UNIT-1

ILLUMINATION
Syllabus: Introduction, terms used in illumination, laws of illumination, polar curves, and photometry.
Sources of light Discharge lamps: Mercury Vapor and Sodium Vapor lamps comparison between tungsten
filament lamps and fluorescent lamps. Basic principles of light control, Types and design of lighting and flood
lighting.
INTRODUCTION:
Study of illumination engineering is necessary not only to understand the principles of light control as
applied to interior lighting design such as domestic and factory lighting but also to understand outdoor
applications such as highway lighting and flood lighting. Now a day, the electrically produced light is preferred
to the other source of illumination because of an account of its cleanliness, ease of control, steady light output,
low cost, and reliability. The best illumination is that it produces no strain on the eyes. Apart from its esthetic
and decorative aspects, good lighting has a strictly utilitarian value in reducing the fatigue of the workers,
protecting their health, increasing production, etc. The science of illumination engineering is therefore
becoming of major importance.
NATURE OF LIGHT:
Light is a form of electromagnetic energy radiated from a body and human eye is capable of receiving it.
Light is a prime factor in the human life as all activities of human being ultimately depend upon the light.
Various forms of incandescent bodies are the sources of light and the light emitted by such bodies depends upon
their temperature. A hot body about 500 800°C becomes a red hot and about 2,500 3,000°C the body becomes
white hot. While the body is red hot, the wavelength of the radiated energy will be sufficiently large and the
energy available in the form of heat. Further, the temperature increases, the body changes from red-hot to white-
hot state, the wavelength of the radiated energy becomes smaller and enters into the range of the wavelength of
light. The wavelength of the light waves varying from 0.0004 to 0.00075 mm, i.e. 4,000-7,500 Å (1 Angstrom
unit = ). The eye discriminates between different wavelengths in this range by the sensation of color.
The whole of the energy radiated out is not useful for illumination purpose. Radiations of very short wavelength
varying from 0.0000156 × m to 0.001 × m are not in thevisible range are called as rontgen or x-rays,
which are having the property of penetrating through opaque bodies.
TERMS USED IN ILLUMINATION:
The following terms are generally used in illumination.
Color:
The energy radiation of the heated body is monochromatic, i.e. the radiation of only one wavelength
emits specific color. The wavelength of visible light lies between 4,000 and7500 Å. The color of the radiation
corresponding to the wavelength is shown in Fig. 1.1.
 Fig. 1.1.Wavelength
Relative Sensitivity:
The reacting power of the human eye to the light waves of different wave lengths varies from person to
person, and also varies with age. The average relative sensitivity is shown in Fig. 1.2. The eye is most sensitive
for a wavelength of 5,500 Å. So that, the relative sensitivity according to this wavelength is taken as unity.
Referred from Fig. 1.1, blue and violet corresponding to the short wave lengths and red to the long wave
lengths, orange, yellow, and green being in the middle of the visible region of wave length. The color
corresponding to 5,500Å is not suitable for most of the applications since yellowish green. The relative
sensitivity at any particular wavelength relative luminous factor

Fig. 1.2 The average relative sensitivity

Light:
It is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body that produces the visual sensation upon the human
eye. It is expressed in lumen-hours and it analogous to watt hours, which denoted by the symbol
Luminous flux:
It is defined as the energy in the form of light waves radiated per second from aluminous body. It is
represented by the
Ex: Suppose the luminous body is an incandescent lamp. The total electrical power input to the lamp is not
converted to luminous flux, some of the power lost through conduction, convection, and radiation, etc. A
fraction of the remaining radiant flux is in the form of light range of
wavelength, i.e. between 4,000 and 7,000 Å, as shown in Fig. 1.3.
 Fig. 1.3 Flux diagram
Radiant efficiency:
When an electric current is passed through a conductor, some heat is produced to I2R loss, which
increases its temperature of the conductor. At low temperature, conductor radiates energy in the form of heat
waves, but at very high temperatures, radiated energy will be in the form of light as well as heat waves.
ed as the ratio of energy radiated in the form of light, produces sensation of vision to
the total energy radiated out by

Radiant Efficiency =

Plane angle:
A plane angle is the angle subtended at a point in a plane by two converging lines (Fig.1.4). It is denoted

subtended by an arc of a circle whose length by an arc of a circle is equals to the radius of the circle.

Fig. 1.4 Plane angle

Plane angle

Solid angle:
Solid angle is the angle subtended at a point in space by an area, i.e., the angle enclosed in the volume
formed by numerous lines lying on the surface and meeting at the point (Fig. 1.5). It is usually denoted by
symbol steradians

Fig.1.5 Solid angle

Solid angle =
The largest solid angle subtended at the center of a sphere:

= steradians

Relationship between plane angle and solid angle:

Let us consider a curved surface of a spherical segment ABC of height and radius of the sphere as
shown in Fig. 1.6. The surface area of the curved surface of the

Fig.1.6 Sectional view for solid angle

From the Fig. 1.6. BD = OB OD

h = r rcos( ) [from ]

h = r (1-cos )

The surface area of the segment =

Solid angle =

-cos )

From the above Equation, the curve shows the variation of solid angle with plane angle is shown in Fig.1.7.

Fig. 1.7 Relation between solid angle and plane angle

Luminous intensity:
Luminous intensity in a given direction is defined as the luminous flux emitted by the source per unit
solid angle (Fig. 1.8).

Fig. 1.8 Luminous flux emitting from the source

It is denoted by the symbol and is usually measured in Let be the luminous flux
crossing a spherical segment of solid angle Then luminous intensity lumen/ steradians or candela is,
I=

Lumen:
It is the unit of luminous flux. It is defined as the luminous flux emitted by a source of one candle power
per unit solid angle in all directions.
Lumen = candle power of source × solid angle.
Lumen = CP ×
Total flux emitted by a source of one candle power is lumens.
Candle Power (CP):
The CP of a source is defined as the total luminous flux lines emitted by that source in a unit solid angle.

CP= lumen/steradian or candela

Illumination:
Illumination is defined as the luminous flux received by the surface per unit area. It is usually denoted
lumen/ or meter candela

Illumination (E) =

E= = Lux

Lux or Meter Candle:

It is defined as the illumination of the inside of a sphere of radius 1 m and a source of 1 CP is fitted at
the center of sphere.
Foot Candle:
It is the unit of illumination and is defined as the illumination of the inside of a sphere of radius 1 foot,
and a source of 1 CP is fitted at the center of it.
 We know that 1 lux = 1 foot candle =

1 foot candle =

1foot candle = 10.76 lux or m-candle

Brightness:
Brightness of any surface is defined as the luminous intensity per unit surface area of the projected

candela on an area A, then the projected area is A

The unit of brightness is candela/ or candela/ or candela/
Brightness, L =

Relation between I, E, and L:

Let us consider a uniform diffuse sphere with radius r meters and luminous intensity I candela. Then,
Brightness, L =

Luminous intensity (I) =

Illumination (E) = =
Area of sphere = and solid angle of sphere =

E=

E=

Multiplying numerator and denominator with

E= ×

E=

E=
Mean horizontal candle power (MHCP):
It is defined as the mean of candle powers in all directions in the horizontal plane containing the source
of light.
Mean spherical candle power (MSCP):
It is defined as the mean of the candle powers in all directions and in all planes from the source of light.
Mean hemispherical candle power (MHSCP): It is defined as the mean of candle powers in all directions
above or below the horizontal plane passing through the source of light.
Reduction factor:
Reduction factor of the source of light is defined as the ratio of its mean spherical candle power to its
mean horizontal candle power.
Reduction factor =

Lamp efficiency:
It is defined as the ratio of the total luminous flux emitting from the source to its electrical power input
in watts. It is expressed in lumen/W.
Lamp efficiency =

Specific consumption:
It is defined as the ratio of electric power input to its average candle power.
Space to height ratio:
It is defined as ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps to the height of their Mountings.

Space to height ratio =

Coefficient of utilization or utilization factor:

It is defined as the ratio of total number of lumens reaching the working plane to the Total number of
lumens emitting from source.
Utilization factor =

Maintenance factor:
It is defined as the ratio of illumination under normal working conditions to the illumination when
everything is clean. Its value is always less than 1, and it will be around 0.8. This is due to the accumulation of
dust, dirt, and smoke on the lamps that emit less light than that they emit when they are so clean. Frequent
cleaning of lamp will improve the maintenance factor.

Maintenance factor =

Depreciation factor:
It is defined as the ratio of initial illumination to the ultimate maintained illumination on the working
plane. Its values are always more than 1.

Depreciation factor =

Waste light factor:

When a surface is illuminated by several numbers of the sources of light, there is certain amount of
wastage due to overlapping of light waves; the wastage of light is taken into account depending upon the type of
area to be illuminated. Its value for rectangular area is 1.2 and for irregular area is 1.5 and objects such as
statues, monuments, etc.
Absorption factor:
Normally, when the atmosphere is full of smoke and fumes, there is a possibility of absorption of light.
Hence, the total lumens available after absorption to the total lumens emitted by the lamp are known as
absorption factor.

Absorption factor =

Reflection factor or coefficient of reflection:

When light rays impinge on a surface, it is reflected from the surface at an angle of incidence shown in
Fig. 1.9. A portion of incident light is absorbed by the surface. The ratio of luminous flux leaving the surface to
the luminous flux incident on it is known as reflection factor. Its value will be always less than 1.

Fig.1.9 Reflected ray

Beam factor:

value is usually varies from 0.3 to 0.6. This factor is taken into account for the absorption of light by reflector
and front glass of the projector lamp.
Problems:
Example 1.1: A 200-V lamp takes a current of 1.2 A, it produces a total flux of 2,860 lumens.
Calculate: 1. The MSCP of the lamp and
2. The efficiency of the lamp.
Solution:
Given V = 200 V
I = 1.2 A
Flux = 2,860 lumens.

1. MSCP =

= =227.59

2. Lamp efficiency =

= = = 11.91
Example 1.2: A room with an area of 6 × 9 m is illustrated by ten 80-W lamps. The luminous efficiency of the
lamp is 80lumens/W and the coefficient of utilization is 0.65.Find the average illumination.
Solution:
Given,
Room area = 6 × 9 = 54 .
Total wattage = 80 × 10 = 800 W.
Total flux emitted by ten lamps = 80 × 800 = 64,000 lumens.
Flux reaching the working plane = 64,000 × 0.65 = 41,600 lumens
Illumination E =

E= =770.37 lux

Example 1.3: The luminous intensity of a lamp is 600 CP. Find the flux given out.
Solution:
Flux emitted by source (lumen)= Intensity (I) × solid angle
= 600 × = 3,769.911 lumens
Flux emitted in the lower hemisphere = 3,769.911 lumens.
Example 1.4: The flux emitted by 100-W lamp is 1,400 lumens placed in a frosted globe of 40 cm diameter and
gives uniform brightness of 250milli-lumens/m2 in all directions. Calculate the candlepower of the globe and
the percentage of light absorbed by the globe.
Solution:
Flux emitted by the globe = brightness × globe area

= 1,256.63 lumens
Flux absorbed by the globe= flux emitted by source flux emitted by globe
= 1,400 1,256.63
= 143.36 lumens.
The percentage of light absorbed by the globe = = 10.24
LAWS OF ILLUMINATION:
Mainly there are two laws of illumination.
1. Inverse square law.
2. Lambert's cosine law.
1. Inverse square law:
This law states that illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of distance
between the surface and a
Proof:

crossing the three parallel plates having areas A1 A2, and A3 square meters, which are separated by a distances
of d, 2d, and 3d from the point source respectively as shown in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10 Inverse square law

For Area
Luminous flux reaching the area = luminous intensity × solid angle
=I

Illumination ' ' on the surface area ' ' is:

lux

Similarly, illumination ' ' on the surface area is:

lux

and illumination on the surface area is:

lux

From Equations :
=

Hence, from the above Equation, illumination on any surface is inversely proportional to the square of
distance between the surface and the source.
2. law:
This law states that E at any point on a surface is directly proportional to the cosine of the
angle between the normal at that point and the line of
Proof:
While discussing, the Lambert's cosine law, let us assume that the surface is inclined at an angle to
the lines of flux as shown in Fig. 1.11.

Fig. 1.11 Lambert's cosine law

Let, PQ = The surface area normal to the source and inclined to the vertical axis.
RS = The surface area normal to the vertical axis and inclined at an angle to the source
Therefore, from Fig. 1.11:
PQ = RS cos

The illumination of the surface PQ, =

= = ( )

The illumination of the surface RS, =

= [ PQ = RScos

From Fig. 1.11(b):

Or d =

Substituting in above Equation

 Where d is the distance between the source and the surface in m, h is the height of source from the
surface in m, and I is the luminous intensity in candela. Hence, the above Equation is

the angle between line of

Note:
From the above laws of illumination, it is to be noted that inverse square law is only applicable for the
surfaces if the surface is normal to the line of flux. And Lambert's cosine law is applicable for the surfaces if the
surface flux.
Problems:
Example 1.5: The illumination at a point on a working plane directly below the lamp is to be 60lumens/m2.
The lamp gives 130 CP uniformly below the horizontal plane. Determine: 1.The height at which lamp is
suspended. 2. The illumination at a point on the working plane 2.8 m away from the vertical axis of the lamp.
Solution:
Given data:
Candle power of the lamp = 130 CP.
The illumination just below the lamp, E = 60 lumen/m2.
From the below fig. the illumination just below the lamp, i.e., at point A:

h= = = 1.471m

The illumination at point

=
POLAR CURVES:
The luminous flux emitted by a source can be determined using the intensity distribution curve. Till now
we assumed that the luminous intensity or the candle power from a source is distributed uniformly over the
surrounding surface. But due to its s not uniform in all directions. The luminous intensity or the distribution of
the light can be represented with the help of the polar curves. The polar curves are drawn by taking luminous
intensities in various directions at an equal angular displacement in the sphere. A radial ordinate pointing in any
particular direction on a polar curve represents the luminous intensity of the source when it is viewed from that
direction.
Accordingly, there are two different types of polar curves and they are:
1. A curve is plotted between the candle power and the angular position, if the luminous intensity, i.e., candle
power is measured in the horizontal plane about the vertical axis, called 'horizontal polar curve.
2. A curve is plotted between the candle power, if it is measured in the vertical plane and the angular position is
known as

(a) Horizontal polar curve (b) vertical polar curve

Fig 1.12. Typical polar curves for an ordinary lamp.
Depression at 180° in the vertical polar curve is due to the lamp holder. Slight depression at 0° in
horizontal polar curve is because of coiled coil filament. Polar curves are used to determine the actual
illumination of a surface by employing the candle power in that particular direction as read from the vertical
polar curve. These are also used to determine mean horizontal candle power (MHCP) and mean spherical
candle power (MSCP). The mean horizontal candle power of a lamp can be determined from the horizontal
polar curve by considering the mean value of all the candle powers in a horizontal direction. The mean spherical
candle power of a symmetrical source of a light can be found out from the polar curve by means of a Rousseau's
construction.
Rousseau's construction:
Let us consider a vertical polar curve is in the form of two lobes symmetrical about XO axis. A simple
Rousseau's curve is shown in Fig. 1.13.
 Fig. 1.13 Rousseau's curve
Rules for constructing the Rousseau's curve are as follows:
Draw a circle with any convenient radius and with as center.
Draw a line the axis XO and is equal to the vertical diameter of the circle.
Draw any line in such a way that the line meeting the polar curve at point and the circle at
point let the projection be parallel line
Erect an ordinate at as, RB = OP.
Similarly draw the other ordinates, Now from this line 'AF' ordinate equals to the corresponding radius
on the polar curve are setup such as SC = OM, TD = ON, and so on.
The curve ABCDEFA so obtained by joining these ordinates is known as Rousseau's curve.
The mean ordinate of this curve gives the mean spherical candle power (MSCP) of the lamp
The mean ordinate of the curve =

The area under the Rousseau's curve can be determined by Simpson's rule.
PHOTOMETRY:
Photometry involves the measurement of candle power or luminous intensity of a given source. Now,
we shall discuss the comparison and measurement of the candle powers. The candle power of a given source in
a particular direction can be measured by the comparison with a standard or substandard source. In order to
eliminate the errors due to the reflected light, the experiment is conducted in a dark room with dead black walls
and ceiling. The comparison of the test lamp with the standard lamp can be done by employing a photometer
bench and some form of photometer.
Principle of simple photometer:
The photometer bench essentially consists of two steel rods with (2-3)m long. This bench carries stands
or saddles for holding two sources (test and standard lamps), the carriage for the photometer head and any other
apparatus employed in making measurements. The photometer bench should be rigid so that the source being
compared may be free from vibration. The photometer head should be capable of moving smoothly and the
photometer head acts as screen for the comparison of the illumination of the standard lamp and the test lamp.
The principle methods of measurement are based upon the inverse square law.
 The photometer bench consists of two sources, the standard
photometer head acts as screen is moved
in between the two fixed sources until the illumination on both the sides of screen is same. A simple
arrangement for the measurement of the candle power of the test source is shown in Fig.1.14.

Fig.1.14 Measurement of candle power

In order to obtain the accurate candle power of test source, the distance of the sources from the
photometer head should be measured accurately.
The photometer heads that are most common in use are:
(1) Bunsen grease spot photometer
(2) Lumer - Brodhun photometer
SOURCES OF LIGHT:
Introduction:
Light plays major role in human life. Natural light restricted for some duration in a day, it is very
difficult to do any work by human being without light. So, it is necessary to have substitute for natural light.
Light from incandescent bodies produced electrically, which playing important role in everyday life due to its
controlled output, reliability, and cleanliness nowadays; various sources are producing artificial light. Each
source has its own characteristics and specific importance.
TYPES OF SOURCES OF LIGHT:
Based upon the way of producing the light by electricity, the sources of light are classified into
following four types.
Electric arc lamps:
The ionization of air present between the two electrodes produces an arc and provides intense light.
Incandescent lamps:
When the filaments of these lamps are heated to high temperature, they emit light that falls in the visible
region of wavelength. Tungsten-filament lamps are operating on this principle.
Gaseous Discharge lamps:
When an electric current is made to pass through a gas or metal vapor, it produces visible radiation by
discharge takes place in the gas vapor. Sodium and mercury vapor lamps operate on this principle.
Fluorescent lamps:
Certain materials like phosphor powders exposed to ultraviolet rays emits the absorbed energy into
visible radiations fall in the visible range of wavelength. This principle is employed in fluorescent lamps.
ARC LAMPS:
In arc lamps, the electrodes are in contact with each other and are separated by some distance apart; the
electric current is made to flow through these two electrodes. The discharge is allowed to take place in the
atmosphere where there are the production of a very intense light and a considerable amount of UV radiation,
when an arc is struck between two electrodes. The arcs maintain current and is very efficient source of light.
They are used in search lights, projection lamps, and other special purpose lamps such as those in flash cameras.
Generally, used arc lamps are:
1. Carbon arc lamp,
2. Flame arc lamp,
3. Magnetic arc lamp.
1. Carbon arc lamp:
Carbon arc lamp consists of two hard rod-type electrodes made up of carbon. Two electrodes are placed
end to end and are connected to the DC supply. The positive electrode is of a large size than that of the negative
electrode. The carbon electrodes used with AC supply are of the same size as that of the DC supply. The DC
supply across the two electrodes must not be less than 45 V. When electric current passes through the electrodes
are in contact and then withdrawn apart about 2 3 mm an arc is established between the two rods. The two
edges of the rods becomes incandescence due to the high resistance offered by rods as shown in Fig. 1.15 by
transfer of carbon particles from one rod to the other. It is observed that carbon particles transfer from the
positive rod to the negative one. So that the positive electrode gets consumed earlier than the negative electrode.
Hence, the positive electrode is of twice the diameter than that of the negative electrode.

Fig 1.15 Carbon arc lamp

 In case of AC supply, the rate of consumption of the two electrodes is same; therefore, the cross section
of the two electrodes is same. A resistance is connected in series with the electrode for stabilizing the arc.
As current increases, the vaporizing rate of carbon increases, which decreases the resistance then voltage drop
across the arc decreases. So, to maintain the arc between the two electrodes, series resistance should be
necessarily connected. For maintaining the arc, the necessary voltage required is:
V = (39 + 2.8 l ) V
Where l is the length of the arc, the voltage drop across the arc is 60 V, the temperature of the positive
electrode is 3,500 4,200°C, and the temperature of the negative electrode is 2,500°C. The luminous efficiency
of such lamps is 9 12 lumens/W. This low luminous efficiency is due to the service resistance provided in DC
supply while in case of AC supply, an inductor is used in place of a resistor. In carbon arc lamps, 85% of the
light is given out by the positive electrode, 10% of the light is given out by the negative electrodes, and 5% of
the light is given out by the air.
2. Flame arc lamp:
The electrodes used in flame arc lamp are made up of 85% of carbon and 15% of fluoride. This fluoride
is also known as flame material; it has the efficient property that radiates light energy from high heated arc
stream. Generally, the core type electrodes are used and the cavities are filled with fluoride. The principle of
operation of the flame arc lamp is similar to the carbon arc lamp. When the arc is established between the
electrodes, both fluoride and carbon get vaporized and give out very high luminous intensities.
The color output of the flame arc lamps depends upon the flame materials. The luminous efficiency of
such lamp is 8 lumens/W. A simple flame arc lamp is shown in Fig. 1.16. Resistance is connected in series with
the electrodes to stabilize the arc.

Fig. 1.16 Flame arc lamp

3. Magnetic arc lamp:
The principle of the operation of the magnetic arc lamp is similar to the carbon arc lamp. This lamp
consists of positive electrode that is made up of copper and negative electrode that is made up of magnetic
oxide of iron. Light energy radiated out when the arc is struck between the two electrodes. These are rarely used
lamps.
INCANDESCENT LAMP:
These lamps are temperature-dependent sources. When electric current is made to flow through a fine
metallic wire, which is known as filament, its temperature increases. At low temperatures, it emits only heat
energy, but at very high temperature, the metallic wire emits both heat and light energy. These incandescent
lamps are also known as temperature radiators.
Choice of material for filament: The materials commonly used as filament for incandescent lamps are carbon,
tantalum, tungsten, and osmium.
The materials used for the filament of the incandescent lamp have the following properties.
1. The melting point of the filament material should be high.
2. The temperature coefficient of the material should be low.
3. It should be high resistive material.
4. The material should possess good mechanical strength to withstand vibrations.
5. The material should be ductile.
Comparisons of carbon, osmium, tantalum, and tungsten used for making the filament:
Carbon:
Carbon has high melting point of 3,500°C; even though, its melting point is high, carbon starts
disintegration at very fast rate beyond its working temperature of 1,800°C.
Its resistance decreases with increase in temperature, i.e., its temperature coefficient of resistivity is
negative, so that it draws more current from the supply.
The temperature 0.0002 to 0.0008.
The efficiency of carbon filament lamp is low; because of its low operating temperature, large electrical
input is required. The commercial efficiency of carbon lamp is 3 4.5 lumens/W approximately.
Carbon has high resistivity which is about 1,000 -cm and its density is 1.7 3.5.
Osmium:
The melting point of osmium is 2,600°C.
It is very rare and expensive metal.
The average efficiency of osmium lamp is 5 lumens/W.
Tantalum:
The melting point of tantalum is 3,000°C. 2 Resistivity is 12.5 -cm.
The main drawback of the negative temperature coefficient of carbon is overcome in tantalum. It has
positive temperature and its value is 0.0036.
The density of tantalum is 16.6.
The efficiency of tantalum lamp is 2 lumens/W.
Tungsten:
The working temperature of tungsten is 2,500 3,000°C.
Its resistance at working temperature is about 12 15 times the cold resistance.
It has positive temperature coefficient of resistance of 0.0045.
Its resistivity is 5.6 12.5 -cm.
The density of tungsten is 19.3.
The efficiency of tantalum when working at 2,000°C is 18 lumens/W.
Its vapor pressure is low when compared to carbon.
In fact, the carbon lamp is the first lamp introduced by Thomas Alva Edison in 1879, owing to two
drawbacks; tungsten radiates more energy in visible spectrum and somewhat less infrared spectrum so that there
was a switch over in infrared spectrum so that there was a switch over from carbon filament to tungsten
filament. Nowadays, tungsten filament lamps are widely used incandescent lamps.
The chemically pure tungsten is very strong and fragile. In order to make it into ductile, tungsten oxides
first reduced in the form of gray power in the atmosphere of hydrogen and this powder is pressed in steel mold
for small bars; the mechanical strength of these bars can be improved by heating them toothier melting point
and then hammered at red-hot position and rerolled into wires.
Figure 1.17 shows the construction of the pure tungsten filament incandescent lamp. It consists of an
evacuated glass bulb and an aluminum or brass cap is provided with two pins to insert the bulb into the socket.
The inner side of the bulb consists of a tungsten filament and the support wires are made of molybdenum to
hold the filament in proper position. A glass button is provided in which the support wires are inserted. A stem
tube forms an air-tight seal around the filament whenever the glass is melted.

Fig. 1.17 Incandescent lamp

Operation:
When electric current is made to flow through the fine metallic tungsten filament, its temperature
increases. At very high temperature, the filament emits both heat and light radiations, which fall in the visible
region. The maximum temperature at which the filament can be worked without oxidization is 2,000°C, i.e.,
beyond this temperature, the tungsten filament blackens the inside of the bulb. The tungsten filament lamps can
be operated efficiently beyond 2,000°C, it can be attained by inserting a small quantity of inert gas nitrogen
with small quantity of organ. But if gas is inserted instead of vacuum in the inner side of the bulb, the heat of
the lamp is conducted away and it reduces the efficiency of the lamp. To reduce this loss of heat by conduction
and convection, as far as possible, the filament should be so wound that it takes very little space.
This is achieved by using a single-coil filament instead of a straight wire filament as shown in Fig.
1.18(a) This single-coil filament is used in vacuum bulbs up to 25 W and gas filled bulbs from 300 to 1,000 W.

Fig. 1.18 Various filaments used in incandescent lamps

On further development of the incandescent lamps, the shortening of the length of the filament was
achieved by adopting a coiled coil or a double coil filament as shown in Fig. 1.18(b). The use of coiled coil
filament not only improves the efficiency of the lamp but also reduces the number of filament supports and thus
simplified interior construction because the double coil reduces the filament mounting length in the ratio of 1:25
as compared to the straight wire filaments. Usually, the tungsten fi
output of the light an incandescent lamp decreases as the lamp ages.
The output of the light of the lamp decreases due to two reasons. At very high temperature, the
vaporization of filament decreases the coil diameter so that resistance of the filament increases and hence its
draws less current from the supply, so the temperature of the filament and the light output of the bulb decrease.
The current drawn from the mains and the power consumed by the filament decrease, which decrease the
efficiency of the lamp with the passage of time. In addition, the evaporation of the filament at high temperature
blackens the inside of the bulb.
The effects of voltage variations:
The variations in normal supply voltages will affect the operating characteristics of incandescent lamps.
The performance characteristic of an incandescent lamp, when it is subjected to voltage other than normal
voltage, is shown in Fig.1.19
 Fig.1.19. Performance characteristics of incandescent lamp
With an increase in the voltage owing to the increase in the temperature, the luminous output of the
incandescent lamps, and the efficiency and power consumption, but its life span decreases. The depreciation in
the light output is around 15% over the useful life of the lamp. The above stated factors are related to the
variations of voltage are given as:
Lumens output (voltage)3.55.
Power consumption (voltage)1.55.
Luminous efficiency .
Life (voltage) 13 (for vacuum lamps).
Life (voltage) 14 (for gas filled lamps).
The advantages of the incandescent lamps:
1. These lamps are available in various shapes and sizes.
2. These are operating at unity power factor.
3. These lamps are not affected by surrounding air temperature.
4. Different colored light output can be obtained by using different colored glasses.
Filament dimensions:
Let us consider a lamp, which is connected to the mains, is given the steady light output, i.e. whatever
the heat produced, it is dissipated and the filament temperature is not going to be increase further. It is found to
be the existence of a definite relation between the diameter of a given filament and the current through it. The
input wattage to the lamp is expressed as,
( R= )

= ( a= )

=
 Where, I is the current taken by the lamp in A,
a is the filament cross-section in sq. m,
-m,
l is the length of the filament in m
d is the diameter of the filament.
Let the emissivity of the material be Total heat dissipated will depend upon the surface area and the
emissivity of the material.
Heat dissipated surface area × emissivity
Heat dissipated
At the steady state condition, the power input should be equal to the heat dissipated. From above two
Equations we can write that

If two filaments are made up of same material, working at same temperature and efficiency but with
different diameters, then from the above Equation.

If two filaments are working at the same temperature, then their luminous output must be same even
though their lengths are different.
Lumen output

Limitations:
The incandescent lamp suffers from the following drawbacks:
Low efficiency.
Colored light can be obtained by using different colored glass enclosures only.
DISCHARGE LAMPS:
Discharge lamps have been developed to overcome the drawbacks of the incandescent lamps. The main
principle of the operation of light in a gaseous discharge lamp is illustrated as below. In all discharge lamps, an
electric current is made to pass through a gas or vapor, which produces its luminance. Normally, at high
pressures and atmospheric conditions, all the gases are poor conductors of electricity. But on application of
sufficient voltage across the two electrodes, these ionized gases produce electromagnetic radiation. In the
process of producing light by gaseous conduction, the most commonly used elements are neon, sodium, and
mercury. The wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation depends upon the nature of gas and the gaseous
pressure used inside the lamp. A simple discharge lamp is shown in Fig. 1.20.
 Fig.1.20. Discharge lamps
The production of light in the gaseous discharge lamps is based on the phenomenon of excitation and
ionization of gas or metal vapor present between the two electrodes of a discharge tube. When the potential
between the two electrodes is equals to ionizing potential, gas or metal vapor starts ionizing and an arc is
established between the two electrodes. Volt ampere characteristics of the arc are negative, i.e., gaseous
discharge lamp possesses negative resistance characteristics. A choke or ballast is provided to limit high
currents to a safe value. Here, the choke serves two functions.
It provides ignition voltage initially.
Limits high currents
The use of choke will reduce the power factor (0.3 0.4) of all the gaseous lamps so that all the discharge
lamps should be provided with a condenser to improve the power factor. The nature of the gas and vapor used
in the lamp will affect the color affected of light.
Types of discharge lamps:
Generally used discharge lamps are of two types. They are:
The lamps that emit light of the color produced by discharge takes place through the gas or vapor
present in the discharge tube such as neon gas, sodium vapor, mercury vapor, etc.
Ex: Neon gas lamps, sodium vapor lamps, and mercury vapor lamps.
The lamp that emits light of color depends upon the type of phosphor material coated inside the walls of
the discharge tube. Initially, the discharge takes place through the vapor produces UV radiation, and then the
invisible UV rays absorbed by the phosphors and radiate light energy falls in the visible region. This UV light
causes fluorescence in certain phosphor materials, such lamps are known as fluorescent lamps.
Ex: Fluorescent mercury vapor tube.
In general, the gaseous discharge lamps are superior to the tungsten filament lamps.
Drawbacks
The discharge lamps suffer from the following drawbacks.
1. The starting of the discharge lamps requires starters and transformers; therefore, the lamp circuitry is
complex.
2. High initial cost.
3. Poor power factor; therefore, the lamps make use of the capacitor.
4. Time required to give its full output brilliancy is more.
5. These lamps must be placed in particular position.
6. These lamps require stabilizing choke to limit current since the lamps have negative resistance
Characteristics.
NEON DISCHARGE LAMP:
This is a cold cathode lamp, in which no filament is used to heat the electrode for starting. Neon lamp
consists of two electrodes placed at the two ends of a long discharge tube is shown in Fig. 1.21.

Fig.1.21. Neon lamps

The discharge tube is filled with neon gas. A low voltage of 150 V on DC or 110 V on AC is impressed
across the two electrodes; the discharge takes place through the neon gas that emits light or electromagnetic
radiation reddish in color. The sizes of electrodes used are equal for AC supplies. On DC, neon glow appear
nearer to the negative electrode; therefore, the negative electrode is made larger in size.
Neon lamp electric circuit consists of a transformer with high leakage reactance in order to stabilize the
arc. Capacitor is used to improve the power factor. Neon lamp efficiency is approximately 15 40 lumens/W.
The power consumption of the neon lamp is 5 W. If the helium gas is used instead of neon, pinkish white light
is obtained. These lamps are used as night lamps and as indicator lamps and used for the determination of the
polarity of DC mains and for advertising purpose.
SODIUM VAPOR LAMP:
A sodium vapor lamp is a cold cathode and low-pressure lamp. A sodium vapor discharge lamp consists
of a U-shaped tube enclosed in a double-walled vacuum flask, to keep the temperature of the tube within the
working region. The inner U-tube consists of two oxide-coated electrodes, which are sealed with the ends.
These electrodes are connected to a pin type base construction of sodium vapor lamp is shown in Fig.1.22
 Fig.1.22 Sodium vapor lamp
This sodium vapor lamp is low luminosity lamp, so that the length of the lamp should be more. In order
to get the desired length, it is made in the form of a U-shaped tube. This long U tube consists of a small amount
of neon gas and metallic sodium. At the time of start, the neon gas vaporizes and develops sufficient heat to
vaporize metallic sodium in the U-shaped tube.
Working:
Initially, the sodium is in the form of a solid, deposited on the walls of inner tube. When sufficient
voltage is impressed across thee electrodes, the discharge starts in the inert gas, i.e., neon; it operates as a low-
pressure neon lamp with pink color. The temperature of the lamp increases gradually and the metallic sodium
vaporizes and then ionizes thereby producing the monochromatic yellow light. This lamp takes 10 15 min to
give its full light output. The yellowish output of the lamp makes the object appears gray. In order to start the
lamp, 380 450 V of striking voltage required for 40- and 100-W lamps. These voltages can be obtained from a
high reactance transformer or an auto transformer. The operating power factor of the lamp is very poor, so that a
capacitor is placed to improve the power factor to above 0.8.
More care should be taken while replacing the inner tube, if it is broken, then sodium comes in contact
with the moisture; therefore, fire will result. The lamp must be operated horizontally or nearly so, to spread out
the sodium well along the tube. The efficiency of sodium vapor lamp is lies between 40 and 50 lumens/W.
Normally, these lamps are manufactured in 45-, 60-, 85- and 140-W ratings. The normal operating temperatures
of these lamps are300°C. In general, the average life of the sodium vapor lamp is 3,000 hr and such bulbs are
not affected by voltage variations.
Following are the causes of failure to operate the lamp, when:
1. The cathode fails to emit the electrons.
2. The filament breaks or burns out.
3. All the particles of sodium are concentrated on one side of the inner tube.
4. The life of the lamp increases due to aging.
5. The average light output of the lamp is reduced by 15% due to aging. These lamps are mainly used for
highway and street lighting, parks, railway yards, general outdoor lighting, etc.
HIGH-PRESSURE MERCURY VAPOR LAMP:
The working of the mercury vapor discharge lamp mainly depends upon the pressure, voltage,
temperature, and other characteristics that influence the spectral quality and the efficiency of the lamp.
Generally used high-pressure mercury vapor lamps are of three types. They are:
MA type: Preferred for 250- and 400-W rating bulbs on 200 250-V AC supply.
MAT type: Preferred for 300- and 500-W rating bulbs on 200 250-V AC supply.
MB type: Preferred for 80- and 125-W rating bulbs and they are working at very high pressures.
MA type lamp:
It is a high-pressure mercury vapor discharge lamp that is similar to the construction of sodium vapor
lamp. The construction of MA type lamp is shown in Fig. 1.23.

Fig.1.23. MA type lamp

made up of hard glass or quartz.
This discharge tube is enclosed in an outer tube of ordinary glass. To prevent the heat loss from the inner bulb,
by convection, the gap between the two tubes is completely evacuated. The inner tube contains two main
electrodes
also contains a small quantity of argon gas and mercury. The two main electrodes are tungsten coils coated with
electron emitting material (such as thorium metal).
Working:
Initially, the tube is cold and hence the mercury is in condensed form. When supply is given to the lamp,
argon gas present between the main and the auxiliary electrodes gets ionized, and an arc is established, and then
discharge takes place through argon for few minutes between the main and the auxiliary electrodes. The
discharge can be controlled by using high resistance that is inserted in-series with the auxiliary electrode. After
few minutes, the argon gas, as a whole, gets ionized between the two main electrodes. Hence, the discharge
shifts from the auxiliary electrode to the two main electrodes.
 During the discharge process, heat is produced and this heat is sufficient to vaporize the mercury. As a
result, the pressure inside the discharge tube becomes high and the voltage drop across the two main electrodes
will increases from 20 to 150 V. After 5 7 min, the lamp starts and gives its full output. Initially, the discharge
through the argon is pale blue glow and the discharge through the mercury vapors is greenish blue light; here,
choke is provided to limit high currents and capacitor is to improve the power factor of the lamp. If the supply is
interrupted, the lamp must cool down and the vapor pressure be reduced before it will start. It takes
approximately 3 4 min. The operating temperature of the inner discharge tube is about 600°C. The efficiency
of this type of lamp is30 40 lumens/W. These lamps are manufactured in 250 and 400 W ratings for use on
200 250 V on AC supply. Generally, the MA type lamps are used for general industrial lighting, ports,
shopping centers, railway yards, etc.
MAT type lamp:
This is another type of mercury vapor lamp that is manufactured in 300 and 500 W rating for use on AC
as well as DC supplies. The construction of the MAT type lamp is similar to the MA type lamp except the outer
tube being empty; it consists of tungsten filament so that at the time of starting, it works as a tungsten filament
lamp. Here, the filament itself acts as a choke or ballast to limit the high currents to safer value. When the
supply is switched on, it works as a tungsten filament lamp, its full output is given by the outer tube. At this
time, the temperature of the inner discharge tube increases gradually, the argon gas present in it starts ionizing
in the discharge tube at any particular temperature is attained then thermal switch gets opened, and the part of
the filament is detached and voltage across the discharge tube increases. Now, the discharge takes place through
the mercury vapor. Useful color effect can be obtained by this lamp.
This is because of the combination of light emitted from the filament and blue radiations from the
discharge tube. In this type of lamp, capacitor is not required since the overall power factor of the lamp is 0.95;
this is because the filament itself acts as resistance. Fig. 1.24 shows the construction of MAT type lamp.

Fig.1.24. MAT type lamp

MB type lamp:
Schematic representation of MB type lamp is shown in Fig.1.25.

Fig.1.25 MB type lamp

The MB type lamp is also similar to the MA type lamp. The inner discharge tube for the MB type lamp
is about 5 -cm long and is made up of quartz material. It has three electrodes; two main and one auxiliary
electrodes. There are three electrodes present in the MB type lamp, namely two main electrodes and one
auxiliary electrode. Relatively, very high pressure is maintained inside the discharge tube and it is about 5 10
times greater than atmospheric pressure. The outer tube is made with pearl glass material so as to withstand
high temperatures.
We can use these tubes in any position, because they are made up of special glass material. The working
principle of the MB type lamp is similar to the MA type lamp. These lamps are manufactured in 300 and 500 W
rating for use in AC as well as DC supplies. An MB type lamp consists a bayonet cap with three pins, so it may
not be used in an ordinary sense. A choke coil and a capacitor are necessary for working with these types of
lamps.
FLUORESCENT LAMP (LOW-PRESSURE MERCURY VAPOR LAMP):
Fluorescent lamp is a hot cathode low-pressure mercury vapor lamp; the construction and working of the
fluorescent lamp are explained as follows.
Construction:
It consists of a long horizontal tube, due to low pressure maintained inside of the bulb; it is made in the
form of a long tube. The tube consists of two spiral tungsten electrode coated with electron emissive material
and are placed at the two edges of long tube. The tube contains small quantity of argon gas and certain amount
of mercury, at a pressure of 2.5 mm of mercury. The construction of fluorescent lamp is shown in Fig. 1.26.
Normally, low-pressure mercury vapor lamps suffer from low efficiency and they produce an objectionable
colored light. Such drawback is overcome by coating the inside of the tube with fluorescent powders. They are
in the form of solids, which are usually knows as phosphors.
 Fig.1.26. Fluorescent lamp
A glow starter switch contains small quantity of argon gas, having a small cathode glow lamp with
bimetallic strip is connected in series with the electrodes, which puts the electrodes directly across the supply at
the time of starting. A choke is connected in series that acts as ballast when the lamp is running, and it provides
a voltage impulse for starting. A capacitor
factor.
Working:
At the time of starting, when both the lamp and the glow starters are cold, the mercury is in the form of
globules. When supply is switched on, the glow starter terminals are open circuited and full supply voltage
appeared across these terminals, due to low resistance of electrodes and choke coil.
The small quantity of argon gas gets ionized, which establishes an arc with a Starting glow. This glow
warms up the bimetallic strip thus glow starts gets short circuited. Hence, the two electrodes come in series and
are connected across the supply voltage.
Now, the two electrodes get heated and start emitting electrons due to the flow of current through them.
These electrons collide with the argon atoms present in the long tube discharge that takes place through the
argon gas. So, in the beginning, the lamp starts conduction with argon gas as the temperature increases, the
mercury changes into vapor form and takes over the conduction of current. In the mean time, the starter
potential reaches to zero and the bimetallic strip gets cooling down. As a result, the starter terminals will open.
This results breaking of the series circuit.
A very high voltage around 1,000 V is induced, because of the sudden opening of starter terminals in the
series circuit. But in the long tube, electrons are already present; this induced voltage is quite sufficient to break
down the long gap. Thus, more number of electrons collide with argon and mercury vapor atoms. The excited
atom of mercury gives UV radiation, which will not fall in the visible region. Meanwhile, these UV rays are
made to strike phosphor material; it causes the re-emission of light of different wavelengths producing
illumination. The phenomenon of the emission is called as luminescence.
This luminescence is classified into two ways. They are:
Fluorescence: In this case, the excitation presents for the excited periods only.
Phosphorescence: In this case, even after the exciting source is removed, the excitation will present. In a lamp,
the re-emission of light causes fluorescence, then such lamp is known as fluorescent lamp.
Depending upon the type of phosphor material used, we get light of different colors as given in Table.
1 Zinc silicate Green
2 Calcium tungstate Green
3 Magnesium tungstate Bluish while
4 Cadmium silicate Yellowish Pink
5 Zinc beryllium silicate Yellowish while
6 Cadmium borate Pink

Advantages of fluorescent lamp:

Compared to filament lamps, the efficiency is 3 to 4 times more in fluorescent lamps means these
lamps has High efficiency.
The life of the lamp is three times of the ordinary filament lamp.
The quality of the light obtained is much superior. Gives diffused, glare free, shadow less and cool
white light.
These lamps can be mounted on low ceiling, where other light sources would be unsatisfactory.
Lower power consumption.
No warming up period is required as in the case of other discharge lamps.
Low heat radiation
Different color lights can be obtained using different types of fluorescent powders.
Disadvantages of fluorescent lamp:
The initial cost is high because of choke and starter.
The starting time as well as the light output of the lamp will increases because of low ambient
temperature.
Because of the presence of choke, these lamps suffer from magnetic humming and may cause
disturbance.
The stroboscopic effect of this lamp is objectionable.
Comparison between Tungsten Filament Lamps and Fluorescent Lamps:

INCANDESCENT LAMPS FLUORESCENT LAMPS

1. Initial cost is less. 1. Initial cost is more.
2. Fluctuation in supply voltage has less 2. Fluctuation in supply voltage has
effect on light output, as the variations in comparatively more effect on the light
voltage are absorbed in choke. output.
3. It radiates the light, the color of which 3. It does not give light close to the natural
resembles the natural light. light.
4. It works on Ac as well as DC 4. Change of supply needs additional
5. The luminous efficiency of the lamp is high equipment.
that is about 8 40 lumens/w 5. The luminous efficiency is poor which is
6. Different color lights can be obtained by about 8 10 lumens/w
using different colored glasses 6. Different color lights can be obtained by
7. Brightness of the lamp is more. using different composition of fluorescent
8. The reduction in light output of the lamp is powders.
comparatively high, with the time 7. Brightness of the lamp is less
9. The working temperature is about 8. The reduction in light output of the lamp is
10. The normal working life is 1000 hrs comparatively low, with the lamp
11. No stroboscopic effect 9. The working temperature is about
12. Filament lamps convert 10% of electrical 10. The normal working life is 5000 - 7500 hr
energy in to light and 90% into heat 11. Stroboscopic effect is present
energy. 12. Fluorescent lamps convert 30% of
13. It is filled with inert gases or . electrical energy in to light and 70% into
14. Incandescent lamps produces light by heat energy.
heating a metallic filament until it starts to 13. It is filled with mercury vapor.
radiate light 14. Fluorescent lamps produced light by
exciting a gas and causing it to glow
15. These lamps are widely used for domestic, 15. These lamps are widely used for domestic,
industrial and street lighting. industrial and flood lighting.
16. The lumpiness efficiency increases with the
16. The lumpiness efficiency increases with the
increase in voltage and the increase in the
increase in the voltage of the lamp.
length of the tube.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF LIGHT CONTROL:
When light strikes the surface of an object, based on the properties of that surface, some portion of the
light is reflected, some portion is transmitted through the medium of the surface, and the remaining is absorbed.
The method of light control is used to change the direction of light through large angle. There are four light
control methods. They are:
1. Reflection
2. Refraction
3. Diffusion
4. Absorption
1. Reflection:
The light falling on the surface, whole of the light will not absorbed or transmitted through the surface,
but some of the light is reflected back, at an angle equals to the angle of incidence. The ratio of reflected light
energy to the incident light energy is known as reflection factor. The two basic types of reflection are:
Mirror or specular reflection.
Diffuse reflection.
Specular reflection:
When whole of the light falling on a smooth surfaces will be reflected back at an angle equal to he angle
of incidence. Such a reflection is known as specular reflection. With such reflection, observer will be able to see
the light source but not the illuminated surface. Most of the surfaces causing the specular reflection are silvered
mirrors, highly polished metal surfaces. Specular reflection is shown in Fig.1.27. Surface that is almost free
from reflection is called a matt surface.

Fig. 1.27 Specular reflection

Diffuse reflection:
When the light ray falling on any surface, it is scattered in all directions irrespective of the angle of
incidence. Such type of reflector is known as diffuse reflection and is shown in Fig. 1.28. Most of the surfaces
causing the diffuse reflection are rough or matt surfaces such as blotting paper, frosted glass, plaster, etc. In this
reflection, observer will be able to see the illuminated surface but not the light source.
 Fig. 1.28 Diffuse reflection
2. Refraction:
When a light ray is incident on the surface separating two media, the direction of the ray changes. This
phenomenon is known as the Refraction of light. The speed of light is maximum in the vacuum. In any medium,
light travels with less speed. Due to this, the direction of light changes at the interface of two different media.
The frequency of the incident light remains constant but the speed and wavelength change.
When a light ray enters a denser medium, it bends closer to the normal whereas for a lighter medium,
the ray shifts away from the normal. Below Figure shows the refraction of light ray from dense medium to rare

of refraction. The angle of light ray with normal is comparatively less in dense medium than in rare medium.

Fig. 1.29 Refraction

Laws of Refraction:
Refraction is governed by the two laws as follows,
1. The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal to the refracting surface at the point of incidence, belong
to the same plane.
2. : The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence (angle between the incident ray and the
normal) to the sine of the angle of refraction (angle between the refracted ray and the normal) is
constant. The constant depends on the two media and the wavelength of the incident light.

3. Diffusion:
When a ray of light falling on a surface is reflected in all possible directions, so that such surface
appears luminous from all possible directions. This can be achieved with a diffusing glass screen introduced
between the observer and the light source. The normally employed diffusing glasses are opal glass and frosted
glass. Both are ordinary glasses, but frosted glass is an ordinary glass coated with crystalline substance.
Although frosted glass is cheaper than opal glass, the disadvantage of frosted glass is, it collects more dust
particles and it is difficult to clean.
4. Absorption:
Light absorption is a process by which light is absorbed and converted into energy. The absorption of
light is therefore directly proportional to the frequency. If they are complementary, light is absorbed. If they are
not complementary, then the light passes through the object or gets reflected.
An example of this process is photosynthesis in plants. However, light absorption occur
exclusively in plants, but in all creatures/inorganic substances. Absorption depends on the electromagnetic
frequency of the of atoms.

which is known as their "natural" frequency. When light interacts with an atom of the same frequency, the
electrons of the atom become excited and start vibrating. During this vibration, the electrons of the atom interact
with neighboring atoms and convert this vibration energy into thermal energy.
Consequently, the light energy is not to be seen again, that is why absorption differs from reflection and
transmission. And since different atoms and molecules have different natural frequencies of vibration, they
selectively absorb different frequencies of visible light.
TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES:
Usually, with the reflector and some special diffusing screens, it is possible to control the distribution of
light emitted from lamps up to some extent. A good lighting scheme results in an attractive and commanding
presence of objects and enhances the architectural style of the interior of a building. Depending upon the
requirements and the way of light reaching the surface, lighting schemes are classified as follows:
1. Direct lighting,
2. Semi direct lighting,
3. Indirect lighting,
4. Semi-indirect lighting, and
5. General lighting.
1. Direct lighting schemes:
Direct lighting scheme is most widely used for interior lighting scheme. In this scheme, by using deep
reflectors, it is possible to make 90% of light falls just below the lamp. This scheme is more efficient but it
suffers from hard shadows and glare. Hence, while designing such schemes, all the possibilities that will cause
glare on the eye have to be eliminated. It is mainly used for industrial and general outdoor lighting.

Fig. 1.30 Direct lighting

2. Semi direct lighting schemes:
In semi direct lighting scheme, about 60 90% of lamps luminous flux is made to fall downward directly
by using some reflectors and the rest of the light is used to illuminate the walls and ceiling. This type of light
scheme is employed in rooms with high ceiling. Glare can be avoided by employing diffusing globes. This
scheme will improve not only the brightness but also the efficiency of the systems with reference to working
place.

Fig. 1.31 Semi direct lighting

3. Indirect lighting schemes:
In this lighting scheme, 90% of total light is thrown upwards to the ceiling for diffuse reflection by using
inverted or bowl reflectors. In such scheme, the ceiling acts as the lighting source and glare is reduced to
minimum. This system provides shadow less illumination, the resulting illumination is softer and more diffused,
the shadows are less prominent and the appearance of the room is much improved over that which results from
direct lighting. It is used for decoration purposes in cinemas theatres and hotels etc. and in workshops where
large machines and other obstructions would cause trouble some shadows of direct lighting is employed.

Fig. 1.32 Indirect lighting

4. Semi-indirect lighting schemes:
In semi-indirect lighting scheme, about 60 90% of light from the lamp is thrown upwards to the ceiling
and the remaining luminous flux reaches the working surface. Glare will be completely eliminated. This scheme
is widely preferred for indoor lighting decoration purpose.

Fig. 1.33 Semi Indirect lighting

5. General lighting scheme:
This scheme of lighting use special diffusing glasses to spread the light uniformly on tile working plane.
It produces the equal illumination in all directions. Mounting height of the source should be much above eye
level to avoid glare.
Following Figure gives the idea of all the above five types in a schematic diagram with percentage
division of light illumination.

Fig. 1.34 Lighting schemes

DESIGN OF LIGHTING SCHEMES:
The lighting scheme should be such that:
It should be able to provide sufficient illumination.
It should be able to provide the uniform distribution of light throughout the working plane.
It should be able to produce the light of suitable color.
It should be able to avoid glare and hard shadows as much as possible.
While designing a lighting scheme, the following factors should be taken into consideration.
Illumination level.
The size of the room.
The mounting height and the space of fitting.
STREET LIGHTING:
Street lighting not only requires for shopping centers, promenades, etc. but also necessary for the
following.
In order to make the street more attractive, so that obstructions on the road clearly visible to the drivers
of vehicles.
To increase the community value of the street.
To clear the traffic easily in order to promote safety and convenience.
The basic principles employed for the street lighting are given below.
Diffusion principle:
The specular reflection principle.
Diffusion principle:
In this method, light is directed downwards from the lamp by the suitably designed reflectors. The
design of these reflectors are in such a way that they may reflect total light over the road surface uniformly as
much as possible. The reflectors are made to have a cutoff between 30° and 45°, so that the filament of the lamp
is not visible expect just below the source, which results in eliminating glare. Illumination at any point on the
road surface is calculated by applying inverse square low or point-by-point method.
Specular reflection principle:
The specular reflection principle enables a motorist to see an object about 30 m ahead. In this case, the
reflectors are curved upwards, so that the light is thrown on the road at a very large angle of incidence. This can
be explained with the help of Fig. 1.35. An object resides over the road at in between the lamps , , and
and the observer at Q

Fig.1.35 Specular reflection for street lighting

Thus, the object will appear immediately against the bright road surface due to the lamps at a longer
distance. This method of lighting is only suitable for straight sections along the road. In this method, it is
observed that the objects on the roadway can be seen by a smaller expenditure of power than by the diffusion
method of lighting. Normally Illumination level, mounting height, and the types of lamps for street lighting all
are depend upon the class of street lighting installation.
1. Road junctions
2. Important shopping centers.
3. Poorly lighted sub-urban streets.
4. Average well-lighted street.
Generally an average number of 8 to 15 lumens per square meter is considered sufficient illumination on
the street. Mercury vapor lamps and sodium discharge lamps has been found most economical due to lower
power consumption for a given amount of light. Color consideration does not matter much in street lighting.
Normal spacing for the standard lamps is 50 m with a mounting height of 8 m. Lamp posts should be fixed at
the junctions of roads.
FLOOD LIGHTING:
Flood lighting means flooding of large surface areas with light from powerful projectors.
Followings are the main purpose of employing flood lighting
(i) Beautification:
For enhancing beauty of building at night such as public place, ancient building and monuments,
religious building on important festive occasions etc.
(ii) Industrial and Commercial Flood-Lighting:
For illumination railway yards, sports stadiums, car parks, construction site, quarries etc.
For flood lighting it is necessary to concentrate the light from light source into a narrow beam. The type
of reflector and its housing used for concentrating the light into narrow beam is known as flood light projector.
The reflecting surface is made of silvered glass or stainless steel. Metal reflectors being more robust are usually
preferred. The casing and its mounting are arranged in such a manner that the beam can be in horizontal and a
vertical direction on site. When higher wattage of projector lamp i.e. 500 W or 1000 W is used in projectors,
then ventilation may be provided for cooling properly.
Projectors are classified according to the beam spread:
1. Narrow Beam Projectors:
In this type of projector beam is spread between 12 25°. These are used for distance more than 70 meters.
2. Medium Angle Projectors:
Projectors with beam spread between 25 40°. These are used for distance between 30 to 70 meters.
3. Wide Angle Projectors:
These are the projectors with beam spread between 40 90° and are used for distance below 30 meters.
Location and Mounting of Projectors:
One of the most important factors which affect the selection of projector is the location of the projector.

Fig.1.36 Specular reflection for street lighting

(a) Shows symmetric projector help 20 to 35 meters away from the surface to be flood lighted and providing
approximately parallel beam spread of 25° to 30°.
(b) Shows the case when the projector cannot be located away from the building. In such a case, an asymmetric
reflector mounted in a basement area or on a bracket attached to the building is used which directs more intense
light towards the top of the building.
Flood-Lighting Calculations:
The following points are taken into consideration while estimate the number and size of projectors:
1. Illumination Level Required:
The illumination level required depends upon the type of building, the purpose of flood-lighting.
2. Type of Projector:
The type of projector depends upon the area covered by the beam and illumination required. Beam angle
of the projector is decided keeping in view the distance of projector from the surface.
3. Number of Projectors:
Number of projectors required for any desired intensity on particular surface is obtained from the
following relation.

where,
N = Number of projectors
A = Area of surface in m2 to be illuminated
E = Illumination level required in lumens/m2
The other factors required for flood lighting calculations are:
i. Depreciation factor
ii. Utilization factor and
iii. Waste light factor.
PROBLEMS:
1. The front of a building 35 × 18 m is illuminated by 15 lamps; the wattage of each lamp is 80 W. The lamps
are arranged so that uniform illumination on the surface is obtained. Assuming a luminous efficiency of 20
lumens/W, the coefficient of utilization is 0.8, the waste light factor is 1.25, DF = 0.9. Determine the
illumination on the surface.
Given data
Area(A) = 35 × 18m = 630
The number of lamps N = 15.
Luminous efficience = 20 lumens/W.
UF = 0.8, DF = 0.9.
Waste light factor = 1.25
Lamp wattage = 80w
Determine Illumination E =?
 E = 27.08 lux
2. Two lamps hung at a height of 12 m from the floor level. The distance between the lamps is 8 m. Lamp one is
of 250 CP. If the illumination on the floor vertically below this lamp is 40 lux, find the CP of the second lamp.
Given data
The candle power of the lamp = 250 CP.
The illumination of lamp just below the lamp E = 40 lux.
The distance between the lamps = 8m
Height of the lamps from the ground h = 12m
Find candle power of lamp , =?

The illumination at the point A = the illumination due to the lamp + the illumination due to the lamp
E= +

40 = +

40 = 1.736 +

40 1.736 =

3. The front of a building 25 × 12 m is illuminated by 20, 1,200-W lamps arranged so that uniform illumination
on the surface is obtained. Assuming a luminous efficiency of 30 lumens/W and a coefficient of utilization of
0.75. Determine the illumination on the surface. Assume DF = 1.3 and waste light factor 1.2.
Given data,
Area(A) = 25 × 12m = 300
The number of lamps N = 20.
Luminous efficiency = 30 lumens/W.
 UF = 00.75, DF =1.3
Waste light factor = 1.2
Lamp wattage = 1200w
Determine Illumination E =?

E = 1153.84 lux