy and the entire lactation, and is thus an essential
event for dairy production. In beef cattle, calving is even more relevant,
since it gives rise to the calf, the single objective of these production
systems. The management of this critical phase is therefore crucial for
both dam and calf(ves).
We also used the term “phase” when referring to calving, because it
is not just the act of the dam delivering its offspring, but also includes
many other processes and the related risk factors. Accordingly, the
authors include all other events, from breeding to the puerperial cow
and the care of the newborn. Consequently, we find in the different
chapters the description of the main anatomical issues of the reproduc-
tive tract and caudal third of the cow, reproductive physiology, preg-
nancy and associated problems, description of risk factors, calving
prodromes, the calving self and calving assistance (dystocia, vaginal
calving, foetotomy and cesarean section), and finally, paying attention
to the newborn calf, but, also, including the care of the puerperal
mother, which is of the utmost relevance.
The layout of this book is extremely easy to follow and didactic. It
includes an accurate selection of images, highlighted relevant conclu-
sions, practical tips, tables, clear, complete and brief contents, and
examples of clinical cases and didactic questions-answers which help to
efficiently gain the soundest knowledge. Last but not least, this book
also contains a recommendation of sound references, visual guides, and
teaching textbooks. This text will help to educate professionals to imple-
ment a proper obstetrical approach, as well as to design, perform, and
evaluate holistic calving protocols in herds, preventing and treating
main problems related to the calving cow. It is likely that this is the text
the authors would have liked to have and could not find while they were
studying, or even when they were addressing a calving challenge in their
 IX
Foreword 1

early daily practice. This book reflects the perfect combination of the
veterinarian excellence in both the practical and scientific fields of buiat-
rics, two qualities that the authors clearly demonstrate. This will become
a reference book for many of our residents in training.
We would like to thank the authors for the honor bestowed on us to
write the foreword of this book, and we encourage them to continue
with this work and teaching philosophy, contributing in this way to
instructing new generations of veterinarians, specialists, and animal sci-
entists.

Susana Astiz
ECBHM President,
Oberschleißheim (Munich), Germany

Raphaël Guatteo
ECBHM Past President
Oberschleißheim (Munich), Germany
Foreword 2

For many years, animal health and welfare has been an increasingly
important part of animal science and livestock production. One reason
for this is that it has a very significant impact on the acceptance of live-
stock production systems by consumers and the economic success of
farms. It is important to note that, most of the time, farmers are con-
fronted first with animal health problems, even before the veterinarians.
Normally the ‘first aid’, such as calving assistance, including moderate
dystocias, is performed by people working on farms or by related pro-
fessionals. Therefore it is essential that these people have the best knowl-
edge to better know the different steps of all related processes, to be able
to implement the best management plans (e.g. for calving) and to use
the best available practices. Only this can ensure the highest possible
level of animal welfare and health. This book by João Simões and
George Stilwell is therefore highly recommended for teachers and stu-
dents of animal science, and for practitioners looking to acquire pro-
found knowledge on the subject of ‘healthy calving’, i.e. unassisted
calving where dam and calf can express their full natural behaviour. As
such, I wish the book every success.

Matthias Gauly
President of the EAAP – The European Federation of Animal Science
Rome, Italy
 XI

Preface

Towards a Healthy Calving

What is a healthy calving? Perhaps it could be better defined as an unas-

sisted calving where a healthy dam and a healthy calf can express their
natural behaviour. This definition involves the ultimate goal of species
survival, which is to ensure a viable offspring and a female able to breed
in a relatively short period, i.e. the continuity of the species. In a natural
environment, calving usually occurs in a quiet and secluded area, away
from potential predators.
Dairy and beef industries are based on extensive or intensive produc-
tion systems, and the breeding management should be adapted to either
system. Farmers and stockpersons are primarily responsible for all
adopted measures, ensuring animal health and welfare. Veterinary
obstetricians should acquire adequate skill and competences to diagno-
sis, treat and prevent dystocia and other reproductive abnormalities.
They are also responsible for designing, taking part in and (re)evaluat-
ing the effectiveness of calving management programmes for cattle
herds.
High-quality academic and professional training of veterinary stu-
dents and veterinary technician students, as well animal production
students, is a basilar element to achieving the objectives of the afore-
mentioned competences.
Throughout over three decades of academic and professional experi-
ence, we have been able to identify the needs and expectations of stu-
dents, veterinarians, farmers and other stakeholders in the cattle
production business. This book aims to contribute to students’ educa-
tion and to help professional people respond to difficulties and doubts
related to calving management, bovine obstetrics and newborn calf
care.
We wish to thank all the people who, directly or indirectly, contrib-
uted to this book. We also wish to thank all farmers, colleagues, stu-
dents and others who, during these last three decades, taught us so
much. We are simply passing on some of this knowledge and experience.
We hope that this book can fulfil its mission: helping people and ani-
mals (cows and calves), by minimizing the adverse effects of dystocia or
complicated pregnancies and thus improving animal health and welfare,
but also farmers’ success.

João Simões
Vila Real, Portugal

George Stilwell
Lisbon, Portugal
Votes for this Book from the
Community

The role of livestock veterinarians is to ensure that increasing consumer

demands for high standards of animal welfare practices are imple-
mented on our farms. Livestock farming requires delivery of a sustain-
able, climate-change sensitive, yet profitable large ruminant production
system that is able to meet the global food security needs of an animal
protein-hungry world. Veterinarians involved in servicing these farming
businesses, irrespective of whether it is encouraging smallholder farm-
ers on subsistence farms in developing countries, or larger family farm-
ing enterprises in developed countries, or even corporate international
agricultural trading entities, certainly need to be equipped with the skills
in obstetrical and calf management that can meet the challenges out-
lined and illustrated in this book. Yet they should also be endeavouring
to ensure that ‘best practice’ management practices are adopted that will
minimise the need for many of the interventions described in the book.
Increasingly, their role should be to assist livestock farming businesses
to continually work towards improving the nutrition, genetics, health,
and biosecurity and other animal husbandry management inputs that
enable our farmed animals to grow and reproduce more efficiently, with
fewer remedial interventions required. With this in mind, this book is a
very useful manual for those veterinarians and aspiring students
involved in provisions of bovine obstetrics and calf management ser-
vices plus preventive health management advice. As the manual con-
tains an abundance of mostly practical yet very educational information,
informed by clinical case situations and excellent illustrations and vid-
eos (available online) that address most of the issues arising in cattle
breeding management, it is highly recommended.
Peter Windsor | DVSc, PhD, BVSc(Hons)
Grad. Cert Ed. Studies (Higher Ed.), DipECSRHM
Professor, Faculty of Veterinary Science
The University of Sydney
Sydney, NSW, Australia
As the title claims, Calving Management and Newborn Calf Care by
João Simões and George Stilwell is a textbook that covers the funda-
mentals of breeding cattle from the beginning of the process all the way
through to the care of the dam and calf after calving. It starts with a
useful overview of the physiology and anatomy of reproduction and
then moves through the problems of mid- and late pregnancy to normal
calving and dystocia and chapters on obstetrical manoeuvres, fetotomy
and caesarean. The inclusion of a chapter focusing on calf care is a
highly welcome addition, as this is an area which is often neglected by
textbooks and similar resources.
Throughout the book illustrations are used to emphasise, clarify and
elucidate the points of the text. There is even a chapter which is mostly
images from obstetrical case studies, which adds considerably to the text
presented in earlier chapters. Case studies and tips feature throughout
the book, making it more than just another textbook. Similarly,
 XIII
Votes for this Book from the Community

­ uestions on the contents form an integral part of each chapter, culmi-

q
nating in a chapter consisting completely of questions.
These additions and alternative approaches, alongside the authors’
clear enthusiasm and expertise, make this a textbook that will be useful
for anyone with an interest in managing the calving cow.
Richard Laven | PhD, BVetMed, MRCVS
Professor, School of Veterinary Science
Massey University Press
Auckland, New Zealand
The productivity of dairy and beef cattle largely depends upon their
normal reproduction, with calving a high-risk period for both cows and
calves. The new book Calving Management and Newborn Calf Care: An
interactive Textbook for Cattle Medicine and Obstetrics attempts to
unravel this complex subject by providing practical guidance and infor-
mation on all aspects of calving management and calf care. It covers the
major diseases and problems and preventative methods, and considers
animal welfare issues. Comprehensive, practical, and easy-to-read, this
unique book is an excellent resource for veterinary students, veterinary
surgeons, and anyone working with cattle. The information is presented
concisely and this, together with many images and videos, highlighted
relevant conclusions, practical tips, brief synopses, and examples of
clinical cases, makes it an ideal immediate source of reference and infor-
mation. The authors’ ability to teach is another plus, with complex
issues explained in an understandable and easy-to-remember way. In
addition, a didactic questions-answers final chapter makes this book an
excellent textbook for veterinary and animal science students. For all
these reasons I recommend this book without reservations.
Pascal Oltenacu | DVM, PhD
Professor, Department of Animal Sciences
University of Florida – IFAS
Gainesville, FL, USA
It is with great pleasure that I recommend this excellent new book
entitled Calving Management and Newborn Calf Care: An interactive
Textbook for Cattle Medicine and Obstetrics. This is a great textbook for
veterinary students and a great resource for early career cattle veterinar-
ians. I particularly like the ‘Important’, ‘Key Points,’ and ‘Tips’ that are
highlighted features within each chapter. The book makes effective use
of real cases which provide the reader with very practical application of
the information and distinguishes this book from many other veterinary
texts as the context helps tremendously with learning, understanding,
and application. The figures, pictures, and drawings are quite useful, as
are the web links to resources. The chapters on calving management
(7 Chap. 3) and on vaginal delivery and newborn care (7 Chap. 5) are
novel and very practical. Finally, the authors’ use of picture cases in the
last chapter provides a great resource for the young veterinarian as they
begin their career.
Todd Duffield | DVM, DVSc
Professor and Chair, Department of Population Medicine
Ontario Veterinary College
University of Guelph
Guelph, ON, Canada
 XV

Contents

1 
Reproductive Anatomy and Physiology
of the Nonpregnant and Pregnant Cow.............................................1
1.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................2
1.2 External Genitalia (Vulva and Vaginal Vestibule).........................................3
1.3 Internal Genitalia (Vagina, Uterus, Oviducts, Ovaries and Ligaments).4
1.4 Pelvis............................................................................................................................7
1.4.1 Anatomy...........................................................................................................................7
1.4.2 Pelvic Shape, Size and Angulation..........................................................................9
1.5 Hypothalamic-Pituitary-­Gonadal Axis.............................................................11
1.6 Oestrous Cycle..........................................................................................................12
1.7 Pregnancy..................................................................................................................15
1.7.1 Placenta............................................................................................................................16
1.7.2 Foetomaternal Interface.............................................................................................18
1.8 Uterine Involution...................................................................................................19
References..................................................................................................................22

2 
Problems and Complications Occurring
in Mid and Late Pregnancy.........................................................................25
2.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................26
2.2 Uterine Torsion.........................................................................................................26
2.2.1 Etiopathogenesis..........................................................................................................27
2.2.2 Clinical Signs and Diagnosis......................................................................................28
2.2.3 Treatment and Prognosis...........................................................................................30
2.3 Vaginal and Cervicovaginal Prolapses.............................................................33
2.3.1 Etiopathogenesis and Diagnosis.............................................................................33
2.3.2 Treatment and Prognosis...........................................................................................34
2.4 Hydrops......................................................................................................................38
2.4.1 Hydrallantois...................................................................................................................38
2.4.2 Hydramnios.....................................................................................................................38
2.5 Abortion.....................................................................................................................40
2.6 Foetal Maceration...................................................................................................42
2.7 Foetal Mummification...........................................................................................44
References..................................................................................................................48

3 Normal Birth (Eutocia)...................................................................................51

3.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................52
3.2 Parturition Induction and Hormonal Changes.............................................52
3.3 Normal Foetal Orientation and Assessment..................................................56
3.4 Preparatory Period and Prodromal External Signs of Parturition..........57
3.5 Stages of Parturition..............................................................................................60
3.5.1 Stage I (Dilatation Phase)..........................................................................................62
3.5.2 Stage II (Foetal Expulsion Phase).............................................................................64
3.5.3 Stage III (Placental Expulsion Phase)......................................................................65
3.6 Pain Caused by Parturition..................................................................................67
3.7 Foetal Physiologic Changes During Parturition...........................................68
3.7.1 Respiratory Changes....................................................................................................70
3.7.2 Cardiovascular Changes.............................................................................................71
XVI Contents

3.7.3 Neuroinhibition and Neurostimulation................................................................72

3.8 Maternal Behaviour................................................................................................74
References..................................................................................................................77

4 
Dystocia and Other Abnormal Occurrences
During Calving....................................................................................................81
4.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................83
4.2 Scoring the Degree of Dystocia..........................................................................83
4.3 Classifying the Causes of Dystocia....................................................................86
4.4 Foetopelvic Disproportion and Absolute Foetal Oversize........................88
4.5 Foetal Maldisposition............................................................................................90
4.6 Foetal Shape Alterations.......................................................................................93
4.7 Inadequate Size of the Birth Canal....................................................................95
4.8 Inadequate Forces...................................................................................................97
4.9 Risk Factors of Dystocia.........................................................................................97
4.9.1 Calf Birth Weight............................................................................................................99
4.9.2 Foetal Sex.........................................................................................................................99
4.9.3 Parity..................................................................................................................................100
4.9.4 Pregnancy Length.........................................................................................................100
4.9.5 Nutrition...........................................................................................................................100
4.9.6 Climate/Season..............................................................................................................102
4.9.7 Other Relevant Risk Factors.......................................................................................102
4.10 Consequences of Dystocia...................................................................................103
4.10.1 Dam....................................................................................................................................103
4.10.2 Calf Trauma and Perinatal Mortality.......................................................................103
4.11 Breeding Cows for Ease Calving.........................................................................106
References..................................................................................................................109

5 Assisted Vaginal Delivery and Newborn Calf Care.....................113

5.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................114
5.2 Calving Settings.......................................................................................................114
5.3 The Appropriate Time for Obstetrical Intervention.....................................115
5.4 Obstetrical Examination.......................................................................................116
5.5 Assisted Foetal Traction........................................................................................121
5.5.1 Stretching the Vulva.....................................................................................................122
5.5.2 Applying Obstetrical Chains or Ropes...................................................................122
5.5.3 Pulling the Foetus.........................................................................................................124
5.6 Immediate Post-calving Assistance of the Dam...........................................127
5.7 Newborn Calf Care..................................................................................................129
5.7.1 Immediate Assistance and Calf Resuscitation....................................................129
5.7.2 Disinfection of the Umbilical Cord..........................................................................134
5.7.3 Colostrum........................................................................................................................135
5.7.4 Soft Tissue and Bone Injuries....................................................................................138
5.7.5 Maladjustment Syndrome.........................................................................................139
References..................................................................................................................143

6 Obstetrical Manoeuvres...............................................................................145
6.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................147
6.2 Foetal Accessibility and Ease of Handling......................................................148
6.2.1 Blocking Cow’s Straining and Myometrial Contractions................................148
 XVII
Contents

6.2.2 Lubrification of the Birth Canal and Foetal Fluid Replacement....................151

6.2.3 Obstetrical Equipment and Its Uses.......................................................................151
6.3 Classification of the Obstetrical Manoeuvres................................................152
6.3.1 Retropulsion or Repulsion.........................................................................................152
6.3.2 Rotation............................................................................................................................152
6.3.3 Version..............................................................................................................................153
6.3.4 Extension..........................................................................................................................154
6.3.5 Forced Traction...............................................................................................................154
6.4 Foetal Mutation: Anterior Presentation...........................................................154
6.4.1 Carpal Flexion (Knee Joint Flexion).........................................................................154
6.4.2 Shoulder-Elbow Flexion or Elbow Lock Posture................................................155
6.4.3 Shoulder Flexion............................................................................................................155
6.4.4 Deviation of the Head.................................................................................................155
6.5 Foetal Mutation: Posterior Presentation.........................................................155
6.5.1 Hock Flexion....................................................................................................................155
6.5.2 Hip Flexion or “Breech Presentation”......................................................................156
6.6 Foetal Mutation: Transverse Presentation......................................................156
6.6.1 Ventro-transverse Presentation...............................................................................157
6.6.2 Dorso-transverse Presentation.................................................................................158
6.7 Foetal Mutation: Ventral and Lateral Positions.............................................158
6.8 Foetal Mutation: Twins..........................................................................................158
References..................................................................................................................161

7 Foetotomy..............................................................................................................163
7.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................164
7.2 Indications and Contraindications of the Foetotomy.................................164
7.3 Foetotomy Techniques..........................................................................................165
7.3.1 Percutaneous Versus Subcutaneous Foetotomy...............................................165
7.3.2 Total Versus Partial Foetotomy.................................................................................165
7.3.3 Equipment and Other Material................................................................................168
7.4 Preparation of the Dam.........................................................................................169
7.4.1 Dam Position and Cleanliness..................................................................................170
7.4.2 Premedication and Epidural Anaesthesia............................................................170
7.4.3 Percutaneous Foetotomy Manipulation...............................................................170
7.5 Cut Sequence of Total Foetotomy: Anterior Presentation.........................171
7.5.1 Amputation of the Head and Neck.........................................................................171
7.5.2 Cut of the Forelimb(s)..................................................................................................173
7.5.3 Abdominal Detruncation and Evisceration.........................................................173
7.5.4 Bisection of the Pelvis..................................................................................................174
7.6 Cut Sequence of Total Foetotomy: Posterior Presentation.......................174
7.7 Partial Foetotomy in Abnormal Postures, Hiplock
and Foetal Abnormalities..................................................................................... 175
7.8 Postoperative Foetotomy Care and Complications.....................................176
References..................................................................................................................178

8 Caesarean Section............................................................................................181
8.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................182
8.2 Indications, Contraindications and Complications
of the Caesarean Section...................................................................................... 182
8.3 Surgical Approaches..............................................................................................183
XVIII Contents

8.3.1 Left and Right Paralumbar Laparotomy................................................................183

8.3.2 Ventral, Ventrolateral and Left Oblique Laparotomy.......................................185
8.4 Facilities, People and Equipment Requirements..........................................186
8.4.1 Facilities on the Farm...................................................................................................186
8.4.2 Material Requirement..................................................................................................186
8.5 Preoperative Cares..................................................................................................187
8.5.1 Premedication and Pre-anaesthesia Assessment..............................................187
8.5.2 Preparation of the Surgical Site................................................................................191
8.6 Local and Regional Anaesthesia........................................................................191
8.6.1 Paravertebral Anaesthesia.........................................................................................192
8.6.2 Inverted-L Anaesthesia...............................................................................................194
8.6.3 Line Block.........................................................................................................................195
8.7 The Caesarean Section Technique.....................................................................195
8.7.1 Left Paralumbar Laparotomy....................................................................................195
8.7.2 Ventral Midline and Paramedian Approaches....................................................202
8.7.3 Ventrolateral Approach...............................................................................................202
8.7.4 Left Oblique Approach................................................................................................202
8.8 Postoperative Care..................................................................................................203
References..................................................................................................................207

9 Puerperal Complications in the Dam...................................................209

9.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................210
9.2 Uterine Prolapse......................................................................................................210
9.2.1 Aetiopathogenesis and Diagnosis..........................................................................210
9.2.2 Treatment.........................................................................................................................211
9.2.3 Prognosis..........................................................................................................................214
9.3 Birth Canal Bruises and Lacerations.................................................................215
9.4 Calving Paralysis......................................................................................................218
9.4.1 Obturator Nerve Paralysis..........................................................................................218
9.4.2 Sciatic Nerve Paralysis.................................................................................................218
9.4.3 Tibial Nerve Paralysis....................................................................................................220
9.4.4 Downer Cow Syndrome..............................................................................................220
9.5 Retained Foetal Membranes...............................................................................223
9.5.1 Aetiopathogenesis and Diagnosis..........................................................................224
9.5.2 Treatment and Prevention.........................................................................................225
9.6 Clinical Metritis........................................................................................................226
9.6.1 Aetiopathogenesis and Diagnosis..........................................................................227
9.6.2 Treatment, Prognosis and Prevention...................................................................230
9.7 Endometritis.............................................................................................................232
References..................................................................................................................235

10 Cows’ Obstetrical Case Studies in Images.........................................239

10.1 Removal of a Mummified Foetus.......................................................................241
10.2 
Suture Retention (Vertical Mattress) on the Vulva
After Cervicovaginal Prolapse Replacement.................................................242
10.3 Using Metallic Vaginal Pins..................................................................................244
10.4 Perosomus Elumbis................................................................................................245
10.5 Spina Bifida................................................................................................................245
10.6 Schistosomus Reflexus in a Twin Pregnancy .................................................246
10.7 Visceral Presentation in a Schistosomus
Reflexus Case............................................................................................................246
 XIX
Contents

10.8 
Vaginal Delivery of a Schistosomus Reflexus
by Foetotomy............................................................................................................247
10.9 Cleft Palate................................................................................................................247
10.10 Kramer Curve Calf Snare: Technical Procedures...........................................248
10.11 Lifting the Downer Cow Using a Bagshaw Hoist..........................................249
10.12 Metallic Skin Staples Use......................................................................................250
10.13 Uterine Prolapse in “Milk Fever” Cow...............................................................251
10.14 Umbilical Hernia......................................................................................................252
10.15 Differential Diagnosis of Uterine Content Alterations
by Transrectal Ultrasonography in Postpartum............................................254
References.......................................................................................................................255

11 
Self-Evaluation in Calving, Obstetrical
and Calf Management Subjects..............................................................257
11.1 Instructions...............................................................................................................258
References.......................................................................................................................276

Supplementary Information
Appendix: Drug Posology for Cows...................................................................278
Reference....................................................................................................................279
Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 281
About the Authors

João Simões
is a professor of Large Animal Medicine and Reproduc-
tion at the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro.
As a clinician and academic, he has dedicated 27 years
of his professional career to veterinary students and pro-
ducers, and collaborated with national and European
animal production associations. On the basis of this
work experience and research, he has written numerous
scientific and technical publications. In recent years, he
has also edited several books and special issues on ani-
mal production and veterinary medicine for scientific
journals.

George Stilwell
worked as a practitioner mainly with farm animals for
over 15 years before joining the Veterinary Medicine
Faculty (FMV) in Lisbon, where he now lectures on
Farm Animal Clinics and Deontology and Bioethics. He
did his PhD on cattle pain management and is a diplo-
mate at the European College of Bovine Health Man-
agement (ECBHM). He leads the Animal Behaviour and
Welfare Research Lab (CIISA-FMV). George has been
involved in various European projects on ruminant
health and welfare (AWIN, Anicare, BovINE) and in
several EFSA working groups. He is a board member of
the Portuguese Veterinary Council and has published
more than 50 peer-reviewed papers and several books on
farm animal health and welfare.
 XXI

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ACTH Adrenocorticotropic hormone

AKAV Akabane virus
AV Aino virus
Bpm Beats per min
BTV Blue tongue virus
BVD Bovine viral diarrhoea
BVDV Bovine virus diarrhoea virus
BW Body weight
CAP Contraction associated proteins
CL Corpus luteum
Co Soccygeal vertebrae
CRH Corticotropin-releasing hormone
C-section Caesarean section
E1 Oestrone
E 1S Oestrone-3-sulphate
E2 Oestradiol
E 2B Oestradiol benzoate
EBVs Estimated breeding values
EPDs Expected progeny differences
FPT Failure in passive transfer
FSH Follicle-stimulating hormone
GnRH Gonadotropin releasing hormone
HPA axis hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
i.m. Intramuscular
i.v. Intravenous
IBR Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis
IFNT Interferon-tau
Ig Immunoglobulin
IP Intraperitoneal
IVF In vitro fertilization
IVM In vitro maturation
IU International units
L Lumbar vertebrae
LH Luteinizing hormone
MHC Major histocompatibility complex
NMS Neonatal maladjustment syndrome
NSAIDs Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
Mpm Movements per min
XXII Abbreviations and Acronyms

P4 Progesterone
PCR Polymerase chain reaction
PGE2 Prostaglandin E2
PGF2α Prostaglandin F2α
PGHS-II Prostaglandin H synthase type II
PM Perinatal mortality
PTA Predicted transmitting ability
REM Rapid eye movement
S Sacral vertebrae
s.c. Subcutaneous
SBV Schmallenberg virus
T Thoracic vertebrae
T3 Triiodothyronine
T4 Thyroxine
USP United States pharmacopeia
 1 1

Reproductive Anatomy
and Physiology
of the Nonpregnant
and Pregnant Cow
Contents

1.1 Introduction – 2

1.2 External Genitalia

(Vulva and Vaginal Vestibule) – 3

1.3 I nternal Genitalia (Vagina, Uterus, Oviducts,

Ovaries and Ligaments) – 4

1.4 Pelvis – 7
1.4.1  natomy – 7
A
1.4.2 Pelvic Shape, Size and Angulation – 9

1.5 Hypothalamic-Pituitary-­Gonadal Axis – 11

1.6 Oestrous Cycle – 12

1.7 Pregnancy – 15
1.7.1  lacenta – 16
P
1.7.2 Foetomaternal Interface – 18

1.8 Uterine Involution – 19

References – 22

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

J. Simões, G. Stilwell, Calving Management and Newborn Calf Care,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68168-5_1
 2 Chapter 1 · Reproductive Anatomy and Physiology of the Nonpregnant and Pregnant Cow

nnLearning Objectives postnatal maturation. This prepubertal period

1 55 To describe the anatomy and morphol- varies significantly, from 9 to 24 months,
ogy of the main reproductive structures. according to breed – puberty in dairy heifers
55 To identify the main physiological and will occur around 6–12 months, while in beef
hormonal mechanisms controlling oes- breeds, it can go up to 24 months. A significant
trus cycle and pregnancy. development of the reproductive system occurs
55 To define reproductive cyclicity, preg- at puberty time under hormonal influence.
nancy, uterine involution and ovarian Puberty begins when the hypothalamus is able
resumption. to produce enough gonadotropin-­ releasing
55 To relate anatomical and physiological hormone (GnRH) to stimulate ovarian activ-
findings with clinical approaches to the ity and oestrogen production. Nevertheless,
reproductive tract. heifer’s development continues until it reaches
full maturity at around 24–26 months of age
for dairy breeds or up to 36 months for beef
1.1 Introduction breeds. At puberty, heifers become cyclic pre-
senting an oestrus cycle of 20–21 days which
Female fertility can be defined as the ability ultimately will lead to mating and to con-
to successfully conceive, deliver and raise a ception. Oestrus cyclicity is interrupted by
healthy offspring and be able to reassume, in pregnancy (gestational anoestrus), until post-
a short period, a new reproductive cycle. The partum ovarian activity resumption (i.e. post-
function of the reproductive system, under partum anoestrus, lactational anoestrus or
hormonal influence, is to ensure these succes- suckling anoestrus). Several conditions, such
sive tasks. Several other organs and systems as persistence of corpus luteum (CL), fol-
(e.g. hormonal organs and musculoskeletal licular or luteal ovarian cysts, intense negative
system) contribute to accomplishing this energy balance, low body condition (cachexia)
function. and others, can cause pathological anoestrus
The reproductive tract is composed by or interfere in the oestrus cycle.
the external (vulva and vaginal vestibule) and Outstanding knowledge of the anatomy
internal (ovaries, oviducts, uterus and vagina) and physiology of the reproductive system is
genitalia. Generally speaking, the ovaries fundamental for the veterinarian and, espe-
have a folliculogenesis function as well as cially, for the obstetrician. The adequate
being responsible for the hormonal support recognition of the reproductive organs and
of pregnancy; the uterus ensure the embry- related structures, as well as their function-
onic and foetal development; and the vagina is ing, allows for proficient reproductive diag-
responsive for the reception of spermatozoids nosis (7 Box 1.1), treatment and prevention
at mating time and transport of the foetus at of pregnancy disorders, dystocias and their
calving time. complications [15]. This introductory chap-
During the prepubertal period, calves grow ter aims to describe the main anatomical and
developing their body systems, including the physiological aspects related to the reproduc-
reproductive tract, which can be defined as tive system in the female Bovidae.
1.2 · External Genitalia (Vulva and Vaginal Vestibule)
3 1

Box 1.1 Physical Examination and Anomalies of the Reproductive Tract

Identification and anamnesis at clinical exam- 55 Position of the genital tract (e.g. retraction
ination of the uterine horns)
55 Identification of the cow (ID, breed, age, 55 Cervix – position, size and mobility (cer-
parity and lactation) vix open/closure; lacerated; purulent dis-
55 Reproductive history of the herd (breed- charge; double; absent)
ing program, pregnancy losses, abortion 55 Uterus/uterine horns – position, size and
rates, reproductive indexes, calving diffi- contents (distended: unilateral or bilateral;
culty and reproductive diseases’ incidence) contents, fluid, emphysematous, bones-
55 Reproductive history of the cow (oestrus: foetal maceration and amorphous mass –
irregular or not observed; date of last calv- foetal mummification; uterine prolapse;
ing and last observed oestrus; increased mural swelling; abnormal size and shape;
aggression or nymphomania; inter-oestrus signs of pregnancy and foetal life; abor-
interval, <18 days or >24 days) tion; stillbirth)
55 Ovaries – position, size (ovarian struc-
General physical examination (register: body tures: follicles, number, size and consis-
condition score; behaviour; overdeveloped tency; corpora lutea, position, size and
neck muscles; signs of virilism; prominence of age; presence of ovarian cysts – size and
tail head; relaxed pelvic ligaments; bilateral possible type)
ventral abdominal enlargement) 55 Oviducts (enlarged and palpable; thick-
Inspection of the vulva and vaginal vestibule ened)
55 Vulva position and conformation (sloping
conformation; swollen; lacerated; dis- Vaginal examination (vaginoscopy)
charge: colour, quantity and consistency – 55 Vaginal walls (vaginal discharge: purulent,
blood, creamy, haemorrhagic, foul smelling blood creamy, haemorrhagic, mucoid,
black-brown and foul smelling; placental translucid; urine in anterior vagina, vagi-
debris after calving) nal mucosa erosions, granulation, pustu-
55 Efficiency of the vulvar seal lar, necrotic; peri-vaginal swelling; vaginal
55 Enlarged clitoris and abundant vulvar tuft length; vaginal contents; colour and con-
of hair formation of the external cervix Os; cervi-
cal secretions; vaginal prolapse)
Transrectal examination (manual and ultraso-
nographic evaluation)

1.2  xternal Genitalia (Vulva

E and serve as the first physical barrier for bac-
and Vaginal Vestibule) terial contamination. Their union forms the
dorsal and ventral commissures (. Fig. 1.1).
External genitalia comprise the vulva that The clitoris is a sensitive structure housed in
includes the labia (labia majora and labia the ventral commissure.
minora) and (dorsal and ventral) commis- The vestibule is 10–12 cm in length. In
sures, clitoris, vestibule and vestibular glands. its junction with the vagina, the external
The vulvar labia should appose completely urethral orifice emerges ventrally. In heif-
 4 Chapter 1 · Reproductive Anatomy and Physiology of the Nonpregnant and Pregnant Cow

In heifers, the uterus is fully located in the pelvic

1 cavity. During pregnancy, its volume increases
widely filling the ventral and caudal part of the
abdominal cavity. After calving, it takes about
40 days for the uterus to regain its original size
(uterine involution). The size of the nonpreg-
nant uterus tends to increase slightly after each
successive calving (. Fig. 1.2).
(a) Cervix

The cervix is a tightly closed tubular sphinc-

ter with a length of approximately 10 cm and
a diameter of 3 cm. It is composed of dense
connective tissue presenting significant collag-
enous tissue with a small amount of smooth
muscle. Usually, it shows two to five internal
annular rings or folds and well-­delimited inter-
nal Os (internal orifice of the uterus in which
the uterine body communicates with the cervi-
cal canal) and external Os (external orifice of
the uterus in which the cervical canal commu-
..      Fig. 1.1 Vulva and perineal region of the cow. nicates with the anterior vagina). The cervix
(Adapted from Constantinescu [3] with permission from has no glands. However, several calyciform
John Wiley and Sons)
cells are located between the cervical rings,
which secrete thick mucus responsible for
ers, the hymen (more or less pronounced) is selection and transport of spermatozoids. The
also observed in this area before mating has cervix ensures an aseptic uterine environment
occurred. The vulvo-vaginal sphincter mus- during the oestrus cycle, pregnancy (cervical
cle prevents urine reflux into the vagina and plug) and gives passage to the foetus during
acts as a second physical barrier for bacterial parturition. The cervix slightly opens during
contamination. Bartholin’s glands secrete oestrus and up to 20 cm or more at calving. At
a viscous fluid that is drained through the this time, foetal pressure on the cervix stimu-
Gartner’s ducts and tubes, providing lubrica- lates its sensitive nerve fibres so that oxytocin
tion during oestrus. is released from the anterior pituitary causing
contraction of the myometrium (Ferguson’s
reflex).
1.3 I nternal Genitalia (Vagina, (b) Body
Uterus, Oviducts, Ovaries
and Ligaments) The body of the uterus is short measuring
approximately 3–4 cm in length. It is the con-
Vagina The vagina is a long virtual tube (25– nection between the two uterine horns and the
30 cm in length) which increases in size during cervix.
pregnancy. The vaginal vestibule caudally (c) Uterine Horns
delimits it. Cranially, the vaginal fornix sur-
rounds the cervix. Sensitive nerve fibres are The length of the uterine horns is about
located in the dorsal region of the vagina which 35–40 cm (. Fig. 1.3). It is a funnel-shaped
stimulates abdominal muscles contractions structure distally attaching to the oviduct. Ova
during parturition. is fecundated on the oviduct and implanted in
one of the uterine horns which progressively
Uterus The uterus is formed by three tubular increases in size to house the foetus during
structures: the cervix, the body and two horns. whole pregnancy.
1.3 · Internal Genitalia (Vagina, Uterus, Oviducts, Ovaries and Ligaments)
5 1

..      Fig. 1.2 The topography of the female genitalia. Legend: Median section. m muscle, Rt right. (Adapted from
Adapted from McCracken et al. [14] with permission from John Wiley and Sons)

The uterine wall has three layers: the endo- The myometrium consists of two layers of
metrium, myometrium and perimetrium. The smooth muscle fibres – the circular and the
endometrium is a mucous membrane present- longitudinal layer. A vascular layer is found
ing a stratified columnar epithelium. Tubular between these two muscle sheets. Significant
glands and 70–140 caruncles are also present. hyperplasia and hypertrophy of the muscle
The caruncles are distributed irregularly or fibres occur during pregnancy. Myometrial
in columns on the myometrial surface. Their contractions facilitate sperm transport from
shape are ovoid, and the size varies from less the cervix to the oviduct during oestrus. It
than 1.5 mm to approximately 12 × 4 × 2.5 cm also allows for foetus alignment and expul-
in the nonpregnant and pregnant uterus, sion during calving. Both sympathetic and
respectively. Under hormonal influence, mainly parasympathetic nervous systems innervate
during proestrus, oestrus and pregnancy, the myometrium.
the endometrium vascularity and thickness
increase. The endometrium also produces and Oviducts Each oviduct has approximately a
segregates prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) during length of 25 cm. It is formed by the utero-tubal
the oestrus cycle and at calving. junction, isthmus, ampullary-isthmic junction,
 6 Chapter 1 · Reproductive Anatomy and Physiology of the Nonpregnant and Pregnant Cow

..      Fig. 1.3 Gross anatomy of the reproductive organs. Legend: Top, overall (dorsal) view; button, ovary and ovi-
duct morphology. (Adapted from Constantinescu [3] with permission from John Wiley and Sons)
1.4 · Pelvis
7 1
ampulla and infundibulum. The fimbriae of Tip
the oviduct infundibulum (funnel-shaped) sur-
round the oviduct. The ovarian bursa may From the fourth month of pregnancy, the
facilitate the recovery of the ova by the infun- uterine artery ipsilateral to the pregnant
dibulum and its fimbria, keeping them from uterine horn can be easily detected by
falling into the body cavity. It is within the transrectal palpation. The fremitus of this
ampulla that fertilization occurs. uterine artery serves as pregnancy diagno-
sis, and its calibre will indicate pregnancy
Spermatozoa attach to the isthmus wall, and time. In case of twins, fremitus will be per-
this is where it is thought that many physi- ceived in both uterine arteries.
ological changes occur to their membranes,
which are essential for sperm capacitation.
Sympathetic Nervous System The sympathetic
Ovaries Each ovary is ovoid shaped, measur-
nervous fibres emerge from the last thoracic
ing around 3.5 × 2.5 × 1.5 cm. They present a
and the first lumbar segments of the spinal
well-vascularized medulla and a cortex where
cord and reach the myometrium through the
tertiary follicles and corpora lutea emerge. The
hypogastric nerve. Both alpha and beta adreno-
size of the ovary varies according to the number
receptors are present in the smooth muscles of
and size of these superficial structures. The ova-
the myometrium. The alpha adrenoreceptors
ries ensure oogenesis, as well as the hormonal
are mediated by noradrenaline causing excita-
production (namely oestrogen and P4) during
tion. Inversely, the beta adrenoreceptors are
the oestrus cycle and pregnancy.
mediated by adrenaline (epinephrine) causing
inhibition. If noradrenaline storage granules
Uterine and Ovarian Ligaments The mesovar-
on postganglionic sympathetic neurons are
ium is a serous membrane supporting each
emptied during the pregnancy, it cannot stimu-
ovary. It is parietally attached next to the pelvis
late the smooth muscles. So, myometrial con-
given the spiral conformation of the nonpreg-
tractions during labour can be inhibited by
nant uterine horns. Its cranial border is called
adrenalin. This can occur by central nervous
suspensory ligament of the ovary. Laterally, the
stimulation of the adrenal gland, e.g. response
mesovarium originates the mesosalpinx which
to environmental stressful stimuli. As a conse-
is attached to the oviducts. Caudally, it forms
quence, the first stage of parturition can be
the mesometrium, which is attached to the
delayed. This inhibition is more evident in
uterine horns. All three ligaments constitute the
mares than in cows.
broad ligament of the uterus. The mesosalpinx
and mesovarium also originate the ovarian
bursa. The ovarian bursa is wide and open but
closely related with the oviduct. 1.4 Pelvis

The intercornual ligament links caudally both 1.4.1 Anatomy

uterine horns.
The pelvis (pelvic basin or pelvic bowl)
Vascularization The vascularization of the assumes a craniocaudal direction and is
internal genitalia consists of (1) a pair (left and formed by the hard (bones) and soft (soft tis-
right) of ovarian arteries which supply the ova- sues) parts of the birth canal (7 Box 1.2 and
ries, oviducts and cranial part of the uterus; (2) . Fig. 1.4). The pelvis girdle is composed
a pair of uterine arteries which supply most by the pelvic symphysis junction of the two
parts of the uterus; and (3) a pair of vaginal hip bones. Each hip bone is the fusion of the
arteries which supply the vagina. ilium, pubis and ischium.
 8 Chapter 1 · Reproductive Anatomy and Physiology of the Nonpregnant and Pregnant Cow

..      Fig. 1.4 Left lateral view of the cow’s skeleton. Leg- vertebra, b bone. (Modified from McCracken et al. [14]
end: The pelvis has around 30° inclination craniocau- with permission from John Wiley and Sons)
dally. C cervical vertebra, T thoracic vertebra, L lumbar

In the cranial pelvic opening (Apertura

pelvis cranialis), the pelvic brim (outer bony 55 Blood vessels (supplied by the internal
edges) defines the circumference of the pelvic iliac artery).
inlet. Dorsally, the pelvic brim is delimited by 55 Nerves: Sciatic (bilateral superior),
the body of the first sacred vertebra and the pudendal and obturator (bilateral infe-
inferior part of the sacroiliac joint. Although rior) and the sympathetic pelvic plexus.
ossification of the symphyseal cartilage starts 55 Lymph nodes (deep inguinal and sacral
at 13–14 months of age [1], the sacroiliac liga- lymph nodes).
ment slightly relaxes at calving time. Due to 55 Pelvic diaphragm: Pelvic fascia, deep
its bony nature, the pelvic brim size represents and superficial perineal fascia and
the most significant limiting factor to the pas- superficial and deep muscles of the
sage of the foetus at calving time. The sacrum, perineum.
the sacrotuberous ligament and the ischial
(ischiatic) arch border the caudal pelvic aper- Pelvic joints
ture (Apertura pelvis caudalis). 55 Intrinsic
–– Sacroiliac.
–– Coccygeal vertebrae (first three
joints).
Box 1.2 Constitution of the Pelvis –– Acetabulum.
Hard part (bones) –– Ischiopubic symphysis.
55 Floor: Pubis (called pelvic floor). 55 Extrinsic
55 Lateral wall: Ilium and ischium. –– Lumbosacral.
55 Roof: Sacrum (five vertebras) + first –– Coxo-femoral or hip joint.
three coccygeal vertebrae (Co1-Co3).

Soft part
55 Ligaments: Sacrotuberous and sacroiliac.
55 Cartilages (symphyseal cartilage).
1.4 · Pelvis
9 1
>>Important 1.4.2  elvic Shape, Size
P
During labour, both obturator nerves are and Angulation
exposed to trauma (foetal pressure) at its
pelvic trajectory at sacroiliac joint level and The pelvis is characterized as dolichopelvic.
close to the obturator foramen. The obtu- The pelvic brim is oval and laterally flattened.
rator nerve innervates adductor muscles, The sacroiliac (diagonal) diameter is larger than
namely, the external obturator, pectineus the bi-iliac (horizontal) diameter (. Fig. 1.5
and gracilis muscles, which can be desensi- and . Table 1.1). This is an important aspect
tized. to consider during foetal manipulation and

..      Fig. 1.5 The pelvic structures. Legend: Top, hard coccygeus muscles) complete the boundary; bottom,
part (bones) of the pelvis. (1) Pelvic inlet: the cranial soft part of the pelvis. Schematic illustration of the
opening of the pelvis delimited by anterior iliac and sacrosciatic ligament and the structures passing through
pubis portions and the first sacral segment (S1). (2) Pel- the greater and lesser ischiatic foramina, such as arteries
vic outlet: the caudal opening of the pelvis delimited by (a.), veins (v.), muscles (m.) and nerves (n.). Left lateral
posterior pubic symphysis portion, ischial tuberosities view. (Modified from Mansour et al. [13] with permis-
and the last sacral segment (S5). The posterior sacrotu- sion from John Wiley & Sons)
berous ligaments and pelvic diaphragm (levator ani and