Biology General Knowledge Notes
1 Introduction to Biology
Biology is the scientific study of life and living organisms, encompassing their struc-
ture, function, growth, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. It is a vast field divided
into numerous sub-disciplines such as botany, zoology, microbiology, and ecology. These
notes provide a comprehensive overview of key biological concepts, tailored for general
knowledge and foundational understanding.
2 Cell Biology
2.1 The Cell: Basic Unit of Life
Cells are the fundamental units of life. All living organisms are composed of one or more
cells, which perform essential functions like metabolism, growth, and reproduction.
• Prokaryotic Cells: Simple, smaller cells lacking a nucleus (e.g., bacteria).
• Eukaryotic Cells: Complex cells with a nucleus and organelles (e.g., plant and
animal cells).
2.2 Cell Structure and Organelles
Key organelles in eukaryotic cells include:
• Nucleus: Stores genetic material (DNA) and controls cellular activities.
• Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, producing energy via ATP.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Synthesizes proteins (rough ER) and lipids (smooth
ER).
• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, packages, and transports proteins.
• Lysosomes: Contain enzymes for digestion of waste materials.
• Chloroplasts: Found in plant cells, responsible for photosynthesis.
2.3 Cell Division
• Mitosis: Process of cell division producing two identical daughter cells, essential
for growth and repair.
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• Meiosis: Specialized division in reproductive cells, producing gametes (sperm and
egg) with half the chromosome number.
3 Genetics
3.1 DNA and Genes
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the hereditary material in most organisms, carrying
instructions for building proteins.
• Structure: Double helix composed of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine,
guanine).
• Genes: Segments of DNA that code for specific traits.
3.2 Mendelian Genetics
Gregor Mendels experiments with pea plants established the principles of inheritance:
• Law of Segregation: Each individual has two alleles for a trait, which segregate
during gamete formation.
• Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits are inherited inde-
pendently.
• Law of Dominance: Dominant alleles mask recessive ones in heterozygous indi-
viduals.
3.3 Mutations
Mutations are changes in DNA sequences, which can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful.
Examples include point mutations and chromosomal mutations.
4 Evolution
4.1 Natural Selection
Proposed by Charles Darwin, natural selection is the process where organisms better
adapted to their environment survive and reproduce more successfully.
• Survival of the Fittest: Organisms with favorable traits pass them to offspring.
• Adaptation: Traits that enhance survival and reproduction.
4.2 Evidence of Evolution
• Fossil Records: Show changes in species over time.
• Homologous Structures: Similar structures in different species (e.g., human arm
and whale flipper).
• Genetic Evidence: DNA similarities among species indicate common ancestry.
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5 Human Physiology
5.1 Circulatory System
The circulatory system transports oxygen, nutrients, and wastes.
• Heart: Pumps blood through arteries, veins, and capillaries.
• Blood: Composed of red blood cells (carry oxygen), white blood cells (fight infec-
tion), and platelets (clotting).
5.2 Respiratory System
Responsible for gas exchange (oxygen in, carbon dioxide out).
• Lungs: Main organs where alveoli facilitate gas exchange.
• Diaphragm: Muscle aiding in breathing.
5.3 Digestive System
Breaks down food into nutrients for absorption.
• Stomach: Secretes acid and enzymes to digest proteins.
• Small Intestine: Primary site for nutrient absorption.
• Liver: Produces bile, detoxifies substances.
5.4 Nervous System
Controls body functions via electrical impulses.
• Brain: Central control unit.
• Neurons: Cells transmitting signals.
6 Plant Biology
6.1 Photosynthesis
Plants convert sunlight into chemical energy.
light
• Equation: 6CO2 + 6H2 O −−→ C6 H12 O6 + 6O2
• Chlorophyll: Pigment absorbing light energy.
6.2 Plant Structure
• Roots: Absorb water and nutrients.
• Stems: Support and transport.
• Leaves: Primary site of photosynthesis.
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7 Ecology
7.1 Ecosystems
An ecosystem includes all living organisms and their physical environment.
• Biomes: Large ecological areas (e.g., forests, deserts).
• Food Chains: Show energy transfer (producers consumers decomposers).
7.2 Biodiversity
The variety of life in an ecosystem, crucial for stability and resilience.
• Threats: Habitat destruction, pollution, climate change.
• Conservation: Protecting species and habitats.
8 Microbiology
8.1 Bacteria
Single-celled prokaryotes, some beneficial (e.g., gut flora), others pathogenic.
• .Shapes: Bacillus (rod), coccus (spherical), spirillum (spiral).
• : Drugs targeting bacterial infections.
8.2 Viruses
Non-living outside a host, viruses infect cells to replicate.
• Structure: DNA or RNA encased in a protein coat.
• Examples: Influenza, HIV.
9 Biotechnology
9.1 DNA Technology
Techniques like PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) and gel electrophoresis manipulate
DNA for research and medical applications.
• CRISPR: Gene-editing tool for precise DNA modifications.
• Cloning: Producing genetically identical organisms.
9.2 Applications
• Medicine: Developing vaccines, gene therapy.
• Agriculture: Genetically modified crops for higher yields.
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10 Taxonomy
The classification of organisms into hierarchical groups:
• Levels: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.
• Binomial Nomenclature: Two-part naming (e.g., Homo sapiens).
11 Human Health and Diseases
11.1 Common Diseases
• Infectious: Caused by pathogens (e.g., tuberculosis, malaria).
• Non-infectious: Genetic or lifestyle-related (e.g., diabetes, cancer).
11.2 Immune System
Protects against diseases.
• Antibodies: Proteins targeting specific pathogens.
• Vaccines: Stimulate immunity without causing disease.
12 Key Biological Processes
12.1 Metabolism
Sum of chemical reactions sustaining life.
• Catabolism: Breaks down molecules for energy.
• Anabolism: Builds complex molecules.
12.2 Homeostasis
Maintaining stable internal conditions (e.g., temperature, pH).
• Examples: Sweating to cool the body, insulin regulating blood sugar.
13 Conclusion
These notes cover fundamental biology topics, from cell structure to ecosystems, providing
a solid foundation for general knowledge. Understanding these concepts helps appreciate
the complexity and interconnectedness of life.
