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C++ Initialization Story
A Guide Through All Initialization Options and Related
C++ Areas

Bartłomiej Filipek
This book is for sale at http://leanpub.com/cppinitbook

This version was published on 2022-12-23

This is a Leanpub book. Leanpub empowers authors and publishers with the Lean
Publishing process. Lean Publishing is the act of publishing an in-progress ebook using
lightweight tools and many iterations to get reader feedback, pivot until you have the right
book and build traction once you do.

© 2021 - 2022 Bartłomiej Filipek

Contents

About the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Why should you read this book? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Learning objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
The structure of the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Who is this book for? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
Reader feedback & errata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
Example code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
Code license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
Special sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

Revision History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

1. Local Variables and Simple Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Starting with simple types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Setting values to zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Initialization with aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Default data member initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2. Initialization With Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

A simple class type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Basics of constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Body of a constructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Adding constructors to DataPacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
CONTENTS

Compiler-generated default constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Explicit constructors and conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Difference between direct and copy initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Implicit conversion and converting constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Constructor summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3. Copy and Move Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Copy constructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Move constructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Distinguishing from assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Adding debug logging to constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Trivial classes and user-provided default constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

4. Delegating and Inheriting Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Delegating constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Inheriting constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

5. Destructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Objects allocated on the heap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Destructors and data members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Virtual destructors and polymorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Partially created objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
A compiler-generated destructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Summary and use cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

6. Type Deduction and Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Deduction with auto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Rules for auto type deduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Deduction with decltype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Printing type info . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Structured bindings in C++17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Lifetime extension, references, and loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Almost Always Auto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

7. Quiz from Chapters 1…6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

CONTENTS

8. Non-Static Data Member Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

How it works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Other forms of NSDMI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Copy constructor and NSDMI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Move constructor and NSDMI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
C++14 changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
C++20 changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Limitations of NSDMI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
NSDMI: Advantages and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
NSDMI summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

9. Containers as Data Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

The basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Using std::initializer list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Example implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
The cost of copying elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Some inconvenience - non-copyable types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
More options (advanced) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

10. Non-regular Data Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Constant non-static data members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Pointers as data members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Smart pointers as data members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
References as data members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

11. Non-local objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Storage duration and linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Initialization of non-local static objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
constinit in C++20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Static variables in a function scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
About static data members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Motivation for inline variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Global inline variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
constexpr and inline variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
CONTENTS

12. Aggregates and Designated Initializers in C++20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Aggregates in C++20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
The basics of Designated Initializers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Advantages of designated initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

13. Techniques and Use Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Using explicit for strong types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Best way to initialize string data members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Reducing extra copies through emplace and in_place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
The copy and swap idiom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
CRTP class counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Several initialization types in one class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Meyer’s Singleton and C++11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Factory with self-registering types and static initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

14. The Final Quiz And Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

Appendix A - Rules for Special Member Function Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

The diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

Appendix B - Quiz and Exercises Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

The quiz from chapters 1…6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
The final quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Solution to the first coding problem, NSDMI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Solution to the second coding problem, NSDMI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Solution to the third coding problem, inline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Solution to the fourth coding problem, fix code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
About the Book
Initialization in C++ is a hot topic! The internet is full of discussions about best practices,
and there are even funny memes on that subject. The situation is not surprising, as there are
more than a dozen ways to initialize a simple integer value, complex rules for the auto-type
deduction, data members, and object lifetime nuances.
And here comes the book.
Throughout this text, you will learn practical options to initialize various categories of
variables and data members in Modern C++. More specifically, this text teaches multiple
types of initialization, constructors, non-static data member initialization, inline variables,
designated initializers, and more. Additionally, you’ll see the changes and new techniques
from C++11 to C++20 and lots of examples to round out your understanding.
The plan is to explain most (if not all) parts of initialization, learn lots of excellent C++
techniques, and see what happens under the hood.

Why should you read this book?

With Modern C++ (since C++11), we have many new features to streamline work and
simplify our code. One area of improvement is the initialization. Modern C++ added new
initialization rules, trying to make it easy while keeping old behavior and compatibility
(mainly from the C language). Sometimes the rules might seem confusing and complex,
though, and even the ISO committee might need to correct some things along the way. The
book will help you navigate through those principles and understand this topic better. What’s
more, initialization is just one aspect of this text. You’ll learn all related topics around classes,
constructors, destructors, object lifetime, or even how the compiler processes data at start-up.

Learning objectives
The goal is to equip you with the following knowledge:
• Explain rules about object initialization, including regular variables, data members,
and non-local objects.

i
About the Book ii

• How to implement special member functions (constructors, destructors, copy/move

operations) and when they are helpful.
• How to efficiently initialize non-static data members using C++11 features like non-
static data member initialization, inheriting, and delegating constructors.
• How to streamline working with static variables and static data members with inline
variables from C++17.
• How to work with container-like members, non-copyable data members (like const
data members) or move-able only data members, or even lambdas.
• What is an aggregate, and how to create such objects with designated initializers from
C++20.

The structure of the book

The book contains 14 chapters in the following structure:
• Chapters 1 to 5 create a foundation for the rest of the book. They cover basic
initialization rules, constructors, destructors, and the basics of data members.
• Chapter 6 is a short quiz on constructors. You can check your knowledge from the first
“part” of the book.
• Chapter 7 (in progress): Type deduction.
• Chapter 8 describes Non-static Data Member Initialization (NSDMI), a powerful
feature from C++11 that improves how we work with data members. At the end of
the chapter, you can solve a few exercises.
• Chapter 9 discusses how to initialize container-like data members.
• Chapter 10 contains information about non-regular data members and how to handle
them in a class. You’ll learn about const data members, unique_ptr as a data member,
and references.
• Chapter 11 describes static non-local variables, static objects, various storage duration
options, and inline variables from C++17 and constinit from C++20.
• Chapter 12 moves to C++20 and describes Designated Initializers, a handy feature
based on similar thing from the C language.
• Chapter 13 shows various techniques like passing strings into constructors, strong
typing, CRTP class counter, Copy and swap idiom, and more.
• Chapter 14 is the final quiz with questions from the whole book.
About the Book iii

And there are two appendices:

• Appendix A - a handy guide about rules for compiler-generated special member

functions.
• Appendix B - answers to quizzes and exercises.

Who is this book for?

The book is intended for beginner/intermediate C++ programmers who want to learn various
aspects of initialization in Modern C++ (from C++11 to C++20).
You should know at least some of the basics of creating and using custom classes.
This text is also helpful for experienced programmers who know older C++ standards and
want to move into C++17/C++20.

Prerequisites
• You should have basic knowledge of C++ expressions and primitive types.
• You should be able to implement an elementary class with several data members. Know
how to create and manipulate objects of such a class in a basic way.

Reader feedback & errata

If you spot an error, a typo, a grammar mistake, or anything else (especially logical issues!)
that should be corrected, please send your feedback to [email protected].
Here’s the errata with the list of fixes:
https://www.cppstories.com/p/cppinitbook/
Your feedback matters! Writing an honest review can help with the book promotion and the
quality of my further work.
What’s more, the book has a dedicated page at GoodReads. Please share your feedback at:
C++ Initialization Story by Bartłomiej Filipek¹.
¹https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/62606823-c-initialization-story
About the Book iv

Example code
You can find source code of all examples in this separate GitHub public repository.
the link will appear later
You can browse individual files or download the whole branch:
the link will appear later

Code license
The code for the book is available under the Creative Commons License.

Formatting
Code samples are presented in a monospaced font, similar to the following example:
For longer examples:
Title Of the Example

#include <iostream>

int main() {
const std::string text { "Hello World" };
std::cout << text << '\n';
}

Or shorter snippets (without a title and sometimes include statements):

int foo() {
return std::clamp(100, 1000, 1001);
}

When available, you’ll also see a link to online compilers where you can play with the code.
For example:
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