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Academic Writing

Most international students need to write essays and reports for exams and coursework, but
writing good academic English is one of the most demanding tasks students face. This new,
fourth edition of Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students has been
completely revised to help students reach this goal.
The four main parts of Academic Writing are:
• The Writing Process
• Elements of Writing
• Vocabulary for Writing
• Writing Models
Each part is divided into short units that contain examples, explanations and exercises, for use
in the classroom or for self-study. The units are clearly organised to allow teachers and students
to find the help they need with writing tasks, while cross-referencing allows easy access to
relevant sections.
In the first part, each stage of the writing process is demonstrated and practised, from selecting
suitable sources, reading, note-making and planning through to rewriting and proofreading.
The fourth edition of this popular book builds on the success of the earlier editions, and has
a special focus on the vital topic of academic vocabulary in Part 3, ‘Vocabulary for Writing’.
Part 3 deals with areas such as nouns and adjectives, adverbs and verbs, synonyms, prefixes
and prepositions, in an academic context. More key features of the book include:
• All elements of writing are clearly explained, with a full glossary for reference
• Models provided for all types of academic texts: essays, reports, reviews and case studies
• Full range of practice exercises, with answer key included
• Use of authentic academic texts
• A companion website offers further practice with a range of additional exercises
• Fully updated, with sections on finding electronic sources and evaluating Internet material
All international students wanting to maximise their academic potential will find this practical
and easy-to-use book an invaluable guide to writing in English for their degree courses.

Stephen Bailey is a freelance writer of materials for English for Academic Purposes. He has
taught students in Barcelona, Tokyo, Johor Bahru and Prague, and more recently at Derby
University and the University of Nottingham. His other books include Academic Writing for
International Students of Business (Routledge).
International students have many adjustments to make as they enter British universities and
Stephen’s book makes at least one area of their lives – academic study – much more approach-
able. With its straightforward approach and improved layout, it will be a book many students
will come to regard as an essential companion to their university lives.
Stephen Dewhirst, Freelance EAP teacher, UK

International students and indeed all students should find this book very helpful. It is accessible
to read and engages in an explicit and sharply focused manner with many elements of the
critical use of reading, of writing and of studying. The book usefully explains, exemplifies, and
tests understanding. It deals with the problematic areas of plagiarism and grammatical work,
of developing argument and counter argument, and essay expression. It should be very useful
for international students engaged in academic writing.
Professor Gina Wisker, University of Brighton, UK

Stephen Bailey's Academic Writing is one of the few academic writing books that deal with
core areas effectively - language, text type, academic conventions and the writing process. This
is done by giving simple explanations, authentic examples and useful practice opportunities
which can either be done in class or as self study. The book appeals to a range of levels including
pre and in sessional students and equips them with a range of the key language and skills needed
to embark on academic writing in higher education.
Fiona Gilbert, Oxford Brookes University, UK

This book provides international students with a useful introduction to the basic practices in
reading and writing for academic purposes. It includes topics such as the typical content of
article abstracts, the mechanics of citation and referencing, and some uses of sources in writing
– topics that will help international students, studying in an English medium university for
the first time, to meet their tutors’ expectations in reading and writing assignments. The chapter
on reading advises a critical attitude to internet resources, advice most relevant to students
today.
Antonia Chandrasegaran, National Institute of Education, Singapore
Academic Writing
A Handbook for
International Students
Fourth edition

Stephen Bailey
Fourth edition published 2015
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2015 Stephen Bailey
The right of Stephen Bailey to be identified as author of this work has
been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2003
Third edition published by Routledge 2011
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Bailey, Stephen, 1947–
Academic writing: a handbook for international students/Stephen
Bailey. – Fourth edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. English language – Rhetoric – Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. English
language – Textbooks for foreign speakers. 3. Academic writing –
Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title.
PE1413.B28 2015
808⬘.0428 – dc23
2014012537

ISBN: 978-1-138-77849-8 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-77850-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-76896-0 (ebk)

Typeset in Galliard
by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK
Additional materials are available on the companion website at www.routledge.com/cw/bailey
Contents

Acknowledgements xii
Introduction for Teachers xiii
Introduction for Students xv
Academic Writing Quiz xvii

Part 1
The Writing Process 1
1.1 Background to Writing 3
The purpose of academic writing 3
Common types of academic writing 4
The format of long and short writing tasks 4
The features of academic writing 6
Some other common text features 6
Simple and longer sentences 7
Writing in paragraphs 8

1.2 Reading: Finding Suitable Sources 9

Academic texts 9
Types of text 12
Using reading lists 12
Using library catalogues 13
Using library websites to search electronic resources 14

1.3 Reading: Developing Critical Approaches 16

Reading methods 16
Titles, sub-titles and text features 17
Reading abstracts 18
vi Contents

Fact and opinion 19

Assessing internet sources critically 19
Critical thinking 22

1.4 Avoiding Plagiarism 25

What is plagiarism? 25
Acknowledging sources 26
Degrees of plagiarism 26
Avoiding plagiarism by summarising and paraphrasing 27
Avoiding plagiarism by developing good study habits 29
Research 30

1.5 From Understanding Titles to Planning 31

The planning process 31
Analysing essay titles 32
Brainstorming 33
Essay length 34
Outlines 35

1.6 Finding Key Points and Note-making 36

Finding key points 36
Finding relevant points 37
Why make notes? 38
Note-making methods 39
Effective note-making 40

1.7 Summarising and Paraphrasing 42

What makes a good summary? 42
Stages of summarising 43
Paraphrasing 47
Techniques for paraphrasing 49

1.8 References and Quotations 52

Why use references? 52
Citations and references 53
Reference verbs 53
Reference systems 54
Using quotations 55
Abbreviations in citations 57
Secondary references 57
Organising the list of references 58
 Contents vii

1.9 Combining Sources 61

Mentioning sources 61
Taking a critical approach 62
Combining three sources 64

1.10 Organising Paragraphs 67

Paragraph structure 67
Example paragraph 67
Development of ideas 69
Introducing paragraphs and linking them together 70

1.11 Introductions and Conclusions 72

Introduction contents 72
Introduction structure 73
Opening sentences 76
Conclusions 76

1.12 Rewriting and Proofreading 78

Rewriting 78
Proofreading 81

Part 2
Elements of Writing 83
2.1 Argument and Discussion 85
Discussion vocabulary 85
Organisation 86
The language of discussion 88
Counterarguments 88
Providing evidence 89

2.2 Cause and Effect 91

The language of cause and effect 91

2.3 Cohesion 96
Reference words 96
Preventing confusion 97

2.4 Comparisons 100

Comparison structures 100
Forms of comparison 102
Using superlatives (e.g. the largest/smallest) 102
viii Contents

2.5 Definite Articles 105

Use of articles 105
Using definite articles 106

2.6 Definitions 109

Simple definitions 109
Complex definitions 110

2.7 Examples 112

Using examples 112
Phrases to introduce examples 113
Restatement 115

2.8 Generalisations 116

Using generalisations 116
Structure 117
Building on generalisations 119

2.9 Passives 121

Active and passive 121
Structure 122
Using adverbs 122

2.10 Problems and Solutions 125

Paragraph structure 125
Alternative structure 126
Vocabulary 127

2.11 Punctuation 129

Capital letters 129
Apostrophes (’) 129
Semicolons (;) 130
Colons (:) 130
Commas (,) 130
Quotation marks/inverted commas (“. . .”/‘. . .’) 131
Full stops (.) 131
Others 132

2.12 Singular or Plural? 134

Five areas of difficulty 134
Group phrases 135
Uncountable nouns 135
 Contents ix

2.13 Style 138

Components of academic style 138
Guidelines 139
Avoiding repetition and redundancy 141
Varying sentence length 142
The use of caution 143
Using modifiers 144

2.14 Visual Information 146

Types of visuals 146
The language of change 148
Describing visuals 149
Labelling 150

Part 3
Vocabulary for Writing 153
3.1 Approaches to Vocabulary 155
Introduction 155
Discussing language 156
Practice 157
Confusing pairs 158
Words and phrases from other languages 159

3.2 Abbreviations 161

Types of abbreviation 161
Some common abbreviations 162
Punctuation 163
Duplicate abbreviations 163
Abbreviations in writing 163

3.3 Academic Vocabulary: Nouns and Adjectives 165

Introduction 165
Nouns 165
Using nouns and adjectives 167
Academic adjectives 169

3.4 Academic Vocabulary: Adverbs and Verbs 172

Understanding main verbs 172
Using verbs of reference 174
Further referring verbs 175
Using adverbs 176
x Contents

3.5 Conjunctions 178

Types of conjunctions 178
Common conjunctions 180
Conjunctions of opposition 181

3.6 Numbers 183

The language of numbers 183
Percentages 184
Simplification 184
Further numerical phrases 185

3.7 Prefixes and Suffixes 188

How prefixes and suffixes work 188
Prefixes 188
Suffixes 190

3.8 Prepositions 192

Using prepositions 192
Prepositions and nouns 193
Prepositions in phrases 194
Prepositions of place and time 194
Verbs and prepositions 195

3.9 Synonyms 197

How synonyms work 197
Common synonyms in academic writing 198

3.10 Time Markers 201

How time markers are used 201
Tenses 202

Part 4
Writing Models 205
4.1 Case Studies 207
Using case studies 207
Model case study 208

4.2 Literature Reviews and Book Reviews 211

Literature reviews 211
Example literature review 212
Book reviews 214
Model book review 214
 Contents xi

4.3 Writing Longer Essays 216

Planning your work 216
Example essay 218
Revision 222

4.4 Reports 224

Writing reports 224
Essays and reports 225
Scientific reports 227

4.5 Surveys 229

Conducting surveys 229
Questionnaire design 229
Survey language 230
Question forms 232
Tenses 232

Test Your Progress 234

Glossary 236
Answers 241
Index 282
Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the many students I have taught over the past 30 years, whose needs
have provided the impetus for this book. Their enthusiasm and resilience has been a constant
inspiration for me.
My wife Rene has provided me with invaluable support, encouragement and advice on many
aspects of academic writing during the development of this book. Final thanks are due to my
daughter, Sophie, for helping me to keep the whole subject in perspective!
Introduction for
Teachers

Aims

This course has been developed to help international students with their written assignments
in English at both undergraduate and postgraduate level. Students who are not native speakers
of English often find the written requirements of their courses very challenging. In addition
to the vocabulary of academic English, they have to learn new conventions of style, referencing
and format. Furthermore, their lecturers are often concerned by their lack of critical thinking
skills, and also mention students’ failure to answer the specific question and their inability to
develop answers logically. Issues around vocabulary, plagiarism and referencing skills are
significant additional worries.
The fourth edition of Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students sets out
to address these problems directly. It recognises that while international students are not
expected to write perfect English, accurate and effective language use is an essential skill for
such students. What may be individually minor problems with prepositions, word endings,
spelling or articles can result in essays that are barely comprehensible to the best-motivated
marker.

Structure

To deal with this, students are guided through the stages of the writing process in Part 1 and
then the related writing skills are explained and practised in Part 2. Part 3 is designed to assist
students with aspects of academic vocabulary, understandably a prime concern for many non-
native users of English. Part 4 provides models of some common writing formats, such as case
studies.
Teachers may wish to work through the writing process in Part 1 while referring to units
in Part 2 as the group progresses. (Part 2 is not intended to be taught from start to finish:
note the alphabetical organisation of Parts 2, 3 and 4.)
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