. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Olympiad Training for Individual Study

Symmetric Polynomials
ft. Vieta’s polynomials

Evan Chen《陳誼廷》
3 December 2024

》
BAW-SYMPOLY

廷
誼 se
陳 U
n《 al
h e rn
C nt e
n
a , I
Ev I S
y
B O T

OTIS, © Evan Chen, internal use only. Artwork contributed by Rohan Dhillon.

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 Evan Chen《陳誼廷》 (OTIS, updated 2024-12-03) Symmetric Polynomials

§1 Lecture notes
A lot of the intuition you’ll get from this lecture is hard to state formally, but there are a
few results you should be aware of off the bat.

• Vieta: the coefficients of a polynomial are symmetric sums.

• Factoring theorem: again two things here.

(a) If P (x) is a polynomial with root r, then x − r divides P . Easy.
(b) If P (x, y, . . . ) is a polynomial vanishing whenever x = y (meaning P is
identically zero whenever x = y), then x − y divides P .

§1.1 Fundamental theorem of elementary symmetric polynomials

》
More involved is the fundamental theorem of symmetric polynomials: Let

廷
P (x1 , . . . , xn ) be a polynomial which is symmetric. Consider the so-called Vieta ba-
sis:

誼 se
X
σ1 = xi

陳 U
i
X

《 al
σ2 = xi xj
i<j

n
e rn
X
σ3 = xi xj xk

h
i<j<k
..

C e
.

n nt
σn = x1 . . . xn

a , I
(These are just the formulas you get from Vieta formulas, without the pesky signs.)

Ev I S
Theorem 1.1 (Fundamental theorem of elementary symmetric polynomials)

y T
Any symmetric polynomial P (x1 , . . . , xn ) can be expressed uniquely as a polynomial

B O
in σ1 , . . . , σn . That is,

P (x1 , . . . , xn ) = Q(σ1 , . . . , σn )

for some unique polynomial Q.

Moreover, if P has integer/rational/real coefficients then so does Q.

As an example of the previous theorem, this means that it should possible to express
a3 + b3 + c3 + d3 in terms of the symmetric sums σ1 = a + b + c + d, σ2 = ab + bc + cd +
da + ac + bd, σ3 = abc + bcd + cda + dab, σ4 = abcd. And indeed it is:

a3 + b3 + c3 + d3 = (a + b + c + d)3 − 3(a + b + c + d)(ab + bc + cd + da + ac + bd)

+ 3(abc + bcd + cda + dab)
= σ13 − 3σ1 σ2 + 3σ3 .

This means that the Vieta basis is sort of the natural one in which one can “force” a
canonical representation of a symmetric polynomial.

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 Evan Chen《陳誼廷》 (OTIS, updated 2024-12-03) Symmetric Polynomials

§1.2 Factoring multivariate polynomials

When you have a single variable polynomial P (t) with a root at t = r, then you know
that t − r is a factor of P , and depending on context you can sometimes use this to
extract factorizations of P .
A similar statement is true for multivariate polynomials given a linear relation like
P = 0 when a = b or P = 0 when a + b + c = 0. (Although we won’t use it, a slightly
more technical result is true for higher-degree relations; https://math.stackexchange.
com/a/463935/229197 if interested.) But when symmetric, you enjoy a lot of additional
symmetry which you can often exploit.
For example, consider the polynomial

P (a, b, c) = a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc.

》
Notice that P has the property that it vanishes (i.e. equals zero) whenever a + b + c = 0.
This means that P should factor as the product of a + b + c and a degree-2 symmetric

廷
polynomial. In other words, we can write

誼 se
P (a, b, c) = a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c) λ1 (a2 + b2 + c2 ) + λ2 (ab + bc + ca) .

陳 U
Now you can deduce the constants λ1 and λ2 by examining just a few particular coefficients.
For example, equating the a3 coefficient terms on each side gives

n《 al a3 = a · (λ1 a2 ) =⇒ λ1 = 1

h e rn
while equating the abc term gives

C t e
−3abc = λ2 (a · bc + b · ca + c · ab) =⇒ λ2 = −1.

n
a , I n
§1.3 Newton sums, classical form

v S
In the case where we want to express r1d + · · · + rnd in terms of the Vieta coefficients, the

E I
Newton Sums lets us do this explicitly (or at least recursively). This doesn’t come up

y T
too often but is nice to know.

B O
Theorem 1.2 (Newton sums)
Consider the polynomial

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0

with complex roots r1 , r2 , . . . , rn .

For each d ≥ 0, define pd = r1d + r2d + · · · + rnd . Then

0 = an p1 + an−1
= an p2 + an−1 p1 + an−2 · 2
= an p3 + an−1 p2 + an−2 p1 + an−3 · 3
= an p4 + an−1 p3 + an−2 p2 + an−3 p1 + an−4 · 4
..
.

where we by convention let ai = 0 if i < 0.

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 Evan Chen《陳誼廷》 (OTIS, updated 2024-12-03) Symmetric Polynomials

To be concrete, consider the polynomial x3 + 7x2 + 14x + 8, say with roots u, v, w.

If we want to compute u3 + v 3 + w3 , then the Newton sums identities let us do this
recursively by
0 = 1 · p1 + 7 · 1 =⇒ p1 = −7
0 = 1 · p2 + 7 · p1 + 14 · 2 =⇒ p2 = 21
0 = 1 · p3 + 7 · p2 + 14 · p1 + 8 · 3 =⇒ p3 = −73.

§1.4 Appendix: Obscure forms of Newton sums (just for curiosity, not
actually useful AFAIK)
If you like determinants, you can use the following formula instead:

》
Theorem 1.3 (Newton’s identities in Cauchy form)

廷
Let σi be as defined last section. For each d ≥ 0, we have

誼 se
 
σ1 1 0 0 0 ... 0 0
 2σ 2 σ1 1 0 0 ... 0 0

陳 U
 

 3σ 3 σ2 σ1 1 0 ... 0 0 
pd = det  4σ 4 σ3 σ2 σ1 1 ... 0 0


《 al
.
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 

. . . . . . .


n

 
(d − 1)σd−1 σd−2 σd−3 σd−4 σd−5 . . . σ1 1

e rn
dσd σd−1 σd−2 σd−3 σd−4 . . . σ2 σ1

C h e
Note that this formula uses σi (symmetric sums) whereas the last one uses ai (coefficients);

t
for monic polynomials, these are related by σi = (−1)i an−i . So to redo the previous

n I n
example we would write

va ,
 
−7 1 0

E S
p3 = det  2 · 14 −7 1  = −73.

I
3 · (−8) 14 −7

y T
And if you like sums, or you just want the explicit polynomial:

B OTheorem 1.4 (Newton’s identities as an explicit sum)

Let σi be as defined last section. For each d > 0, we have

(−1)s
 
X s
pd = (−1)d · d · σ r1 σ r2 . . . σdrd
s r1 , . . . , rd 1 2
r1 +2r2 +···+drd =d
ri ≥0

where s = r1 + r2 + · · · + rd for brevity.

If you don’t like multinomial coefficients, you can also write out the factorials:
X (−1)s (s − 1)! r1 r2
pd = (−1)d · d · σ σ . . . σdrd .
r1 !r2 ! . . . rd ! 1 2
r1 +2r2 +···+drd =d
ri ≥0

You do not have to know either of these obscure forms as they are not used often.
(Heck, I didn’t even know either existed until after I graduated college.) They’re included
here as a reference, not as mandatory reading.

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 Evan Chen《陳誼廷》 (OTIS, updated 2024-12-03) Symmetric Polynomials

§1.5 Examples
Factoring theorem example:

Example 1.5
Show that a4 + b4 ≥ a3 b + ab3 for a, b > 0.

Z68B4C1C Walkthrough. For the purposes of this example, assume you don’t know AM-GM or
Muirhead, etc. The goal is to show how to solve the problem with “bare hands”.
We will prove a4 + b4 − a3 b − ab3 ≥ 0.
(a) Noting that equality holds when a = b, what factor must divide the left-hand side?
(b) Imagine fixing b, and treating the left-hand side as a polynomial P (a). It has a

》
root at a = b. If you also know that P ≥ 0 everywhere, what kind of root must
that root be?

廷
(c) Use this to factor the left-hand side completely. (There should be three factors.)

誼 se
The condition a, b > 0 isn’t actually used here but makes things simpler to think
about.

陳 U
Example 1.6 (AIME 2010)

n《 al
Compute the maximum possible value of a3 + b3 + c3 over all real numbers (a, b, c)

e rn
satisfying

h
a3 = abc + 2

C t e
b3 = abc + 6

n I n
c3 = abc + 20.

va ,
Walkthrough.

S
10AIME9

E I
(a) Express a3 + b3 + c3 in terms of abc. Thus it suffices to compute abc.

y T
(b) Find a way to get a quadratic equation in abc.

B O
(c) Solve for abc and use it to get the final answer.

Example 1.7 (Evan Chen, Fall 2015)

Let a, b, c be the distinct roots of the polynomial

P (x) = x3 − 10x2 + x − 2015.

The cubic polynomial Q(x) is monic and has distinct roots bc − a2 , ca − b2 , ab − c2 .

What is the sum of the coefficients of Q?

15OMOF12 Walkthrough. This can be done with brute force, by actually finding Q, but there is a
trick to it.
(a) Show the answer is given by Q(1) = (1 − bc + a2 )(1 − ca + b2 )(1 − ab + c2 ).
(b) Show that ab + bc + ca = 1.
(c) Prove that Q(1) = 2015000.

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 Evan Chen《陳誼廷》 (OTIS, updated 2024-12-03) Symmetric Polynomials

Example 1.8 (USAMO 1975/3)

If P (x) denotes a polynomial of degree n such that P (k) = k
k+1 for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n,
determine P (n + 1).

75AMO3 Walkthrough. The main idea is to define Q(x) = (x + 1)P (x) − x.

(a) Compute deg Q (in terms of n).

(b) Determine the roots of Q.

(c) Use (a) and (b) to establish the factorization, of Q up to a constant factor.

(d) Show that Q(−1) = 1 and use this to conclude that the leading coefficient of Q is
equal to

》
(−1)n+1
c= .

廷
(n + 1)!

(e) Compute Q(n + 1).

誼 se
(f) Prove that P (n + 1) = n+1+(−1)n+1
.

陳 U
n+2

《 al
Example 1.9 (HMMT 2023 T2)

n
Prove there don’t exist pairwise distinct complex numbers a, b, c, and d such that

h e rn a3 − bcd = b3 − cda = c3 − dab = d3 − abc.

C t e
23HMMTT2 Walkthrough. There is a brute-force approach along the lines of taking

n
a , I n
a3 − b3 = bcd − cda

v S
and factoring out the common a − b.

y E I
(a) Use this idea to show that a2 + b2 = c2 + d2 .

T
B O
(b) Similarly, show that a2 + c2 = b2 + d2 , and a2 + d2 = b2 + c2 .
However, I think the following Vieta-based approach is more conceptually nice, since it
does not require any factoring and obviously generalizes to more variables.
(c) Let’s assume abcd 6= 0. By scaling, show that we may in fact assume abcd = 1.

(d) Conclude that we may define the number k by

1 1
k := a3 − = · · · = d3 − .
a d

(e) Let
P (X) = (X − a)(X − b)(X − c)(X − d).
Find the coefficients of P in terms of k.

(f) Derive a contradiction by noticing P (0) = −1.

(g) Weed out the edge case abcd = 0 we didn’t address earlier. This gives a complete
solution to the problem.

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 Evan Chen《陳誼廷》 (OTIS, updated 2024-12-03) Symmetric Polynomials

§2 Practice Problems
Instructions: Solve [40♣]. If you have time, solve [52♣]. Problems with red weights are mandatory.

The Law speaks: you are cast out. You are un-dwarf. I AM
A WITNESS!

Angarthing in The Hammer of Thursagan,

from The Battle for Wesnoth

08AIME7
[2♣] Problem 1 (Added by Eric Wang). Let r, s, and t be the three roots of the
equation
8x3 + 1001x + 2008 = 0.

》
Compute (r + s)3 + (s + t)3 + (t + r)3 .
73AMO4

廷
[2♣] Problem 2 (USAMO 1973/4). Determine all triples (x, y, z) of complex numbers
satisfying

誼 se
x + y + z = 3,

陳 U
x + y 2 + z 2 = 3,
2

《 al
x3 + y 3 + z 3 = 3.

n
96CAN1
[2♣] Problem 3 (Canada 1996, added by Haozhe Yang). If α, β, and γ are the roots of

e rn
x3 − x − 1 = 0, compute 1+α
1−α + 1−β + 1−γ .
1+β 1+γ

h
16HMNTGUTS27

C e
[2♣] Problem 4 (HMMT November 2016 Guts, added by Rohan Bodke). Let r1 , r2 , r3 ,

t
r4 be the complex roots of the polynomial x4 − 4x3 + 8x2 − 7x + 3. Calculate

n
a , I n
r12 r22 r32 r42

v
+ + + .
r22 + r32 + r42 r12 + r32 + r42 r12 + r22 + r42 r12 + r22 + r32

E I S
NIMO85
[2♣] Problem 5 (NIMO #8). Let x, y, z be complex numbers satisfying

y T
x2 + 5y = 10x

B O
y 2 + 5z = 10y
z 2 + 5x = 10z.

Find the sum of all possible values of z.

84AMO1
[2♣] Problem 6 (USAMO 1984/1). The product of two of the four roots of the quartic
equation x4 − 18x3 + kx2 + 200x − 1984 = 0 is −32. Determine k.
JASONMAO
[3♣] Required Problem 7. The cubic x3 − 7x2 + 3x + 2 has irrational roots r >
s > t. There exists a unique set of rational numbers A, B, and C, such that the cubic
x3 + Ax2 + Bx + C has r + s as a root. What is A + B + C?
20AIMEII11
[3♣] Problem 8 (AIME II 2020, added by Benjamin Wang-Tie). Let P (x) = x2 − 3x − 7,
and let Q(x) and R(x) be two quadratic polynomials also with the coefficient of x2 equal
to 1. David computes each of the three sums P + Q, P + R, and Q + R and is surprised
to find that each pair of these sums has a common root, and these three common roots
are distinct. If Q(0) = 2, compute R(0).

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 Evan Chen《陳誼廷》 (OTIS, updated 2024-12-03) Symmetric Polynomials

19AIME10
[2♣] Problem 9 (AIME I 2019, added by Joshua Im). For distinct complex numbers z1 ,
z2 , . . ., z673 , the polynomial

(x − z1 )3 (x − z2 )3 · · · (x − z673 )3

can be expressed as x2019 + 20x2018 + 19x2017 + g(x), where g(x) is a polynomial with
complex coefficients and with degree at most 2016. Compute
X
z j zk .
1≤j<k≤673
16AUT6
[3♣] Problem 10 (Austria 2016/6, added by Abdullahil Kafi). Let a, b, c be three
integers for which the sum

》
ab ac bc
+ +
c b a

廷
is an integer. Prove that each of the three numbers

誼 se
ab ac bc
, ,
c b a

陳 U
is an integer.

《 al
ZEAC3666
[2♣] Problem 11. Factor the polynomial

n
e rn
a(b − c)3 + b(c − a)3 + c(a − b)3 .

h
H1883820

C e
[3♣] Problem 12. Let a, b, c be real numbers. Prove that

n nt
a3 + b3 + c3 = (a + b + c)3 if and only if a5 + b5 + c5 = (a + b + c)5 .

a , I
BMCQ54

v
[2♣] Problem 13. Let a, b, c, d be nonzero complex numbers such that

E I S
1 1 1 1
a+b+c+d=0 and + + + = 0.

y T
a b c d

B O
Prove that two of the four numbers have sum zero.
03AIMEII9
[3♣] Problem 14 (AIME II 2003, added by Lincoln Liu). Consider the polynomials
P (x) = x6 − x5 − x3 − x2 − x and Q(x) = x4 − x3 − x2 − 1. Given that z1 , z2 , z3 , and z4
are the roots of Q(x) = 0, find P (z1 ) + P (z2 ) + P (z3 ) + P (z4 ).
18CMIMCA9
[9♣] Problem 15 (CMIMC 2018 A9). Given the polynomial identity
2018
X
(x2 − 3x + 1)1009 = ak xk
k=0

calculate the remainder when a20 + a21 + · · · + a22018 is divided by 2017.

11SMTA7
[3♣] Required Problem 16 (Stanford Math Tournament 2011). Let P (x) be a polyno-
mial of degree 2011 such that P (1) = 0, P (2) = 1, P (4) = 2, . . . , and P (22011 ) = 2011.
Find the coefficient of x1 in P .
NOTVIETA
[5♣] Problem 17. Let a, b, c be integers with c 6= 0. Suppose the cubic polynomial
√
x3 + ax2 + bx + c has roots r ≤ s ≤ t. Show that rs + st + rt can be written as u ± v for
some rational numbers u and v.

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 Evan Chen《陳誼廷》 (OTIS, updated 2024-12-03) Symmetric Polynomials

H3233958
[2♣] Problem 18 (Mock ARML 2022, added by Shaheem Samsudeen). Let a, b, c
complex numbers with ab + bc + ca = 61 such that
1 1 1
+ + =5
b+c c+a a+b
a b c
+ + = 32.
b+c c+a a+b
Find the value of abc.
13SMTA9 √ √ √
[3♣]√Required
√ Problem
√ √19 (Stanford
√ √ Math Tournament 2013). Let a = − 3+ 5+ 7,
b = 3 − 5 + 7, c = 3 + 5 − 7. Compute

》
a4 b4 c4
+ + .
(a − b)(a − c) (b − c)(b − a) (c − a)(c − b)

廷
Z5394300
[5♣] Problem 20 (Ritwin Narra). Fix an integer n 6= 1. Prove that if real numbers a,

誼 se
b, c, d satisfy
a + b + c + d = an + bn + cn + dn = 0

陳 U
then two of a, b, c, d sum to 0.

《 al
12BLACKMOP
[5♣] Required Problem 21 (Black MOP 2012). Let ABC be a triangle and let hA ,

n
hB , hC be the lengths of the altitudes from A, B, and C. Let a = BC, b = CA, c = AB.

e rn
Suppose that

C h e
p p p p p p
a + hB + b + hC + c + hA = a + hC + b + hA + c + hB .

n nt
Prove that triangle ABC is isosceles.

I
a ,
H2954369

v
[5♣] Problem 22 (Added by Jason Lee). Consider all complex numbers k for which

S
there exist complex numbers a, b, c, d and e satisfying

y E T I
a b
+
b c
=1

B O
b c
+ =2
c d
c d
+ =3
d e
d e
+ =4
e a
e a
+ = k.
a b
Find the sum of all possible values of k 4 .

Remark. For the previous problem by Jason Lee, avoid using a calculator — you can solve
it with rather little arithmetic if you set it up correctly.

ZC01F573
[5♣] Problem 23 (Prove the Newton sums in the reading). Suppose the complex-
coefficient polynomial

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0

9
 Evan Chen《陳誼廷》 (OTIS, updated 2024-12-03) Symmetric Polynomials

has complex roots z1 , z2 , . . . , zn . For each d ≥ 0, define pd = z1d + z2d + · · · + znd . Prove
that for every integer k ≥ 1 we have the identity

an pk + an−1 pk−1 + · · · + an−(k−1) p1 + k · an−k = 0.

where we by convention let ai = 0 if i < 0.

85LL19
[9♣] Required Problem 24 (Longlist 1985/19). Solve over R the system of simultaneous
equations
√ 1
x− − 2w + 3z = 1,
y
1
x+ − 4w2 − 9z 2 = 3,
y2

》
√ 1
x x − 3 − 8w3 + 27z 3 = −5,

廷
y
1
x2 + 4 − 16w4 − 81z 4 = 15.

誼 se
y
Z40B5559
[9♣] Problem 25 (Z is a ring). Suppose that α and β are complex numbers and monic

陳 U
polynomials P, Q ∈ Z[x] satisfy P (α) = Q(β) = 0.

《 al
(a) Show that there is monic polynomial R ∈ Z[x] such that R(α + β) = 0.

n
e rn
(b) Show that there is a monic polynomial S ∈ Z[x] such that S(αβ) = 0.

h
20HMMTA9
[9♣] Problem 26 (HMMT 2020, added by Guanjie Lu). Let P (x) = x2020 + x + 2. Let

C t e
Q(x) be the monic polynomial of degree 2 whose roots are the pairwise products of
2020

n n
the roots of P (x). Let α satisfy P (α) = 4. Compute the sum of all possible values of

a , I
Q(α2 )2 .

v
[1♣] Mini Survey. Fill out feedback on the OTIS-WEB portal when submitting this

E I S
problem set. Any thoughts on problems (e.g. especially nice, instructive, easy, etc.) or
overall comments on the unit are welcome.

y T
In addition, if you have any suggestions for problems to add, or want to write hints for

B O
one problem you really liked, please do so in the ARCH system!

The maximum number of [♣] for this unit is [103♣], including the mini-survey.

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 Evan Chen《陳誼廷》 (OTIS, updated 2024-12-03) Symmetric Polynomials

§3 Solutions to the walkthroughs

§3.1 Solution 1.5
Note that
LHS − RHS = (a − b)2 (a2 + ab + b2 ) ≥ 0.

§3.2 Solution 1.6, AIME 2010

Let m := abc. Multiply all three equations to get

m3 = (m + 2)(m + 6)(m + 20) = m3 + 28m2 + 92m + 240.

Hence

》
0 = 28m2 + 92 + 240 = 4(7m + 15)(m + 4).
So we either have m = −4 or m = 7 .Meanwhile, summing the given equations gives

廷
−15

誼 se
 
151
a3 + b3 + c3 = 3m + 28 ∈ 16, .
7

陳 U
So in fact a3 + b3 + c3 can only take one of two possible values!
We claim that 1517 is indeed achievable, which will give the final answer. Indeed, one

《 al
can take

n
 
−1 3

e rn
5
(a, b, c) = √ ,√ ,√ .

h
3
7 37 37

e
So is the final answer.

C
151

t
7

n n
§3.3 Solution 1.7, Evan Chen, Fall 2015

va , I
The desired polynomial Q can be written as

E I S
Q(x) = (x − bc + a2 )(x − ca + b2 )(x − ab + c2 ).

y T
Hence, it suffices to compute Q(1).

B O
On the other hand, Vieta formula tells us that ab + bc + ca = 1. Hence

Q(1) = (1 − bc + a2 )(1 − ca + b2 )(1 − ab + c2 )

= (ab + ac + a2 )(bc + ba + b2 )(ca + cb + c2 )
= abc(a + b + c)3 = 2015 · 103 = 2015000.

§3.4 Solution 1.8, USAMO 1975/3

Consider the polynomial Q(x) = (x + 1)P (x) − x. It has degree n + 1 and has zeros at
x = 0, . . . , n. Hence we need to have

Q(x) = (x + 1)P (x) − x = cx(x − 1)(x − 2) . . . (x − n)

for some constant c. Plugging in x = −1 gives 1 = c · (−1)n+1 · (n + 1)!. Thus

Q(n + 1) = (−1)n+1 . Conclude

(n + 1) + Q(n + 1) n + 1 + (−1)n+1
P (n + 1) = = .
n+2 n+2

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 Evan Chen《陳誼廷》 (OTIS, updated 2024-12-03) Symmetric Polynomials

§3.5 Solution 1.9, HMMT 2023 T2

We proceed by contradiction, assuming the existence of pairwise distinct complex numbers
as above.

¶ Vieta-based approach. First, suppose one of the numbers, say d, is zero, and the
others are nonzero. Then we get a3 = b3 = c3 = −abc. By scaling, WLOG assume that
abc = −1. Then a, b, c are supposed to be distinct cube roots of unity, in which case
abc = 1, contradiction.
Otherwise, by scaling assume that abcd = −1. Then define
1 1 1 1
λ := a3 + = b3 + = c3 + = d3 +
a b c d

》
Then a, b, c, d are the complex roots of the polynomial

廷
X 4 − λX + 1 = 0.

誼 se
But then abcd = 1 by Vieta, contradiction.

陳 U
¶ Factoring-based approach. Notice that we have

《 al
a3 − b3 = bcd − cda =⇒ a2 + ab + b2 = −cd.

n
e rn
Thus a2 + b2 = −(ab + cd) = c2 + d2 . In the same way we derive

h e
a2 + c2 = b2 + d2 , a2 + d2 = b2 + c2 .

C nt
This is enough to imply a2 = b2 = c2 = d2 , which is impossible.

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