Jean SANCHEZ, Mladen BANOVIC

Transformers
VOL 1 ISSUE 2 JULY 2014 MAGAZINE

Classic power
transformer
windings

Ester fluids
for power
transformers
at >100 kV

Thermal designing
and building Transformers in
transformers for use HVDC transmission
with viscous fluids

What influence does

Interview with residual magnetism have
Mr David Zabetakis, in the transformer core?
President of Doble Engineering

ISSN 1849-3319
POWER TRENDS IN POWER
TRANSFORMER LIFE TRANSFORMER FAILURE
1 | ISSUE 1, VOLUME 1 CARLOS GAMEZ ANALYSIS WALLACE BINDER MAGAZINE
TRANSFORMERS
WWW.TRANSFORMERS-MAGAZINE.COM ISSUE 1, VOLUME 1 | 1
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 CONTENT

8 NEWS

CLASSIC POWER TRANSFORMER WINDINGS

10 Jean SANCHEZ
Most of the inner parts of the transformer can be named the “active
part”, and on it, the “heart” of the transformers is composed of the
windings which work on the principle of mutual induction. The main

10
power transformer winding technologies principles will be presen-
ted in this paper.

ESTER FLUIDS FOR POWER TRANSFORMERS AT >100 KV

14 Mark LASHBROOK
Typically for high voltage power transformers mineral oil is used
for both cooling and electrical insulation, which has some shortco-
mings in terms of fire safety and environmental impact. The answer
to these concerns is to use a more fire safe and environmentally
friendly alternative liquid, such as an ester. In order to do this at
higher voltages, designers need to understand any differences in

14 thermal and electrical properties. This article aims to give a brief

overview of the relevant properties of ester liquids and how this can
affect transformer design.

TRENDS IN POWER TRANSFORMER FAILURE ANALYSIS

20 Wallace BINDER
Diagnostic tests provide indication of incipient failure. One must
have a good understanding of the system conditions to which
the transformer is exposed and an understanding of the trans-
former construction to properly investigate the cause and effect
of conditions. Each construction type has its own advantages
20 and an awareness of these aids in the determination of the root
cause.

TRANSFORMERS IN HVDC TRANSMISSION

28 Andre CANELHAS & Matti STOOR
The social wind is favouring DC transmissions
Power transformers are integral in the HVDC transmission systems
and provide multiple functions. Correctly optimised transformers
lower the cost for other equipment in HVDC schemes. The article
describes basics of HVDC and gives a view of the HVDC development
today. Both the LCC and VSC technologies are described as well as
28 newer converter concepts that lower losses and harmonic stresses.

34 POWER TRANSFORMER LIFE

Carlos GAMEZ
Part 2: Ageing mechanisms
If the life of a transformer is determined by the life of its insulation
system, what are the factors then that affect this critical component
of the transformer? Join us in the second of this three part series to
explore the structure of these materials and understand the various
operational and environmental factors that have an adverse effect
on their performance, and ultimately, on their life expectancy. In
34 this article we take a closer look at what makes up the insulating
materials, what are the factors that affect its life and why.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 3
 Coiltech 2014
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Exhibitors
2353
181
125
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+
What exhibitors like about Coiltech
Highly competent visitors with an increasingly international background
2010 2011 2012

Coiltech has a rebooking rate in excess of 90%.

At other Coil Winding exhibitions it is about 75%
3
Estimated number of exhibitors

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 CONTENT

THERMAL DESIGNING AND BUILDING

38 TRANSFORMERS FOR USE WITH VISCOUS FLUIDS
David W. SUNDIN
Since the 1970s, transformers have used special fire resistant fluids
that are often more viscous than standard transformer oils. Trans-
formers filled with alternative insulating oils often need design
changes in order to be cooled efficiently. This article describes the
history of using alternative insulating oils and how cooling designs
38 have been modified for their use.

WHAT INFLUENCE DOES RESIDUAL MAGNETISM

46 HAVE ON THE TRANSFORMER CORE?
Markus PÜTTER, Michael RÄDLER, Boris UNTERER
To assess the condition of a transformer, various electrical measu-
rement methods can be used with several approaches to analyse
the measurement results. In a large number of diagnostic measure-
ments, like the sweep frequency response analysis (FRA or SFRA),
46 the exciting current measurement and magnetic balance tests are
affected by residual magnetism. Therefore, it is difficult to analyse
the results and to get a reliable condition assessment of transfor-
mers. It is therefore recommended to demagnetise the transformer
before performing diagnostic measurements or re-energising it.
Within the last few years, the first testing devices have been laun-
ched which promise a practical demagnetisation of transformers
on-site. However, to demagnetise a transformer on-site is not a
simple task and requires very strict measuring requirements on the
used equipment.

54
INTERVIEW WITH MR DAVID ZABETAKIS,
54 PRESIDENT OF DOBLE ENGINEERING
Transformers Magazine speaks to Mr David Zabetakis, President
of Doble Engineering Company with over 25 years of executive
leadership experience in the utility industry, including Aclara
Software, CURRENT group and Pepco Energy Services.

POWER TRANSFORMER MARKET REVIEW

60 60 Matti STOOR
The global transformer market is changing rapidly with new
players entering the market. In this article, the Five Forces
Analysis Model is used to see what we can expect from the
transformers market. Market drivers are changing and more
focus is on the renewable energy generation as well as smart
grid. Finally, an estimate of the transformer market growth
is made.

70 70 EVENTS
CALENDAR

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 5
 ADVERTISING
Jean SANCHEZ, Mladen

Transformers
BANOVIC

VOL 1 ISSUE 2 JULY

2014
MAG AZI NE

Classic power
transformer
windings

Ester fluids
for power
transformers
at >100 kV

Thermal designing
and building
transformers for use Transformers in
with viscous fluids HVDC transmission

What influence does

Interview with
Mr David Zabetakis,
residual magnetism hav
e Australasia:
in the transformer cor Vince Hantos
President of Doble Engin
eering
e?
[email protected]
Tel: +61 40 768 03 31
ISSN 1849-3319

POWER
TRANSFORMER LIFE TRENDS IN POWER
1 |
WWW.TISSUE 1, VOLUME 1 CARLOS GAME Z TRANSFORMER FAILU
RANSFO RMERS-MAGAZ RE
INE.COM ANALYSIS WALL ACE
TRANSBINDE
FORMERSR MAGAZINE
ISSUE 1, VOLUM E1 | 1

France, Belgium & Morocco:

Mehdi Lebiad
Subscribe now! [email protected]
Tel: +33 6 4541 6397
Subscribe to Transformers Magazine and keep
Germany, Austria,
track of the latest news and trends in the power Switzerland:
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www.linkedin.com/groups/Transformers-772397 Tel: +44 20 373 474 69
 EDITORIAL MESSAGE
TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE

EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor in Chief: Mladen Banovic, PhD;
PUCARO Elektro-Isolierstoffe GmbH; Germany
[email protected]

EXECUTIVE EDITORS
Michel Duval, PhD; Hydro Quebec; Canada
Jean Sanchez, PhD; EDF; France
Jin Sim; Jin Sim & Associates, Inc.; USA
Juliano Montanha; SIEMENS; Brazil
Craig Adams; TRAFOIX; Australia
Arne Petersen; AP Consulting; Australia

Art director: Momir Blazek

Photo: Shutterctock.com
Language Editor: Mirna Harwood

ADVERTISING AND SUBSCRIPTION

Dear Readers,

I
Marin Ante Dugandzic
n this issue, the Transformers Magazine brings you a wide range of technical
+44 20 373 474 69
articles – from general overviews to advanced specialised articles, and two
[email protected]
columns.
TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE Jean Sanchez presents an overview of six most commonly used power transfor-
Transformers Magazine is published quarterly mer winding types: continuous disc windings, interleaved windings, intershiel-
by Merit Media Int. d.o.o., Setaliste 150. briga- ded windings, layer windings, helical windings, and pancake windings.
de 10, 10 090 Zagreb, Croatia. Published ar- Dielectric and thermal design considerations for the use of esters as insulating
ticles don‘t represent official position of Merit and cooling fluid are presented in the article by Mark Lashbrook. Three case
Media Int. d.o.o. Merit Media Int. d.o.o. is not studies are described, including the details which caused decisions to be made
responsible for the content. The responsibili-
about the usage of alternative fluids, for example, greater demand for fire safety,
ty for articles rests upon the authors, and the
the increased need for protection of the environment from pollution and avoi-
responsibility for ads rests upon advertisers.
Manuscripts, photos and other submitted do-
ding fire extinguishing system.
cuments are not returned. In his column Trends in Power Transformer Failure Analysis, Wallace Binder
Subscription rate: $76 (1 year, 4 issues) writes about different failure modes in transformers and methods for detection
Digital Edition: $34 (1 year, 4 issues) of these failures.
Online Edition: Free of charge for registered users Andre Canelhas and Matti Stoor bring forward description of the transformers
www.transformers-magazine.com in HVDC power transmission, reasons for utilising HVDC transmission, vol-
tage levels and ratings of present systems, descriptions of converter technology
REPRINT as well as the effects of renewable energy sources on the system.
Libraries are permitted to photocopy for the Carlos Gamez points out once more in his column Power Transformer Life, that
private use of patrons. Abstracting is permited transformer life time is determined by the life time of solid insulation, and he
with credit to the source. A per-copy fee must writes about insulation, criteria for detection of the end of life and ageing me-
be paid to the Publisher, contact Subscription. chanisms: thermal degradation, hydrolytic degradation, oxidation, and acids.
For other copying or republication permissi-
ons, contact Subscription. All rights reserved. David Sundin puts forward thermal design considerations when using alterna-
tive, fire resistant fluids which are different from mineral oil due to higher vis-
cosity of these fluids. The paper gives a historical overview of using alternative
Publisher: Merit Media Int. d.o.o. insulating fluids and cooling designs modifications for their use.
Setaliste 150. brigade 10,
10 090 Zagreb, Croatia Finally, read an article by Markus Pütter, Michael Rädler and Boris Unterer
Contact: +385 91 222 8820 Croatia about the influences of residual magnetism on the transformer core and how
Contact: +44 20 373 474 69 UK this can be avoided.
VAT number: HR09122628912
I hope everyone will find something interesting in this issue and that reading it
www.transformers-magazine.com
Bank name: Zagrebacka banka
will be a pleasurable experience.
Bank identifier code: ZABAHR2X Mladen Banovic, Editor in Chief
Bank IBAN: HR8023600001102375121
Director: Marin Ante Dugandzic

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m

7
 PRODUCTS NEWS

Transformer oils go
green
Spain, Madrid: Amid fears of petroleum
shortages and increasing environmental
pressures, natural esters – commonly
known as vegetable oils – have emerged
as a renewable, biodegradable alterna-
tive to traditional mineral-based trans-
former oil.

Hydro to introduce Hy- “Repsol is seeking a guarantee of a secure supply, with

lower emissions and long-term sustainability, thereby
serve the cellulose insulation – the most fragile part of
a transformer – increasing the service life of the entire
dec – new aluminium contributing to the vision of a more diversified future device. The other main benefit of vegetable oils is their
trafo strip of energy.” says Ernesto Ivan Diestre, senior technologist
at Repsol. Unlike mineral-based dielectric oils, vegetable
higher flash point of around 330°C. This means that
the fire risk of a transformer filled with vegetable oil is
Germany, Grevenbroich/Berlin: The alu- oils do not form sludge inside the transformer, reducing much lower – an important consideration given their
minium company Hydro will start of- the risk of electrical arcs. Vegetable oils also help to pre- high numbers in urban areas. Source: CWIEME
fering HYDEC, a novel aluminium strip
used to produce transformer windings.

H YDEC is a 1070 alloy variation for transformer

applications with a particularly high conductivi- ABB introduces Micro-
ty. Hydro slits its material to width by measuring the
topography of the trimmed edges with a sophisticated
pole transformer to US
electronic device. market
Hydro produces aluminium strip for transformer win- Switzerland, Zurich: ABB introduced a
dings at its Karmøy rolling mill in Norway, directly cast new Micropole transformer for small,
from liquid material. Source: Hydro isolated load applications to the US mar-
ket. The Micropole distribution transfor-
mer is a single phase, pole mounted dis-
tribution transformer for 3 kVA or less.

R eplacement with a Micropole reduces system

losses in light-load applications up to three
times less no-load losses compared to a 10 kVA unit,
“In a world that’s driven today by economical and
energy efficiency considerations, it will come as a sur-
prise to many US investor owned utilities (IOUs) and
reports ElectricNet. It has small, lightweight design rural electric co-ops (RECs) that there is now a highly-
and uses less pole space. The Micropole transformer efficient and reliable pole-mounted distribution trans-
is fully tested in line with IEEE oil-filled distribution former on the market for small load applications.” said
transformer standards. Martin Doré, marketing manager. Source: ElectricNet

New grade of GOES im-

proves transformer ef- Tata Power introduces
ficiency natural ester filled dis-
Luxembourg, Avenue de la Liberté: Ar- tribution transformers
celorMittal, steel producer, has de-
veloped a new intermediate class of in Mumbai
grain oriented electrical steels (GOES), India, Mumbai: Tata Power has introdu-
helping transformer manufacturers to ced natural ester filled distribution trans-
meet environmental targets. formers. The green and fire safe installa-
tions are to ensure safe and sustainable
T hese improved conventional grain oriented
steels will sit between the existing conventional
distribution of electricity.
and high permeability classes, helping manufacturers
of transformers and transformer cores to achieve the
right performance-cost balance.
T he transformers are the first of their kind and
have been developed by Tata Power with active
participation from companies like ABB, Scheinder,
filled with natural esters, reports Business Line.
Natural ester fluids have a high fire point (350 degree
Celsius) and eliminate any risk of pool fires in elec-
“We’ve noticed a shift in purchasing decisions over the Raychem RPG and Cargill. trical installation as they are self extinguishing. This
past few years – from a focus on initial outlay to overall fluid provides improved fire safety for the densely
lifetime cost.” says Sigrid Jacobs, portfolio director for Tata Power intends to deploy all its package substations populated areas within Tata Power’s service area when
electrical steels at ArcelorMittal Global R&D. with natural ester filled transformers and is in advanced compared to the conventional mineral oil filled distri-
Source: CWIEME stage of finalising the design of the power transformers bution transformers. Source: Business Line

8 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

 BUSINESS NEWS

Alstom sticks with Global power transformer market by product

General Electric bid to reach $ 28.22 billion by 2020
France, Levallois-Perret: Alstom has ap- USA, California: According to a new study conducted by Grand View Research, Inc.,
parently decided to choose General Elec- the global power transformer market is expected to reach $ 28.22 billion by 2020
tric (GE) bid over the others. due to growing energy demand.

A ccording to Barron‘s, there have been some sig-

nificant changes to the deal where GE will have
100 % ownership of the global Gas and the Steam
A ccording to the report Power Transformers Mar-
ket Analysis By Product (100 MVA to 500 MVA,
501 MVA to 800 MVA, 801 MVA to 1200 MVA) And
Smart grid and super grid development are expected to
provide an opportunity for market participants.
Asia Pacific accounted for over 40% of the market in
business outside of France with sales of approximate- Segment Forecasts To 2020, Asia Pacific is expected to 2013 and it is expected to grow at the fastest CAGR of
ly $ 11 billion. boost regional demand due to increasing investment 6.6 % in terms of revenue from 2014 to 2020.
in power plant infrastructure, while the market in Key players mentioned include ABB Ltd., Alstom SA,
50/50 JVs will be formed for: 1) Grid with $ 6.5 billi- North America and Europe is expected to be driven by General Electric, Siemens Energy and Toshiba Corp..
on sales, comprising Alstom’s T&D and GE’s Digital need for replacing aging equipment. Source: Digital Journal
ENG April 2014 ad print.pdf 1 28/03/2014 14:00:04
Energy businesses, 2) Renewables with $ 2 billion
sales, comprising Alstom’s offshore wind and hydro
businesses, and 3) Global Nuclear and French Steam
with $ 1.7 billion of sales, comprising the Global Nu-
clear and French Steam operations, with the French
government holding a preferred share related to se-
curity and nuclear plant technology.

GE is still paying $ 13.5 billion net of $ 3.4 billion of

cash acquired. Alstom is paying $ 3.5 billion for its 50
% stakes in the three JVs which GE has highlighted is
capitalised at a higher EBITDA multiple than the 7.9x
it is paying, meaning that GE’s net cash outlay for the
Energy transaction is $ 10 billion.

GE is also selling its rail signaling business to Alstom

with revenue of $ 500 million for approximately $ 825
million. The company expects the deal to be accretive
in one year.
Source: Barron’s C

SGB-SMIT to bid for CM

Romania’s Retrasib MY

Sibiu CY

CMY

Germany, Regensburg: SGB-SMIT has re- K

cently signed an agreement with the Re-

trasib Sibiu main shareholders to buy a
majority stake in the company in a future
voluntary takeover bid.

R omanian power transformers producer, Retra-

sib made the announcement yesterday.
Romanian firm Institut Proiect and its main share-
holders, Calin and Octavian Buzoianu hold 55.4 %
of Retrasib and have agreed to sell their shares in a
takeover bid, for a minimum price of € 0.0768 per
share ($ 0.1), which would bring the value of the en-
tire company at € 7.7 million ($ 10.5 million) - 30 %
more than its current market capitalisation. However,
Retrasib said there are certain terms and conditions
and takeover bid will not be accepted if these are not
met, according to Romania Insider. Products of M&I Materials Ltd.

Source: Romania Insider

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 9
TRENDS
TECHNOLOGY

Classic power
transformer windings
1. Introduction
ABSTRACT

T
he separate windings of every phase and every voltage level
are assembled together onto a magnetic core. This core is
The main function of any transformer is to adapt two or more typically made of cold rolled grain oriented steel, which is
different voltage levels, one being the high voltage (HV), the a highly magnetically permeable material, and highly facilitates
other being the low voltage (LV). Sometimes a medium vol- mutual induction. The flux generated by the primary windings,
tage (MV) is needed in between, then one winding for every which are connected to an electrical source, links with the secon-
voltage level and every phase are manufactured. dary windings, which are connected to the load. [1]
Most of the inner parts of the transformer can be named the
“active part”, and on it, the “heart” of the transformers is The main flux for the no-load state passes through the core, the flux
composed of the windings which work on the principle of generated by the load is mainly passing into the space between the
mutual induction. HV and the LV winding of every phase. This space between HV
The main power transformer winding technologies princip- and LV (and MV if existing) windings is the main parameter for
les will be presented in this paper. the short circuit impedance, which is main characteristic of any
power transformer. [2]

Keywords: Each winding, having a given number of turns, the voltage ratio at
no-load condition of the transformer (> 1), is directly proportional
winding, power transformer to the turns ratio (number of HV turns on number of LV turns).

10 |
10 ISSUE 1,
2, VOLUME 1 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2
 Jean SANCHEZ

To minimise eddy current losses in the windings the conductors are

wound almost always in parallel to build one electrical turn.
Windings are the heart of trans-
formers which works on the prin-
The line lead could be mostly taken out at the centre or the top of
the coil, according to manufacturer experience. ciple of mutual induction.
Power transformer windings, mainly in contrast with distributi-
on transformers, are still manually manufactured, as they can be
quite massive, complex and should withstand very high stresses of
over-voltage [3] and short-circuit current [4], and evacuate some
important amount of energy losses. is made to start the next axial stage (as shown in the Figure 1.),
and so on, along the height of the winding.
Consequently over decades, only a few types of windings have
remained used by most of the power transformer manufacturers, This design is relatively easy to wind because of straight discs and
and those general power transformer windings are presented in it can be used for high or low voltage winding of many power
this paper. ratings. Its limitation is the number of conductors in parallel used
for one electrical turn. The discs are separated by radial spacers,
It should be understood and remembered that every power trans- the thickness of which depends on the voltage class of the win-
former manufacturer and almost every transformer factory has ding. The rated voltage of the winding is distributed along the
its own experience on winding design and manufacturing, which height of the winding.
could be detailed infinitely. Those details are generally not com-
municated by the manufacturer as any one of those details should This design offers good area of cooling and can withstand tempe-
basically lead to an improvement of withstand capability of over- rature rise and short-circuit current quite well.
voltage, over-current, heat transfer capability or ease of manufac-
turing. The winding details could be quite strategic and make a The advantage of continuous winding is that it can basically be
technically significant difference between the manufacturers. used for all voltage classes and up to a reasonably high current.
Above around 100 kV some variations of this technology shall
In the figures presented in this paper, the numbers are in a con- be used to get higher capacitance between the turns, which will
tinuous sequence of turns. Those turns can be interleaved for de- lead to a better voltage distribution during impulse tests. Those
sign purpose, mainly to better withstand impulse test by increasing designs are the interleaved and inter-shielded windings that are
some internal capacitance. presented next.

2. Continuous disc windings 3. Interleaved windings

Continuous disc winding might be the most used power trans- This winding is a variation of continuous disc winding separated
former winding design worldwide as it is a robust winding sui- into a pair of discs, connecting the conductors in such a way that the
table for most of the transformers. It could be seen as multiple series capacitance of the winding is increased. An example of such
“radial stages” of turns. When one stage is completed, a crossover conductor organisation onto two discs is detailed in the figure below.

Magnetic core Magnetic core

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 12 4 11 3 10 2 9 1

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 5 13 6 14 7 15 8 16

24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17

Figure 1: Continuous disc winding Figure 2: Interleaved winding

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 11
TRENDS
TECHNOLOGY

The construction of the winding is very similar to the continuous Many winding designs have been
disc winding with specific focus on conductor crossover onto a
couple of “interleaved” discs. developed over the years by ma-
The main advantage of interleaved windings is a better ability nufacturers.
to withstand impulse conditions compared to continuous disc
windings, especially for the highest voltage windings. Hence, this
winding is used in high voltage transformer windings only alt-
hough it takes more time to wind.

Today, interleaved windings are used for any high voltage class axially wound up along the height of the winding, before starting a
transformer. new axially wound layer, and so on, as presented in the figure below.

 Magnetic core
4. Intershielded windings
8 9 24
Intershielded windings are used for high voltage coils of any high voltage
class transformer (up to 800 kV). 7 10 23
To withstand impulse voltage tests, a different solution from interleaved 6 11 22
windings are intershielded windings. Every company uses more or less
specific winding designs depending on their experience and the past 5 12 21
R&D results.
4 13 20
This winding construction is very similar to the continuous disc win-
ding but shielding is added to specific discs to achieve the desired values 3 14 19
of series capacitance. The “shield” piece is a small insulated conductor at
a floating potential. 2 15 18
A detail of such conductor organisation is presented in the below figure. 1 16 17

Figure 4: Layer type winding

Magnetic core
Here the rated voltage is distributed along the width of the win-
ding in comparison to the height of any disc windings technolo-
gy. Hence the insulation between the layer needs to be important
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 and adapted to the high voltage level.

Shields between windings could also be used so they withstand

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 even better impulse voltages. The shield in layer type windings is
generally composed of an insulated aluminium sheet installed in
parallel of the conductor layers along the height of the winding.

Shield The advantage of this type of winding is, in some way, the same as
that of an interleaved winding.

Every winding type has its own ad-

Figure 3: Intershielded winding
vantages, from easy construction
The advantage of intershielded windings is similar to that of the
interleaved windings. on „low voltage“ transformers to
impulse voltages and short-circuit
5. Layer type windings withstand capability as the high
Layer type windings are classically used up to around 100 kV, even if voltage increases.
some manufacturers have specially developed this winding design
up to 400 kV for high voltage windings to make them withstand
impulse conditions. One layer is the continuation of the conductors

12 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

 Jean SANCHEZ

6. Helical winding Very often winding design and co­

This type of winding is mostly used for low voltage windings n­struction is highly linked to expe-
(up to a few kV) and some high voltage tap windings, which are
connected to a tap changer. With a small number of turns, the rience of each manufacturer.
current could be very high. We can use a large number of parallel
conductors in helical windings (as in the figure below).

windings, and they can be used either for low voltage as well as
high voltage windings. Shell type transformers are made at least
up to 800 kV.

Some manufacturers worldwide are specialised in those shell

type winding power transformers (JST in France, EFACEC in
Portugal, ABB in Spain, Mitsubishi in Japan, etc.).

Conclusion

These few types of windings are the basics to withstand impulse

test, short-circuit duty and heat evacuation for power transfor-
mers. Every manufacturer then adapts its winding design to the
customer needs and mostly according to its own past experience.

References
 3 1 2 [1] Martin J. Heathcote, J&P Transformer book, Newnes, 13th
Figure 5: Helical winding edition, 2007
[2] K. Karsai et al, Large Power Transformers, Elsevier, 1987
Helical windings are robust and can withstand temperature rise, [3] S.V. Kulkarni et al, Transformer Engineering Design and
impulse and short circuit conditions well. Helical windings can Practice, Marcel Dekker, 2004
be used in large power transformers of hundreds of MVA, as well [4] Giorgio Bertagnolli, ABB, Short-Circuit Duty of Power
as smaller transformers where LV is around several tens kV. Transformers, 3rd edition, ABB Ltd, 2007

The advantage of helical windings is that very high currents can

be handled easily by using many conductors in parallel.
Acknowledgment
This paper is dedicated to Mr. Mahadevan SUBRAMONEY
7. Pancake windings who initiated this work on windings, and passed away prior its
completion.
This kind of winding is used for shell type transformers. It
could be seen as very wide discs assembled together to form
a “pancake” block. Each disc is mainly made of multiple con-
ductors in parallel, shields could be inserted between discs or
Author:
Jean SANCHEZ completed a Ph.D.
Helical windings can be used in degree on power transformers fault
large power transformers of hund- diagnosis in 2011 and worked in a
French power transformer repa-
reds of MVA, as well as smaller ration factory. His work involved
many transformer designs, tests,
transformers where LV is around fault expertise, power ratings, and
OLTC repairs. Today he is working
several tens kV. on generator diagnosis in a major
French utility. He also completed a Masters degree in Ap-
plied Physics.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 13
 MATERIALS

Ester fluids for power

transformers at >100 kV
Design considerations for the use of alternative fluids
ABSTRACT 1. Introduction
Typically for high voltage power transformers mineral oil is
The behaviour of mineral oil is well understood and designers
used for both cooling and electrical insulation. However mi-
have established rules for the construction of transformers
neral oil has some shortcomings in terms of fire safety and
through research, as well as trial and error, over many years. In
environmental impact. The answer to these concerns is to
modern times the design of power transformers has become
use a more fire safe and environmentally friendly alternative
liquid, such as an ester. In order to do this at higher volta- more and more sophisticated, with both electrical and thermal
ges, designers need to understand any differences in ther- computer modelling now widely used. This allows designers to
mal and electrical properties. This article aims to give a brief push the designs to their limits, whilst being relatively confi-
overview of the relevant properties of ester liquids and how dent that the transformer will pass final test if the manufactu-
this can affect transformer design. ring process is without fault.

Despite mineral oil being an effective coolant and dielectric me-

Keywords dium, the downsides with it are well known. It is both flamma-
ester, safety, environment, natural, dielectric ble and environmentally damaging if it leaks or is spilled. There

14 |
14 ISSUE 1, VOLUME 1 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2
 Mark LASHBROOK

are numerous occurrences of large mineral oil transformer fires benefits of using a fire safe, environmentally friendly solution
and in each case a large amount of damage is caused, along with have not been realised in the past.
costly clean up of the surrounding area if the tank has ruptured
in a catastrophic manner. The answer to these problems lies in At higher voltage levels (>66 kV), it is not always possible to
the use of alternative fluids for power transformers, which are use a mineral oil designed transformer with an ester fluid, some
far less flammable and in the case of esters, much more environ- design changes may need to be made to accommodate the dif-
mentally friendly. ferent chemical makeup of the ester fluid. However the past
decade has seen a rapidly growing list of examples around the
For distribution transformers the use of esters is very well es- world where transformers over 66 kV, up to a maximum of 420
tablished and synthetic esters have been successfully used for kV have been designed for running with esters, and have used
voltages up to 66 kV for over 30 years. When it comes to higher them extremely successfully.
voltage power transformers there is less experience, since the
Despite the possible need to change designs there are a growing
number of enquiries being placed with transformer manufactur-
ers for larger transformers with ester, as the industry starts to see
the great advantage these newer fluids can bring. In terms of cost
The demand for fire safe, environ- saving, even if the fluid and transformer are more expensive, the
mentally friendly power transfor- removal of ancillary equipment such as fire extinguishers, or re-
ductions in containment can give big savings and very quickly
mers is growing and ester fluids offset the extra capital expense. In addition, there is evidence to
suggest that kraft paper will live much longer if immersed in an
are an ideal dielectric solution for ester, when compared to a mineral oil, and this extra lifetime can
this type of equipment. significantly reduce overall cost of an installation if considered
over the whole lifetime. There will be situations where mineral
oil is the preferred solution, but there is definitely a need to better
understand the properties of ester fluids.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 15
 MATERIALS

2. Permittivity difference
The relative permittivity of diel-
The permittivity of ester fluids is higher than that of mineral oil.
This is important for design as the electrical stress in any dielec- ectrics effects the electrical field
tric structure under AC fields depends on the permittivity distri-
bution. In the ideal scenario materials with the same permittivity
distribution in winding structures
will be used for both solid and liquid insulation, since this provi- and must be taken into account
des an even distribution of stress across structures.
when designing transformers
Fig. 1 shows how the stress distribution in an insulation structure
can be calculated by using the permittivity values for synthetic es-
ter. This is a simplified version which does not take into account
the stress distribution at the interface between the materials. The
stress is inversely proportional to the permittivity, so those struc-
tures with higher permittivity carry lower levels of stress.

Figure 1: Multi-layer insulation model [1] Figure 2: Breakdown voltage of impregnated pressboard

This can be demonstrated with an example using an applied vol- The main reason for this difference in performance is down to
tage of 132 kV and the formula in Fig. 1. The dimensions of the the oil wedge, as shown in Fig. 3, where the breakdown initiates
fluid and pressboard gaps are in mm. Note that impregnating the due to high local electrical stress. In synthetic ester the stress level
paper with different fluids slightly changes the relative permitti- in this area will be lower, for the same applied voltage, meaning
vity ε of the impregnated paper; this must also be taken into ac- that a higher breakdown voltage is possible.
count when looking at design.

Table 1: Voltage stress comparison

Table 1. shows that the voltage stress in the fluid is reduced by

changing from mineral oil to synthetic ester; the voltage stress in Figure 3: Oil wedge in test electrodes
the paper is increased. Generally the paper is considered to be the
stronger of the two dielectrics so having a higher voltage stress in
the paper is desirable. The difference in stress between the paper Where this is less straightforward is in non-homogeneous struc-
and fluid is lower for the ester, indicating a more even distribu- tures and here a little more care needs to be taken to ensure that
tion. peak field strengths are kept within limits. Taking another ex-
ample shown in Fig. 4, it can be seen that despite the lower stress
The effect of reducing liquid stress can be seen when looking at in the synthetic ester around the winding end the peak stress is
the behaviour of oil wedges in breakdown tests of pressboard. higher for an ester at 20.51 kV/mm, compared to 17.97 kV/mm
Especially with thick pressboard synthetic ester which gives a for mineral oil, given the same structure.
better breakdown performance than mineral oil, despite the fact
that in terms of oil breakdown, the two fluids are equal at the gap However if this is understood, then it is perfectly possible to re-
size tested. The result in Fig. 2 from a study by the University of design to reduce stress in key areas, usually at the winding ends
Manchester shows this difference. [2] and around static rings.

16 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

 There is compelling evidence from
laboratory studies that ester flu-
ids can have a beneficial effect on
paper lifetime, which allows high-
er hot spot temperatures.

Figure 4: Stress plot for winding arrangement [3] hot spot. There is evidence to suggest that paper will age more
slowly in ester fluid than it does in mineral oil. In this case it may
be possible to accept a higher temperature in the ester transfor-
3. Thermal design considerations mer hot spot, while still retaining the life of the transformer. The
latest revisions of the IEEE and IEC thermal standards give some
Viscosity is the main parameter that affects thermal performance extra guidance on this aspect of esters.
of fluids for cooling, especially in naturally cooled systems. Other
parameters such as specific heat capacity and thermal conducti-
vity come into play, but essentially the ability for the fluid to flow
unimpeded around and through the windings governs the ability 4. Case studies
to remove heat. When manufacturers consider the use of an al-
ternative fluid for a power transformer, it is important that the
fluid characteristics are taken into account. Thermal modelling Despite the need for some design adjustments, there are a gro-
of windings allows designers to evaluate the difference in tempe- wing number of high voltage transformers now using ester fluids.
rature rise for an ester filled transformer, compared to standard The following are some examples of where the benefits of esters
mineral oil. Fig. 5 shows an example of a thermal calculation for have outweighed the higher capital cost of utilising these fluids.
a winding, taking into account three different fluids.
4.1 KWO Switzerland
Kraftwerke Oberhasli AG (KWO) is one of the leading hydro-
power companies in Switzerland and they have nine power
plants, with 26 turbines and a total capacity of 1,125 MW. These
are spread over eight reservoirs on the Grimsel and Sustenpass.
In total they produce around 7% of the electricity coming from
Swiss hydroelectric power plants.

For a specific project KWO needed four 50 MVA converter

transformers along with a number of auxiliary distribution
transformers for an underground installation. In the past the-
se transformers had always been filled with mineral oil, which
necessitated the installation of a complicated fire suppression
system. An alternative solution which was proposed was to use
Figure 5: Thermal model comparison [3]
synthetic ester filled transformers and remove the requirement
for fire suppression. In order to do this, a comprehensive risk
assessment had to take place to ensure that the ester solution
To counteract the higher temperature rise for esters, it is possible was of equal safety to the mineral oil with fire suppression.
to have larger cooling channels in the windings and between win- The Swiss Institute for the Promotion of Safety and Security
dings and barriers. The down side to this is that electrical stress is (SWISSI) were engaged to carry out the study and their con-
increased in the fluid as the cooling duct becomes larger. This is clusion was that the ester solution was viable and in some cases
offset somewhat by the permittivity difference between mineral superior to using mineral oil with suppression. Subsequently
oil and ester, but ultimately a balance has to be met between coo- KWO ordered and installed transformers filled with synthetic
ling efficiency and electrical performance. ester, without any extinguishing system. This saved them cost in
both initial installation, but more importantly ongoing main-
The temperature limits are set by the ageing rate of cellulose pa- tenance. Without a complicated automatic fire extinguishing
per for the majority of transformer designs in the power category. system there is no need for expensive routine checks and re-
Unless the manufacturer moves to use a hybrid or semi-hybrid pairs, which would also require downtime on the transformers.
design with high temperature insulating materials such as ara- In this case the savings far outweighed the extra cost of using
mid paper, then they are restricted to the maximum acceptable synthetic ester in the transformers.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 17
 MATERIALS

due to weight restrictions on Sweden’s roads. Despite the more

4.2 Vattenfall 238 kV GSU transformer
complicated installation process, VA Tech successfully installed
In 2002 Vattenfall AB identified a need for a new transformer for the transformer, filled it with ester and the transformer entered
their underground hydropower station Stalon, located between operation in June 2004.
Lake Malgomaj and Lake Kultsjön by the Ångermanälven River
in northern Sweden. There were certain issues that came up in Since this time the transformer has run without incident, and
relation to this transformer, which meant that mineral oil was a following the success of this unit Vattenfall AB has installed
less desirable option. In the first place the transformer was to be several more synthetic ester filled power transformers on their
placed underground, so fire safety was critical, secondly, and just network, including two more at 220 kV and one with a power
as importantly, the power station was located in an environmen- rating of 200 MVA.
tally sensitive area, where spillage of mineral oil could cause large
amounts of damage. 4.3 TransnetBW 420kV natural ester transformer [4]
TransnetBW are the transmission grid operator for the Baden-
When the transformer was put out for tender VA Tech (now Sie- Württemburg region of Southern Germany. They provide elec-
mens Austria) offered the option of using synthetic ester as the tricity to around 11 million customers in the area and operate
cooling fluid, in place of mineral oil, as it is both fire safe and rea- over 80 high voltage power transformers. TransnetBW chose to
dily biodegradable. This meant that they could solve both their invest in a natural ester filled 420 kV power transformer to link
client’s problems with one solution and the transformer was suc- the 380 kV ultra-high voltage level with the 110 kV distribution
cessfully tested at their factory in April 2004. grid. The main driving force behind the selection of this trans-
former fluid was environmental, since the natural ester has non-
Then came time to ship the transformer to site, this brought ad- water hazardous status in Germany. This meant that the transfor-
ded complications since it had to be drained and refilled in place, mer could be installed without additional collecting vessels and
separation systems, which presents a significant civil cost saving.
The non-water hazardous status of esters also means that Ger-
By using ester fluid filled power many will permit their use in transformers installed within water
conservation areas or in zones subject to stringent environmen-
transformers operators can benefit tal protection restrictions.
from reduced fire protection mea-
sures, thus saving costs in both ca- Conclusion
pital expenditure and maintenance. There is a growing demand for more fire safe and environmentally
friendly power transformers for voltages above 100 kV. In order
to achieve this dielectric fluid inside the transformer needs to be
changed from mineral oil to ester based, during the design phase.

18 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

 With the realisation of the benefits
they can bring, ester fluids are now
being used in transformers in trans-
mission projects at 400kV plus.

References:

[1] Dielectric properties of natural esters and their influence on transfor-

mer insulation system design and performance, T.A. Prevost, May 2006
[2] A comparative study of the dielectric strength of ester impregnated
cellulose for use in large power transformers, D. Martin, Z.D. Wang, P.
Dyer, A.W. Darwin, I.R James, ICSD Winchester, UK, July 2007
[3] Environmentally sustainable and fire resistant power transformers,
F. Schatzl, EuroTechCon, November 2009
[4] TransnetBW commissions Siemens’ first vegetable oil 420kV
transformer, EBR Staff Writer, EBR Magazine Online, 28 Feb 2014

It has become apparent through research in respected Univer-

sities that some design changes can be needed to accommodate Author
ester fluids in power transformers and these, coupled with the
higher price of esters when compared to mineral oil do increa- Mark LASHBROOK received a
se the transformer price. However, when considering the whole BEng (Hons) degree in electrical and
installation and lifetime running costs, esters can still be a very electronic engineering from Lough-
attractive proposition. borough University in 1995. Fol-
lowing graduation he has worked
Through research and experience there are now a number of ma- in a number of engineering roles
jor manufacturers who have the in depth design knowledge and within the semiconductor, manu-
can supply ester filled power transformers to customers. It is pos- facturing and power industries. He
sible to envisage a time when 400 kV ester transformers are com- is currently employed as a Senior
monplace on electrical networks, especially if the overall lifetime Applications Engineer for Midel ester fluid products. Mark is
cost of the installation is taken into account. a member of the IET. www.siemens.com/press

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 19
COLUMN

Courtesy of A-Line E.D.S.

Trends in Power
Transformer Failure Analysis
Many initiators – few outco- ting liquid) has become the most popular
ABSTRACT mes diagnostic tool in use. Depending on the
DGA results, one may detect an incipient

T
The transformer failure can be initia-
here are many initiators of trans- fault which is the result of one of the initi-
ted by many factors, but the results of
former failures, but those which ators, and if left undetected or untreated,
a failure can be the same. Diagnostic can potentially lead to catastrophic might result in one of the catastrophic
tests provide indication of incipient failure are: failure modes.
failure. One must have a good under- 1. mechanical failure
standing of the system conditions to 2. dielectric failure
Alphabet tests: Some symp-
which the transformer is exposed and In both cases, the transformer is no longer
able to perform its intended function of toms can show in test results
an understanding of the transformer before complete failure
carrying load and stepping down (or up)
construction to properly investigate
the voltage.
the cause and effect of conditions. The discussion of diagnostic testing was very
thorough in the last issue of Transformers
Test techniques are designed Magazine. To refresh your memory, let‘s re-
This will facilitate arriving at a con-
to detect the two failure modes view the significant diagnostic field tests.
clusion of the analysis. Each const-
DP: Transformers can operate with essenti-
ruction type has its own advantages
Throughout the world, dissolved gas ally failed insulation only if there is no mo-
and an awareness of these aids in the analysis (DGA, the measurement and vement or abrasion of the insulation which
determination of the root cause. monitoring of dissolved gas in the insul- would result in a short circuit. Transformer

20 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

 Wallace Binder

insulation in this condition has reached the

end of life and chemical tests would show
Experience and data collection a crucial
a loss of strength measured as degree of components of problem analysis
polymerisation (DP). However, this is an
invasive test since the insulation most vul-
nerable to failure is often deep inside the
winding.

DGA: As previously mentioned, the DGA

results can show trends. These trends can tain limitations must be accepted in inter- Loading beyond nameplate may result in
be monitored and there is a large body of preting the results. higher internal temperatures and conse-
data which guides the user to determine quently make the insulation system vul-
the course of action to take. There are seve- nerable to failure.
ral guides and standards for measurement Understanding the effect of
and analysis of dissolved gas in the most system conditions can aid in An understanding of these conditions, the
popular insulating liquids. the analysis of symptoms causes, and effects, will aid in the evalua-
tion of the transformer‘s condition at any
SFRA: SFRA or (S)weep (F)requency (R) point in its life. The articles which discuss
esponse (A)nalysis, detects changes in cir- Examples of system conditions which these topics can be found in Transformers
cuit impedance which are the result of mo- effect transformer condition include Magazine Volume 1.
vement of winding position or the result of through-fault events, lightning strikes to
shorted winding turns. These changes are nearby lines, loading beyond nameplate Correct setting of protective devices is also
measured by applying various frequencies and numerous other conditions for which critical. While the protective relay may not
to the terminals and measuring the circuit the transformer was not designed. prevent a failure, it should be able to detect
impedance. Guides for performing this test one and isolate the transformer from the
have emerged in the past 10 years which Through-fault events can cause winding system, thus protecting the system from
aid in the interpretation of the test results. It movement which might eventually lead to further damage or transients. To correctly
is important to have base-line SFRA results insulation wear and dielectric breakdown. set the relays, the known maximum AND
to which to compare. Small changes can be minimum fault current conditions must
detected before major damage has occur- Voltage excursions such as a lightning be evaluated. It is out of place here to co-
red. The guides for SFRA exist in both the strike are mitigated by surge protective ver what is necessary to accomplish this,
IEEE Standards and IEC Standards envi- devices throughout the system. In addi- but it is a critical part of the maintenance
ronment. tion, winding design will include means and operation of an asset as valuable as a
to alleviate voltage stresses. However, such transformer. Numerous guides and texts
DFR: (D)ielectric (F)requency (R)espon- an over-voltage condition can lead to die- have been written covering the protec-
se, also referred to as dielectric response lectric failure after numerous applications tion methods which should be utilised for
analysis, has become a tool for detecting of the over-voltage. transformers and connected equipment.
deficiencies in the insulating mediums
including the liquid and paper insulating
materials. Its main value has been shown
in determining the moisture content of
the insulating material. It can also detect
other causes of high insulation power fac-
tor, such as carbon tracking. This is another
diagnostic test which needs a baseline test
value for comparison. Work is being done
to develop guides for use of the test. CIG-
RE Task Force D1.01 has presented sever-
al papers on the techniques and the IEEE
Transformers Committee has established a
Working Group to develop C57.161 IEEE
Guide for DFR Measurement.

All of these tests rely on either a baseline

test or a body of data accumulated in the
industry for comparison with the current
test results. There are some other compa-
Courtesy of A-Line E.D.S.

risons that can be made. For example, an

SFRA test result can be compared to other
phases of the same transformer or to iden-
tical units. However, when this is done, cer-

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 21
 COLUMN

Courtesy of A-Line E.D.S.

Likewise the protective margin and over- produced by the flux created by currents Core form construction provides a single
voltage capability as well as the follow-cur- in the winding and the dielectric stres- path for the magnetic flux, while shell-
rent capability of surge protective devices ses are created by the voltages impressed form construction provides multiple
must be coordinated with the system condi- upon the winding. Stray flux can also play paths for the flux. Variations providing
tions and the transformer capability. Again, a role in thermal problems. five and seven legs to a three-phase core
there are standards, guides, and a variety of can be constructed.
other literature that covers best practices
and best technology for protection. 1. Common failure modes Regardless of core-type or shell-type const-
ruction, the core itself is constructed of the
As a transformer failure investigator, Some modes of failure can occur regard- same material. It is stacks of pre-cut lami-
one must be aware and understand the less of construction type. These might nations of magnetic grade steel. Each lami-
practices and limitations of all of the abo- include tap changer failures, bushing fai- nation is coated with a thin layer of insula-
ve mentioned protective schemes. There lures, tank failures, moisture ingress, and ting material. When the insulating material
have been occasions where one part of an other forms of dielectric fluid contami- is compromised by, for example, a burr or a
organisation has not been made aware of nation. Other failures occur as described break in the insulating coating, current can
changes in system conditions or configu- in the next sections (1 through 4) without flow along this path and generate heat.
ration which has resulted in the protec- regard to construction type.
tion scheme under-performing.
Construction type (e.g., core form, shell 2. Mechanical failures
form, wound core, etc) influences the fai-
Failures appear in different lure mode. Each type of design has its own Cause
ways, depending on the set of strengths. However, there are many Mechanical failures can be the result of
type of construction modes of failure which are common to all shipping damage, seismic activity, and
construction types. thru-faults. The previously mentioned
When investigating a transformer failure,
one must understand schematically, how
the core and winding are constructed in
order to correctly analyse the failure me- Diagnostic testing is critical to determine
chanisms that have occurred. Best analy- transformer health
sis will evaluate the mechanical and diel-
ectric stresses imposed on various parts of
the transformer. Mechanical stresses are

22 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

 Wallace Binder

core problems can be included in this ca- Knowledge of system conditions is critical in
tegory. This discussion will focus on win-
ding mechanical problems. failure analysis
Results
The obvious result of a mechanical failure
is the displacement of winding turns or
damage of the turns by the forces exer-
ted during the damaging event. Adequate low voltage excitation current, a change Results
bracing is provided by the construction in impedance, and sometimes, the pre- The result of an electrical failure can be
method being used to prevent the dis- sence of partial discharge (PD) during simply a turn-to-turn failure which may
placement from happening during ship- an induce voltage test. Mechanical fai- even allow the transformer to remain in-
ment or during thru-faults which are lure is often discovered by electrical fai- service if the turn-to-turn voltage is not
within the capability of the transformer lures which are the result of mechanical large. The consequence can be an arc from
design. This is why manufacturers specify deformation. energised winding to an adjacent winding
the g forces which must not be exceeded or to ground (earth).
during transport. Specifications should
define the expected short circuit to which Indications
the transformer will be exposed and the
3. Electrical failures Electrical failures will manifest themsel-
design should be adequate for those forces ves as a source of dissolved gas products.
which the specified currents will produce. Cause Diagnostic tests will typically show dete-
Electrical failures are the result of insu- rioration and the results will provide clu-
Indications lation degradation. This can be caused es where the failure occurred or where it
Mechanical failure can result in scalloped by thermal degradation over the life of is about to happen. Winding turns ratio,
conductors (beam failure), conductors the transformer, by thermal degrada- winding insulation tests, insulation power
which have been looped over adjacent tion due to excessive or frequent fault factor will all give indications and should
turns by the hoop stress (hoop failure), current, or by dielectric breakdown confirm the DGA results. They frequently
or in rare cases, conductors which have due to high voltage stress. A dielectric show results observed during an internal
been severed by the tension applied by the breakdown can also be the result of me- inspection or tear-down as some form
hoop force. chanical forces tearing the insulation or, of insulation “burning” which appears as
as suggested in the previous paragraph, discoloration or carbonisation of cellulo-
Mechanical failure can be detected by by reducing dielectric clearance of com- se. Those where cellulose is not involved
a change in the SFRA test, a change in ponents from each other. typically show as points of contact on core

Courtesy of A-Line E.D.S.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 23
 COLUMN

steel or tank steel and winding or leads

where the conductor is bare.
Each construction method has its own set of
strengths and problems
4. Other common failure modes
Other failure modes can be the result of a
grounded core or core clamping structu-
res (such as through-bolts) that develop Core form designs have subsets consisting Helical windings are also frequently used
shorts. These result in a shorted turn (the of numerous winding configurations such in high current applications.
core) and produce high currents which are as layer windings, helical (or spiral-type)
often detected by dissolved gas analysis. windings, continuous disc, and interle- Disc windings are wound in a series of par-
aved disc windings. Each has different allel discs using single or multi-strand turns.
voltage stress applied to different compo- Their disadvantage is poor distribution of
5. Failure modes for shell nents of the winding (individual strand- the voltage stresses, especially in the line-end
form construction to-strand, conductor-to-conductor, layer- turns due to high winding to ground capa-
to-layer or disc-to-disc, etc.) so a good citance. Shields are wound with the load
Shell form construction is resistant to understanding of the voltages and forces carrying turns to distribute the voltage stress
winding deformation due to thru-faults. impressed upon these components is im- more evenly across the winding. However,
This is because the coil “pancakes” are ar- portant to investigate. with multiple crossovers, brazed connec-
ranged in multiple groups to limit force tions, and shields connections, they are a
magnitude. The exposure to conductor Layer wound core form transformers are more complex winding to build. Interleaved
bending is limited by many support spa- the simplest winding form. They place the disc windings are more complex still, with
cers to avoid beam bending. Form fit tank wound conductors next to one another. additional feature that results in turns being
and core prevent movement of the core Several layers can be provided on top of distributed across the winding in a way that
and winding groups. one another, usually with spacers to pro- results in every other turn on the cylinder
vide cooling ducts. These are frequently being adjacent. This produces a high series
Each “pancake” is connected to the one used in high current applications and capacitance and therefore a more uniform
adjacent to it, first on the inner end of the for auxiliary windings such as regulating voltage distribution across the winding. If
“pancake”, then to the next “pancake” on windings. They are inherently resistant to they were a machine they would have the
the outer end. beam bending of the conductor. However, most moving parts.
they are less resistant to axial movement.
The area which is vulnerable is the edge References
of the coil where “pancake” windings are Helical windings are multiple conductors
connected together. There is a relatively stacked and wound together in a screw- [1] IEEE PC57.125 Draft Guide for
high voltage in the kV range at this point like manner along the length of the win- Failure Investigation, Documentati-
between the same end of odd or even ding cylinder. They are separated by radial on, Analysis, and Reporting for Power
number “pancakes”. Failure can be pre- spacers to allow for insulating fluid flow Transformers and Shunt Reactors
vented by adequate support of the outer for cooling. The number of spacers used [2] James H. Harlow, Electric Power
turns. around the circumference of the winding Transformer Engineering, 3rd Edition,
cylinder influences its ability to withstand CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca
axial forces which lead to beam bending. Raton, FL, 2012
6. Winding failure modes for
core form construction
Core form construction can exhibit failure Author
in several ways. Radial tension failure, also Wallace BINDER has experience in scope development,
known as hoop tension failure, can occur; planning, design, construction, start-up, operation, and
conversely, radial compression failure can maintenance of distribution, transmission and customer
also occur. Radial failure can collapse the utilisation substations, back-up power generation, trans-
inner winding unless the winding support mission and distribution lines, and systems.
structure is strong. Wallace Binder has been an active member of the IEEE/
PES Transformers Committee for more than 30 years. He
Axial failures can occur in both compres- has served twice as Chair of the Working Group on Failure
sion and tension. Sometimes the windings Analysis, a position he currently holds. He served as Chair
telescope, caused by uneven axial forces. of the Transformers Committee for two years in the late 90‘s and has contributed to
The result is typically a tangled mess of numerous guides and standards developed by the Transformers Committee.
winding conductors which eventually arc Wallace Binder is currently an independent consultant with his office located in Wes-
to ground or each other, and disrupt the tern Pennsylvania. He has served a variety of clients - both manufacturers and users
force vectors in ways that were not ac- of substation apparatus.
counted for in the original design.

24 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

 The Transformer Failure
Analysis Experts
1.800.760.0222 alineeds.com
A-line E.D.S. is the only company in North America that can provide you with the most detailed,
factory-style teardown ON SITE. Utilizing our patented equipment, we ensure the integrity of your
transformer is maintained so that evidence of the root cause of the failure isn’t lost.

Whether you have a premature failure or are

just wanting to research and collect data on the
life of your transformer fleet, we’re here to help.
We will provide you with the most efficient and
professional service in the industry.

Our services include:

• On-site teardown and forensic evaluation
• Coordination with your engineers, consultants
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• Patented equipment for the efficient, detailed
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• Fast mobilization in emergency situations
• Turnkey service with a credit for your
recycled materials
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• Prior case studies and references
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When experience and service matter.

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Core Form Forensic Examination completed Shell Form Forensic Examination completed
for a Canadian Utility for a Nuclear Facility in the Eastern United States

A-Line_SellSheet_B_02-07-13.indd 1 2/7/13 1:24 PM

 SPONSORED PRODUCT NEWS

The device summary dashboard automatically self-configures to show, the most important data from all available monitoring devices in a simple and concise design.

Data Overload: Deriving Actionable

Information from Vast Amounts of Data
M
odern day utilities and industries face a unique challenge, se tasks are seen as a drain on expert resources as analysing, valida-
brought on by an abundance of data and an ever increa- ting and cross correlating the data can take a considerable amount
sing asset fleet driven by customer demand. The challenge of time.
is transforming the vast amount of data gathered into coherent and
actionable information. Adding to that, there is a growing fear today that the already limi-
ted pool of transformer experts is reducing, due to the retirement of
Advances in monitoring and sensing technologies have allowed us experts and the lack of young apprentices coming behind to fill the
to capture more in-depth information regarding the condition of knowledge gap. Inevitably the resources, time and effort required to
power transformers. For many organisations the power transformer perform such analytical tasks is so high that it leads to the analysis
is considered a critical asset, as unplanned failures and outages can being done at less and less frequent intervals.
have severe consequences and financial impacts.
The data gathered on the health and condition of power transformers
Joel Weingarten, Product Line Leader at GE’s Digital Energy busi- is invaluable in the right hands. However in the hands of inexperi-
ness, discussed this large amount of information in his article on enced personnel, such data can be confusing, daunting and can lead
Today’s Data Dilemma, saying that “the amount of data is so large to a lack of accountability as people shy away from the responsibility
that if information were stored on DVDs, the DVD stack would go of interpreting the data. A lack of transformer knowledge or resource
from the Earth to the Moon and back.” [1] Later in the article, Wein- can lead to a heavy reliance on the alarm information provided by the
garten said, “Utilities find themselves collecting more information monitors and sensors. Focusing on alarm breaches rather than the
and they want to utilise that data to improve their operations and analysis and interpretation of continuous data flow can result in faults
maximize their asset investments.” being reported too late. By continually monitoring the condition of
Organisations rely heavily on transformer experts analysing the data the transformers, faults can be detected and action can be taken at a
captured and extracting the critical information nestled within. The- much earlier stage, preventing such issues getting worse.

26 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

At GE Digital Energy we recognised these challenges which many
organisations face and, together with veteran transformer experts,
we have worked hard to design a solution.

Perception Fleet is GE’s Online Transformer Fleet Management

Software System that provides a revolutionary and holistic approach
for transformer fleet assessments for utilities and industrial compa-
nies around the globe. The software helps move organisations from
a manual, one-on-one transformer assessment process to an auto-
mated and online fleet management assessment. By continually eva-
luating the condition of assets and establishing their risk of failure,
Perception Fleet is able to prioritise and rank assets within a fleet.
The wallboard feature provides users with a simple “at a glance” view of their
“Transformer operators have long depended on software assets conditions
solutions to document critical data from their transformer
fleets. That raw data would then need to be processed and
interpreted by industry experts to produce meaningful and an overall ranking of transformers. This makes it easier to deter-
measurable results,” said Graham McGuigan, Senior Product mine which transformers require immediate or longer-term ser-
Manager, monitoring & diagnostics for GE’s Digital Energy vice to prevent failures and costly outages. The pre-defined in-
business. “Our new Perception Fleet software gives operators telligent algorithms instantly evaluate the transformer data held
a tool to assess, with a single metric, the overall risk to their in Perception with no customisation required. The algorithms
transformer fleet and how it changes over time, allowing analyses the data using data interpretation methods based on the
them to prioritise their capital expenditures and operations well-known and highly regarded IEEE C57.104, IEC 60422 and
and maintenance investments for the most impact.” IEC 60599 standards as well as best practices taken from Cigré
technical paper TB227.
Perception Fleet gives time back to the experts by analysing, vali-
dating and cross-correlating the transformer data automatically. At The built-in scheduler for automated data download from GE’s on-
an individual transformer level, it provides them with the tools re- line monitors ensures that Perception Fleet is always up to date with
quired to independently analyse and assess individual transformer the latest data collected from the transformer fleet. The data gathered
conditions. Perception Fleet contains built-in internationally recog- is passed through an automated algorithm engine which analyses
nised advanced diagnostic standards tools utilising IEEE C57.104, the data for specific condition triggers and interprets the transfor-
IEC 60599, Doernenburg Ratio, Rogers Ratio and Duval’s Triangle mers condition and risk of failure based on the trigger points. Once
to help experts interpret data. the condition of each transformer has been evaluated, the Percep-
tion Fleet software compares the transformers within the fleet and
Perception Fleet can also determine and provide an overall fleet ranks them accordingly.
condition diagnosis by evaluating and risk-ranking the indivi-
dual transformers. Pre-defined or user-defined intelligent algo- Another key feature of Perception Fleet is the customisable CSV
rithms within Perception Fleet automatically evaluate the condi- import/export function, which allows data exchange and integrati-
tion of individual transformers and compare conditions to give on with other systems such as SCADA, EMS, DMS, Historian, AM,
SAS, planning, ERP, etc… Applications which support CSV file ex-
change can easily interface with Perception Fleet, enabling data to be
effortlessly exchanged between applications.
By focusing on these new but growing challenges, GE’s Perception
Fleet software provides customers with the required solution: deli-
vering comprehensive transformer fleet condition rankings, trans-
former risk information, and expert analysis on-demand, reducing
time-consuming and costly manual processes as well as unnecessary
maintenance, helping focus capital and reducing operational ex-
penses.

For more information please visit www.gedigitalenergy.com or con-

tact [email protected].

The fleet dashboard provides a comprehensive overview of the transformer

Reference
fleet, highlighting which transformers are being monitored and risk as- [1] Today’s Data Dilemma: Transforming Information into
sessed, how many monitoring devices are experiencing alarms, the overall Meaningful Action, Weingarten, Joel. EnergyBiz Magazine, page
fleet risk index history and the critical events that are captured. 26. Volume 11, Issue 3, May 14 / June 14.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 27
TRENDS
TRANSFORMER IN GRID

www.siemens.com/press
ABSTRACT
Power transformers are integral in
Transformers in
HVDC transmission
the HVDC transmission systems and
provide multiple functions. Correct-
ly optimised transformers lower the
cost for other equipment in HVDC
schemes. This article describes the
basics of HVDC and gives a view of The social wind is favouring DC transmissions
where the HVDC development stands
today. Both the LCC and VSC techno- 1. Why do we need power try has been fuelled by continuous inno-
logies are described, as well as newer transmission by direct current? vation and challenged by ever increasing
converter concepts that lower losses demands to reduce costs, be more effici-
and harmonic stresses. Finally the ent, reduce environmental impacts, pro-

T
authors call for innovative solutions he transmission of bulk electricity mote social inclusion, and reduce emissi-
in order to boost the power density of in the last 120 years has revolutio- ons of pollutants that might cause climate
transformers. nised the way we live and work by change.
bringing the needed energy to move the
industrial production machine wherever Despite the dominance of AC transmis-
it was located. sion throughout the 20th century, since
Keywords the 1950s, high voltage direct current
From the early days of the “battle of the (HVDC), using line-commutated conver-
HVDC, LCC, VSC, switching methods, currents” between direct current (DC) ters (LCC), has gradually re-established
offshore transformers and alternating current (AC), our indus- itself as a niche application. Initially there

28 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

 Jean SANCHEZ,
Andre Mladen
CANELHAS, BANOVIC
Matti STOOR

were no controlled high-voltage switches,

which were capable of carrying out the
UHVDC transmission lines rated at 800 kV DC
task of converting AC into DC and back and 5.0 – 6.0 kA, transmit up to 8 GW of power
again. Hence early systems relied on cas-
cading motor-generator schemes. In the
middle of the 1950s, however, mercury-
arc valves were developed which enabled
the early “modern HVDC” schemes to be
built without moving parts. distance is such that bulk power trans- amounts of electric power through long
mission becomes cheaper to be transfer- cables. The practical distances vary with
With the discovery and usage of semicon- red with HVDC than using HVAC. The the different degrees of compensation and
ductor switching devices such as transis- breakeven distance, depending on speci- if intermediate compensation stations
tors, and particularly the thyristors in the fic cases could be between 450 – 600 km. are utilised. Nonetheless, it would be im-
1960s, solid-state technology began to This happens because HVAC lines are practical to attempt and more costly to
replace the older mercury-arc technology, more expensive than HVDC lines. One employ HVAC cables for distances above
bringing improved reliability and higher bipolar HVDC transmission system with circa 50 km.
power ratings to HVDC. two conductors, a positive and a negative
one is equivalent to a double circuit AC Currently HVDC systems with LCC tech-
HVDC interconnectors allowed the de- transmission line for the same transmit- nology, which is the traditional or classic
livery of bulk power in ever-increasing ted power. Hence six vs. two conductors HVDC solution, has through continuous
voltage ratings with much reduced losses for the length of the transmission motiva- R&D and improvements in material and
compared to AC systems. This made it te the adoption of DC. Furthermore, for computing process in design been able to
possible to bring vast hydropower resour- the same transmission voltage level, the reach high power transmission capabili-
ces from far away dams to load centres, or DC transmission losses are only a frac- ties which will further increase to reach 10
interconnect regions for mutually benefi- tion of those in AC. On the other hand, GW per bipole, which is an enabler for re-
cial energy exchange with further power the terminals, including converter equip- gional interconnectors. However, HVDC
systems stability improvements. Ultra- ment are more expensive with the HVDC is also becoming popular with much lo-
high-voltage DC transmission (UHVDC) compared with conventional substations. wer power ratings, around 1 GW due to
nowadays is rated at 800 kV DC and rated Thus, it pays off using DC for a certain mi- the integration of variable power genera-
currents in the range of 5.0 – 6.0 kA, thus nimum distance or longer. ting assets, such as wind farms.
achieving the transmission capacity of 8
GW with one single bipole (two conduc- When using AC cables, the reactive power In the past decade, the environmental re-
tors). R&D activity is already in course generated by the cable capacitance beco- quirements pushed by the society to redu-
to extend the voltage further to 1,000 kV. mes an issue because the longer the cable, ce emissions of greenhouse gasses (GHG),
There are several schemes in operation, the higher its charging current. There is a implied in a massive investment of pow-
under construction or being planned with distance for which all the cable thermal er generation assets based on renewable
basis on 800 kV UHVDC technology. It capacity is consumed by reactive power energy sources. This shift in power gene-
enables regional bulk-energy exchange without any active power being transfer- rating sources brings the operational need
and use of remote hydroelectricity. red between cable terminals. Therefore, to more usage or power transmission. The
at industrial frequencies (50 or 60Hz), transmission is now not only needed to
In the first decades of the 21st century, it is practically difficult to transmit large bring the power from its generating point
the power industry challenges have again
dramatically changed. Environmental
concerns, the skyrocketing cost of land for
new transmission lines and substations
with severe restrictions for planning per-
mits, as well as the price of energy itself are
making energy managers and engineers
look into HVDC transmission systems,
and into how both AC and DC technolo-
gies may complement each other to result
in higher system efficiency.

Traditionally HVDC would be used for a

few typical cases: 1. for long distances, 2.
when long sub-sea or underground cables
are needed, or 3.when frequency conver-
sion or asynchronous connection was ne-
cessary.

The first case is when the transmission Figure 1: A basic overview of a classic HVDC power transmission station based on LCC technology [1]

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 29
TRENDS
TRANSFORMER IN GRID

Figure 2: Basic representation of a VSC

to the load centre, but because of the va- required is no longer only based on a few due to the reactive power compensation.
riable characteristics of renewable power simple criteria related capability to supply For DC projects there is a heavy pressu-
sources (wind for instance), power trans- the demand and stability. Now the requi- re to drastically lower the terminal costs.
mission also promotes a better integrati- rements must go beyond that, and ensu- Hence the industry has been called upon
on of these renewable assets. The grid is re the system will be able to operate in to evolve and find new solutions to al-
therefore tasked to carry power in a more accordance with pre-established rules of low for simpler and more cost effective
controllable manner and to combine re- security of supply, in which power corri- solutions for cable systems. This resulted
newable power generation with other dors must have an intelligent power flow in DC cables being built with extruded
sources. By this the grid can secure the and be fully controllable by the operators. XLPE (cross-linked polyethylene) as op-
overall region wide supply of the demand. Such requirements will apply equally on posed to mass-impregnated technology.
The response to meet this new challenge the distribution side and at the transmissi- In order to enable the use of XLPE cables,
requires a better integration of HVDC on level. Because HVDC systems transfer it was necessary that the previous techno-
and HVAC systems. power based on controlled switches, i.e. in logy, based on thyristors, which cannot be
principle controlled by software, there is turned off by control action, would have to
less risk that the intermittency of the ener- give way for an alternative based on tran-
2. New social demand on gy sources influences the operation of the sistors or more specifically IGBT devices,
electric power production system as it is the case of AC. This aspect which are gate-turn-off devices. With this,
and transmission also favors a larger participation of DC in the HVDC terminals of the cable ensure
future grid. there are no polarity reversals on the cable
There is no turning back from the course insulation. The converters that operate
of decarbonisation of our society to avoid Another factor that is pushing the trans- like this behave as a voltage source, the-
global climate change. This trend affects formation of the power industry, and the reby called voltage source converters or
the way we live and produce goods, con- HVDC system development in particular VSC for short. The first prototype installa-
tinuing to seek an improved quality of life is the planning permit authorisations. tion of a VSC converter scheme was put in
in a more equitable society. service in Sweden in 1994 between Hells-
With this development, a new challenge is jon and Grangesberg, using an existing
Power production is responsible for the posed with overhead transmission lines, AC distribution line. Since the prototype
largest part of greenhouse gas (GHG) almost no longer being possible to install. of this new breed of converters, much has
emissions and thereby with more rene- The trend has begun and new installations been done and today they are based on
wable energy sources being installed, of offshore and onshore transmission are modular-multi-level converter systems
and consequently the retirement of the practically only based on underground or (MMC). As it is a fairly new technology,
old fossil-fuel fired stations, there will be sub-sea cables. developed during the last ten years, it is
a need for a remarkable expansion of the still undergoing rapid development. New
transmission systems, almost building it For the electrical operation of long cables, ideas on how to perfect different aspects
all from scratch. The type of expansion AC systems become rather complicated emerge and are being explored almost on
a daily basis.

With LCC technology the voltage change polari- With LCC technology, valves conduct the
ty at power reversal, while with VSC the current DC current always in the same direction.
In order to make a power reversal, the vol-
change direction tage must change polarity. The VSC sys-
tems always keep the same voltage pola-
rity and the current can change direction
for power reversals. Thus, the voltages to

30 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

Figure 3: Salient features and major differences between the classic LCC HVDC and VSC [1]

which the transmission cable is exposed VSC converters can absorb or generate (MMC) approach for which the switching
are better controlled and stay within a reactive power. Active and reactive power frequency is much lower.
narrower range for the VSC schemes al- can be controlled separately.
lowing both mass impregnated (MI) and The MMC technology is based on stepwi-
XLPE cables to be adopted. This creates The last 5 years have seen an intense ac- se switching with much lower frequency
more offering and additional supply sour- tivity to reduce electrical losses in VSC and voltage amplitude jumps, combined
ces, resulting in a lower cost. With econo- converters, which initially adopted pulse with harmonic modulation in the synthe-
mies of scale, there should be further op- width modulation (PWM) to synthesise sising AC voltages. Hence resulting in sof-
portunities for lower costs. the AC voltages from a constant DC vol- ter switching, lower losses and negligible
tage. This method brought directly from harmonic distortion on the synthesised
The LCC converters always absorb reacti- industrial applications or traction drives, voltage.
ve power at a rate of 50 – 60 % of the trans- uses a high switching frequency compa-
mitted active power. A combination of red to the line frequency of 50 Hz, and
converter firing angle control actions and produce high switching losses. Due to the 3. Differences in transfor-
external additional equipment is used to high losses, this concept was abandoned
control the reactive power exchange with as all the major HVDC suppliers moved
mer criteria between LCC
the connected grid. On the other hand, on to a modular multi-level converter and VSC

The HVDC transformers, converter in-

MMC technology is drastically reducing losses terface transformers, or converter trans-
formers for short, provide connection
and harmonic distortion from the switching between the AC grid and the converter
operation valve arrangement. The basic transformer
function is partially the same as in the
AC system, i.e. to connect two or more
circuits at different voltage levels, whilst

Figure 4: Functional scheme MMC VSC HVDC scheme in monopolar configuration [1]

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 31
TRENDS
TRANSFORMER IN GRID

HVDC transformers are integral in HVDC sys- same. The earth electrodes on the DC
side can be used as an integral part of the
tems and provide multiple functions for the current carrying path, hence must be ef-
HVDC transmission system ficiently operated without suffering po-
tential elevation from faults, for example
on the AC side. The converter transfor-
mers’ design considers a small leakage
DC current to be conducted through the
AC windings without giving rise to the
saturation of the core of the converter
transformers.

2. Elimination of harmonics which are

caused by the rectification and inversi-
on. The transformer connections of the
valve side windings in a LCC scheme are
typically used to create a 30°el phase-
shift between two full wave six-pulse
rectifier (inverter) bridges. This is easily
accomplished by having one bridge fed
by a set of Y-connected windings, whe-
reas the other bridge in series is fed by
D-connected valve windings. This forms
a twelve-pulse converter, hence cancel-
ling the characteristic harmonics of or-
[2]
der 6n on the DC side voltage, and the
side bands 6n±1 on the AC side currents.
This will increase the order, and decrease
the amplitude of the total harmonic ge-
allowing power to be transferred between when the transmission is a back-to-back neration by the conversion process. This
them by magnetic coupled circuits. scheme, where the converter valves and simple solution saves much equipment
transformers are the highest part of capital and station footprint with the corres-
Because the active power transmission in expenditure. In these cases, the maximum ponding reduction in filter equipment.
HVDC schemes is made on the DC side, current of the semiconductor devices
the voltage necessary for the intended is fully used to minimise the amount of 3. The transformers participate in the con-
operation of the converters to conduct equipment. In those cases, limitation of trol of the power transmission scheme
their switching functions is rarely the valve side short-circuits could dictate a by operating their OLTCs. The control
same as readily available on the AC grids. higher transformer reactance. of the voltage and current in an HVDC
The system design engineering for a given scheme is affected by the control angle
DC transmission scheme will determi- From the hints above, it should be clear ordered by the control software to the
ne almost freely the transmission voltage that converter transformers are much high voltage thyristor valves. In order to
to give the lowest cost for the DC cable more important for the transmission sys- have constant control angles whilst mi-
or the DC overhead lines. The activity tem than “just connecting the right volta- nimising losses and reactive power, the
comprises a technical-economic study to ge levels”. They are in fact, an integral part transformers operate their OLTC under
minimise the present net value of the cost of the HVDC scheme in order to provide the HVDC control to adjust DC voltage
of conductors, transmission towers, insu- the following: and control angles. OLTC in typical LCC
lators, construction, Right of Way, etc. - in converter transformers may include
summary, all aggregate aspects of the ‘DC 1. Electrical separation (full galvanic iso- more than 30 steps providing a wide vol-
Line’. As part of the optimisation, the cost lation) between AC and DC sides, such tage range (as wide as 40%). This is more
of Joule-losses in the transmission is also that the earthing on the AC side and than enough to compensate normal AC
considered. The exception to the above is the earthing on the DC side are not the grid voltage fluctuations. It could even
provide for temporary operation with
reduced DC voltage to cope, for in-
Offshore wind connections drive the need to stance, with urgent situations of DC line
insulator contamination by bush-fire or
drastically improve power density in trans- salt storms whenever it is deemed that
in spite of adverse conditions the power
formers transmission must remain in service.

4. Shield the converter valves from transi-

ent currents and short-circuit current.

32 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

5. Provide accurate reactance for a per- Rapid changes to the market demand when the society asks for sustainable
fectly balanced conversion process. As due to renewable power generation, also energy solutions. We are simply asking
mentioned above, the transformers are put new requirements to transformer de- the whole transformer engineering com-
crucial to achieve the cancellation of signs. Innovative transformer solutions munity to come up with more solutions to
the low order characteristic harmonics. are therefore more important than ever. support a rapid development within this
Therefore the transformer design and Our recommendation to the transformers field.
the actual measured voltage turns-ratio society is to look at further solutions that
as well as consistency in achieving equal will boost the power and weight, volume References
dispersion reactance on all individual and footprint performance of these trans-
transformers are common requirements formers; solutions that also can be used [1] CIGRE Technical Brochure 492 - Volta-
for converter transformers. in other applications. New development ge Source Converter (VSC) HVDC for Power
in base materials, cooling methods, deve- Transmission – Economic Aspects and Compa-
6. Whereas transformers for classic HVDC lopment of sensors and intelligent trans- rison with other AC and DC Technologies – WG
with LCC technology must be built for former monitoring can support such de- B4.46 – April 2012
the combined AC and DC stresses, the velopment in a positive way. Transformers [2] Simon Villeneuve, Transformateur du com-
VSC interface transformers can be made have played a central role in supporting plexe La Grande.jpg, http://commons.wikime-
without continuous DC voltage stresses HVDC so far, and can with engineering dia.org/wiki/File:Transformateur_du_comple-
by the choice of the HVDC scheme con- ingenuity become even more important xe_La_Grande.jpg, current 27.06.2014.
figuration. In most of the VSC systems
built or under construction, the trans-
formers feeding the converters are closer
to a normal AC transformer.
Authors
Andre CANELHAS, holds an Electrical Engineering
4. The demand for renewa- degree from the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de
Janeiro. Andre started his career at Furnas and soon joined
ble energy drives a need ABB, participating in the HVDC system design, system
for higher power density of tests and commissioning for the Itaipu HVDC project. In
transformers 1984 he transferred to ABB Sweden, as system design, con-
trol and protection departments manager. Between 1992
Offshore HVDC transmission systems are and 1995 he was a project manager for the Kontek HVDC
one of the fastest growing niches of power cable interconnection between Denmark and Germany.
transmission today and will remain so for For his excellent performance he was awarded the “Project Manager of the Year” -
years to come. For offshore wind applica- 1995 by the Swedish Project Academy. Between 1995 and 1997, Mr. Canelhas worked
tions, the size and weight of the offshore in the project commercial team for the consortium between ABB and the Brazilian
platform is directly affected by the size builder CBPO and later as the overall project manager technically responsible for the
and weight of the transformers. The rela- Bakun HVDC project. In 1997 he took the role of General Manager for ABB T&D
tion “power/volume” and “power/weight”, Power Systems Division in Brazil. Andre worked for SIEMENS between 2001 and
must be optimised in offshore platform 2005 where he was responsible for the South American Projects Division. From 2005
topside applications, as they directly af- to 2010 he worked for Alstom Grid and was responsible for HVDC and FACTS busi-
fect the total cost. For HVDC platforms nesses worldwide. In 2010 he joined Siemens Wind Power in the UK. Currently Mr.
up to 1 GW, three-phase transformers Canelhas owns his own company supporting implementation of HVDC and FACTS
have been recommended to reduce volu- projects. Mr. Canelhas has patented work, actively participates in CIGRE and IEEE
me and weight. Currently a series of 900 and is author of technical papers on advanced electrical power systems.
MW HVDC platforms are being built by
Germany in the North Sea. All possible
different transformer arrangements have Matti Stoor has 30 years of global experience from wor-
been studied, in order to provide adequate king with transformers as well as HVDC. During more
HVDC transmission capacity even in the than 17 years within HVDC, he was involved in design and
case one of the parallel transformer units development of HVDC control systems and later managed
being removed from service for repair. the HVDC control systems department and finally was
General Manager of the Converter Technologies operati-
Because of prevailing ambient tempera- on, covering LCC and VSC HVDC technologies in Lud-
ture conditions, and the variable nature vika, Sweden. Within transformers Matti has had many
of wind power generation, with a capacity roles, where the later included heading ABB´s overall
factor below 45%, an uprating of units can Chinese Transformer operations, as well as Global Business Development for Power
be considered. Hence, when one of the Transformers. Matti is now running a business with focus on supporting clients in
units is taken out of service, the HVDC improving their holistic performance within the power industry. Matti holds an en-
interconnector could still run at 100% gineering degree in Control Systems, a Bachelor’s degree in Business Administration
of nominal power for a limited period, and an MBA in International Business from Uppsala University, Sweden.
whilst one unit is out for repair.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 33
 COLUMN

ABSTRACT
This article continues to explore the
concepts described in the previous
article where a link between insula-
tion life and overall transformer life
was established.

Through the examination of the mole-

cular structure of cellulose, the main
constituent of most of the insulation
system, it explains the various factors
that might affect the integrity of this

Power
component, how they contribute to
the normal ageing processes and how
these processes are sometimes acce-
lerated. After we have established a

Transformer Life
link between the life of a transformer
and the life of its insulation system,
in this article we take a closer look at
Courtesy of A-Line E.D.S.

what makes up the insulating materi-

als, what are the factors that affect its
life and why.
Part 2: Ageing mechanisms
In my previous article, I drew up what
I hope was a clear connection bet-
ween what we call life in the context
of a power transformer and the con- WHAT IS INSULATION MADE OF? their origin is the same, vegetable fibres.
dition of its insulation system. We es-

B
tablished that the life expectancy of a y now you have probably noticed The vegetable fibres that make up these
particular unit is intimately linked to that I have referred to the insula- materials are comprised by an organic
the condition of the cellulosic materi- tion material as “cellulosic”. At this compound known as cellulose. These mo-
al that makes up the bulk of its insu- point I must make a clear distinction. Alt- lecules are also known as polysaccharides
lation system. The inquisitive reader hough there is a wide variety of materials from the Greek root-words ‘poly’(many)
would reasonably ask: “If the life of a used in the design and manufacture of and ‘sacchar’ (sugar). Surprised? Well, that
transformer depends on the life of the transformer insulation systems, the great is what vegetable fibres are made of, long
insulation material, what then defines majority of liquid filled transformers are chains of sugar molecules.
the condition of these materials?” built with cellulose based materials such
as kraft paper, wood and compressed Another name that these types of mole-
In this article, the second of our series boards. Therefore, in this article I will fo- cules are known by is polymers, which
of three, I will try to answer that ques- cus our attention on this type of materials means they are a collection of many mo-
tion and provide you with a holistic and not others, such as synthetic fibres, nomers. In the case of the sugars forming
picture of all the factors that have an resins, epoxies, etc. the cellulose, the main constituents are
effect on the life of insulation and why. carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which is
All insulation elements derived from ve- why they are also called carbohydrates.
getable fibres fall under the group I have
Keywords been calling cellulosic materials. Whe- This is better illustrated in the figure
ther the insulation takes the form of pa- below, which shows the three-dimensio-
per, tapes, compressed boards or blocks, nal structure of this compound.
power transformer, life, asset ma-
nagement, condition assessment, life
extension, paper, insulation, cellulose

34 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

 Carlos GAMEZ

The vegetable fibres that make up these materials

are comprised by an organic compound known as
cellulose.

These cellulose polymeric molecules form cules or monomers, a common way of

long chains that in turn form the paper referring to the length of these molecules
fibres. The photo below shows a micro- is by the average number of monomers
scopic view of these fibres under ultravi- that constitute them. In the transformer
olet light. industry, this number is known as degree
of polymerisation (DP).
Can you see how all the fibres interlace
with each other? Well, that is what gives the In new transformer paper the average
paper its mechanical strength, which as we length of the cellulose molecules is around
learned in the first article of this series, is a 1200 monomers or DP 1200. This DP
critical property for the life of the insulati- number or the length of these molecules
on system and the transformer as a whole. is directly coupled with the mechanical
strength of the paper and the higher it is,
The specific type of paper used in the con- the stronger the paper. As these molecules
struction of transformer insulation is also shorten due to the processes that we are
known as kraft paper (from the German going to discuss in the following section,
word ‘Kraft’ for “strength”) which is elas- the paper becomes more brittle and prone
tic, tear-resistant, non-bleached and con- to mechanical failure. In extreme cases of
sisting almost entirely of pure cellulose very low DP the paper practically crumb-
fibres. les under any external force.

Since the cellulose molecules are made up As a child, I used to observe how newspa-
of a repetitive chain of basic sugar mole- per would become yellow and brittle after

Oxygen Hydrogen
Carbon

One monomer
Figure 1: Cellulose molecule [1]

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 35
 COLUMN

it had been left a few days under the sun-

light. Now I understand why - the cellu-
So there it is. Your million-dollar investment will
lose molecules were breaking down under last the time it takes the DP to go from 1200 to 200.
the influence of the sun’s heat. If you have
ever seen this effect, that is exactly how an
aged transformer insulation looks like.

Although the transformer will not imme-

diately fail or explode when a low DP va-
lue is reached, there is a general consensus
in the industry which is considered the THERMAL DEGRADATION OR these processes might increase the tem-
end of transformer’s life. This occurs when PYROLYSIS perature of components in contact with
the paper has reached a point of mecha- insulation elements and result in degrada-
nical strength so low that the transformer As we saw in the previous section, the tion of this cellulose.
can no longer be considered to perform its paper ages as the cellulose chains break
function in a reliable manner. This num- down and become shorter. Therefore, The increase in temperature increases the
ber is normally considered to be a 200 DP. any mechanism that contributes to the vibration of the molecules that constitute
breakage of the bonds between glucose the cellulose and at some point, it breaks
So there it is. Your million-dollar invest- monomers and the consequent shorte- the bonds between the molecules, relea-
ment will last the time it takes the DP to ning of these chains, can be considered an sing by-products of this reaction into the
go from 1200 to 200. ageing or degradation mechanism. oil and shortening the cellulose chains.

The photo below depicts a section of a First in our list is the degradation caused These by-products can include water
transformer coil that has reached this sta- by thermal energy. Thermal energy can be (H2O), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon
te. Although damage is not apparent at contributed by either the normal produc- dioxide (CO2), organic acids and glucose
first sight, the paper in this particular coil tion of losses during the energy conver- molecules. These by-products can in turn
would crumble as soon as touched. sion process which manifest in the form exacerbate other degradation mecha-
of heat or by anomalous localised energy nisms.
Now that we know how the end of life is sources caused by specific failure modes,
reached, let’s examine what are the major such as increased resistance paths, short-
causes that contribute to reaching this state. circuits, etc. The heat energy released by HYDROLYTIC DEGRADATION
OR HYDROLYSIS
It is not a coincidence that one of the pri-
mary focuses of installation and main-
tenance activities during the life of a
transformer is the minimisation of water
present in the insulation system.

In the presence of certain organic acids,

a reaction is initiated with water that has
the ultimate consequence of splitting the
bonds between glucose monomers, which
in turn produces more water and acid by-
products.

As you might have suspected, this has a

downward spiralling effect in which the
reaction produces compounds that in
turn favour additional reactions of the
same nature which causes the whole cycle
to repeat itself in an accelerated fashion.

Early experiments on the nature of this re-

actions showed that the life of the paper in
terms of DP is halved every time the water
concentration doubles.
Figure 2: Cellulose fibres under ultra-violet light [2]

36 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

 Carlos GAMEZ

OXIDATION
In a similar way to hydrolysis, oxygen is
a highly reactive element which causes
the breakage of cellulose bonds to form
by-products such as water, carbon mon-
oxide and carbon dioxide.
These three mechanisms, oxidation, hy-
drolysis and pyrolysis normally do not
act in isolation but rather as a group of
reactions that reinforce each other.

ACIDS
Various organic acidic compounds are
also released as by-products of the reac-
tions described above. These acids in turn
also attack the cellulose. In particular, the
degradation of insulation due to acidic re-
actions has the consequence of producing
sludge. As this sludge is produced, it could
be deposited in areas critical for the coo-
ling processes of the coils, such as cooling
ducts, that would block the free circulati-
on of oil, which in turn increases the tem-
perature and accelerates the whole ageing
cycle once again.

As we can see, there are a variety of me-

chanisms that cause degradation of the
insulation system which effectively “ages”
the transformer.
Figure 3: Example of a coil at its end of life [3]
However, not all is bad news, the rate or 
speed at which these mechanisms take
place can be monitored and actions can be
taken to slow them down and extend the Author
life of a transformer as much as practically Carlos Gamez currently works as a Principal Consultant
possible. and Product Manager at TxMonitor and is a member of
the MM Group Holdings where he focuses in developing
In our next and last article I will talk about innovative solutions for the electrical asset management
what practical measures are commonly industry using both his technical and business acumen.
taken to monitor and slow down these After graduating in Electrical and Mechanical Engineering
ageing processes in order to extend the life in 1996, Carlos started working as a Transformer Design
of transformers. Engineer at PROLEC-GE, the biggest transformer factory
for General Electric on the American continent.
Over the course of the following years, he gained expertise working in various roles
REFERENCES in product development, manufacturing improvements, technology and software
development, field engineering and customer service.
[1] B. Mills, Cellulose-Ibeta-from-xtal- In 2007 Carlos was seconded by General Electric to move to Perth, WA to start up
2002-3D-balls, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/, the Transformer Division in order to provide field and workshop maintenance and
current 28.05.2014. repair services to customers across Australia.
[2] R. Wheeler, PaperAutofluorescence, Having fulfilled this mission, in the early 2011 Carlos accepted the position of Prin-
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/, current cipal Consultant with Assetivity, a leading consultancy firm in Asset Management.
28.05.2014. Over this period, Carlos developed a holistic point of view by working on projects
[3] C. Gamez, Aged Power Transformer within the Asset Management frameworks which eventually shaped the ISO 55000
Coil, Perth, WA, 2011. set of standards published in 2014.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 37
TECHNOLOGY

Thermal designing and building

transformers for use with viscous fluids
1. Introduction and history chlorinated biphenyl) or “askerel” fluids. Because of the poor
health and environmental characteristics of these PCB fluids,

B
efore the 1970s, transformers that needed to be fire re- they were discontinued worldwide in the 1970s and replaced
sistant used dielectric fluids that contained chlorinated with newer types of fire resistant fluids.
chemicals. These fluids were generally called PCB (poly
These fluids usually relied on a high molecular weight to give
them a low vapor pressure and therefore, fire resistance. Their
high molecular weight also made these fluids more viscous
ABSTRACT than standard mineral oil. Transformer cooling designs had to
be reworked in order to stay within standard temperature ran-
Since the 1970s, transformers have used special fire resistant ges when using these new fluids. When those new fire resistant
fluids that are often more viscous than standard transformer fluids were introduced for use in transformers, manufacturers
oils. This article looks at the different types of fire resistant attempted to apply the fluids in transformers designed with ru-
oils that have been used, and the changes in transformer les that had been developed to use conventional transformer oil
cooling design that have been made to accommodate their (like PCB). More often than not, the rules for transformer coo-
higher viscosity. ling with standard transformer oil had been developed over ye-
ars of trial and error, and were specific to each design and brand
of transformer. Temperature rise tests show that the higher flu-
Keywords id viscosity had little effect on winding temperature or top flu-
transformer cooling, fire resistant oils id temperature rises. However, temperature rise tests on larger

38 | JULY 2013
38 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2
1
 David W. SUNDIN

transformers indicated that the top oil temperatures of transfor- Transformers designed for standard
mers filled with these fluids ran 4 to 6 degrees warmer than the
same transformer designs filled with conventional transformer insulating oils require changes in
oils. Figure 1. shows the increase in operating temperature bet-
ween a fire resistant fluid (Alpha-1 Fluid from DSI Ventures,
cooling design when they are used
Inc.) and standard mineral transformer oil (in this paper, “stan- with viscous fluids.
dard transformer oil” refers to mineral oil per ASTM Standard
D3487 or IEC Standard 60296)

In early applications of these fire resistant fluids, transformer

manufacturers lowered the guaranteed kVA rating of transfor-
mers to compensate for increased temperature rises experienced A = the area of the radiative surface
during tests. Reductions in ratings varied from 0 for small trans- T1 and T2 are the absolute temperatures of the radiator and of the
formers below 50 kVA to approximately 15% for a silicone fluid- surroundings, respectively, in Kelvin.
filled transformer rated 1500 kVA, convection-cooled (ONAN)
unit. Additional fans were generally used to meet the forced-air Montsinger [1] rearranged and simplified the Stefan-Boltzman
cooled (ONAF) ratings. Manufacturers recognised that, in or- equation, solving for the area of radiative surface area needed
der to comply with guaranteed temperature rises of standard ra- equation (2).
tings, that cooling designs needed to be modified when applied
to transformers filled with fire resistant fluids. wr = KrE(T24-T14) (2)

wr = heat dissipation per unit of surface for radiation

Table 1: Temperature differential when using fire resistant oil K = a constant, normally empirically derived
E = emissivity of the heat transfer surface, a constant specific to
the material and < 1 for non-ideal (real life) materials.
T2 and T1 = higher and lower temperatures (temperature diffe-
rential for heat transfer), measured in Kelvin (absolute tempera-
ture)

The heat flux density for heat transfer rates by convection from
external cooling surfaces (tank walls and radiator was given by
equation (4). This equation was derived from the general convec-
tive heat transfer relationship:

q = hcA Δθ (3)

where q=heat transferred per unit time (Watts)

where hc = the convective heat transfer coefficient in W/(m2·K)
θ = temperature in degrees C.

Rearanging equation (3) to solve for heat transferred per unit of

The physical features of a transformer that have to be taken into area:
account when predicting winding temperature and top oil
temperature were derived in the 1930s and 1940s. They are the wc = Kc (Δθc) (4)
coil dimensions, tank dimensions, coil duct dimensions, exter-
nal cooling equipment arrangements and dimensions, heat flux wc = heat dissipation per unit of surface for convection
densities of the heat dissipation surfaces in the coils, the tank, Kc = a constant, normally empirically derived, which incorpo-
and the external cooling equipment. Most manufacturers’ ther- rates the convective heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer
mal calculation methods evolved from equations (2) (3) and (4) inefficiencies found in real life
relating heat flux rate and temperature rises for oil filled trans-
former as proposed by Montsinger [1].

Equation (2) was derived from the Stefan-Boltzman equation

governing radiative heat transfer:
Rules for transformer cooling design
have traditionally varied between
P = e σ Α(Τ24−Τ14) (1)
manufacturers, and often developed
Where P = radiation loss rate per unit of time (watts)
e = emissivity of the radiating material; a constant unique to the
through trial and error.
material and < 1 for all real world materials.
σ = the Stefan constant, 5.67 x 10-8 W/m·K

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 39
 TECHNOLOGY

Equation (5) was proposed to determine the temperature rise of trial and error until the calculated values matched experimental
conductors as related to heat flux density between heated sur- values for winding temperature rise.
faces and transformer oil. ρ = density (g/cm3)
Cp = specific heat (J/K)
Δθ = Kfwf nμn’ (5) k = thermal conductivity (W/(m2·K)
β = coefficient of thermal expansion (°C-1)
hL/k = F(ρ2gβCpL3θ/μk) (6) μ = absolute viscosity (Pa·s)
g = gravity constant, 9.8 m/s2
This equation relates the properties of the cooling medium (oil or
air as appropriate) by changing the appropriate fluid properties Tests on transformers filled with fire resistant fluids (both fire re-
to constants. Most transformer manufacturers had developed sistant hydrocarbons and silicone fluids) indicated that these em-
design rules modifying these equations with empirically develo- pirically developed equations needed to be modified to compen-
ped correction factors, which have been simplified for use with sate for the differences in fluid characteristics. In the case of the
transformer oil so that the relationship with fluid properties were fire resistant hydrocarbons, the principal difference was viscosity.
not used. In the case of silicone fluid, there were significant differences in
specific heat, thermal conductivity, coefficient of thermal expan-
h = height of coil ducts inside the transformer, mm sion and specific gravity.
L = length of coil ducts, mm
F = constant derived for each fluid that simplified specific fluid Table 2. compares the physical and thermodynamic characteris-
characteristics and interaction between fluid and cooling duct tics of currently available fluids with that of standard (American
walls. Starting with F=1, the constant was derived by iterative Standard ASTM D3487) transformer oil:

Table 2. Characteristics of currently available alternative (fire resistant) transformer insulating oils:

Fluid type ASTM Synthetic Fire resistant Silicone Natural Synthetic

Standard D3487 hydrocarbon petroleum fluid ester ester
transformer oil PAO

Brand Alpha-1 Fluid* Beta Fluid DC561** Envirotemp FR3 Envirotemp 200***
Name

Fire point
ASTM D92, °C. 145 308 306 343 330 310

Kinematic
viscosity @ 40 C. 12 68 105 113 33 22
ASTM D445, m2/s.

Kinematic
viscosity @ 100 C. 3.0 8.5 11.1 15.0 8.0 4.6
ASTM D445, m2/s.

Pour point, -45 -55 -24 -24 -21 -50

D97, °C.

Specific gravity 0.87 0.82 0.87 0.91 0.92 0.97

kg/dm3

Coefficient of
thermal 0.00072 0.00060 0.00072 0.00103 0.00072 0.00072
expansion units/C

Specific heat
capacity, J/kg-K 1.86 2.23 2.29 1.51 2.10 1.88
(50 C)

Thermal
conductivity, 0.126 0158 0.152 0.151 0.167 0.150
W/(m·K) (50 C)

* Alpha-1 Fluid and Beta Fluid are Trademarks of DSI Ventures, Inc. ** DC561 is a Trademark of Dow Corning, Inc.
*** Envirotemp FR3 and Envirotemp 200 are Trademarks of Cargill Corporation.

40 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

Depending on the size of the trans- cooling duct design. Very often, adding an extra bank of radia-
tors is all that is required to use fire resistant fluids with standard
former and the fluid used, transfor- oil designs, particularly for smaller transformers. The amount of
mers using fire resistant fluids can additional cooling surface required would be in proportion to
the anticipated percentage increase in top fluid temperature. This
require up to 15% more heat trans- is usually determined by doing factory heat runs with the more
viscous fluid in standard transformer oil designs.
fer surface than the same unit with
standard mineral oil. Since the amount of heat generated by the core and coils is the
same (neglecting temperature effects on resistive losses), the
same amount of heat must be dissipated from the external sur-
faces for both standard transformer oil and fire resistant fluid.

Since the total heat dissipated from the external surfaces to the
air is unaffected by the fluid property changes, equation (6) may
Transformer design engineers identified those fluid characteris- be used iteratively to determine the additional area required to
tics whose interaction with the transformers‘ physical characte- reduce the average temperature rise. Put simply, it says that the
ristics affected the temperature rise of a transformer. These fluid external heat transfer surface required for a viscous fluid is a fac-
physical properties identified were absolute viscosity (μ, Pa·s), tor of
density (ρ, g/cm3), specific heat (J/K), thermal conductivity (k,
W/(m·K)), and coefficient of thermal expansion (β, °C-1). Rela- wfire resistant = kE Aeff ((Θfire resistant tf – Θfire resistant bf )/2- Θamb)n (7)
tionships between these fluid properties, a transformer’s physical
characteristics, and temperature rises of oil ducts, were presented The value (Θfire resistant-tf ) would have to be reduced according to
in various studies [2], [3]. the anticipated temperature increase of the winding, which is
also a function of the coil ducting practices used.

2. Transformer design modifications

4. Coil design changes
Today‘s transformer design engineers have at their disposal mo-
dern transformer design tools to help them model and predict The increase in viscosity of fire resistant fluids over standard
fluid flow and heat transfer patterns inside transformers. Use transformer oil is a major factor causing the increase in the ave-
of these heat transfer predictions can optimise cooling designs, rage winding rise and top oil temperature experienced when
eliminating points of inefficiency, low fluid flow, hot spots and changing to a fire resistant fluid. The increase in top oil tempe-
other problem areas encountered in transformer cooling. rature caused by the change to a higher viscosity fluid may be
minimised by changing the coil design such that the quantity of
Unfortunately, these tools are not used by many transformer ma- fluid flowing through the coil is approximately the same as it was
nufacturers because of cost, lack of expertise or lack of time and for standard transformer oil. This may be accomplished by either
manpower. Smaller manufacturers more often rely on “rules of increasing the coil duct sizes or increasing the number of ducts
thumb” when designing or modifying transformer cooling sys- or a combination of both. Guidelines for varying the number of
tems. We shall look at some of these time-tested rules in the sec- ducts and duct thickness are given in [1].
tions below. Even engineers with computerised models at their
disposal can benefit from a thorough understanding of design Experience has indicated that, in convectively cooled (ONAN)
changes that have worked in the past, and why. transformers, unacceptable top fluid temperatures rises may oc-
cur if ducts smaller than 4.5 mm are used for fluids that are more
Historically, there were few standard transformer design proce- viscous than standard transformer oil. Figure 2 shows a compa-
dures to modify. Most transformer temperature design routines rison of temperature rises in the ducts with viscous and standard
were developed empirically and then modified to conform to test transformer oil. Thinner ducts may be acceptable for smaller
results so changes in these rules are made in the same way. The transformers with smaller top to bottom temperature differen-
following guidelines have been successfully used to develop coo- tials, however, for larger, taller transformers, the increased visco-
ling designs for transformers using new fire-resistant fluids. sity of the colder oil at the bottom coil duct opening may cause
an unacceptable increase in resistance to fluid flow. Satisfactory
winding temperature rises less than 10°C have been obtained
3. External cooling with internal duct thickness of 6.35 mm for coils up to 914 mm
tall. Ducts sizes have been increased to 9.5 mm for taller coils
The higher viscosity of a fire resistant fluid slows down the fluid‘s with higher heat flux limited by available space for adding ducts.
flow velocity in a transformer cooling circuit, thereby causing
an increase in the top oil temperature. Cooling can be enhan- Experience with fire resistant fluids in convection-cooled
ced by increasing internal or external heat transfer surface area (ONAN) transformers with disc coils has been limited, so the-
or by increasing the fluid‘s flow velocity. It is usually easier and se guidelines should be used with layer windings only. However,
less expensive to make changes in a transformer’s external coo- satisfactory results have been reported with fire resistant fluids
ling surface by adding extra radiators than it is to change internal in forced-oil (OFAF) rated transformer with both disc and lay-

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 41
 TECHNOLOGY

er windings. In order to achieve satisfactory cooling results with Taller transformers usually require
larger transformers using disc coils require appropriate modifi-
cations to pumps, cooling tubes, and coil ducts to compensate for more changes, due to the longer in-
the increased flow resistance of the fire resistant fluid. ternal cooling duct path.
5. Effect of transformer size
Smaller transformer ratings are less affected than larger
transformer’s by the differences in fluid viscosity properties of fire
resistant and conventional transformer oil due to the following.
1. Small transformers of 25 kVA and less have more tank cooling Transformers rated 750 kVA and larger often have thermosta-
surface than is required to maintain the top oil below guaranteed tically controlled oil pumps (ONAN/ONAF), which places ad-
values. Therefore a slight increase in top oil temperature will usu- ditional demands on improved ducting of the coils. Both larger
ally not exceed the guaranteed temperature rise. duct sizes and increased quantities of cooling ducts are generally
2. The increase in viscosity has a greater effect on heat transfer in needed to improve the fluid flow and reduce the temperature
small coil ducts than it does on open surfaces such as the outer differential between the top and bottom fluid temperatures to
coil surface or the outer tank wall. Since the outer coil surface/ an acceptable average surface temperature to allow effective use
tank perimeter is a greater portion of the total cooling surface of external cooling radiators. An additional number of external
than coil cooling area/external cooling panels, the increase in radiators with shorter heights is sometimes used in combinati-
viscosity has less effect on small transformer. on with an increased number of coil ducts to maintain a suitable
3. The total heat (Wt) dissipated by the tank’s external surfaces is average oil temperature.
the sum of the heat dissipated by convection (Wc) plus the heat
dissipated by radiation (Wr). Radiative heat dissipation is often Factory heat run testing should be employed to determine the
only half of the total heat dissipated on a small transformer and empirical constants appropriate for a particular transformer de-
decrease to a negligible percentage of total cooling on larger signs. Test procedures originally developed to determine these
transformers. Since the increase in viscosity has a greater effect empirical factors for fire resistant fluid have been refined and de-
on the convection cooling, larger transformers will see a greater veloped into an IEEE recommended practice [4] for verifying a
change in top fluid temperatures. transformer‘s thermal performance.

6. Larger transformers and fire resistant fluids Conclusion

For transformers larger than 500 kVA, a combination of more Present technology for determining the temperature rise of trans-
internal cooling ducts and more external radiators is usually nee- formers is based on empirical relationships, relating the fluid cha-
ded to maintain proper cooling when using fire resistant fluids. racteristics, heat input, temperature rises, and dimensions of ap-

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42 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

propriate heating or cooling surfaces. Original design rules for use n = exponent relating temperature rise to heat dissipation
with viscous fluids were developed by trial and error for mineral o = oil – standard mineral transformer oil
oil cooled transformers, with fluid properties normally reduced to r = radiation
“constants” in the equations. When using fire resistant fluids, any tf = top fluid temperature
changes in transformer design rules required the same type of rei- T1 ,T2 = absolute temperatures K
terative empirical testing and modification of the cooling design
based on the results of these tests. Design changes made in this way
must be verified with tests to assure that winding temperature and Acknowledgment
top fluid temperature guarantees are met. The changes necessary
are dependent on many factors, different and proprietary with The author wishes to acknowledge and thank Mr. Robert Grubb
each manufacturer. These factors would include: for pioneering work done in the design of transformers for fire
resistant fluids in the 1970s and 1980s. Without his original work
(1) present thermal design rules used for oil filled transformers and input, this paper would not have been possible.
(2) types and properties of insulating materials, especially the oil
duct materials
(3) differences in coil types and construction REFERENCES
(4) shapes and dimensions of external cooling surfaces, particu-
larly the oil space in external cooling tubes or panels. [1] L.F. Blume, A. Boyajian, G. Camilli, T.C. Lennox, S. Minneci and V.M. Montsin-
ger, Transformer Engineering, John Wiley and Sons, 1951
Economic factors such as cost of cooling equipment, cost of con- [2] R. L. Grubb, M. Hudis, A. R. Traut. A Transformer Thermal Duct Study of
ductor materials, and costs of fluids to a particular manufacturer, Various Insulating Fluids, IEEE Trans. on PES, Vol. PAS-100, No. 2 February, 1981,
would also have a significant effect on the final design rules se- [3] Study to Determine the Potential Use of Silicone Fluid in Transformers,
lected. D.O.E Report HCP/T-2115 (EX-76-C-01-2115)
[4] IEEE PC57.119 Draft 13.2, Recommended Practice for Performing Tempera-
ture Rise Tests on Oil Immersed Power Transformers at Loads Beyond Name-
Symbols plate Ratings, developed by the Thermal Test Working Group of the IEEE Transfor-
mers Committee.
Cp = specific heat (J/K)
k = thermal conductivity (W/m·K)
K = experimentally determined constant
w = heat dissipation per unit surface (W/cm2)
W = total heat dissipated (watts)
β = coefficient of thermal expansion (°C-1) Author
Θ = temperature (°C) David W. Sundin, Ph.D. is a tech-
μ = absolute viscosity (Pa·s) nical and management consultant
ρ = density (g/cm3) with more than 30 years experience
with heat transfer, transformer oil
manufacturing and testing, and
Subscripts business ownership. He is active in
industry standards groups such as
amb = ambient temperature of surrounding cooling media IEEE, ASTM and CIGRE. In addi-
bf = temperature of oil/fluid near the bottom of tank. tion to electrical insulating oils, Dr.
c = convection Sundin consults with heat transfer fluids, synthetic and bio-
eff = effective surface area for dissipating heat degradable lubricants, and recycling technologies. Current-
E = emissivity of surface ly owner of Ambit Technical Consulting, Dr. Sundin can be
f = fluid reached through davidsundin.net or his Linkedin profile.
fire resistant = the more viscous insulating oil

Correction
Due to a reader‘s question about Figure 3a from the pa-
per „Voltage stresses on solid-liquid insulation of Large
Power Transformers“, Transformers Magazine Vol. 1,
Issue 1, April 2014; the author has corrected test circuit
scheme for single-phase induced voltage test: “Figure 3: Single-phase induced voltage test in a wye-delta transformer”

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 43
 THE PIONEER IN TRANSFORMER AGEING,
CONDITION ASSESSMENT AND LIFE CYCLE OPTIMIZATION.

DTC covers the following scope of tasks and services:

1. Consulting on the acquisition of 3. Transformer Populations

new transformers Management (TPM)
• Specifications/design • Planning of TPM Procedures
• Auxiliaries • Implementing of TPM Procedures
• Evaluation of bids / support during • Control and support of TPM Procedures
all contractual procedures
• Control & monitoring of final acceptance
at the factory/on site

2. Evaluation of existing transformers 4. Public and in-house seminars

• Residual life time strength
for transformer users
• Evaluation of condition • Condition evaluation
• Life Management • Ageing assessment
• Conservation • Conservational assessment

DTC – Daemisch Transformer Consult Tel: +49 (0) 941 87867

Dipl. Ing. Georg Daemisch, M.Sc. (EE) Fax: +49 (0) 941 87845
Alte Nürnberger Straße 32 a Mobile +49 (0) 172 8909973
D-93059 Regensburg www.transformer-consulting.com
Germany Email: [email protected]
ON-SITE - TESTS

What influence does

residual magnetism have
on the transformer core?
Some transformer site measurements and the inrush current are
impacted by a magnetised core. How can this be avoided?

ABSTRACT 1. Introduction

P
Whenever a power or distribution transformer is isolated ower transformers are key elements in the electrical grid.
from the power system, it is very likely that residual mag- If a power transformer fails, the financial impact of the
netism remains in the core. Residual magnetism also occurs outage time is in most cases considerably larger than the
when performing winding resistance test which is also a rou- damage on the transformer itself. Due to the fact that the trans-
tine test of the transformer manufacturers and onsite test. former fleets are getting older, the condition assessment and
This paper discusses the influence of residual magnetism on the appropriate maintenance strategy of power transformers is
some diagnostic measurement methods and on the inrush getting more and more important. To assess the condition of a
current. It also describes how to overcome the difficulties of transformer, various electrical measurement methods can be
demagnetisation onsite with a mobile test equipment. used. But a large number of diagnostic measurements are affec-
ted by residual magnetism. Therefore, it is difficult to analyse a
reliable condition assessment of transformers. Residual magne-
Keywords tism can also have an impact on the inrush current. A too high
transformer, residual magnetism, demagnetisation, FRA, inrush current can reduce the lifetime of a transformer due to
inrush current, exciting current the mechanical forces on the insulating paper. It is therefore re-

46 | JULY 2013
46 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2
1
 Markus PÜTTER, Michael RÄDLER, Boris UNTERER

commended to demagnetise the transformer before performing In a large number of diagnostic mea-
diagnostic measurements and re-energising it.
surements, like the sweep frequency
1.1 Influence of residual magnetism on electrical routine and response analysis (FRA or SFRA), the
diagnostic measurements
exciting current measurement and
The residual magnetism can be as high as 90% of the magne-
tic flux density (B) during operation. In the event of a fault or magnetic balance tests are affected
during routine tests, various electrical diagnostic techniques can
be used for analysing the condition of a transformer. Residual
by residual magnetism.
magnetism influences certain diagnostic measurements in such
a way that a reliable and meaningful analysis becomes difficult.

Particularly, when performing exciting current measurements,

the magnetic balance test, or sweep frequency response analy-
sis for localisation of faults in the core, residual magnetism may Since residual magnetism influences the frequency response
have such a negative effect that results become unintelligible. particularly at lower frequencies, where the magnetisation in-
ductance dominates the response, it is vital to ensure that the
transformer has been demagnetised before performing the
measurement. Meanwhile, because of this pronounced and well
understood influence at the lower frequencies, an SFRA measu-
rement is effective in verifying residual magnetism.

The SFRA measurement reflects the main inductance through

the first resonance points. Fig. 3 shows those typical resonance
points of a three-limb transformer‘s main inductance. Two sig-
nificant parallel and series resonance points can clearly be seen
on the outer windings. This can be described to the two mag-
netic paths with different lengths. In comparison with this, the
winding on the middle limb displays only one characteristic sin-
gle resonance point.

Figure 1: Residual Flux BR and hysteresis loop at different flux densities [1]

1.2 Influence on sweep frequency response analysis measu-

rements (SFRA)
The sweep frequency response analysis (SFRA or FRA) uses fre-
quency response analyses to describe the dynamic characteris-
tics of an oscillating network, which is a transformer in our case,
based on its input and output signals. The SFRA measurement
method is described in the IEC 60076-18 and IEEE C57.149-
2012 and has become increasingly accepted as a diagnostic me-
thod.

A transformer reflects an oscillating system consisting of vari-

ous series and parallel resonances with corresponding induc-
tances (L), capacitances (C) and resistances (R). When one para- Figure 2: SFRA connection diagram for NV-wiring
meter is changed, for example the main inductance due to a core
problem or the geometric shift of a winding, one or more cha-
racteristic resonance points are also displaced or shifted. Every
electrical network has a unique frequency response, its so-called
Whenever a power or distribution
fingerprint. Interpretation of an SFRA measurement is based transformer is isolated from the po-
on a comparison of measurements, for example with the initi-
al fingerprint or with other transformers of the same type. The wer system, it is very likely that resi-
plot of a fingerprint should not change throughout the entire life
cycle of a transformer. All influences which could affect SFRA
dual magnetism remains in the core.
measurements must therefore be avoided, as they could lead to
misinterpretation of the obtained test results.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 47
 ON-SITE - TESTS

Residual magnetism influences cer-

tain diagnostic measurements in
such a way that a reliable and me-
aningful analysis becomes difficult.

Figure 4: Magnetising current of a demagnetised transformer

Figure 3: Typical resonance points of a three-limb transformer‘s main in-

ductance

As previously explained for the inrush current, the inductance Figure 5: Magnetising current with magnetised middle limb
changes depending on the degree of core magnetisation, whe-
reby Ldemagnetised > L. A resonance point comprises a network
1.4 Influence on the magnetic balance test
of capacitances and inductances, and can be described using
equation (1): This should result in the following typical pattern: if, for examp-
1 le, a voltage of 100 V is applied to the winding on the middle
ƒ0 = . (1) limb, the measured voltages on the other windings should each
2π √ L × C display a value of approximately 50 V. This can be explained by
the two magnetic paths of the same length. When voltage is ap-
The lower the inductance becomes, as reflected by a state of hig- plied to one of the windings on the outer limbs, it results in a
her residual magnetism, the more the resonance points move to- different pattern as the magnetic paths have different lengths.
ward higher frequencies. If the recorded pattern deviates from the anticipated pattern,
this can indicate either problems in the core or can be related to
undesirable effects of residual magnetism.
1.3 Influence on exciting current measurements
Measuring the exciting current can provide evidence for poten-
tial significant faults in the core. Faults in the core lead to incre-
asing exciting current. If reference values for the exciting cur-
Since residual magnetism influences
rent are available, these can be used for the assessment. Since the frequency response particular-
exciting currents do not have a linear behaviour to the applied
voltage [2], measurements for comparison with the reference ly at lower frequencies, where the
values must be performed at the same voltage. The assessment
is performed based on a typical pattern of a three-phase trans-
magnetisation inductance domina-
former or based on reference measurements if they are availab- tes the response, it is vital to ensure
le. The magnitude of the magnetisation current depends on the
length of the magnetised path. This is virtually identical for the that the transformer has been de-
windings on the outer limbs (A, C), but lower for the winding
on the middle limb (B on Fig. 4. If there is, for example, residual
magnetised before performing the
magnetism on the middle limb, this can easily lead to incor- measurement.
rect interpretations and a reliable diagnosis becomes impossi-
ble (Fig. 5. The transformer tested was a YNyn0 transformer,
22.5kV/0.4kV, 5.3 MVA)).

48 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

 If there is, for example, residual ma-
gnetism on the middle limb, this can
easily lead to incorrect interpreta-
tions and a reliable diagnosis beco-
mes impossible.

Figure 6: Magnetic balance test with middle limb (B) magnetised, injec-
tion on A-N The highest inrush current occurs when the voltage is applied
near the zero crossing and the polarity of the voltage is applied
in the same direction as the residual magnetism in the core or the
corresponding limb (Fig. 9, equations 2-4).

u (t) = û sin(ωt + α) where ω = 2 × π × ƒ [4] (2)

t
Φ (t) = ΦR + ∫0 u (t ) dt (3)
û
= ΦR + ω (cos(α ) - cos(ωt + α)
t û
Φ ( 2 ) = ΦR + 2 ω = ΦR + 2 Φmax (4)

If the core reaches saturation, the transformer‘s inductance is

greatly reduced. The current is now only limited by the winding
Figure 7: Magnetic balance test pattern with demagnetised core, injection on A-N resistance on the high-voltage side and the impedance of the
connected transmission line.
1.5 Influence of residual magnetism on inrush current
When a transformer is re-energised directly to its rated voltage, an
inrush current occurs that can greatly exceed the nominal current
for a few periods. If the transformer core still contains residual
magnetism, the first peak current can even reach a level which
can be close to the short-circuit current at maximum. These high
currents can cause undesirable effects, such as mechanical defor-
mation of the windings and its insulating paper, incorrect trigge-
ring of protection equipment, increased stress for the installation
and voltage dips in the grid. Only the ohmic components such as
the winding resistance are capable of attenuating the high inrush
currents to a stable level within just a few cycles (Fig. 8)

Figure 9: Effects of residual magnetism on inrush current

2. Demagnetisation methods

The following three methods are available for demagnetising ma-

gnetic materials:

1. demagnetisation through vibration

2. demagnetisation through heating up to Curie temperature
Figure 8: Attenuating the inrush current over time [3] 3. electrical demagnetisation

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 49
 ON-SITE - TESTS

Since the first two methods cannot be used for a transformer, the To demagnetise transformer cores
electrical method becomes the sole option. Manufacturers can
apply nominal voltage at nominal frequency on transformers on-site, it is often only possible to
and instead of shutting down the voltage suddenly, it could gra-
dually reduce the voltage, the core is then progressively demag-
use reduced voltage and frequency
netised (Fig. 10). To demagnetise transformer cores on-site, it is signals.
often only possible to use reduced voltage and frequency signals.
In many cases, no adjustable high-voltage source, which
can provide the nominal voltage of the transformer, can
be used to demagnetise transformer cores onsite. Only a
single-phase source can be used.

small transformers in particular become re-magnetised by the

final cycle, which leads to high inrush currents in return.

Demagnetisation based on the measurement of the magnetic

flux has proven to be the safest and most efficient approach, as
it works reliably with both small and large transformers. How-
ever, this approach places very strict measuring requirements
on the used equipment, as the voltage needs to be continuously
measured over time and the integral has to be derived from this,
equation (5):

Φ (t) = ∫ (u (t))dt (5)

Figure 10: Demagnetisation using a sinusoidal signal [5]
It is important to avoid any „secondary hysteresis“ during de-
magnetisation. The occurring residual magnetism can lead to an
Demagnetisation of single-phase and three-phase transformers apparent-demagnetisation [6].
can be performed in a similar way. When working on a three-
phase transformer, it is important to consider that magnetic cou-
pling takes place between the phases. Therefore, the phase or core
2.2 Demagnetisation measurement procedure with current
limb used during the demagnetisation procedure is extremely
source
important and deliberately chosen with a single phase source. It
also makes sense to use the high-voltage side for demagnetisati- Since the voltage, and thereby the magnetic flux of the main win-
on as there are more turns associated with this winding to gene- ding inductance LH cannot be measured directly, this voltage
rate the magnetic flux. Hence, the total time for demagnetisation needs to be calculated, Fig. 11, equation (6) [7].
can be reduced. Experiments have shown that the middle limb is
the most suitable for demagnetisation with a single-phase alter- ΦL(t) = ∫ (u(t) - R × i (t))dt + ΦR(0) (6)
native source. Thereby, the flux is distributed symmetrically over
the two outer limbs. To determine which winding is associated
with the middle limb in a delta winding, the transformer‘s vector Therefore, the winding resistance R must be measured first and
group is required. the voltage drop (Vr) due to the winding resistance then subtrac-
ted from the measured voltage (V). Equation (6) shows the cal-
culation of the magnetic flux on the main inductance. Thereby
ΦR(0) represents the initial flux, which corresponds to the residu-
2.1 The art of accurate demagnetisation
al magnetism.
There are various approaches for electrical demagnetisation.
One of these is to reduce the voltage or the time in predeter-
mined steps. Depending on their type and size, small distribu-
tion transformers or large power transformers can have very
different core hysteresis parameters. The disadvantage of both
approaches is that it takes a long time to ensure that both types
of transformers can be reliably demagnetised using the same
procedure.

To counteract this problem, you can additionally trigger on a

current value while the test is still running to start the next hys-
teresis cycle. However, since the magnetisation current increases
very rapidly when the transformer core reaches saturation, this Figure 11: Simplified equivalent electric circuit for the measurement pro-
process is fairly inaccurate. Various experiments have shown that cedure on one winding phase

50 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

The test set up for demagnetisation is very simple. It can be
done from the high as well as from the low voltage side. How- Demagnetisation based on the mea-
ever demagnetisation from the high voltage side is faster due surement of the magnetic flux has
to the fact that more windings are available to generate the
flux ф. proven to be the safest and most ef-
The core must be saturated in both directions. The specific
ficient approach, as it works reliably
hysteresis parameters, like the maximum flux, per transfor- with both small and large transfor-
mer are then determined and the initial flux can be calculated.
On the basis of these parameters, an iterative algorithm can mers.
then be used to change both the voltage and the frequency.
While this is taking place, the devices must constantly mea-
sure the flux ф in the core. Using multiple iterations, the core
can be demagnetised to below a limit of its maximum value.
Following the demagnetisation procedure, several magne-
tic domains revert back to their preferred orientation. This
procedure is also referred to as magnetic viscosity. The effect
can be determined when performing demagnetisation once
again, although it is actually negligible and therefore is not re-
ally important in practice.

With this procedure a quick demagnetisation can be done for

small distribution transformers as well as large power trans-
formers.

2.3 Example based on a 56 MVA transformer

A 56 MVA-YNd5 power transformer manufactured in 1973
(Elin) and rated 240/10.5 kV was tested.
Figure 12: Flux, voltage and current of demagnetisation routine
For verification of state purposes, SFRA measurements were
conducted. The transformer‘s condition was recorded immedia-
tely after removing it from service with an initial SFRA measure-
ment. Subsequently, a DC winding resistance measurement was
carried out on phase B (which was wound on the middle core
limb), and another SFRA measurement was then taken. Lastly,
the transformer was demagnetised using previously described
method (2.2) and then checked by performing a final SFRA mea-
surement. Furthermore the voltage and current were sampled
and the flux calculated according to equation (7). The demagne-
tisation routine can be seen in Fig. 12 and the flux over the cur-
rent as hysteresis in Fig. 13.

The results after the demagnetisation procedure are shown

below:

Table 1: Results following demagnetisation of the 240 kV transformer

Results Figure 13: Demagnetisation routine, hysteresis loop (flux over current)

Current for demagnetisation 7.5 A DC

Maximum flux +/- 50 Vs
When comparing the SFRA results of the individual phases, it
Iterations for demagnetisation 6 becomes apparent that the transformer displays residual mag-
netism after being isolated from the power system (Fig. 14). Af-
Initial remanence 60.3 %
ter the demagnetisation procedure, all resonance points moved
Remanence after demagnetisation 0.7% towards lower frequencies as expected, and the typical SFRA
Time for demagnetisation 1.5 minutes pattern of a three-limb transformer could be seen. The trans-
former can therefore be considered demagnetised.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m
 ON-SITE - TESTS

Phase A After the demagnetisation procedu-

re, all resonance points moved to-
wards lower frequencies as expec-
ted, and the typical SFRA pattern of
a three-limb transformer could be
seen.

Conclusion
Phase B
This article highlights the importance and the effects of residu-
al magnetism, on inrush current and some electrical measure-
ments. It should also increase the awareness of the associated
risks with re-energising transformers after an outage, especially
if the transformer is already presumed to have a bad solid insu-
lation condition.

Within the last few years, the first testing devices (such as
OMICRON‘s CPC 100) have been developed which allow a re-
liable on-site demagnetisation of transformers without any ma-
jor additional effort. Demagnetised transformer cores minimise
the risk for personnel and equipment during installation. The
SFRA measurement method is now described in IEC 60076-18
and IEEE C57.149-2012 and has become increasingly accepted
as diagnostic method. To gain reliable and reproducible measu-
Phase C rement results, we recommend demagnetising the transformer
core before diagnostic measurements such as SFRA measure-
ments.

Equations

ƒ0 = 1
.
Equation 1: 2π √ L × C

Equation 2: u (t) = û sin(ωt + α)

t
Equation 3: Φ (t) = ΦR + ∫0 u (t) dt
Figure 14: Phase comparison of the SFRA results with different remanence û
conditions = ΦR + ω (cos(α ) - cos(ωt + α)

Equation 4: t û
Φ ( 2 ) = ΦR + 2 = ΦR + 2 Φmax
The specific hysteresis parameters, ω

like the maximum flux, per transfor- Equation 5: Φ (t) = ∫ (u (t))dt

mer are then determined and the in-
itial flux can be calculated. Equation 6: ΦL(t) = ∫ (u(t) - R × i (t))dt + ΦR(0)

52 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

REFERENCES
[1] Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remanence
[2] Magnetizing Current, Harmonic Content and Power Factor as the Indicators
of Transformer Core Saturation, Ismail Daut, Syafruddin Hasan, and Soib Taib,
ELECTRIFYING
Journal of Clean Energy Technologies, Vol. 1, No. 4, October 2013
[3] On the ringdown transient on transformers, N. Chiesa, A. Avendano, H. K.
Høidalen, B. A. Mork, D. Ishchenko und A. P. Kunze, 2007
[4] Remanent Flux Measurement and Optimal Energization Instant Determi-
nation of Power Transformer, Goran Petrović, Tomislav Kilić, Stanko Milun, 2003
[5] A Revolution in Current Transformer Testing, Utility Products, 1, April 2011
[6] Predicting Loss in Magnetic Steels Under Arbitrary Induction Waveform and
With Minor Hysteresis Loops, Edoardo Barbisio, Fausto Fiorillo, and Carlo Ragusa,
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 40, NO. 4, JULY 2004
[7] Investigation on the Behavior of the Remanence Level of Protective Current
Transformers, J. Dickert, R. Luxenburger, P. Schegner, 2006

Authors
Markus PÜTTER studied elec-
trical Engineering at the Universi-
ty of Paderborn and graduated in
1997. Since 1999 he has worked for
OMICRON electronics as electrical
engineer in the area of transformer
diagnostics. Since 7 years ago, he
has worked as product manager for
testing and diagnostic solutions for
primary assets where the focus is on developing innovative so-
lution for testing power transformers. He has a wide theoretical
and practical knowledge as well as extensive practical measure-
ment experience.
Markus Pütter is member of the IEC TC14 transformer com-
mittee and Cigre WG A1.39. He is also an active participant Ergon’s HyVolt Insulating Oils have been helping
in the working group regarding Dynamic Resistance Measure- you keep the lights on for over 30 years.
ment on “On load tap changers (DRM on OLTC’s) within the
AMForum.
Consistent products with consistent results.
Michael RÄDLER was born on
the 27th November 1987 and has
been working for OMICRON elec-
tronics since 2008 as an Application
Engineer for power transformers.
He completed the Higher Technical
School of Bregenz in 2007 with the
focus on energy systems and indus-
trial electronics.

Boris UNTERER, Dipl. Ing. is a

software developer/project leader for
OMICRON electronics, Austria. He
has 15 years experience in the field of
power transformer testing. Boris has
prior experience in embedded real- Naphthenic oils. That’s our business.
time software design and received a
diploma from the ETH Zurich in 1991.
ergoneurope.com | +32 2 351 23 75
ergonnsa.com | + 1 601-933-3000
ergonasia.com | +32 2 351 23 75
w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 53
 INTERVIEW

54 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

Interview with Mr David Zabetakis,
President of Doble Engineering
Transformers Magazine speaks to Mr David Zabetakis, President of Doble
Engineering Company with over 25 years of executive leadership experience in
the utility industry, including Aclara Software, CURRENT group and Pepco
Energy Services.

TM: Mr Zabetakis, thank you for accepting our request 1920 and is now present in 110 countries. Tell us what
for the interview. We are very pleased to have you here and does Doble’s business proposition combine?
we hope to hear a bit more about you and the transformer
asset management business, markets, people, and finally, DZ: In one word? Community. Doble is one of a kind; we are
about transformer diagnostics products and services. optimally positioned to provide products, services and know-
ledge to the electric power industry, as a neutral agnostic ex-
DZ: Thank you very much for the opportunity to share a little pert advisor. Doble is differentiated in its market by a portfolio
about Doble, what we do, and where the company is headed. delivered through products, consulting services, insulating
materials laboratories and educational conferences.
TM: Thank you Mr Zabetakis. Many people are familiar
with you as the President of Doble Engineering Compa- We partner with electric power industry clients to minimise risk,
ny, but we would like to find out a bit more about you in improve operations, optimise system performance and impor-
your own words. tantly reduce costs. Doble provides enterprise management sys-
tems, engineering consulting and expertise, on-line and off-line
Following six years in the Tactical Air Command of the US Air diagnostic instruments, and the industry’s premier conferences
Force, I began a career in one of the world’s most critical indust- that have become the de-facto industry trade association.
ries: Energy. Now, as President of Doble Engineering Company, a
subsidiary of ESCO Technologies (NYSE: ESE), I am responsible TM: Tell us about the size of Doble’s workforce.
for making sure the company’s customers – including nearly 90
percent of the utilities in North America -- are able to deliver safe, DZ: Doble is a subsidiary of ESCO Technology and is part of
reliable, electric power. ESCO’s Utility Services Group. Worldwide, Doble has 351 em-
ployees. Doble currently has 163 employees in the Watertown
A leader in the energy industry for more than 25 years, I have held headquarters location, and 200 in total in Massachusetts. In
leadership positions at Aclara Technologies’ Software Group (ano- addition to locations throughout North America, Doble main-
ther ESCO company), North American Power Partners, Pepco tains 9 international offices and Centers of Innovation in São
Energy Services, Inc., Unitil Corporation and Washington Gas. Paulo, Brazil, Surrey and Glasgow United Kingdom, Dubai
United Arab Emirates, Trondheim Norway, Beijing, China,
I also served on the first Pier Review Board for President George Singapore, Gujarat India and Durban South Africa.
W. Bush for DOE/FEMP, among other engagements throughout
the energy industry. TM: Doble plays on the global market. In which market
would you say Doble is the strongest?
TM: What is your education?
DZ: Our largest market is the USA, followed by EMEA and
DZ: I obtained a BS at Wichita State University, followed by an APAC. Right now, we’re seeing major demand growth in the
MBA at Loyola College in Maryland. Middle East and South Africa, and some regions in the sou-
thern U.S., specifically the Houston, Texas area, so naturally
TM: Doble Engineering Company has been producing those are all exciting markets for us as power companies ex-
diagnostic solutions for electric power apparatus since pand to meet new demand needs.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 55
 INTERVIEW

TM: How does Doble achieve customer satisfaction and We also have a complete condition monitoring system that is the
how does it serve different markets? most robust, innovative solution on the market for continuous
and periodic monitoring of asset health.
DZ: We serve several vertical markets, the electric utilities, ob-
viously, but also power generation, oil and gas, refineries, manu- TM: Doble has recently held the well known Life of a
facturers. Transformer Seminar in Padua, Italy, visited by delegates
worldwide. What is the secret to your success?
We created a very cool illustration that shows all the market
segments we serve, with the six testing practices we provide: DZ: It’s simple: we give our customers what they want - valuab-
On-line Test & Assessment, Off-line Test & Assessment, le, useful information. We answer their questions. And we listen
On-line Monitoring, Protection and Enterprise Asset Ma- when they have feedback. Every one of our events is grounded
nagement. (See the graphic below.) in real, tangible knowledge that allows an attendee to walk away
with new skills they can use in the field immediately. That’s why
TM: What are Doble’s most important recent and current we’re successful. We’re meeting their needs in a very applicable
projects? way.

DZ: We’re working incredibly hard on our dobleARMS platform TM: What are Doble‘s greatest challenges in the consul-
– Doble has a solid competitive position with its asset risk ma- ting and testing services?
nagement system offering (dobleARMS), using Doble’s database
of electrical apparatus test data, which is the world’s largest, the DZ: One of the biggest challenges for the industry and Doble
intelligent analytics in dobleARMS are able to draw from over 44 will be in filling the need for information and assessment on
million data points. This resource began in the late 1930’s, and is such a large global population of critical assets. Since the 1960’s
growing rapidly as more and more data is being produced by our electric power systems have grown substantially and larger
users and technology. numbers of assets are getting old enough to retire, just like baby
boomers.
Building on an already established market for the Doble M4100,
where the “Doble Test” is synonymous with electric reliability Some apparatus will be more “aged” and at risk than others.
and high maintenance standards in North America, Doble is re- Much data has been collected from measurements on these as-
volutionising the diagnostic tools that are the hallmark of its off- sets but getting access to the information and turning it into
line testing solutions with the introduction of the M7100. actionable intelligence is a challenge. Automation, chemistry,
engineering expertise, data management and analytical sys-
The Doble M7100 Tester is dramatically transformational pa- tems are all required to achieve the goal of being knowledgeab-
tent-pending technology that will usher in a new generation of le about the power system.
off-line testing standards. With the added benefit of dramatically
reducing testing time, increasing safety, and lowering costs, uti-
lities can now maximise their outage periods by performing
more maintenance during the hours previously devoted
to testing.

56 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

The challenge for Doble and the industry will be in responding
to this fast growth in demand for actionable intelligence, con-
tinually growing the expertise in an environment when expe-
rienced people are retiring from the industry, and enhancing
automation and data management where much is documented
in many forms that do not easily communicate with each other.
Doble’s services and products highlight how we have been in-
vesting in that future (ex. dobleARMS).

TM: What differentiates you on the market when it co-

mes to the structure of your organisation and conduc-
ting business?

DZ: Community as the core of our resources, a respect for un-

derstanding historical data and a dedication to knowledge are
at the foundation of our services. We have been meeting con- make more informed decisions as to the health of their assets,
secutively for 81 years with the lion share of the utilities market save money and equipment; stay safe and reliable, better tech-
globally, as well as global asset manufactures, at our Doble In- nology allows organisations to stay ahead of the issue.
ternational Client Conference. The sessions in this week long
packed event are planned by clients and for clients, this pro- TM: Aging transformer fleet worldwide increases finan-
fessional community has allowed us the privilege, honour and cial risks as well as the risk of even larger environmental
one-of-a-kind opportunity to create very, very committed and impact.
passionate user communities that take part in our innovation. How can the development of Doble consulting, testing
and laboratory services:
TM: Do you encourage workers to have an input into - contribute to lower environmental impact through
development of your products and if yes, how? failure prevention, extension of transformer life time,
lower losses, i.e. lower CO emission; and
DZ: Yes – absolutely. Client partners in the field as well as our - decrease other risks?
employees. If the products we’re building don’t meet the needs
of the people we’re providing them to, then we’re completely DZ: With our ARMS solution, we provide a predictive value
missing the point. to our customers so that they will A, be alerted to risk, and B,
have our consulting experts suggest the best next step. Within
TM: How does Doble care for the society and environment? the ARMS solution there are several risk factors that are rated
constantly, one of which is environment, another is financial,
DZ: When a transformer or other critical asset goes down it can among several other risk factors. These are all customisable for
have huge consequences for the environment - the tools we build any specific fleet owning business.
and services we provide keep customers informed with up-to-the-
minute data on what’s happening inside their assets. This know- TM: Which market and technology strengths and ad-
ledge allows customers to act quickly, plan preventative mainte- vantages of Doble would you single out to address the
nance and detect an issue before it becomes a bigger problem. issues above better than others?

TM: What challenges are asset owners facing every day DZ: Doble has been the independent community hub for the
in order to keep their equipment operating successfully? global power industry for almost 100 years, and we have be-
come the de-facto trade association for our industry, this is
DZ: There are many factors that impact asset owners every the cornerstone of our knowledge community, where we have
day, including environmental (heat, weather, etc.), increased provided the electric power industry with the world’s most re-
production (more demand), security threats (physical and cy- liable solutions and services, strengthened by the world’s only
ber), ageing assets, need for adaptation to new technologies and and unmatched knowledge data base, referencing more than
ageing work force. 44 million data-points of electrical apparatus test data, which
is the world’s largest.
And the paradigm shift to the digital world and how to manage
all the data being continuously collected by all the various mo- This depth of experience allows us to provide an array of servi-
nitoring technologies on the assets. This is where our consul- ces and products that goes beyond tools and technology.
ting services and our ARMS solution help customers.
We are unique in our position to provide neutral and indepen-
TM: How does Doble help companies worldwide to do more dent insight into the problems our customers face today, and
with less, and get them to continually turn to Doble for the help them prepare and plan for their assets future health.
products and solutions to meet these tough challenges?
That is what we do with our conference, that is what we are do-
DZ: Fixing problems before they become failures; provide our ing with dobleARMS, passing on the knowledge to create actio-
customers better insight and predictive value so that they can nable intelligent analytics for our customers.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 57
EVENTS

Coiltech fires off signs of

The most dynamic Coil
Winding exhibition gro­
ws by about 50% for the
third consecutive year

L
aunched in 2010, Coiltech has
rapidly developed into an inter-
nationally renowned meeting
point of who’s who in the field of Coil
Winding.

Its success and strong growth can be tra-

ced to an exhibition format that aims to Around 2000 professionals from more than 30 nations are expected to visit Coiltech 2014
make the event the most time and cost
efficient opportunity to meet suppliers The ingredients of the events mers. Coiltech offers the lowest cost per
and customers. Exhibitors and visitors success contact ratio in our industry”.
get done a lot in a short time at Coiltech
(see box). “It is sectorial in the right way” states Highest customer satisfaction
Francois Zussy of Swiss based Meteor. indicator in the market
The 2014 edition (24/25 September) will “Other shows are so big that they become
grow by about 45% compared to the 2013 dispersive and confused”. Mark Carter of More than 90% of the 2013 edition ex-
edition, making it the most dynamic AWE adds: “It is essential that our adver- hibitors will be meeting their customers
event in the industry. tising costs are used to reach our custo- again at Coiltech 2014. This is an unpa-

Solutions provided
at Coiltech
• Insulation materials and resins
• Lamination and stamping
• Copper, aluminium enamelled wire
• Machinery for winding, assembly
and dosing
• Electrical steel
• Equipment for inspections, calibra-
tion and control
• Stamping, moulding and die casting
• Commutators
• Software for engineering and design
In 2014, more than 50 technical top notch presentations, one conference room exclusively dedicated
• Terminals
to transformers

58 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

strong growth Coiltech
Coiltech 201
201
24-25 September Pordeno
24-25 September Pordeno
Practical information
All practical information such as ex-

It's not the si

hibitors list, conference programme,
how to get there etc. can be found at:
www.quickfairs.net

of
Factthe circuit
sheet Coiltech

that matters
Who visits: Production, design and
purchasing professionals from trans-
former, electrical motor and generator

but the energ

manufacturers mainly from Europe

Expected visitors: about 2000 (2013:

ralleled customer satisfaction indicator cant components and technologies for it transmits
1286, 24% of them international)

Who exhibits: International leaders in

+
(rival shows competing with Coiltech the production of electrical machines, components, materials, technologies for
achieve around 75%). Coiltech stands out with a high level the production of electrical machines
conference programme aiming at conti-
More than half of the exhibitors who nuing education. Expected exhibitors: 230, including
take part at the 2014 edition for the first What
What visitors like
like about
visitorsexhibitors
100 international (2013: Coiltec
about Coiltec
time, are international exhibitors. Other One conference room exclusively 181/69)
Leading international suppliers
international
Leading
Innovative suppliers of suppliers
all significant components and tech
than offering the opportunity to meet for transformers presentations Venue: Pordenone
Innovative all significant components and tech
suppliers ofopportunity
Excellent networking
the international leaders for all signifi- Halls:
Highly 7,
Excellent 8, 9
networking
specialized opportunity
technical presentations at the World Ma
Under the academic guidance of Marco Date:
Highly24/25
Compact September
specialized
format, technical
best presentations
use of time, at the connectio
excellent traffic World Ma
Compact format, best use of time, excellent traffic connectio
Villani, head of the Department of In-
dustrial Engineering at L’Aquila Univer- Admission:
Sign free for
up for your trade
free visitors
e-ticke only, isitcoiltec
t: www.v
Sign up for your free e-ticket: www.visitcoiltec
sity, the World Magnetic Conference registration mandatory
will feature almost 50 first rate presen-
tations in two conference rooms, one Rating: international
exclusively dedicated to transformer

+
themes. Format: spread over 2 days, set-up
with turnkey booths of limited size for
Coiltech is held in the town of Porde- best use of visitors’ time and least or-
ganisational
What effort for exhibitors
What exhibitors like about Coi
exhibitors like about
none, near Treviso, Venice and Trieste
airports which offer a wide array of Coi
mainly low-cost flight connections to Conference:
Highly competent
World
Highly competent Magnetic
visitors
visitors Forum international
with an increasingly
with an increasingly
b
international b
The best visitor per exhibitor ratio of any Coil Winding Exhibi
all European and many overseas desti- The best visitor
Turn-key standsper exhibitor
for better useratio of any
of time andCoil Winding Exhibi
resources
nations. Certification
Turn-key standsof
Internet connectionforexhibition
better use of data:
included time and resources
Internet
Minimumconnection included
Coiltech is thefor
effort
Minimum effort
only exhibition
organisational
for organisational
inthanks
issues the to the
all-inclusive exhibition formula issues thanks to the
At Coiltech, visitors can make best use industry with
all-inclusive data on
Transparent, exhibition
visitors, exhibi-
formula
all-inclusive cost with no surprises, three booth
not only of their time but also of their tors and exhibition
Transparent,
to choose surface
all-inclusive
from. certified
cost with by three booth
no surprises,
to choose from.
budget for travel to international Coil an independent auditor.
Choose your spot yourse lf: www.exhibitatcoilte
Winding exhibitions. Choose your spot yourself: www.exhibitatcoilte
Prof. Marco Villani, Università de l’Aquila and Info: www.quickfairs.net
Chairman of the World Magnetic Forum

Coiltech pagina A4.indd 1

Coiltech pagina A4.indd 1

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 59
TRENDS
TRENDS

ABSTRACT
The global transformer market is
changing rapidly with new players
Power Transformer
entering the market. In this article,
the Five Forces Analysis Model is used
to see what we can expect from the
transformers market. Market drivers
Market Review
are changing and more focus is on the Transformers move slowly, but the market does not!
renewable energy generation as well
as smart grid. Finally, an estimate 2014 is the year of the Horse according rope has been much of the management
of the transformer market growth is to the lunar calendar, and I think it is centre from manufacturing capacity and
made. very symbolic for the transformer mar- capabilities perspectives, we can now
ket right now. We can see quick, dynamic expect to have more of management ba-
movements where the market conditions lance between Europe, North America
change rapidly and players reposition and Asia driven by M&A (mergers and
Keywords themselves quicker than what we have acquisitions) and capital expenditure
seen in the past. (CAPEX) activities.
transformer market, market changes,
market drivers, growth, competition We can see that the “Management Cen- As this article is written for the audience
ter of Gravity” is moving, and while Eu- that has both knowledge and interest in

60 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

 Jean SANCHEZ, Mladen BANOVIC
Matti STOOR

that will define the transformer market number of trends that are pointing in the
for years to come. same direction; the competition is harde-
ning and the new technologies like smart
Given that the competitiveness of the po- grid and renewable energy generation
wer transformer market is high, it is im- will also have an impact on the transfor-
portant to keep a close watch on market mer business. In addition, I would expect
prices and trends in order to be able to that the management changes due to
manage the risk portfolio in an optimal M&A activities will introduce new rules
way. The profit pool is tight looking at the to the game. We all have to learn from it,
majority of power transformer product and mostly, it is a healthy development
lines and therefore any risky tendering for the overall business, driving innova-
behavior may have negative consequen- tion both in terms of ways-to-market as
ces as projects are delivered. Nothing well as technology.
new, but we have seen proof of eroding
profits, reflected in financial reporting Below I use Porter´s [1] classical “Five
lately. There will, however, always be a Forces Analysis” method to take a struc-
drive to capture specific markets, or ni- tured look at expected strategic time-
che segments, also going forward. A clas- frame predictions. Here I combine it
sic way to predict these market battle- with a “Market Trends Analysis” in order
fields is by looking at CAGR (compound to strengthen the market view. This forms
annual growth rate) data. what I call “The Sixth Sense Transformer
Market Analysis”.
One addition during the recent years is
that the globalisation is also driven by The Five Forces Analysis is designed to
the free flow of information on the In- look at an industry’s profitability and to
ternet, which basically enables everybo- serve as a strategic decisions tool. As the
dy to access the information in real time. profitability is a result of a number of
With this, strategies, tactics, organisa- parameters, it will vary between compe-
tional structures and processes have to titors, therefore I will focus more on the
be revisited more frequently. This trend trends. You have all made your predic-
is expected to continue and most likely tions, so you can see this as a side view
intensify. As an addition to the flow of and decide if there is reason to revisit any
information, we now have the Transfor- of the assumptions.
mers Magazine that provides focused
news to all of us that are interested in With the rapid movements on the mar-
the transformer market and technology ket, we need to establish our own “sixth
development. Much of the information sense” and if we want to remain active
that I have gathered here is available in in a rapidly changing business, this is of
the Transformers Magazine in some fundamental importance. In my opinion,
form. By connecting the dots of infor- this applies to both business managers as
the transformer market and technolo- mation, we can all stay up-to-date with well as technology managers in the busi-
gies, I will not spell out all the details but the events. ness. Transformers may be moving slow-
leave things open for your own analysis. ly, but the market is certainly not! The
Out of respect towards the integrity of Accessing information about the trans- analysis below is made on a global scale,
players in the market, I will not mention former market is easier today compared and for niche players in limited market
companies or individuals. to before, but when predicting it, we segments, the scenario may look diffe-
still have to do the analysis. The results rent.
The transformer market is becoming tru- from such analysis can naturally differ,
ly global and we can see that more play- depending on the position we observe As with all analyses, it is a snapshot of
ers in the market are heading in the glo- the events from. We can however see a what can be seen today:
bal direction as well. This is natural as the
competition is strong and few markets
can sustainably support a transformer
manufacturer for its national purpose.
In the early days, transformer manufac- The market is attracting strong M&A activities
turing was considered to be of national
interest, but those days are long gone. Af-
that will define the transformer market for ye-
ter the financial crisis, we see that when ars to come.
the financial strength is recovering, it is
doing so unevenly. As a result, the mar-
ket is attracting strong M&A activities

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 61
TRENDS
TRENDS

1. Rivalry among existing sults in order to show the market that capacity is larger than the national need,
competitors they have made the right decisions. We it will follow the trend we have seen ear-
have also seen organisational changes lier in China, but different to the Korean
The global rivalry remains strong with that are focused on streamlining as well expansion.
installed overcapacity. Specifically the as closing the organisational gaps when it
large investments in Asia, in combinati- comes to transmission-medium voltage- One main difference between China
on with a weaker demand, has driven up smart grid. This is effectively reflecting and India is the impact of government
the installed and underutilised capaci- the direction the grid business is heading policies. The Indian companies and JVs
ty over the past years. Just to clarify the in, driven by smart grid and renewable have to compete without much govern-
differences, installed capacity is related energy generation market growth, which ment policy support, except for the exis-
to investments in machinery needed for will eventually result in changes to the ting import policies. Capabilities within
transformer manufacturing (CAPEX), legacy grid. the technology frontier (UHVAC and
not manned capacity. UHVDC) will also add to the competi-
As a result of the above mentioned, we tion scenario. Even though we have not
Changes within the rivalry field are can expect that the rivalry push will get seen a real commoditisation of UHV
mostly related to the larger M&A activi- considerably stronger during the strate- transformers yet, there is a risk that even
ties we have seen. These M&A activities gic period. The establishment of new JVs UHVAC transformers will fall into the
are introducing new owner behaviour to in India is also expected to step up the commodity slot. This would constitute
the market. The result of any changed be- rivalry within the Indian market, as well a high risk as UHV transformers are not
haviour will have to be followed closely as outside the country. The new players to be taken lightly from all aspects inclu-
going forward. However, it is clear that have financial strength to also make an ding design, workmanship and material
new players will expect to see quick re- impact outside India. As the established choices. Buyer´s evaluation criteria will
drive this, and it remains to be seen whe-
re it will head to.

HVDC transformers are much more

By connecting the dots of information, we can integrated into the system performance
all stay up-to-date with market events. evaluation, which results in other eva-
luation criteria compared to UHVAC
transformers. With time, this may also
change but will not have much effect on
the general price performance yet.

62 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

 Jean SANCHEZ, Mladen BANOVIC

I predict that the rivalry among compe-

titors will continue to have a constant
Changes within the rivalry field are mostly re-
downward pressure on prices in the mar- lated to larger M&A activities.
ket. The rivalry in selected markets will
increase further and these markets can
be expected in high CAGR regions.

2. Threat of new entrants

I predict that the threat of new entrants end of 2014 compared to last year.
On the global scale there are few new ent- will have a neutral effect on prices during
rants apart from the new ownership/ma- the strategic time frame. There is a tendency towards sourcing
nagement changes due to M&A activities. from low cost countries (LCC), not only
There are, of course, new entrants on the for complete transformers, but also for
local scale within niche areas, as factories 3. Bargaining power of buyers components and semi-finished parts like
are being set up in new territories. I do not windings. The drive for energy efficien-
expect that these will have any global im- The bargaining power of buyers remains cy is driving up the demand for low loss
pact on prices or business dynamics. strong, and with an intense competition, I core steel. The limited capacity for lower
expect that the pressure will remain strong loss core steel will keep the prices up on
However, here we have to mention the and unchanged during the strategic period. these qualities. The US dumping tariffs,
development within HVDC as new implemented preliminary on core steel
entrants on the system level (read Chi- against seven countries, are also interes-
na) may also result in “new” suppliers 4. Bargaining power ting outside the US. This case may have a
for transformers. The HVDC market is defining impact on the industry in North
growing at a far greater rate compared
of suppliers America. Who will benefit at the end of
to mainstream power transformers glo- Copper continues to remain volatile. The the day is difficult to say, but if I had to
bally, so it will continue to attract new high stock levels in China, in combina- comment, I would say that energy effici-
entrants. One of the main drivers for the tion with lower demand for copper, will ent transformers, imported to the US,
HVDC market growth will continue to have a downwards pressure on the cop- will benefit from it.
be offshore wind connections. New ent- per price. During the first quarters of the
rants may apply other risk behaviour to year, we have seen that the commodity Transportation is one of the cost com-
the market. This will, however, have no price has eroded and my prediction is ponents often forgotten about when
effect on prices in the short term. that the copper price will be lower by the analysis is done, despite being one of the

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 63
TRENDS
TRENDS

The classical market drivers remain, while ket. The phrase “design to cost” has
never had higher relevance, and will re-
newer drivers coming from renewable ener- main so in the foreseeable future. Need-
gy generation and smart grid, are expected less to say that “design to cost” covers
both the chosen platform solutions as
to increase. well as focused design activities within
the specific delivery projects. With low
margins, there is no other way than to
streamline solutions that will result in
win-win solutions for both transformer
suppliers as well as customers. The re-
largest cost portions for LPTs. The bar- ket enabler going forward. I expect more newable energy segment is here to stay
gaining power of transporters remains M&A activities and organisational chan- and will keep driving the transformer
high in many countries due to oligopoly, ges to reflect this, as with more clean ener- market forward.
and sometimes monopoly. gy generation, the integration of transmis-
sion and medium voltage levels will come Looking at the available data, there
In summary, my estimate is that the sup- to a new level. The double-sided voltage seems to be a consensus that the global
ply side of transformer business will have a regulation will simply require more of transformer market is expected to grow
downward pressure on prices, mainly dri- smart grids, and therefore the transformer at a rate of 7-8% in the coming 5-year
ven by the expected copper price trend. The and smart grid market segments will be period. Predictions made by transfor-
upside from a profitability perspective, is further integrated. mer oil market analysts conclude that
how the LCC sourcing strategy and trans- they are expecting a CAGR of 9,2% for
portation (LPT) matter is handled. The The market drivers will have a positive transformer oils, which would confirm
transportation aspect also has the highest push on prices, and a lot of focus will re- the transformer level prediction from
risk within the transformer value chain and main on the low losses and efficiency of another perspective. As always, we have
therefore requires further attention. transformers. The development of envi- to be careful when using strategic time-
ronmentally friendly transformers will frame growth numbers as they are a pre-
continue with focus on losses, environ- diction.
5. Threat of substitutes mentally friendly oils and sound (noise)
requirements. All this in combination In the next transformer market review,
I consider the threat of substitutes to be will keep the pressure up for innovation, we will be looking at regions and mar-
low for the time being, which will have a when it comes to both technologies and kets. Take a look at CAGR data and
neutral effect on the market. One of few ways-to-market through strong optimi- draw some conclusions from that. I
threats to the existing technologies are the sation on customer valued parameters. hope you look forward to it as much as
solid state transformers for rolling stock I do!
traction purposes. Threat of substitutes
overall will have a neutral effect on prices. 7. Sixth Sense Transformer
Business Analysis Reference
6. Market drivers All the above is pointing in the direc- [1] Porter, M.E. The Five Competitive
tion of lower prices on the global mar- Forces That Shape Strategy
There are plenty of market drivers inclu-
ding the classic drivers like the increase
of electricity need in developing coun-
tries and replacement of old transfor-
mers in mature economies. Not much
Author
new there, maybe just that old transfor- Matti STOOR has 30 years of global experience from
mers get even older with time! working with transformers as well as HVDC. During more
than 17 years within HVDC, he was involved in design and
Newer drivers are directed by; 1.ener- development of HVDC control systems and later managed
gy efficiency demand from both mature the HVDC control systems department and finally was
and developing economies, and 2.rapid General Manager of the Converter Technologies operati-
growth of clean energy generation such as on, covering LCC and VSC HVDC technologies in Lud-
solar and wind power. The development vika, Sweden. Within transformers Matti has had many
of the smart grid will require suppliers roles, where the later included heading ABB´s overall
to be able to deliver transformer moni- Chinese Transformer operations, as well as Global Business Development for Power
toring (TM) equipment. The TM market Transformers. Matti is now running a business with focus on supporting clients in
is expected to outgrow the transformer improving their holistic performance within the power industry. Matti holds an en-
market dramatically, in some markets up gineering degree in Control Systems, a Bachelor’s degree in Business Administration
to 40-50% CAGR. Having in-house access and an MBA in International Business from Uppsala University, Sweden.
to transformer monitoring will be a mar-

64 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

READER’S LETTER

The Demise of
American Electrical Steel
Have AK Steel and ATI Metals, the two American manufacturers of grain
oriented electrical steel, gone too far this time?

T
he electrical steel market has changed since 1994, when ral, the new standard used M3 as the basis for liquid immersed dis-
AK Steel and ATI Metals last requested anti-dumping and tribution transformers. The standard has also moved three phase
countervailing duties and tariffs against Japanese imports. dry type transformers away from the non-grain oriented electrical
Although the basic design of transformers has not changed, the steel, to M6 and M3 depending on the voltages involved.
number of mills producing grain oriented electrical steel (GOES) With this second efficiency standard revision in four years, the
has grown significantly. Instead of the major foreign players being U.S. mills saw their customer base looking to use the best materials
just Nippon Steel, JFE and ThyssenKrupp., now NLMK, Inox, available in the global market. Although the American materials
Stalprodukt S.A., POSCO, Cogent Power, WISCO (Wuhan Iron are noted for consistent quality, they are no longer the most effici-
& steel), Baosteel, and several new startups have joined the ranks. ent materials available. The U.S. mills have not invested in R&D
At the same time the major manufacturers of power and distribu- efforts in the same manner as their foreign competitors.
tion transformers in the U.S. have become more international in By 2013, most domestic transformer manufacturers were either
both their scope of influence and manufacturing capability. using lower loss materials or negotiating with foreign mills for vo-
The twenty-first century has seen increased emphases on efficien- lumes of these to be delivered in the second half of 2013.
cy standards affecting everything from transformers to building In mid-September 2013, AK Steel and ATI Metals filed petitions
codes. with the Department of Commerce and the International Trade
As a result, the U.S. Department of Energy formulated the 2010 Commission asking for anti-dumping and countervailing duties
efficiency standard for liquid immersed and dry type distribution against the majority of foreign mills producing grain oriented
transformers. As of the 1st January 2010, GOES grades of M4, M5 electrical steel. However, they not only filed petitions against the
and M6 would basically no longer be sufficient to meet this stan- mills, but also against the trading companies they use and the va-
dard and control both the size and cost of the distribution trans- lue added service centres they are affiliated with. Two weeks later,
former. AK Steel filed a petition against six foreign mills for anti-dumping
This has been followed by the U.S. Department of Energy publi- and countervailing duties against non-grain oriented electrical
shing their Final Rule Making for the new efficiency standard for steel. The timeline for both of these petitions is determination of
liquid immersed and dry type distribution transformers in the penalty by mid-March 2014 and implementation of duties and ta-
spring 2013, to become effective on the 1st January 2016. In gene- riffs by October 2014.

66 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

Unlike the past, the reaction of the mills, the value added service Since the last duties and tariffs were lifted in 2004, the foreign mills
centres and the transformer manufacturers has been vastly diffe- have been exceedingly mindful for both the amount of GOES that
rent. they would sell into the U.S. and price that would be charged. Ty-
As a result, orders for imported grain oriented (GOES) and non- pical offering in the U.S. was equal to the U.S. mills base price, plus
oriented electrical steel (NOES) increased during the fourth quar- some portion of the posted U.S. surcharge.
ter of 2013, as American transformer service centres and factories Regarding the case of NOES, it is difficult to understand how you
decided to build inventories of these materials prior to countervai- can win an anti-dumping petition when you are the only U.S. mar-
ling and anti-dumping rulings expected in March. ket player and your total capacity is approximately 70,000 short
These companies hoped that they would continue to import addi- tons versus a U.S. demand of 240,000 short tons.
tional materials in Q4 2013, and hopefully Q1 and part of Q2 2014 This year at the IEEE meeting, I was surprised to see the number
prior to the preliminary rulings and collection of duties and tariffs. of core equipment manufacturers that were exhibiting, companies
To counter this, AK Steel filed Critical Circumstances petitions such as Soenen, Hedrich, A&M Unicore, and Georg. In conver-
against imports of both GOES and NOES, stating that imports for sation, these companies send the same message: “We understand
Q4 2013 dramatically exceeded those of the base period, Q3 2013. that there is a growing market for third parties in Mexico and Ca-
According to the rules established by the Dept. of Commerce, im- nada to make cores for the U.S. transformer market.”
ports only needed to exceed the base period by 15% for a positive Cogent Power was letting potential customers know of the capaci-
finding in a Critical Circumstances petition. ty expansions they have going on for both distribution and power
Thus, in mid-March, preliminary rulings were handed down for transformer cores. Legnano Teknoelectric (Italy) stated that they
both materials, and the U.S. Customs and Border Protection were were watching the North American market to consider if a facility
instructed to start collecting the necessary duties. might be included in their future plans. Temple, known for NOES
Preliminary rulings for the anti-dumping petitions were delayed laminations, is adding GOES core capability to their Mexican ope-
at the request of AK Steel, to the first week in May. My opinion that ration. JFE Shoji Steel America has just signed a joint venture to
the anti-dumping case is much harder for the U.S. mills to win, is make NOES cores in the U.S., while having the capacity for GOES
based on the following two points: cores at their Mexican operation.
First: 2012 and 2013 imports of GOES (note: import figures for Transformer companies have been weighing the make/buy de-
Electrical Steel are typically a combination of GOES and NOES cision for GOES cores for some time. By adding anti-dumping
with greater volume being NOES) represented only 5% of the U.S. and countervailing duties regarding the GOES materials in order
capacity. However, since both U.S. mills are currently running at to meet the 2016 standard, it is implied there is a preference to-
between 70 and 75% of the stated capacity, it amounts to about ward buying. All that is necessary is the third party capacity. It now
7% of the U.S. capacity. Also, since most of these materials are in seems that additional capacity is in the works.
grades not produced by either mill, anti-dumping will be hard to
prove. Ben Ehmcke
Second: Another issue for the GOES anti-dumping is the price
difference between foreign mills and the U.S. ones. Based on the In order to obtain an objective overview of the situation, Trans-
pricing information available on the public register, it appears that formers Magazine had contacted the companies in question
the petitions are based on a comparison of the foreign X-Works and asked for comments, however we had received no reply by
prices and not the prices that were being offered in the U.S. market. the time the 2nd issue was published.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 67
EVENTS

CWIEME Chicago expands into

transformer market
Anticipating more than 50% growth this year — a large proportion of which
will come from the transformer market — CWIEME Chicago is set to be the
most influential industry event for companies looking to buy or sell trans-
formers in North America in 2014.

T
his fall engineers, designers, buyers and academics Portfolio Director at i2i Events Group, the company behind the
from around the globe will gather at the DE Stephens show. “But it has a lot to offer for transformer manufacturers
Convention Center for CWIEME Chicago, the Ame- too – this year more than ever.”
ricas’ largest dedicated exhibition for the coil winding, in-
sulation and electrical manufacturing industries. Now in its Last year the event was sponsored by the Transformer Associ-
11th year, the show has grown both in size and stature, en- ation of America (TTA), which hosted a series of round table
compassing almost all aspects of electrical engineering and events and workshops that proved popular with visitors and ex-
manufacturing. hibitors alike. This year TTA will return with a special transfor-
mer zone, highlighting the quality and expertise of transformer
“Due to its location in one of the USA’s most important auto­ component manufacturers from the USA, Canada and Mexico.
motive areas, CWIEME Chicago has traditionally been seen Top names at this year’s event will include Cobham, CST Ame-
as an electric motor manufacturing event,” says Haf Cennydd, rica, Tempel Steel and Eurotranciatura.

68 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

“Interactivity is very important to us at i2i Events Group. CWIEME Chicago – North America’s most com-
People can read product information anywhere, but whe-
prehensive showcase for the coil winding
re else can you see equipment in motion and directly com-
pare it with competitor models? CWIEME Chicago will and electro-magnetic industry
be packed with live machinery demonstrations from
our 160 exhibitors – from start to finish,” Cennydd says. Dates: September 30 – October 1, 2014
Venue: DE Stephens Convention Center, Chicago
Opening times: 10:00 am to 5:00 pm
Content is king Admission: Free

In addition, to securing new customers and suppliers, the For more information and to register for the event, please visit
CWIEME exhibition series offers participants an unmissable www.coilwindingexpo.com/chicago
opportunity to network with industry peers and discuss the la-
test technological and legislative developments. A free seminar
program will run throughout the two-day event, held Septem-
ber 30 through October 1, as well as additional breakfast brie-
fings and panel discussions. Key topics range from safety and
regulatory implications to the challenges and opportunities for
OEMs post-recession.

“Year after year, CWIEME Chicago has grown to become the

definitive event for the American coil winding, insulation and
electrical manufacturing industries, and we can’t wait to wel-
come both new and returning visitors to the DE Stephens Con-
vention Center for this 2014 edition,” Cennydd says.

CWIEME Chicago is part of i2i Events Group. i2i Events Group enables more than 200,000 buyers and producers to meet and
trade at some of the greatest exhibitions, large scale events and festivals in the world.

w w w . t ra n sfo r m e r s - m a g a z i n e . co m 69
 EVENTS CALENDAR

IEEE Power & Energy Society General Doble Client Committee Meetings
Meeting 2014 and Conference
27th July - 31th July 2014. 28th September 2014.
Gaylord National Resort & Convention Center, National Harbor, MD, USA Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Manufacturers and service providers may be interested in The power industry faces a long list of challenges and con-
special opportunities that will raise the company‘s profi- cerns, we bring together your peers to discuss the pressing
le amongst current and potential future customers while topics that impact your job. The Doble Client Committee
supporting the largest gathering of professionals in the Meetings provide the opportunity for Doble’s utility, in-
electrical power and energy industry in North America. Tutorials offered at the dustrial and testing company clients to discuss their maintenance and apparatus
General Meeting cover a range of topics. issues freely without the presence of manufacturers or insurers.
Delegates also select the topics that will be presented at the following year’s annu-
al International Conference of Doble Clients held in Boston, MA, USA.

CIGRÉ Session 45
24th August - 29th August 2014.
Palais des Congrès, Porte Maillot, 75017 Paris, France Cwieme Chicago
CIGRE covers issues related to planning and operation 30th September - 1st October 2014.
of power systems, as well as design, construction, main- DE Stephens Convention Center, Chicago, USA
tenance and disposal of HV equipment and plants are at CWIEME Chicago provides the largest platform for the
the core of CIGRE‘s mission. Other issues related to pro- transformer, electric motor and power generation indus-
tection of power systems, telecontrol, telecommunication equipment and infor- tries in North America, with many visitors whom don‘t
mation systems are also part of CIGRE‘s area of concern. attend any other exhibitions. This year’s Coil Winding Expo promises to be the
biggest collection of suppliers of electrical components in North America, with
exhibitors showcasing their products, services and technologies to a dedicated
audience of design engineers, buyers and technical managers.
Power Transformers Life Cycle Seminar
10th – 12th September 2014.
Belgrade, Serbia
Topics related to Testing, Diagnostics and Maintenance of IEEE/PES Transformers Committee
Power Transformers will be presented by internationally Fall 2014 Meeting
renowned experts. We invite you to attend this internatio- 19th October - 23rd October 2014.
nal seminar, sponsored by Central European Initiative and Washington DC Metro Area, USA
contribute to it in live discussions on preferred themes selected for this seminar. The Transformers Committee is one of the largest
and most active of the 16 technical committees of the
IEEE Power & Energy Society (PES). The Committee is
comprised of technical and managerial representatives
International Conference on Condition from manufacturers, consultants, vendors, and end-users of electrical trans-
Monitoring and Diagnosis 2014-06-18 formers & components.
21st September - 25th September 2014. The continuing scope of the Committee is to develop and update standards &
Jeju, Republic of Korea guidelines for the design,testing, repair, installation, operation, and maintenance
CIGRE provides an open forum for experts from the of transformers, reactors, and associated components that are used within the
worldwide electrical power industry to enhance their electric utility and industrial power systems.
knowledge, share best-practices, discuss new develop-
ments, while building a network of partners.

EuroDoble Colloquium
Maintenance and Re-investment Strategies in our Power
Coiltech 2014
Networks, Stations and Industrial Sites
24th September - 25th September 2014.
Pordenone, Italy
20nd October - 22th October 2014.
Manchester, UK
Coiltech is an international trade fair for coil windings,
Share best practices in maintenance, protection and
specialising in materials and machinery for the produc-
asset management of power utility assets.
tion and maintenance of electric motors, generators,
Participate in technical sessions, tutorials and users
transformers and power distribution, industrial transformers and windings in
groups. Engage with top experts and manufacturers from Europe and around
general. The event brings together leading companies from all segments of the
the world.
industry, from all over the world.

70 TRANSFORMERS MAGAZINE | Volume 1, Issue 2

 NEWS
WEBSITE
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latest global transformer re- transformer industry related fa­
lated industry, business and irs and conferences; provides
technology news and trends. a forum for information exch­
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nce and promote innovations, o­ting; and offers access to a
growth and progress of the tr­a­ global audience of prospective
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Our readers are professionals
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