Induction and Exhaust
(Compressible flow regime)
Valve timing, flow predictions
(see Kirkpatrick’s text)
Pressure drop is controlled by
Adiabatic steady flow
Energy Equation Mach number at throat:
Stagnation speed of sound is:
U = velocity
“local” c = speed of sound
condition 𝛾𝛾 = specific heat ratio
Choked flow: M = 1
Subscripts:
( )o = “total” “throat”
Enthalpy, pressure Pv
Pressure,
Temperature,
Density, at
stagnation For 𝛾𝛾 = 1.35, the pressure
condition ratio is 1.86
(low speed).
(typical of intake);
ie: Throat pressure P = ~.54 Po
Seat area Limiting area for flow: Af
Low valve lift: A1 (curtain area)
Curtain area High valve lift: A2 (valve seat area)
Mass flow depends on pressure drop
across “Orifice”
No matter how much suction you create, the mass flow
rate cannot increase beyond the choked flow condition
Mass flow rate
(5.10)
With these substitutions for choked flow, (5.10) becomes:
(5.12) Where:
Choked flow:
K(γ) = .676, for γ = 1.35
Seat area (constant)
P Af
Curtain
area
Po
Sonic flow
Intake flow
at inlet Critical pressure ratio ~ 1.86 for suction processes
Highest flow coefficient Cf is about .6 due
to “venturi-contracta” effect at high lift.
Effective area c a
Curtain area
Defined as:
Discharge or
Flow Coefficient
Exhaust Flow Valve lift ratios (l/d) above .23 offer
rapidly diminishing returns in terms of
discharge coefficient.
The critical pressure ratio here is ~ 3 due to the temperature
and composition of the exhaust gasses (value of γ is lower).
Exhaust valves tend to flow better, so they can be
made smaller relative to the intake.
Recommend no more than .6
Exhaust Blow-down time
(assume isentropic process)
Mach Index
Where:
Volumetric efficiency
Where:
Blowdown is typically less than a millisecond
Derivation of mach index
(what average flow velocity is needed at valve for complete cylinder filling)
Integrated flow
Average flow
Volumetric efficiency
Ve @ choked flow
Mach index
.75 Volumetric efficiency for γ = 1.4
= (Assume valve open angle = 234⁰ → 1.3π)
𝑍𝑍
Typical Valve proportions to respect Mach Index requirements.
In general, the inlet valve is of larger diameter than the exhaust valve, since a pressure drop during
induction has a more detrimental effect on performance than a pressure drop during the exhaust stroke.
For a flat, twin valve cylinder head, the maximum inlet valve diameter is typically 44-48 per cent and the
maximum exhaust valve diameter is typically 40-44 per cent of the bore diameter. With pentroof
and hemispherical combustion chambers the valve sizes can be larger.
For a flat four-valve head, as might be used in a compression ignition engine, each inlet valve could be
39 per cent of the bore diameter, and each exhaust valve could be 35 per cent of the bore diameter. This
gives about a 60 per cent increase in total valve circumference, or a 30 per cent increase in 'curtain' area
for the same non-dimensional valve lift.
Variable valve timing and lift objectives
Lower fuel
consumption
objective
(pumping work
reduction)
For high performance engine (running fast) the
Valve overlap. Since cams exhaust valve should open earlier such that there is
have a smooth and gradual enough time for the cylinder blow down to avoid
opening profile, Lift , duration negative work on exhaust stroke.
and overlap values are often The faster the engine runs, the later the inlet
quoted in terms of when the valve should close to take advantage of fluid
valves actually achieve 0.050” momentum.
lift, rather than “ 0 point”
.050” lift
In a Modern Engine the quest is to reduce “pumping losses”, which are
highest when drawing air past a restriction that causes a big pressure drop.
Controlling air flow (on/off) with the intake valve is the most efficient
(Rather than throttling the air over the whole stroke).
Conventional throttling early inlet closing very late inlet closing
(big losses) (very small losses, “vacuum spring”) (inlet air pushed back out)
Idea of variable lift and duration is to
reduce throttling losses. ie: either open
valve or, or close it, rather than dissipate
energy across it by “throttling” the flow.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uhsgdwUX1-w
There are many ways
to control valves for
variable lift and
duration, manufacturer
specific design.
Control of valve overlap, and/or
Full control of intake valve lift can exhaust valve closure, can serve
serve as an efficient “throttle” to control “Internal EGR”
High Torque, Lower speed cam timing Hi Speed, high performance cam
(Conventional) (race style cam)
“Conventional” Valve Timing & Lift
Exhaust Intake
The higher lift on
the intake requires a
longer ramp time
Valves will quickly reach choked flow, thus increasing lift has limited effect
Valve “open” area
Piston vertical velocity profile
Exhaust mass flow rate overview
Blow
down
Piston
pushing
Modeling: ValveFlow.m
% This program computes the cylinder pressure and %intake & exhaust valve specifications
% inlet/exhaust mass flow for two speeds of a four-stroke di=0.044; % diameter of intake seat (m)
engine Li=0.013; % maximum inlet valve lift (m)
clear de=0.038; % diameter of exhaust seat (m)
% engine speed (rpm) Le=0.011; % maximum exhaust valve lift (m)
speed(1)=2000; Pe=105; % exhaust pressure (kPa)
speed(2)=4000; Pi=100; % intake pressure (kPa)
% relative valve timing angles (deg) vd=pi/4*(b^2)*s; % displacement volume per cylinder (m^3)
io_btc=10; % intake open before top center vbdc= vd/(1-1/cr); % volume at bottom dead center
ic_abc=45; % intake closed after bottom center vc=vd/(cr-1); % clearance volume (m^3)
eo_bbc=45; % exhaust open before bottom center %Energy release specs.
ec_atc=10; % exhaust closed after top center Qbar=20; % dimensionless heat release Qin/P1V1
%cylinder specs. Qin=Qbar*Pi*vbdc; % total heat release(kJ/cycle)
s=0.1; % stroke (m) a1=5; % weibe form factor
a=s/2; % crank throw radius (m) n=3; % weibe efficiency factor
b=0.1; % bore (m) thetas=-35; % start of heat release (deg)
R=3.*a; % rod length (m) thetad=60; % heat release duration (deg)
cr=10; % compression ratio Rs=0.287; % air gas constant (kJ/kg-K)
Ri=Rs; Re=Rs; % intake and exhaust gas constant(KJ/kg-K)
ka=1.4; % specific heat ratio
ki=ka; ke=ka; % specific heat ratio for intake and exhaust gas
Valve Lift vs. CA Cylinder Pressure vs. CA
15 8000
Intake 2000rpm
Exhaust 4000rpm
6000
Cylinder Pressure (Kpa)
10
Valve Lift (mm)
4000
5
2000
0 0
180 270 360 450 540 -180 -90 0 90 180
Crank Angle (deg) Crank Angle (deg)
-3
Cylinder Temperature vs. CA 10 Net Cylinder Mass
3000 1
2000rpm
4000rpm
BDC
Cylinder Temperature (K)
Net Cylinder Mass (kg)
2000
0.5
1000 exhaust
intake
2000 rpm
4000 rpm
0 0
-180 -90 0 90 180 -180 0 180 360 540
Crank Angle (deg) Crank Angle (deg)
At higher speed the inlet flowrate Notice how exhaust blowdown happens fast
reduces and is delayed
-6 -6
10 Inlet Mass Flowrate vs. CA 10 Exhaust Mass Flowrate vs. CA
8 5
6
Inlet Mass Flowrate (kg/deg)
Exhaust Mass Flowrate (kg/deg)
0
4
2
-5
Reverse flow
0 2000 rpm
4000 rpm
-2 -10
360 450 540 90 180 270 360 450
Crank Angle (deg) Crank Angle (deg)
Early intake valve opening and later intake valve Volumetric efficiency declines
closing would help with speed increase
Intake valve opens 200
Cylinder Pressure During Intake Process vs. CA
2000 rpm
180
4000 rpm
160
Cylinder Pressure (kPa)
140 Intake valve closes
120
100
80 vacuum
60
360 450 540
Crank Angle (deg)
Code results: Speed (rpm) = 2000 iteration # 4 IVC Temperature (K) = 345.45
Trapped Mass (kg)= 0.000897 iterated IVC Pressure (kPa) = 112.47
Volumetric efficiency= 0.950 Residual fraction = 0.056
Thermal efficiency= 0.312 IMEP (kPa) = 692.69
Speed (rpm) = 4000 iteration # 3 IVC Temperature (K) = 366.49
Trapped Mass (kg)= 0.000853 iterated IVC Pressure (kPa) = 113.45
Volumetric efficiency= 0.890 Residual fraction = 0.064
Thermal efficiency= 0.360 IMEP (kPa) = 800.40
Friction losses & bad event timing decrease volumetric efficiency
Resonance
tuning can
help Ve
An increase in pressure causes an increase in the propagation speed of a wave; then a compression wave will
steepen over time and an expansion wave will flatten. Eventually a shock wave is formed as
Two pressure waves
time approaching another will
reinforce.
Wave Reflection and
Transmission
Free Boundary = connection to
plenum or open atmosphere
Wave Reflections
https://youtu.be/TaAlVaBw2Xw
Fixed Boundary = closed valve
Reflection of a pressure wave at a Junction: Vacuum Tuned intake runner for reflected vacuum wave to
pulse (Expansion wave) followed by pressure pulse return as a pressure pulse at the right time
Resonance
also exhaust system
Pressure x Area
𝑉𝑉 𝛾𝛾 𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃 + 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝑉𝑉 𝛾𝛾−1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝑉𝑉 −1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
−𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉
Pressure change
dx
Use half cylinder volume
(for every second
revolution)
Typical tuned intake system on a engine consists of
plenum and runners, with a throttle valve…
System equation can be derived as:
Mean cylinder volume
Many vehicles have adjustable runner lengths and variable plenum volumes
Example of 3 different combinations of runner lengths
and plenum volumes to hit successively higher resonant
frequencies
Single runner tuned length
Exhaust Silencer Elements
Destructive
interference
No internal compression
(straight-lobed) Limited internal
compression
Super Charging
Compressors
(Mechanically driven)
Which is the most efficient?
Which is the most versatile? Has internal
Which is the most economical? compression
Which is the most used?
Which is best matched to requirements?
Relative efficiencies & Pressure Ratios
(Centripetal types)
Relative efficiencies & Pressure Ratios
(mechanical compression types)
“conventional – low twist”
High twist, more lobes, longer
High Performance
high twisted lobe
Roots Style (Provides
limited internal
compression) more
recently developed,
superior to “straight
lobed” and reasonably
cost effective.
Lysholm Type
(Screw) Compressor
5 female lobes, 3 male lobes
Lysholm type Supercharger
Compression happens
within the scroll volume
as the air moves axially,
efficiency is high over a
wider range of
operating conditions
They are reasonably efficient and
Types of Turbo Compressors small, but output pressure is very
non-linear with operating speed.
Mechanically driven,
radial flow compressor Multistage axial flow compressor (large)
(Very efficient, ships, aircraft engines)
Needs high voltage drive
Electrically driven
radial flow compressor
Quest for low RPM boost and flat torque curve
Variable nozzle
controlled
Wastegate
controlled
Trade-offs (Flow vs Backpressure)
Turbocharger Engine/vehicle
A/R ratio
characteristics performance
Engine:
•high low-end torque
Turbine AR Ratio •low flow capacity •fast torque response
•high flow velocity •limited peak power
0.83 •fast air boost response Vehicle:
•high exhaust •fast accelerations from
backpressure standstill
•fun to drive
•suitable for urban driving
Engine:
•small low-end torque
•high flow capacity •slow torque response
•low flow velocity •higher peak power
•slower air boost Vehicle:
1.22
response (turbo-lag) •poor accelerations from
•low exhaust standstill
backpressure •higher maximum speed
•suitable for extra-urban
driving
Alternative is providing separate turbo + supercharger, or two different sized
turbochargers… this makes the plumbing very cumbersome.
Variable Nozzle turbo gives range of
effective AR ratios
Sliding nozzle is a cheaper way to
achieve the same effect
Variable flow passage between two
2 different AR scrolls is another way
to achieve fast response and
minimum backpressure
Compressor Maps
Centripetal Roots Blower
Turbocharger (straight lobed)
Centripetal
Turbocharger
Compressor Work & Efficiency
• Subscript 0 means “total”
pressure
• No subscript means static
pressure component only
Turbine Work & Efficiency
• Subscript 0 means “total”
pressure
• No subscript means static
pressure component only
Script ‘0’ means total pressure, whereas no
script indicates only static component of
pressure (dynamic pressure is lost)
Note: Typically we do the calculations
neglecting the difference and are by
default using total pressure.
Instead of P04
Mechanical efficiency (close to 100%)
Turbine drives compressor…
so matching power is needed
No Intercooler With Intercooler
isentropic
Actual case, ηc
Turbine efficiency depends on If we know required turbine work (from
Mach number at blade tip compressor work)…. then
we can use graph on left to estimate turbine
efficiency.
Isentropic velocity Cs depends on, flowrate
turbine temperature and pressure ratio, and
specific heat ratio
• If we know pressure ratio across turbine, then its
efficiency can be estimated.
• If we know mass flow rate, power and temperature, then
required pressure drop can be back-calculated.
Image for Sample Problems
