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CHAPTER 5
MAGNETISM AND MATTER
Magnets and magnetism
A magnet is a piece material that has both attractive and directive properties. It attracts small
pieces of iron, nickel, cobalt, etc. This property of attraction is called magnetism.
Natural magnets – lodestone or magnetite or black iron oxide Fe3O4.
The pieces of iron and other magnetic materials can be made to acquire the properties of natural
magnets. Such magnets are called artificial magnets.
Examples:- Bar magnet, Magnetic needle, horse shoe magnet etc.
Basic properties of magnets
1. Attractive property – A magnet attracts small pieces of iron, cobalt, nickel, etc .
2. Directive Property – A freely suspended magnet aligns itself nearly in the geographic north –
south direction.
3. Like poles repel and unlike poles attract – This is the fundamental law of magnetic poles.
4. Magnetic poles always exist in pairs – Isolated magnetic poles do not exit. If we break a
magnet into two pieces, we get two smaller magnets.
5. Magnetic induction – A magnet induces magnetism in a magnetic substance placed near it.
Some important definitions connected with magnetism
1. Magnetic Field: - The space around the magnet within which its influence can be experienced
is called its magnetic field.
2. Uniform Magnetic Field: - A magnetic field in a region is said to be uniform if it has same
magnitude and direction at all points of that region.
3. Magnetic Poles: - These are regions of apparently concentrated magnetic strength in a magnet
4. where the magnetic attraction is maximum.
5. Magnetic Axis: - The line passing through the poles of the
magnet is called the magnetic axis of the magnet.
6. Magnetic Equator: - The line passing through the centre of the magnet and at right angles to
the magnetic axis is called the magnetic equator of the magnet.
7. Magnetic Length: - The distance between the two poles of
the magnet is called the magnetic length of the magnet. It
is slightly less than the geometric length of the magnet.
Magnetic dipole
An arrangement of two equal and opposite magnetic poles separated by a small distance is
called a magnetic dipole.
Magnetic dipole moment
The magnetic dipole moment of a magnetic dipole is defined as the product of the pole
strength (qm) and the magnetic length (2l).
𝑚 =𝑞𝑚 2𝑙
It is a vector quantity, directed from S-pole to N-pole.
SI unit of magnetic dipole moment is Am2 or J/T
Magnetic lines of force: It may be defined as the curve the tangent to which at any point gives the
direction of the magnetic field at that point. It may also be defined as the path along which a unit
north pole would tend to move if free to do so.
Properties of lines of force
1. Magnetic lines of force are closed curves which stars from the north pole and end at the south
pole and then return to the north pole through the interior of the magnet.
2. The lines of force never cross each other. If they do so, that would mean there are two directions
of the magnetic field at the point of intersection, which is impossible.
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3. They start from and end on the surface of the magnet normally.
4. The lines of force have a tendency to contract lengthwise
and expand sidewise. This explains attraction between
unlike poles and repulsion between like poles.
5. The relative closeness of the lines of force gives a measure
of the strength of the magnetic field which is maximum at
the poles.
Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid
Consider a solenoid consist of n turns per unit length. Let its length be 2 𝑙 and radius a. We
can evaluate the axial field at a point P, at a distance r from the centre of the solenoid.
𝛍𝟎 𝟐𝒎
B=
𝟒𝛑 𝒓𝟑
This is also the far axial magnetic moment of a bar magnet which
one may obtain experimentally. Thus a bar magnet and a solenoid
produce similar magnetic fields. The magnetic moment of a bar
magnet is thus equal to the magnetic moment of an equivalent
solenoid that produces the same magnetic field.
Gauss’s law in magnetism
It states that the surface integral of a magnetic field over a closed surface is always zero.
Or
The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero. Mathematically ∮𝐵 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆 =0
Consequences of Gauss’s law
1. Gauss’s law indicate that there are no sources or sinks of magnetic field inside a closed
surface. This implies that isolated magnetic poles (i.e., monopole) do not exist.
2. The magnetic poles always exist as unlike pairs of equal strengths.
3. Number of magnetic lines of force enters a closed surface is equal to the number of lines
of force leave that surface.
Some important terms used to describe magnetic properties of materials
Magnetising field and magnetic induction: When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic
field, magnetism is induced in the material. It is known as induced magnetism and the phenomenon
is known as magnetic induction.
There is a magnetic field behind producing a magnetic induction. It is known as magnetising
field. It is represented by H. The magnetic field set up in a solenoid is
B0 = μ0nI or B0 = μ0H
Where μ0 is the permeability of free space
Permeability: Permeability of a medium is the ratio of magnetic induction B to the magnetising
field intensity H.
B
μ=
H
μ = μ 0 μr
where μr is called the relative permeability. μr has no unit
Intensity of magnetisation: Intensity of magnetisation of a sample is the ratio of the magnetic
moment acquired in a magnetic field to its volume.
m
M=
V
Magnetic susceptibility: Magnetisation produced in a sample is directly proportional to the
magnetising field intensity.
MαH
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M=χH
where χ is a constant for a material called susceptibility.
M
χ=
H
Susceptibility is the ratio of intensity of magnetisation to magnetising field intensity.
Classification of magnetic materials
1. Diamagnetic substances:- Diamagnetic substances are those which develop feeble magnetization
in the opposite direction of the magnetizing field. Such substances are feebly repelled by magnets and
tend to move from stronger to weaker parts of a magnetic field.
Examples. Bismuth, copper, lead, zinc, tin, gold, silicon, nitrogen (at STP), water, sodium chloride,
etc.
2. Paramagnetic substances:- Paramagnetic substances are those which develop feeble
magnetization in the direction of the magnetizing field. Such substances are feebly attracted by
magnets and tend to move from weaker to stronger parts of a magnetic field.
Examples. Manganese, aluminium, chromium, platinum, sodium, copper chloride, oxygen(at STP),
etc.
3. Ferromagnetic substances:- Ferromagnetic substances are those which develop strong
magnetization in the direction of the magnetizing field. They are strongly attracted by magnets and
tend to move from weaker to stronger parts of a magnetic field. Examples. Iron, cobalt, nickel,
gadolinium and alloys like alnico.
Curie’s Law
From experiments it is found that the intensity of magnetization (M) of a paramagnetic
material is
(i) Directly proportional to the magnetizing field intensity H.
(ii) Inversely proportional to the absolute temperature T.
𝐻
𝑀∝
𝑇
𝐶
χ=
𝑇
C is curie constant. The above relation is called Curie’s law.
Modified Curie’s law for ferromagnetic substances.
The temperature at which a ferromagnetic substance becomes paramagnetic is called Curie
temperature or Curie point TC. Above the Curie point the susceptibility varies with temperature as
𝐶′
𝜒=
𝑇−𝑇𝑐
where C’ is a constant. This is modified Curie’s law for a ferromagnetic material above the Curie
temperature. It is also known as Curie-Weiss law.
Properties of diamagnetic substances
1. When placed in an external magnetic field, it develops feeble
magnetization in the opposite direction of the applied field.
2. When a rod of diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic
field, the lines of force get expelled or repelled. Consequently the
magnetic induction inside the material becomes less than the
magnetizing field.
3. When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, a diamagnetic substance moves from stronger to the
weaker parts of the field.
4. When a rod of diamagnetic material is suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, it aligns itself
perpendicular to the magnetizing field.
5. The susceptibility (𝜒 = M/H) of a diamagnetic materials is small and negative.
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6. The relative permeability μr = (1+ 𝜒) is positive but less than

one.
7. The susceptibility of diamagnetic substances is independent of
the magnetizing field and the temperature
8. The magnetization of a diamagnetic substance lasts so long as the magnetizing field is applied.
Properties of paramagnetic substances
1. When placed in an external magnetic field, it develops feeble magnetization in the direction of
the applied field.
2. When a rod of paramagnetic material is placed in a
magnetic field, the lines of force get slightly more
concentrated inside the material. The magnetic induction
B becomes slightly greater than the magnetizing field.
3. When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, a paramagnetic substance moves from weaker
to the stronger parts of the field.
4. When a rod of paramagnetic material is suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, it aligns
itself parallel to the magnetizing field.
5. Its susceptibility has a small but positive value.
6. The relative permeability has a value slightly greater than
one.
7. The magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic material
varies inversely as the absolute temperature.
8. As soon as the magnetizing field is removed, a paramagnetic substance loses its magnetism.
Properties of ferromagnetic substances
1. When placed in an external magnetic field, it develops strong magnetization in the direction of the
applied field.
2. When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field
the lines of force concentrate greatly into the material so that the
magnetic induction B becomes much more than the magnetizing
field.
3. When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in a non uniform magnetic field, it moves from weaker
to the stronger parts of the field.
4. When a rod of ferromagnetic material is suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, it quickly
aligns itself parallel to the magnetic field.
5. . The susceptibility of ferromagnetic material has a large positive value. It is of the order of several
thousands.
6. The relative permeability has a large positive value. It is of the order of several thousands.
7. The susceptibility of ferromagnetic material decreases with the temperature in accordance with
Curie-Weiss law.
8.At a certain temperature called Curie point, the susceptibility suddenly falls and the ferromagnetic
substance becomes paramagnetic.
9. The magnetization developed depends not only on the value of magnetizing field but also on the
past magnetic and mechanical history of the material.
10. A ferromagnetic material retains magnetism even after the magnetizing field is removed.

S. M. NOTES