A Scholarly Study of Religious Beliefs in

the Historical Ruhuna Kingdom of Sri

Lanka
1. Introduction
1.1. Geographical and Historical Context of the Ruhuna Kingdom
The Principality of Ruhuna, often referred to as the Kingdom of Ruhuna, constituted a significant
historical region within present-day Southern and Eastern Sri Lanka. Its ancient geographical
boundaries encompassed the Southern Province, a substantial portion of the Uva Province, and
smaller areas of the Sabaragamuwa and Eastern Provinces. This extensive territorial reach
highlights its considerable demographic and political importance on the island. Within this
domain, key urban and cultural centers such as Magama, Tissamaharama, and Mahanagakula
(known today as Ambalantota) were established, serving as vibrant hubs for economic activity,
cultural exchange, and religious life.
The founding of Ruhuna is traditionally attributed to Prince Mahanaga around 200 BCE,
following a personal dispute with his brother, King Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura. This
fraternal separation led to the emergence of Ruhuna as a distinct political entity, coexisting
alongside the Anuradhapura Kingdom, thereby shaping its unique historical and religious
trajectory. Ruhuna played a pivotal role in the nation-building process and the establishment of
Buddhist culture in Sri Lanka. It was notably characterized by numerous rebellions against the
dominant states in Rajarata and frequently engaged in conflicts with the Chola kingdom from
Southern India. A critical function of Ruhuna was its role as a strategic refuge for Sinhalese
royalty during periods of South Indian incursions, providing a secure territory for organizing
armies and sustaining resistance. This defensive capacity was instrumental in ensuring the
continuity of Sinhalese culture and Buddhist traditions, particularly when the northern capital,
Anuradhapura, faced invasions. The independent existence of the principality ultimately
concluded with the capture and execution of its last de facto Queen Sugala by the invading
forces of Parakramabahu I, marking a significant political transition.
Sri Lanka's broader historical narrative is profoundly influenced by its geographical proximity to
Southern India. This close relationship facilitated active Dravidian influence on the island's
politics, trade, and cultural development from as early as the 3rd century BCE. In ancient times,
the island was known by various names, including Taprobane, Palesimundum, Serendib, and
Sinhaladipa. While the formal historical period often commences with Anuradhapura becoming
the capital around the 5th century BCE, archaeological evidence suggests that settled life,
agriculture, and the use of iron and pottery predated these migrations. The early Sinhalese
culture, which emerged during the Anuradhapura period (3rd century BCE to 10th century CE),
represents a synthesis of Indo-Aryan, pre-Indo-Aryan, and potentially Dravidian elements
following Indo-Aryan migrations from the 5th century BCE. The academic understanding of
Ruhuna relies significantly on a combination of literary narratives, such as the Pali chronicles
Dīpavaṁsa and Mahāvaṁsa, and epigraphical texts, which are consistently substantiated and
complemented by archaeological discoveries. These chronicles, despite containing mythical or
supernatural elements, have been largely corroborated by subsequent archaeological evidence,
enhancing their historical reliability.

1.2. Significance of Ruhuna in Sri Lankan History and Culture

Ruhuna's historical importance extends beyond its political and military functions; it is
characterized as a "powerhouse of resistance" and a "cradle of Sinhalese identity". This
designation underscores its crucial role in preserving and fostering a distinct cultural heritage,
particularly during periods of external threat to the island's northern kingdoms. The region's
archaeological sites, in contrast to the meticulously planned urban centers of Anuradhapura and
Polonnaruwa, often exhibit a more organic development, seamlessly blending into the natural
landscape. This difference highlights Ruhuna's unique character as a kingdom forged in
resilience, deeply connected to its land, and suggests a more localized and perhaps less rigidly
structured evolution of its cultural and religious practices. The consistent portrayal of Ruhuna as
both a cultural heartland and a political stronghold indicates that it was not merely a passive
recipient of religious traditions but an active agent in their preservation and adaptation,
especially when the northern centers were vulnerable. Its relative isolation and history of
resistance may have allowed for a more organic, less centrally controlled development of
religious practices, fostering a unique local identity.
The political autonomy of Ruhuna, stemming from its founding due to a personal dispute with
Anuradhapura, directly impacted the resilience and evolution of religious practices within its
borders. This environment allowed for a more localized and perhaps less rigidly controlled
religious landscape compared to the dominant Anuradhapura kingdom. This dynamic
contributed to the observed syncretism, where local traditions could blend with newly introduced
faiths more fluidly, rather than being subject to a centralized religious policy.

1.3. Research Objectives and Scope of the Study

This academic study aims to thoroughly investigate the religious beliefs and practices prevalent
in the historical Ruhuna Kingdom. The research will trace the evolution of these beliefs, from the
indigenous pre-Buddhist traditions to the pivotal introduction and establishment of Buddhism,
followed by the discernible influence of Hinduism, and the resulting complex syncretic practices.
The scope of this study encompasses an examination of how these diverse religious elements
manifested in Ruhuna's societal structures, artistic expressions, architectural forms, and literary
traditions, drawing upon a rigorous analysis of available historical chronicles, archaeological
findings, and contemporary scholarly interpretations.
Table 1: Chronology of Major Religious Developments in Ruhuna (c. 6th Century BCE -
11th Century CE)
Time Period Key Religious Associated Relevant Sites Brief Description
Development/Even Rulers/Figures
t
Pre-6th C. BCE Indigenous beliefs N/A Kataragama Diverse, localized
(Animism, (predating spiritual practices
spirit/ancestor kingdom) without a state
worship, tree/rock religion.
worship, phallic
worship)
Time Period Key Religious Associated Relevant Sites Brief Description
Development/Even Rulers/Figures
t
6th-5th C. BCE Early King Anuradhapura Cultural and
Indian/Dravidian Pandukabhaya (Gedige religious exchange
influences excavations), with South India,
(Proto-historic Ibbankatuwa laying groundwork
connections, for later influences.
Vedic/Shaivism
elements, Jainism)
3rd C. BCE Introduction of King Devanampiya Mihintale, Formal
Buddhism Tissa, Prince Mahamegha Park, establishment of
(Mahinda Mission, Mahanaga, Yatala Wehera, Buddhism, royal
Royal conversion, Sanghamitta Mulkirigala patronage in both
founding of Anuradhapura and
Mahavihara) Ruhuna.
2nd C. BCE Buddhism King Kavantissa, Tissamaharama Buddhism
well-established, King Dutugamunu, Raja Maha Vihara, integrates with
assimilation of King Valagamba Kiri Vehera local traditions,
pre-Buddhist cults becoming a
unifying force.
3rd-4th C. CE Sectarian King Mahasena Abhayagiri Vihara Diversification of
developments Buddhist thought,
within Buddhism continued
(Mahavihara vs. presence of Hindu
Abhayagiri), deities.
continued Hindu
influence
9th-10th C. CE Increased King Mihidu IV Ancient sea ports Mahayana
influence of elements
Mahayana integrated, Tara
Buddhism, becomes a
prominence of significant
Goddess Tara Buddhist savior
worship goddess.
11th C. CE Ruhuna as a King Vijayabahu I Ruhuna Ruhuna preserves
bastion of Buddhist traditions
Theravada during amidst northern
Chola rule in North invasions.
13th C. CE Popularity of N/A Kataragama Deep integration of
onwards Kataragama Buddhist, Hindu,
Devio, syncretic and indigenous
practices solidify practices at key
pilgrimage sites.
2. Pre-Buddhist Religious Landscape
2.1. Indigenous Belief Systems: Animism, Spirit, and Ancestor
Worship (Yakshas, Nagas)
Before the formal introduction of Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE, Sri Lanka did not possess a
systematically organized national or state religion. Ancient accounts, such as those from Hiuen
Tsiang, suggest that the kingdom of Sinhala was previously "addicted to immoral religious
worship," indicating a diverse and perhaps less structured spiritual environment. The island was
characterized by various primitive cults that involved the veneration of supernatural beings,
including Yakshas and Yaksinis. These entities were believed to exert significant influence over
human affairs. Notable Yakshas like Kalavela and Cittaja were important deities worshipped by
the pre-Aryan aboriginal inhabitants, believed to reside in Cetiyas. There was also a belief that
devoted individuals, after death, could be reborn as Yakshas to continue watching over their
former friends and patrons. The Mahavamsa, while a Buddhist chronicle, acknowledges the
presence of Yakkhas and Nagas, depicting the Buddha as subduing or driving them away, which
can be interpreted as a narrative of the assimilation or reinterpretation of indigenous beliefs.
A widespread and popular cult in pre-Buddhist Sri Lanka was tree worship, with specific trees
like banyan and palmyrah held as sacred. Some trees were even designated as 'cetiyas,'
indicating their revered status. Other prominent indigenous beliefs included the veneration of
rocks and sun deities, reflecting a broader attribution of divinity to natural objects and
phenomena. Evidence also suggests that phallic worship, an element associated with the Vedic
Hindu faith, was prevalent among the populace, particularly during the reign of King
Pandukabhaya. The core of these indigenous beliefs can be understood through the concept of
Animism, which posits that all objects, places, and creatures possess a distinct spiritual
essence, agency, and free will. This worldview explains the worship of natural objects and
spirits. Furthermore, practices like exorcisms and rituals invoking demons and spirits appear to
be customs inherited from these pre-Buddhist indigenous times, demonstrating their enduring
legacy.
Ancient texts such as the Mahavamsa and Manimekalai refer to mythological Naga tribes
believed to have inhabited Sri Lanka and parts of Southern India, often depicted as serpent-like
super-humans. Certain locations, including Nagadeepa (modern Jaffna Peninsula) and Kalyani
(modern Kelaniya), are mentioned as their abodes. Notably, Naga worship traditions continue to
be observed in Tamil Nadu, indicating a shared regional cultural heritage. Some scholars also
suggest that Nagas were skilled irrigation engineers. The pre-Buddhist pantheon included
deities such as Cetiya (also known as Valaramukhi), her husband Jutindhara, Maheja,
Jayasena, Kammara-deva (the god of smiths), and Pura-deva (the god presiding over the city).
Ancestor worship was also an integral part of these belief systems. Additionally, various ascetic
groups, including Paribbajakas, Ajivikas, Pasandas, and Pabbajitas, were present in fair
numbers on the island. Astrology was a prevalent belief system, influencing personal names
and the timing of festivals, with soothsayers playing a recognized role in society.
The rich tapestry of pre-Buddhist beliefs, characterized by animism, spirit worship (Yakshas,
Nagas), tree and rock veneration, and ancestor reverence, reveals a flexible spiritual
environment that lacked a rigid, centralized state religion. This inherent adaptability meant that
when Buddhism arrived, it did not encounter a spiritual void but rather a diverse and receptive
set of existing practices. The subsequent assimilation of pre-Buddhist cults, rituals, and
ceremonies into Sinhalese Buddhism was a direct consequence of this foundational flexibility.
The continued presence of deities like Kataragama, with its deep indigenous Vedda roots,
further exemplifies this integration. The pre-Buddhist religious landscape of Ruhuna, and Sri
Lanka generally, was not simply replaced by Buddhism but provided the foundational spiritual
substrate upon which Buddhism was built and adapted. This explains the enduring presence of
folk deities and rituals within later Buddhist and Hindu practices, indicating a continuous cultural
evolution rather than a sharp break.

2.2. Early Indian Religious and Philosophical Influences

Archaeological findings, such as substantial quantities of potsherds (including Megalithic Black
and Red Ware and Rouletted Ware) unearthed at sites like Gedige in Anuradhapura,
Pomparippu, Kantarodai, and Ibbankatuwa, provide clear evidence of a relationship between Sri
Lanka and South India during the proto-historic period. These material parallels suggest early
and consistent cultural and religious exchanges, laying a foundation for future influences. The
presence of phallic worship, identified as part of the Vedic Hindu faith, indicates that certain
Hindu-related practices were prevalent even before the widespread conversion to Buddhism. It
is also suggested that more intellectually inclined individuals might have believed in
Brahmanism, reflecting similarities with religious beliefs in northern India during the Buddha's
era. Furthermore, the Hindu caste system appears to have influenced the social structure and
lifestyle in the country during this period.
Niganthas (Jainas) had established a presence in pre-Buddhist Sri Lanka, though their numbers
and organization were not extensive. Their monasteries are mentioned during the reign of King
Pandukabhaya, suggesting a degree of recognition for this tradition. It is plausible that some of
these Jain monasteries were later converted into Buddhist viharas, indicating a process of
religious transformation and absorption. Evidence also suggests the existence of Shaivism (the
worship of the Hindu god Shiva) in pre-Buddhist Sri Lanka. The Mahavamsa records that King
Pandukabhaya built a sivika-sala where a Shivalinga was established. Inscriptions dating from
the 3rd to 1st century BCE reflect knowledge of Hindu deities, including Shiva, Mahasena, and
Rama. The connection to Murukan, a son of Shiva, is also noted in early inscriptions.
Sri Lanka's close proximity to Southern India fostered significant Dravidian influence from the
3rd century BCE, as evidenced by trade and cultural exchanges. The archaeological record,
showing shared pottery and artifacts from the proto-historic period, confirms this deep historical
connection. The presence of Vedic Hindu elements like phallic worship and Shaivism prior to the
widespread adoption of Buddhism indicates that Indian religious concepts were already diffusing
into Sri Lankan society, establishing a cultural and intellectual familiarity with these ideas. This
pre-existing cultural and religious connectivity meant that the later, more formalized introduction
of Buddhism (also from India) and subsequent Hindu influences were not entirely alien. The
groundwork for religious exchange and integration was already laid, making the process of
syncretism more organic and pervasive. The religious landscape of Ruhuna was not solely
shaped by the arrival of Buddhism but was already part of a broader Indian Ocean cultural
sphere, allowing for a natural integration of diverse religious ideas.

2.3. Archaeological and Literary Evidence of Pre-Buddhist Practices

in Ruhuna
Archaeological excavations across Sri Lanka, including the Southern Province (Ruhuna), have
yielded artifacts such as coins, pots, and carvings, as well as evidence of settlements belonging
to the pre-Buddhist period. These material remains provide tangible proof of the diverse
religious practices preceding Buddhism. The Kataragama temple complex, a pivotal site within
Ruhuna, possesses archaeological evidence indicating its sacred status for millennia, predating
the formal establishment of the Kingdom of Ruhuna. The unique mode of veneration and rituals
observed at Kataragama are interpreted by scholars as a survival of indigenous Vedda
practices, highlighting the deep historical roots of local religious traditions.
While primarily Buddhist chronicles, the Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa offer invaluable, albeit
often reinterpreted, insights into the pre-Buddhist inhabitants of the island, such as the Yakkhas
and Nagas, and their interactions with early settlers like Vijaya's followers. The presence of
Hindu deities like Ganesha and Kubera in Buddhist stupa carvings provides clear archaeological
confirmation of a religious reconciliation and the continued existence of these figures within the
religious landscape even after the widespread conversion to Buddhism. This demonstrates that
the arrival of Buddhism did not lead to an outright eradication of older beliefs but rather a
process of absorption and co-option, where existing deities and practices found new roles within
the evolving religious framework.

3. The Introduction and Establishment of Buddhism

3.1. The Mahinda Mission and Royal Patronage in Ruhuna
According to traditional Sri Lankan chronicles, the Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa, Buddhism was
introduced to the island in the 3rd century BCE following the Third Buddhist Council. This pivotal
event is attributed to the mission led by Mahinda and Sanghamitta, identified as the children of
Emperor Ashoka of India. It is important to acknowledge, however, that while Ashoka's edicts
confirm sending a Buddhist mission to Sri Lanka, they do not specifically name Mahinda or
Sanghamitta, a point of ongoing scholarly discussion.
The conversion of King Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura (reigned 307–267 BCE) is a
cornerstone of this narrative. He was reportedly converted by Mahinda's sermon at Mihintale
Hill, which led to the rapid spread of Buddhism and strong royal patronage. King Tissa's
donation of Mahamegha Park to the Buddhist community marked the genesis of the influential
Mahavihara tradition. Further solidifying Buddhism's presence, Sanghamitta's arrival with a
sacred branch of the Bodhi tree symbolically rooted the religion in Sri Lankan soil and led to the
founding of an order of nuns. The construction of the Thuparamacetiya stupa also facilitated
popular worship.
Despite its political distinctiveness, Ruhuna played a "vital role" in the establishment of Buddhist
culture across the island. Prince Mahanaga, the founder of Ruhuna, was the brother of King
Devanampiya Tissa , suggesting an early and integral connection to the newly introduced faith.
Archaeological sites within Ruhuna provide tangible evidence of this early adoption: Yatala
Wehera, dating to the 3rd century BCE, is believed to have been commissioned by King
Mahanaga himself , underscoring the deep and early Buddhist roots in the region. Similarly, the
Mulkirigala Rock Monastery flourished during the Ruhuna period from as early as the 3rd
century BCE, serving as a significant monastic retreat.

3.2. Development of Early Buddhist Centers and Monastic Traditions

The Mahavihara monastery, established by King Devanampiya Tissa, emerged as the first and
most influential Buddhist tradition in Sri Lanka, maintaining traditional Theravada teachings.
Over time, other monastic centers such as Abhayagiri Vihara and Jetavana Vihara were
established by monks who diverged from the Mahavihara, often showing greater openness to
Mahayana elements. The Indian Mahisasaka sect also found a foothold in Sri Lanka and was
later absorbed into Theravada. Religious debates and conflicts among these sects were not
uncommon, particularly due to competition for royal patronage, though most rulers generally
supported all Buddhist traditions. Historical accounts show instances of royal intervention, such
as Voharika Tissa repressing Mahayana teachings and King Mahasena later supporting
Mahayana while repressing the Mahavihara.
Ruhuna's significance as a refuge for Sinhalese royalty and a center for Buddhist traditions,
particularly during periods of South Indian incursions into the northern kingdoms, suggests its
critical role in the preservation of Theravada orthodoxy. This implies that Ruhuna's Buddhist
centers, while connected to the broader Sangha, also fostered unique local interpretations or
maintained a more conservative approach during times when Mahayana influences were more
pronounced in the North. The political autonomy of Ruhuna allowed it to develop a distinct
identity, which in turn influenced the local expression and patronage of Buddhism. This
environment could have either preserved older forms of Theravada or allowed for unique
syncretic adaptations, as it was less directly subjected to the religious policies of the
Anuradhapura rulers, especially during periods of internal Buddhist sectarianism or external
invasion in the north.

3.3. Buddhism's Role in Shaping Ruhuna's Identity and Governance

Buddhism rapidly became a central feature of Sri Lankan society, profoundly influencing its
culture, legal systems, and methods of governance. The institution of kingship became deeply
intertwined with Buddhism, with rulers perceived as protectors and patrons of the faith, and the
support of the clergy considered essential for a stable reign. The adoption of Buddhism proved
to be a powerful unifying factor, contributing significantly to the formation of a single political
power and a unified culture across Sri Lanka. This new faith helped to forge a strong sense of
unity and consciousness among the Sinhalese people.
The cultural norms of the Anuradhapura kingdom, which would have extended to Ruhuna, were
largely shaped by Buddhist principles. For instance, the slaughter of animals for food was
regarded as low and unclean, influencing dietary practices and animal husbandry. Buddhist
chroniclers, notably the authors of the Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa, meticulously preserved Sri
Lanka's historical tradition. These works serve as literary records detailing the establishment
and growth of Sinhalese political power and Sri Lankan Buddhism. The Mahavamsa, explicitly
written for the "serene joy of the pious," also subtly supported Sinhalese nationalism by framing
historical events through a Buddhist lens.
While Buddhism brought significant unity and consciousness to the Sinhalese people and was a
powerful factor in political unification, Ruhuna's role as a "powerhouse of resistance" and a
"refuge" during invasions suggests a more complex dynamic. This indicates that while
Buddhism broadly unified the Sinhalese, its practice within Ruhuna likely developed distinct
local characteristics due to its semi-independent status and its role as a cultural bastion. The
existence of sectarian differences within Buddhism, such as between the Mahavihara and
Abhayagiri traditions, further suggests that the "unified culture" was not monolithic. Ruhuna's
unique political position likely allowed it to foster specific interpretations or practices, potentially
emphasizing certain aspects of Theravada or adapting it in ways that served its regional identity
and resilience. Thus, Buddhism in Ruhuna was not merely a passive reception of the
Anuradhapura model; it was actively shaped by Ruhuna's political role as a stronghold,
potentially fostering a more resilient and perhaps conservative form of Theravada, while also
being open to local adaptations that would later contribute to its syncretic nature. This dynamic
interplay between central religious authority and regional political realities is crucial for
understanding the nuances of Sri Lankan Buddhism.
The relationship between royal patronage and religious legitimacy in Ruhuna was reciprocal.
Kings were explicitly seen as protectors and patrons of the faith, and the support and blessing of
the clergy were perceived as essential for a peaceful and continuous reign. This
interdependence meant that the monarchy gained legitimacy through its association with
Buddhism, while the Buddhist Sangha received material support and protection. This
arrangement allowed Buddhist institutions to flourish, leading to the construction of numerous
temples and monasteries that also served as centers of learning. This mutual reinforcement
ensured that religious practices were deeply embedded within the political and social fabric of
the kingdom, influencing everything from daily life to grand architectural projects.

4. Syncretism and Coexistence of Beliefs

4.1. Integration of Indigenous and Folk Practices with Buddhism
The introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka did not lead to the eradication of pre-existing
indigenous beliefs but rather to a significant assimilation of these cults, rituals, and ceremonies
into Sinhalese Buddhism. This adaptive nature of Sri Lankan Buddhism allowed for the
continued invocation of demons and spirits in various exorcisms and rituals, customs passed
down from pre-Buddhist indigenous times.
In Ruhuna, specific folk dances and rituals exemplify this integration. The tovil ceremonies, for
instance, are performed to ward off evil and address afflictions believed to be caused by unseen
hands or demons. The daha ata sanniya, a famous thovil shanthikarma, involves masked
dancers representing eighteen ailments, each attributed to a specific demon. These rituals,
rooted in pre-Buddhist folk religion, aim to heal by appeasing the responsible devil with
offerings. Another masked dance-drama, Kolam, traditionally addressed issues related to
pregnancy, viewing cravings as supernatural possessions. The gammaduwa and devol madu
shanthikarmaya are rituals dedicated to Goddess Pattini, performed to venerate deities, ensure
good harvests, or ward off evil and infectious diseases. These shanthi karma (rituals of solace)
combine dance, chanting, offerings, and drumming to invoke blessings and eliminate evil spirits.
The Kapuralas, or shaman priests, play a crucial role as mediators in these rituals, accepting
offerings and making pleas on behalf of devotees. Alongside these folk practices, the Buddhist
Pirith Chanting ceremony is a popular protective ritual, believed to ward off evil and danger,
including planetary influences and evil spirits, and is performed for general success. The
continued practice of these rituals, some of which have moved to digital platforms in modern
times, highlights their enduring significance in Sinhala Buddhist society.
The inherent flexibility of pre-Buddhist beliefs, which lacked a rigid, centralized structure, made
them highly amenable to integration rather than outright suppression. This created a fertile
ground for syncretism, where new religious elements could be absorbed and reinterpreted
within existing frameworks, ensuring continuity of local spiritual traditions. The adaptive nature
of Sri Lankan Buddhism is evident in its capacity to absorb and reinterpret existing indigenous
traditions rather than eradicate them. This process allowed for a smoother transition and
acceptance of Buddhism by the populace, as familiar elements were retained and
recontextualized within the new religious framework.
4.2. Hindu Influence and Shared Deities
Sinhalese Buddhism has been significantly influenced by Hinduism and indigenous beliefs,
leading to the worship of Hindu deities within Buddhist contexts. Some traditional Sinhalese
temple layouts even include individual shrines dedicated to Hindu gods. Important Hindu gods
worshipped by some Sinhalese Buddhists include Vishnu (Wisnu), Murugan, Pathini, Nata,
Gambara, Dedimunda, Saraswati, Ganesh, Lakshmi (Laksmi), Shiva (Siwa), and Kali.
Kataragama Devio (Skanda/Murugan) stands out as a highly popular deity in southern Sri
Lanka, venerated by Buddhists, Hindus, and Vedda people alike. Archaeological evidence
suggests the Kataragama temple complex has been sacred for millennia, predating the Ruhuna
Kingdom itself. The syncretic nature of Kataragama is profound; scholars suggest its mode of
veneration and rituals are a survival of indigenous Vedda practices that predated Buddhist and
Indo-Aryan influences. Over time, Kataragama Devio subsumed the identity of Skanda-Kumara
and became a deity in his own right, attracting pilgrims from across Sri Lanka and India. The
temple complex houses shrines for various deities, including Ganesha (Ganapatidevio) and
Vishnu, and even an Islamic mosque, showcasing its multi-religious character.
Other guardian deities of the Buddha-sasana in Sri Lanka include Vishnu, Saman, Natha, and
Pattini, many of whom have Hindu origins but have been adopted as Buddhist deities. For
instance, the god Upulvan, described as having the color of a blue lotus and entrusted with
guarding Lanka by Sakra (the king of gods), was later identified with the Hindu god Vishnu due
to advancing Brahmin Hindu influences. Archaeological evidence, such as the depiction of
Ganesha and Kubera in Buddhist stupa carvings, further confirms this religious reconciliation
and the coexistence of Hindu deities within Buddhist sacred spaces. The shared veneration of
deities like Kataragama exemplifies the deep integration of diverse traditions. This indicates that
religious boundaries in Ruhuna were fluid, allowing for a blending of practices and beliefs that
created a unique, shared spiritual landscape. This process demonstrates a pragmatic approach
to religious identity, where deities from different traditions could be incorporated into a broader
pantheon to meet the spiritual needs of the populace.

4.3. Impact on Social Structure and Religious Roles

The caste system in Sri Lanka, while originating from Indian influences, was comparatively less
rigid than its Indian counterpart due to the influences of Buddhist values, which initially rejected
caste distinctions. This suggests that while social stratification existed, the pervasive Buddhist
ethos may have mitigated some of its harsher aspects, particularly in regions like Ruhuna where
Buddhist culture was deeply ingrained.
The Kapuralas play a significant role in Ruhuna's religious life, serving as mediators between
deities and devotees. These priests, similar to Hindu pusaris, look after devalayas (shrines),
perform prescribed rituals, and offer gifts brought by devotees to the deities. Offerings typically
include milk-rice, coconuts, betel, and various other items, which are then partly returned to the
devotee as having sacramental value. This practice, which gained popularity among local
Buddhists since the Polonnaruwa period (12th century), highlights how popular demands related
to daily life were accommodated within the broader Buddhist framework, supplementing the
"great tradition" of Nikaya Buddhism.
Religious beliefs profoundly influenced daily life and social cohesion in Ruhuna. For example,
gem mining practices in Sri Lanka involve elaborate rituals and offerings to deities such as
Saman, Vishnu, and Kataragama, demonstrating a deep intertwining of economic activity with
spiritual beliefs. Starting a mine at an auspicious time and performing planetary pacification
rituals are common practices. The social function of rituals like gammaduwa is notable for
enhancing communal bonds and reinforcing cultural identity, particularly through the active
participation of women and the preservation of traditional practices. These rituals foster a sense
of unity and shared values within the community.
The pervasive religious pluralism and syncretism in Ruhuna fostered a unique form of social
cohesion. Despite the distinct origins of various religious traditions, their integration into a
shared spiritual landscape allowed for coexistence and mutual adaptation. This blending of
beliefs provided a common ground for diverse communities, enabling them to navigate daily life,
address misfortunes, and celebrate successes through a shared repertoire of rituals and
venerations. This indicates that religious practices were not merely individual expressions but
integral components of social organization, contributing to the collective identity and well-being
of the Ruhuna populace.

5. Manifestations in Art, Architecture, and Literature

5.1. Artistic and Architectural Representations
Religious beliefs, particularly Buddhism and Hinduism, profoundly influenced the art and
architecture of Ruhuna. The landscape of Ruhuna is dotted with remnants of its glorious past,
showcasing a blend of majestic stupas and ancient monasteries carved into rock faces, each
narrating a piece of the kingdom's story.
Key Buddhist architectural marvels in Ruhuna include the Tissamaharama Raja Maha Vihara,
believed to have been built by King Kavantissa in the 2nd century BCE, featuring a towering
stupa, ancient Bodhi trees, and monastic ruins. Yatala Wehera, another significant stupa near
Tissamaharama, dates back to the 3rd century BCE and is attributed to King Mahanaga,
highlighting the early roots of Buddhism in the region. The Mulkirigala Rock Monastery, often
called "Little Sigiriya," served as a monastic retreat from as early as the 3rd century BCE,
flourishing during the Ruhuna period. This site is renowned for its murals and paintings
depicting Buddhist stories and values, as well as local deities like Saman, Kataragama, Vishnu,
and Vibishana, illustrating the coexistence of diverse beliefs within sacred spaces.
Artistic representations of the Buddha evolved over time, from standardized models to diverse
forms, as seen in colossal standing and sedentary statues crafted from stone and plastered
brick found at various monastic sites across Sri Lanka. These statues visually document shifts in
artistic expression and the evolving religious conceptions of the Buddha in society. A distinctive
architectural and artistic motif is the Makara Torana (Dragon's Arch), a composite mythical
creature often found at temple entrances and around Buddha images. Its intricate design,
incorporating elements from various animals, symbolizes the five elements and is a powerful
cosmological representation. Makara balustrades also adorn temple stairways, further
showcasing this unique artistic integration of symbolic creatures.
The use of masks is a distinct feature of Ruhunu (low country) dancing, reflecting its deep roots
in folk religion and pre-Buddhist traditions. These masks, often depicting demons or characters
from folk narratives, are central to exorcistic rituals and dance-dramas, serving both ritualistic
and theatrical purposes. The art and architecture of Ruhuna thus serve as cultural archives,
visually documenting the complex interplay between Buddhist, Hindu, and indigenous beliefs,
and how these traditions were integrated into the material and aesthetic fabric of the kingdom.
This visual evidence provides tangible proof of the syncretic nature of religious life, where
different spiritual elements were not merely tolerated but actively incorporated and reinterpreted.

5.2. Literary Narratives and Religious Themes

The Pali chronicles, particularly the Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa, serve as primary literary
sources for understanding the religious and historical narratives of ancient Ruhuna and Sri
Lanka. Despite containing mythical or supernatural elements, these chronicles provide a
continuous historical record and have been largely corroborated by archaeological findings.
They were compiled by Buddhist chroniclers to record the establishment and growth of
Sinhalese political power and Sri Lankan Buddhism, often subtly supporting Sinhalese
nationalism by framing historical events through a Buddhist lens.
Beyond formal chronicles, literary traditions in Ruhuna also encompassed folk narratives and
poetic forms. The Vannam, a collection of songs and dances, were inspired by nature, history,
legend, folk religion, and sacred lore, each expressing a specific mood or sentiment. These
compositions reflect the integration of diverse cultural and spiritual influences into artistic
expression. Other literary works, including oral epics and devotional poems, further demonstrate
the blending of mythology and folklore with religious themes. These narratives often explore
fundamental questions about existence, morality, and the human condition, featuring divine
beings who intervene in human affairs and highlighting themes of duty, devotion, and destiny.
The literary narratives of Ruhuna, from formal chronicles to folk traditions, serve as crucial
reflectors of its religious evolution. They not only preserve historical accounts of religious
developments but also shape the understanding and transmission of spiritual beliefs across
generations. This indicates that literature was a dynamic medium through which the complex
interplay of indigenous, Buddhist, and Hindu traditions was articulated, reinterpreted, and
solidified within the collective consciousness of the populace. The narratives provided a
framework for understanding the world, integrating diverse spiritual concepts into a coherent
cultural identity.

6. Conclusion
The historical Ruhuna Kingdom stands as a compelling case study of dynamic religious
evolution and profound syncretism in ancient Sri Lanka. Its unique geographical position and
political autonomy, established by Prince Mahanaga, allowed it to function as a vital cultural and
religious crucible, particularly during periods when the northern kingdoms faced external
invasions. Before the advent of Buddhism, Ruhuna possessed a rich and flexible tapestry of
indigenous beliefs, characterized by animism, spirit and ancestor worship (including Yakshas
and Nagas), and the veneration of natural elements like trees and rocks. Early Indian religious
and philosophical influences, including Vedic, Shaivite, and Jain elements, were already present
in the proto-historic period, laying a fertile groundwork for subsequent religious integration.
The formal introduction of Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE, largely through the Mahinda
mission and royal patronage, found a receptive environment in Ruhuna. Sites like Yatala
Wehera and Mulkirigala Rock Monastery attest to the early and deep rooting of Buddhist culture
in the region. Buddhism swiftly became intertwined with kingship, serving as a powerful unifying
force that shaped governance, law, and social norms. However, this adoption was not a simple
replacement of older traditions. Instead, Sinhalese Buddhism in Ruhuna demonstrated a
remarkable capacity for assimilation, absorbing pre-Buddhist cults, rituals, and ceremonies. Folk
practices such as tovil and daha ata sanniya, along with the roles of Kapuralas, continued to
thrive, coexisting with and complementing Buddhist observances like Pirith chanting.
Furthermore, the influence of Hinduism remained significant, leading to the shared veneration of
Hindu deities like Vishnu, Ganesha, and most notably, Kataragama Devio (Skanda/Murugan),
who became a central figure revered by Buddhists, Hindus, and Vedda people alike. The
Kataragama temple complex exemplifies this deep integration, embodying a unique blend of
diverse spiritual traditions. This religious pluralism, characterized by a fluid interplay of beliefs,
also influenced social structures, contributing to a less rigid caste system compared to India and
fostering social cohesion through shared rituals and community-based practices.
The complex religious landscape of Ruhuna is vividly reflected in its art, architecture, and
literature. Majestic stupas and rock monasteries showcase Buddhist architectural prowess,
while murals depicting both Buddhist narratives and Hindu deities illustrate the visual
syncretism. Artistic motifs like the Makara Torana embody composite symbolic meanings,
further demonstrating this cultural fusion. Literary works, from the Pali chronicles to folk
Vannam, documented and shaped these evolving religious narratives. Ultimately, the scholarly
study of Ruhuna reveals a dynamic and adaptive spiritual environment where indigenous
traditions, Buddhism, and Hinduism converged, creating a unique and enduring religious identity
that continues to resonate in Sri Lankan culture.

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