Journal of Hazardous Materials 480 (2024) 136413

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Journal of Hazardous Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhazmat

Occurrence characteristics and ecological impact of agricultural soil

microplastics in the Qinghai Tibetan Plateau, China
Xiaoyun Bai a,b, Noman Shoaib a,b, Zhifen Pan a , Kaiwen Pan a , Xiaoming Sun a , Xiaogang Wu a ,
Lin Zhang a,*
a
CAS Key Laboratory of Mountain Ecological Restoration and Bioresource Utilization and Ecological Restoration and Biodiversity Conservation Key Laboratory of
Sichuan Province, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610041, China
b
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, China

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• The microplastics abundance were

higher in facility agriculture soil than
control samples.
• The distribution of microplastics was
mainly polyethylene terephthalate,
polypropylene, and polyethylene.
• Microplastics diversity in facility agri­
culture seems to be lower than control
samples.
• The pollution level of microplastics was
categorized as II or III according to the
polymer hazard index model.
• Microplastics diversity significantly
affected the ecological risk.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Plastic mulch is widely recognized as a significant contributor to microplastics (MPs) pollution in agricultural
Microplastic pollution soil. However, its direct impact on remote areas with low population density remains uncertain due to multiple
Agricultural soil pollution sources. This study aims to investigate MPs pollution and its risks regarding agricultural soil in the
Community diversity index
Qinghai Tibetan Plateau (QTP) in China. The results revealed that soil samples from the study area exhibited a
Risk assessment
range of MPs abundance, varying from 16.67 to 950 items/kg, with the highest average abundance observed in
Chengguan district (CG) soil samples (611.11 items/kg). Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP),
and polyethylene (PE) were identified as the predominant components of MPs in farmland soil. Furthermore,
significantly higher levels of MPs were found in the facility agriculture soil compared to the control soil. Diversity
and risk of MPs in different regions and cultivation conditions were significantly different. According to the
employed risk assessment models, agricultural soil demonstrated a relatively high polymer risk (47 % of areas
classified as level III). In addition to being influenced by exogenous factors, the diversity of MPs also plays an
intrinsic role in regulating the risk of MPs pollution. This study contributes to an enhanced comprehension of the

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Zhang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.136413
Received 8 July 2024; Received in revised form 23 October 2024; Accepted 4 November 2024
Available online 5 November 2024
0304-3894/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
X. Bai et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 480 (2024) 136413

issue of MPs pollution in QTP farmland soil, providing valuable empirical evidence and theoretical underpinning
for the development of efficacious control strategies.

1. Introduction regarding the research of the facility agriculture on MPs diversity index
is limited. Considering that terrestrial sources predominantly contribute
Plastic products are widely used worldwide due to their low to MPs contamination in urban water environments, it becomes imper­
manufacturing costs, versatile functional diversity, lightweight, and ative to investigate the impact of different cultivation conditions on the
easy transportation. In 2021, global annual plastic production reached diversity of MPs within agricultural ecosystems [33]. So far, the toxicity
461 million tons (Statista Research Department (SRD), [1]). As a result, and harmfulness of MPs have also received much attention [28,35].
many of these plastic products eventually become plastic waste because However, existing MPs risk assessments primarily rely on abundance,
of the increased production of disposable plastic products and incom­ polymers, and additives for calculating contamination risk indices,
plete recycling of plastics [2]. All the remaining plastic degrades into which possess certain limitations [28]. Given that a comprehensive
small plastic fragments or particles along with biotic and abiotic in­ assessment of microplastic risks necessitates systematic analysis of their
teractions, eventually forming MPs less than 5 mm in diameter [3-6]. As properties and ecological impacts, understanding the relationship be­
a new type of environmental pollutant, MPs are widely present in tween these factors and microplastic risks is essential.
various environmental matrices, such as the atmosphere, water, and The rapid development of facility agriculture in recent decades has
land environment [7-12]. Recently, due to their characteristics, such as raised concerns regarding the potential MPs contamination of farmland
small particle size, wide variety of sources, easy migration, long exis­ soil. However, in areas characterized by high human activity, the direct
tence period, absorption/desorption of other pollutants, and trans­ impact of plastic mulch on MPs may be limited due to their ability to
mission into the food web, the ecological and environmental risks of MPs enter agroecosystems through multiple pathways. Therefore, this study
have attracted increasing attention [13,14,11,15]. selected Xizang and Qinghai, two representative areas of facility agri­
Since Rillig [14] first proposed the issue of MPs pollution in terres­ culture in the QTP that accounted for over 90% of the whole region [36].
trial ecosystems, researchers have gradually begun to pay attention to The aims in this study are as follows: 1) discover differences in MPs in
the impact of MPs on the soil environment [16,17,12,18,19]. Facility soil under different cultivation conditions, 2) evaluate the diversity of
agriculture is a modern agricultural method that uses engineering MPs by using SWDI and SDI, and clarify the effect of cultivation con­
technology to produce plants and animals efficiently under relatively ditions on the MPs’ diversity, 3) reveal the relationship between MPs
controllable environment. Although the study on soil MPs is limited community diversity and ecological risks. This study provides a foun­
compared to the marine environment, investigations have been con­ dation for comprehending the characteristics and behaviors of MPs in
ducted on the abundance of MPs in several major facility agriculture facility agricultural soil within the QTP, thereby contributing to an
production bases in China, including Shandong, Beijing, and Jiangsu enhanced understanding of their ecological impacts on soil ecosystems.
Province [20-22]. Soil serves as a crucial pathway for the transport of Moreover, it supports environmental conservation efforts and sustain­
MP debris. MPs can enter into aquatic environments on land through able soil management practices.
rainfall-runoff, sewage treatment, and garbage dumping. Additionally,
they can enter plants via symplastic or apoplastic routes, posing a po­ 2. Materials and methods
tential threat to humans [23,24]. Despite numerous studies pointing out
the risks of MPs pollution, most research has focused on densely popu­ 2.1. Sampling area
lated areas. High-altitude ecosystems, which undergo dynamic trans­
formations and harbor vulnerable indigenous fauna, are particularly The QTP, an inland plateau in the southwest of China, is the highest
susceptible to human activities [25-27]. However, there remains a plateau in the world and is known as the ‘Third Pole’. The study area is
dearth of research investigating MPs pollution in these regions [28,29]. situated in the QTP, which includes the Xizang Autonomous Region and
The QTP, acknowledged as the ‘Third Pole’ and the ‘Water Tower of Qinghai Province as well as parts of Sichuan, Gansu, Yunan, and Xin­
Asia’, is an inland plateau that sustains a population of over 1.4 billion jiang provinces. The average annual precipitation in the plateau is
residents from diverse countries such as Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, mostly between 200 and 600 mm, the average annual temperature is
Vietnam, Thailand, and India. This represents an ideal location for − 5.75 to 2.57 ℃, and the average altitude is 4330 m.
investigating the characteristics of MPs pollution within natural envi­ In this study, 90 sampling points were set up in the farmland of the
ronments owing to its low-intensity anthropogenic activities [30]. In QTP (Fig. 1). Among them, 6 points are situated in Chengguan district
recent years, MPs pollution has been detected in QTP soil. The north­ (CG), 9 points in Duilongdeqing district (DL), 12 points in Qushui county
eastern agricultural areas of QTP exhibit remarkably high levels of MPs (QS), 9 points in Sangzhuzi district (SZZ), 6 points in Lazi county (LZ), 6
abundance, reaching up to 2796 ± 1701 items/kg dry soil [31]. points in Jiangzi county (JZ) of Xizang, 15 points in Huangzhong district
Nevertheless, there is still limited regional research on the correlation (HZ), 13 points in Datong Hui Tu Autonomous County (DT), and 14
between MPs and facility agriculture in the QTP. Thus, it is necessary to points in Ledu district (LD) of Qinghai. Detailed information on the
investigate the distribution of MPs in facility agriculture soil, particu­ sampling sites is listed in Fig. 1 and Table S1. Soil samples were collected
larly in high-altitude areas, where research on this topic remains limited. from July to August 2022, with 63 stations for greenhouse soil samples
Generally, the morphology of MPs governs their environmental and 27 stations for control soil samples. The control samples refer to the
behavior. For instance, the shape of bait pellets can influence shrimp open-field farmland that is adjacent to greenhouse facilities. Five-point
feeding rates [32]. Considering their diverse characteristics, Li et al. subsamples with a weight of about 500 g from 0–20 cm shallow layers
[20] defined "MPs communities" as an amalgamation of MPs exhibiting were excavated at each station (Fig. S1), using a soil auger, and three
various colors, shapes, and polymer types in the environment. Further­ replications were collected for 270 soil samples. The collected soil was
more, MPs originating from the same region also exhibit considerable thoroughly mixed and carefully covered with aluminum boxes. All
diversity. While some studies have employed the diversity index to samples were placed in a freezer until they were returned to the
assess MPs diversity in coastal zones, sediments, and different rocky laboratory.
desertification areas [33-35]. Whereas insufficient attention has been
given to exploring how variations in physical forms and constituent el­
ements of MPs could provide insights into their sources. Furthermore,

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X. Bai et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 480 (2024) 136413

2.2. Microplastics extraction from soil greater than 70%.

MPs were obtained from soil using the saturated sodium chloride
2.4. Quality control and quality assurance
(NaCl) solution density separation described by Liu et al. [37]. Specif­
ically, plant roots and large stones were manually removed from the
To avoid potential anthropogenic and airborne MPs contamination,
air-dried samples. Using a vacuum pump, saturated NaCl strict quality control was maintained during the experiment, and the
(ρ = 1.2 g/cm3) was filtered through a glass sand core filter (Jinteng,
extraction and identification were carried out in a clean environment in
10 µm, China) and captured in the surface of a 0.45 µm glass microfiber the laboratory. All researchers wore nitrile gloves and cotton-padded
membrane. Subsequently, 20 g of dried soil sample from each sampling
clothes throughout the experiment. Glassware was used during the
point was added to 50 mL of saturated NaCl, sonicated for 5 min, and experiment, and sample handling was carried out in an enclosed space.
stirred with a magnetic stirrer at 25 ℃ for 30 min. After being kept at
To prevent MPs pollution, the samples were covered with foil. All re­
room temperature for 24 h, the suspension, including MPs particles, was agents and distilled water were filtered, and all devices were rinsed with
collected using the 0.45 µm glass microfiber membrane and filtered by
distilled water thrice. To avoid double counting, samples were observed
the vacuum pump. The extraction process was repeated three times for in an S-shape from left to right at the edge of the filter membrane [38].
each soil sample to collect all the particles. The obtained filter mem­
Images of suspicious MPs were photographed and saved using a mi­
brane was then digested by 50 mL 30% H2O2 to remove the organic croscope camera. Three blank samples were processed using the same
matter. Finally, the digested sample was filtered again to produce a filter
extraction and identified flows as the soil samples to avoid potential
membrane containing MPs. anthropogenic and airborne influence. The final MPs abundance was
obtained after blank samples were deducted. To avoid the misidentifi­
cation of MPs, we used the standards in the previous literature to
2.3. Visual identification of microplastics
regulate the selection of MPs [39].
Following the extraction step, observed particles were recorded and
classified based on their number, sizes, shapes, colors, and polymer 2.5. Microplastics risk assessment
types. The morphology, color, size, and number of MPs obtained were
observed and counted with a stereo microscope (Leica, Germany). All To evaluate the ecological risks posed by soil MPs in QTP, we
suspected MPs were chosen to identify the polymer type using trans­ employed the polymer hazard index (PHI) based on the chemical
mission mode of micro-Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (μ-FTIR, composition and concentration of MPs, as well as the pollution load
iN10MX, Thermo Scientific, USA). The parameters were set as follows: index (PLI) associated with the abundance of MPs [40,41]. The PHI
spectral range 400–4000 cm–1, a resolution of 4 cm–1, and 32 scans. The quantifies the level of polymer-associated hazards in MPs, facilitating
obtained infrared spectrum was compared with the standard database in the monitoring of chemical risks associated with each sample and
Omnic, and the polymer type could be determined when the match was providing a valuable reference for environmental risk management. The

Fig. 1. Sampling sites of agricultural soil in QTP.

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X. Bai et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 480 (2024) 136413

equation used to calculate the PHI was as follows: plastic ropes for vine supports, alongside the application of black mulch
∑ (PE) to optimize their growth. Similarly, the district of HZ exhibited the
PHI = Pn × Sn highest concentration of MPs (259.72 items/kg) in Qinghai, with a
history exceeding 10 years. Rosella was cultivated in this area using
where PHI is the polymer hazard index, Pn is the percentage of that type white mulch (PE) during the sampling process. The findings indicate
of polymer, and Sn is the risk fraction of the particular polymer. The risk that despite a prolonged history of vegetable cultivation in QTP soil, the
scores of each polymer are based on the reference of Lithner et al. [42], prevalence of MPs in this area appears to be comparatively lower than in
as shown in Table S2. The risk classification standard can be seen in most parts of China (e.g., Wuhan, Nanjing, and Shanxi) and other
Table 1 [43,44]. countries (e.g., Spain, Pakistan, and Denmark) (Table S3). Generally
The PLI is a tool utilized for evaluating the quality of water, soil, and speaking, the levels of MPs detected in the agricultural soil of QTP were
sediment. It is determined by multiplying the pollution factors associ­ lower compared to other regions. This variance might be attributed to its
ated with the analyzed chemical elements and subsequently taking their sparse population density and elevated altitude.
nth root [42]. The formulas used for calculating the PLI were as follows: It is worth noting that the abundance of MPs in facility agriculture
Ci soil was significantly higher than in control soil in both Xizang and
CFi = Qinghai (Fig. 2b, p < 0.05). This finding aligns with previous research
Coi
on MPs pollution in facility agriculture, primarily because of the use of
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
PLIn = CFi shed film and mulch, as well as the incorporation of organic fertilizers
containing MPs (including those generated during fertilizer production
√ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
PLIzone = n
PLI1 × PLI2 × PLI3 × … × PLIn and manures serving as organic fertilizers), which contribute to the
elevated levels of MPs [47,20,48,49]. In addition, we observed a slightly
where CFi is the pollution coefficient of MPs; Ci represents the MPs higher concentration of MPs in Xizang soil samples (400.56 items/kg)
abundance in site I and Coi is the background value in the study area. compared to Qinghai province (211.22 items/kg), potentially due to
This study used the lowest MPs abundance detected in all soil samples as variations in greenhouse usage duration, film application rates, organic
the background value. PLIn is the PLI of MPs in site n and fertilizer input, altitude and so on [50-53]. For example, in our field
PLIzone represents the PLI of the study area. The risk classification investigation, we observed a higher utilization of plastic film in green­
criteria are presented in Table 1 [45,46]. house facilities in Xizang compared to Qinghai. This disparity can be
attributed to the adoption of double-layered plastic film by some farmers
in Xizang and potentially influenced by climatic variations. Moreover,
2.6. Data analysis
due to differences in climate and demand for vegetables, vegetable
cultivation spans an average of three seasons per year in Xizang,
The abundance of MPs was quantified as the number of items per
whereas Qinghai averagely engages in two-season planting.
kilogram in dry soil, and the unit was items/kg. The spatial distribution
Additionally, MPs were detected in control soil without film cover,
of sampling points was visualized using ArcGIS 10.8. Data analysis and
indicating that the mulch is not the sole contributor to MPs in long-term
visualization were performed using Microsoft Excel 2021, Origin 2024,
mulched soil. Other sources of MPs in soil encompass sludge and organic
and SPSS 26.0 software packages. An independent sample T-test was
fertilizer application, atmospheric sedimentation, sewage irrigation,
used to compare the MPs abundance and size in XZ and QH at a sig­
surface runoff, and littering [54-58]. It was investigated that farmers use
nificant level of 0.05 between the control and sample groups. One-way
a large amount of organic and chemical fertilizers to improve soil
ANOVA was conducted to assess differences in MPs abundance among
fertility and quality. At the same time, numerous studies have revealed
different sampling sites. Post hoc analysis using the least significant
that organic fertilizer is an emerging contributor to MPs accumulation in
difference method was applied to identify significant variations between
farmland soils. For example, a study by Zhang et al. [59] revealed that
individual sampling points at p < 0.05.
the concentrations of MPs in composted pig manure and cow manure
were 3547 and 4520 particles/kg, respectively, following prolonged
3. Results and discussion
application of organic fertilizers to the soil. Furthermore, these remote
areas lack effective measures to manage plastic waste, another signifi­
3.1. Pollution characteristic of microplastics in agricultural soil
cant contributing factor. For instance, during our sampling process, we
observed accumulations of discarded plastic films and haphazardly
3.1.1. Abundance and distribution of microplastics
disposed of household plastic waste near the sheds. These materials are
The total quantity of MPs in all soil samples is shown in Fig. 2. It was
susceptible to a range of detrimental processes, such as tearing, aging,
found that MPs were detected in almost all soil samples, indicating that
and cracking, resulting in the formation of small films and fragments.
MPs have been widely present in the farmland soil on the QTP. The
overall distribution of MPs abundance was 16.67− 950 items/kg. The
3.1.2. Size of microplastics
concentrations of MPs in the control soil and facility agriculture soil in
The particle size influences the migration and transformation of MPs
Xizang were 153.33− 233.33 and 183.33− 611.11 items/kg (Fig. 2c),
in soil and the degree of pollution hazards. The detected MPs were
and in Qinghai were 105.56− 111.11 and 168.18− 259.72 items/kg
categorized into 5 classes according to particle size: < 1000 µm,
(Fig. 2d), respectively. The highest concentration of MPs in Xizang was
1000− 2000 µm, 2000− 3000 µm, 3000− 4000 µm, and 4000− 5000 µm.
found in the CG (611.11 items/kg), where greenhouse cultivation has a
The minimum size of MPs detected in this study was found to be 90 µm.
history of over 10 years. During our sampling investigation, we observed
The size distribution of MPs in the QTP is shown in Fig. 3a. A significant
that green beans were being grown. We noted the extensive utilization of
portion of MPs in farmland soil from various regions belonged to smaller
particle-size classes (Fig. 3a). Particle size below 3000 µm was the
Table 1
dominant size of MPs, accounting for 89.0% of the total samplings in
The pollution grade levels of MPs in agriculture soil collected from Qinghai
QTP, followed by 3000− 4000 and 4000− 5000 µm (Fig. S2). The par­
Tibetan Plateau.
ticle sizes less than 3000 µm were also the most common in all control
Risk category I II III IV and facility agriculture samples, accounting for 82.1% and 90.3%,
PHI < 10 10 − 100 100 − 1000 > 1000 respectively (Fig. S2). This finding is in line with Wang et al. [21],
PLI < 10 10 − 20 20 − 30 > 30 possibly for the following reasons: (1) Agricultural films are more prone
Risk category Minor High Danger Extreme danger
to breaking down into MPs compared to other types of plastics, (2)

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X. Bai et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 480 (2024) 136413

Fig. 2. (a) Representative landscape of the study sites. (b) Box map depicting the distribution of soil in the control group and sample group (facility agriculture)
generated for XZ (Xizang) and QH (Qinghai). (c) and (d) Concentration of MPs at each sampling point in XZ and QH, respectively. CK1, CK2, and CK3 are the control
samples of Xizang or Qinghai. Different letters and asterisks are employed to denote a statistically significant level at the 0.05 level.

smaller particle sizes are easier to accumulate in the soil and could enter was the largest (65.5%), followed by films (23.9%), and the proportion
into other ecosystems, and (3) low temperature and strong ultraviolet of fragments (6.8%) and pellets (3.8%) was relatively small for the
radiation in the QTP can further accelerate the embrittlement and overall samples in QTP (Fig. S3). In the facility agriculture samples,
degradation of plastics. 65.4% of the MPs shape was fiber, 23.8% was film, 7.1% was fragment,
In addition, neither the two cultivation conditions nor the planting and 3.7% was pellet, similar to the overall and control distribution
areas significantly affected the distribution ratio of MPs particle sizes (Fig. S3). Interestingly, the shapes of both fiber and film were the main
(p > 0.05). Although the two cultivation conditions did not significantly morphological components of the two agricultural practice types, ac­
impact the particle size of MPs, the proportion of MPs particle sizes counting for about 90% of the total (Fig. 3b). However, the MPs shape of
between 3000 and 5000 µm in facility agriculture soil (about 9.7%) was pellet was less detected in the facility agriculture and control samples.
lower than that in non-facility agriculture soil (about 17.9%), suggesting This phenomenon may be associated with the inherent characteristics of
that the two cultivation conditions also affected the migration of MPs in the fibers and the fluidity of the surrounding environment. On the one
farmland soil to some extent (Fig. S2). Plastic fragments, once entering hand, fiber-shaped MPs are fragile and prone to breakage under the
the soil, transform into smaller fragments through various physical and influence of water flow and intense ultraviolet radiation, resulting in an
chemical processes such as ultraviolet radiation, mechanical wear, and increased abundance of smaller fibers [62,63]. On the other hand, film
microbial activity [60,61]. Therefore, we hypothesized that this phe­ and fiber-shaped MPs exhibit rough surfaces with visible signs of wear
nomenon may be linked to high temperature and high-intensity culti­ and cracks, leading to a larger contact area with soil, which hinders their
vation in facility agriculture, although the specific mechanism requires migration into deeper layers. In contrast, pellet-shaped MPs possess a
further investigation. hard texture, enabling easier movement within soil matrices [64].
Additionally, microbeads mainly originate from detergents, personal
3.1.3. Shape of microplastics care products, and leaked raw materials in the plastic industry [65-67].
According to the microscope images of MPs morphological charac­ Therefore, we speculate that the lower proportion of microbeads in this
teristics, the collected MPs can be divided into 4 categories: fiber, film, study may originate from irrigation with sewage sludge or surface runoff
pellet, and fragment. The shape distribution of MPs at all sampling sites entering agricultural soil.
is represented in Fig. 3b and Fig. S3. In general, the proportion of fibers Moreover, the shape distribution characteristics of the fiber- and

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X. Bai et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 480 (2024) 136413

Fig. 3. Average size (a), shape (b), color (c), and type (d) of microplastics at each sampling points in the Qinghai-Tibet plateau. Note: PET, polyethylene tere­
phthalate; PE, polyethylene; PP, polypropylene; PS, polystyrene.

film-shaped MPs in facility agriculture soil exhibited a similar trend to possible source of blue MPs.
that of the control samples (Fig. S3). Although the overall shape distri­
bution of MPs in facility agriculture soil resembled that in non-facility 3.1.5. Polymer composition of microplastics
agriculture, variations were observed between greenhouse and control We further identified the types and distribution of MPs in all samples
soil across different regions (Fig. 3b). This study primarily identified (Fig. 3d and Fig. S5). The analysis revealed the following types of MPs:
fiber- and film-shaped MPs, suggesting their origin from things such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene
plastic shed films, mulch films, and plastic bags. Notably, linear-shaped (PP), polystyrene (PS), Rayon, and others (Fig. 3d). Others were mainly
MPs may have originated from strings or strips of cloth used in green­ polyamide (PA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and paraformaldehyde
house scaffolds and vegetable cultivation facilities. Differently, MPs (POM). Among the identified MPs types, PET, PE, and PP were found to
found in control fields likely stemmed from diverse sources of pollution, be the most abundant in terms of particle number, accounting for 36.9%,
such as waste mulch accumulation, fertilizer usage, sewage irrigation 20.1%, and 17.2% of the total samples respectively, followed by PS
practices, and sludge application [16,57,14,12,58]. (8.8%), Rayon (9.2%), and others (7.9%). Compared with the overall
distribution, there was an improvement in the detection rates of domi­
3.1.4. Color of microplastics nant PET and PP in facility agriculture samples, reaching 37.1% and
Different colors of MPs may indicate different sources. In this study, 17.7%, respectively (Fig. S5). Generally, as a denser type of MPs, PET
we identified MPs primarily in six colors: black, blue, transparent, red, was less detectable in most environmental substrates [28,69]. The high
green, and white. Notably, the majority of the MPs in QTP farmland proportion observed in QTP suggested that it may be uniquely associ­
were black, accounting for 34.3%, followed by transparent (20.6%), ated with human activities, such as the indiscriminate littering and
blue (20.5%), red (9.8%), green (6.3%) white (4.4%), and others (4.1%), improper disposal of empty bottles or packaging bags from pesticides or
as shown in Fig. S4. Other colors included brown, purple, orange, and fertilizers (Fig. S1b− d). The other two types of MPs showed relatively
yellow. Similar distribution patterns of MPs colors were observed in the higher abundance because PE is mainly used in plastic film production,
control and facility agriculture samples (Fig. S4). The color composition food packaging film, and pipe manufacturing. PP can be utilized to make
of agricultural soil MPs varied across different study areas, however, greenhouse sheds, farm tools, and fish nets, and is also commonly found
black, blue, and transparent were the predominant colors (Fig. 3c). as food bags or beverage packaging bottles, which are widely distributed
Consistent findings regarding the dominance of black and transparent in the terrestrial environment [70,71,56].
MPs have been reported in previous studies [37,68]. The prevalence of Besides, a consistent trend in the type of MPs between the control
these colors can be attributed to their association with mulching films, and facility agriculture samples was observed. In most soil samples, PET,
plastic bags, tapes, and packaging materials. In contrast, other colors PP, and PE were identified as the predominant types of MPs, which
may originate from colored plastic consumer goods and clothing [68]. aligns with previous research findings [20,37,72]. However, a higher
Specifically, wide usage of black mulch film over vegetation may result frequency of PET was detected across all samples, indicating diverse
in the largest proportion of black MPs in QTP. In contrast, transparent sources of MPs in the soil. Moreover, variations were noted in the pro­
MPs and plastic products from vegetation cover, such as fertilizer bottles portion of MPs among two cultivation conditions (Fig. 3d). In facility
and polystyrene boxes, may be the main sources of white MPs. Apart agriculture soil from most study areas, there was a higher proportion of
from the dominant black and transparent MPs, blue MPs were also PE and PP compared to control samples while other MPs types exhibited
notably observed. The presence of blue shed film and blue strings was a lower proportions than those found in control samples. This observation

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X. Bai et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 480 (2024) 136413

further supports that plastic products used extensively in facility agri­

culture production, such as shed film, mulch, packaging rope, and
packaging bags, contribute significantly to MPs pollution [73,20,67,22].

3.2. Diversity index of microplastics in agricultural soil

The diversity of MPs can be better understood by considering their

size, shape, color, and polymer type [20]. In this study, the Simpson
diversity index (SDI) and Shannon-Wiener diversity index (SWDI) were
calculated based on these characteristics to estimate the diversity of
agricultural soil MPs in QTP. Overall, the SDI values of MPs particle size,
shape, color, and polymer type were 0.23 ± 0.12, 0.19 ± 0.12, 0.37
± 0.15, and 0.28 ± 0.20, respectively. The SWDI values for size, shape,
color, and polymer were 0.55 ± 0.25, 0.45 ± 0.24, 0.89 ± 0.32, and
0.72 ± 0.48, respectively (Fig. S6). Differences in SDI and SWDI were
noticed in MPs size, shape, color, and polymer in two cultivation con­
ditions, suggesting the diversity of sources of MPs (Table 2). Both SDI
and SWDI showed higher in facility agriculture than in the control,
regardless of size, shape, color, or polymer. The diversity of MPs
appeared to be higher in facility agriculture compared to the control
group. This phenomenon could be attributed to the extensive use of
plastic film and implementation of various agronomic measures aimed
at enhancing vegetable yields within facility greenhouses.
Principal component analysis (PCA) demonstrated a significant dif­
ferentiation in the composition of MPs communities within farmland soil
across diverse regions of the QTP. PC1 and PC2, representing 70.5% and
8.7% of the total variance respectively, indicate notable alterations in
MPs communities under distinct regional conditions and cultivation
conditions (Fig. 4a). The results depicted in Fig. 4b demonstrate that Fig. 4. Differences in microplastics communities based on size, shape, color,
fiber, pellet, black, transparent, and PET MPs contribute to the observed and polymer type in farmland soil of QTP (a) PCA; (b) Contributions of different
factors causing differences in microplastics communities.
differences in MPs communities. Notably, black MPs emerge as a pivotal
factor influencing these variations. Our research findings provide evi­
dence that facility agriculture practice can alter MPs communities in sources of plastic pollution, enhance the recycling rate of plastic waste,
different matrices. as well as promote public awareness and education regarding plastic
pollution concerns. Hence, two methods of both PHI and PLI were uti­
lized to comprehensively evaluate the environmental risk of MPs pol­
3.3. Environmental risk assessment of microplastics
lutants in QTP.
The PHI values are presented in Fig. 5a, illustrating the range of MPs
As a newly recognized pollutant, evaluating the ecological risk of
pollution at each sampling point (27.88 to 576.25), falling into risk
MPs primarily involves referencing evaluation methods used for other
categories II or III. Among these, the highest average PHI value was
pollutants. Currently, several models are available for measuring the
observed in soil samples from Datong (576.25), surpassing all other
risk of MPs, however, each model has its own set of criteria and pa­
regions/counties examined. The overall PHI reached 183.75, indicating
rameters, leading to varying risk outcomes. Farmland ecosystems play a
a risk category III classification. Generally, the total samples from fa­
crucial role in human life as they provide valuable food sources,
cility agriculture (269.79) exhibited significantly higher mean PHI
contribute to maintaining ecological balance, and protect biodiversity.
values compared to all control samples (54.69), suggesting a greater risk
Therefore, it is essential to assess the potential harm caused by MPs in
of MPs pollution in facility agriculture (p < 0.05). However, the extent
different regions to gain a comprehensive understanding of the extent of
of MPs pollution is influenced by quantity and type [44,71]. Notably,
MPs pollution in the QTP and to effectively implement management
polymer types with high contamination risks such as PVC, PET, PS, and
strategies.
PE contribute to ultra-risk of contamination within the region, which
PHI and PLI play a crucial role in the assessment of environmental
attributes to their high abundance [42,44]. Medium-risk contamination
plastic pollution risks, as they quantify the magnitude and potential
primarily stemmed from PE, PET, and PS polymers. Despite efforts to
hazards associated with plastic pollution using diverse indicators,
estimate MP abundance and toxicity risk considering various factors,
thereby providing a foundation for implementing appropriate mitiga­
uncertainties remain due to the undetected presence of some polymer
tion strategies. By employing these two assessment methods, it becomes
types and the absence of toxicity scores for special polymers, such as PBT
feasible to effectively identify and manage environmental issues related
and PVDF. Overall findings indicate a discernible level of MPs pollution
to plastic pollution, implement appropriate measures for reducing the

Table 2
The Simpson diversity index (SDI) and Shannon-Wiener diversity index (SWDI) of microplastic communities to size, shape, color, and polymer.
Location Size Shape Color Polymer

SDI SWDI SDI SWDI SDI SWDI SDI SWDI

Xizang control 0.241 ± 0.047 0.586 ± 0.096 0.196 ± 0.061 0.475 ± 0.124 0.392 ± 0.096 0.950 ± 0.193 0.324 ± 0.091 0.761 ± 0.148
Xizang sample 0.300 ± 0.153 0.706 ± 0.308 0.274 ± 0.133 0.615 ± 0.261 0.470 ± 0.150 1.119 ± 0.338 0.394 ± 0.262 0.997 ± 0.645
Qinghai control 0.228 ± 0.044 0.276 ± 0.059 0.060 ± 0.020 0.175 ± 0.054 0.212 ± 0.063 0.545 ± 0.124 0.132 ± 0.062 0.346 ± 0.133
Qinghai sample 0.189 ± 0.045 0.485 ± 0.097 0.147 ± 0.033 0.372 ± 0.072 0.289 ± 0.034 0.729 ± 0.072 0.181 ± 0.016 0.517 ± 0.049
Total sample 0.226 ± 0.123 0.552 ± 0.254 0.190 ± 0.119 0.451 ± 0.239 0.367 ± 0.146 0.893 ± 0.322 0.285 ± 0.198 0.724 ± 0.476

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X. Bai et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 480 (2024) 136413

Fig. 5. PHI (a) and PLI (b) risk hazards of each sampling points in the Qinghai-Tibet plateau.

in the QTP, with significant differences observed between the facility

agriculture and control soil samples.
Regarding the PLI model, its results differed significantly from those
of the PHI model, as depicted in Fig. 5b. The PLI results revealed that all
PLI values of MPs pollution in QTP fell within category I. Among these,
DL exhibited the highest average PLI (7.73), while CK 6 had the lowest
(1.27). Overall, all samples in this study were classified as I (PLIzone =
4.25), indicating that they were mildly contaminated. Furthermore,
similar to PHI, facility agriculture soil (3.73) posed a higher risk
compared to control soil (2.84) (p < 0.05). Due to the limited avail­
ability of basic data and background values for MPs pollution in this
study region, the minimum detected abundance value (75 items/kg) was
used instead of the background value to assess the extent of MPs
pollution in farmland soil. This model may lead to an underestimation of
the degree of MPs pollution.

3.4. Potential effect of MPs diversity on environmental risks

The association between community diversity and ecological risk

under varying cultivation conditions is illustrated in Fig. 6. Significant
variations in the diversity of microbial populations and ecological risks
were observed across fields employing different cultivation conditions.
Under the Xizang control, no significant correlation was found between
the MPs community diversity and ecological risk. In the Xizang sample,
PLI, CF were significantly positively correlated with SWDI_color and
SDI_color (r = 0.88 − 0.89, p < 0.05). Under the Qinghai control, PLI,
CF, and SDI_color were significantly positively correlated (r = 0.99,
p < 0.05). In the Qinghai sample, significantly negatively correlation Fig. 6. Correlation analysis of microplastic ecological risks and microplastic
was observed between PHI and SWDI_polymer (r = 0.99, p < 0.05). community diversity.
Previous studies have demonstrated that an increase in the diversity
of MPs in soil escalates the risk of plant pollution [35,55]. However, this 4. Strategies and prospects for microplastic pollution control
study aims to elucidate the impact of enhanced MPs diversity on plastic
pollution risk in soil under different planting methods, which remains Due to the intricate nature of soil and the lag in research, our
uncertain due to various factors influencing MPs pollution risk. The comprehension of the behavior and risks associated with MPs in soil
uncertainty can be attributed to various factors that influence the risk of environments remains limited. Additionally, there is a shortage of
MPs pollution in soil resulting from different cultivation methods. For standardized methodologies for segregating and identifying MPs in soil,
instance, agricultural processes such as mulching timing and method, impeding comparisons regarding their abundance. Furthermore, the
irrigation water management practices, livestock and poultry manure contribution rates from various sources to MPs pollution in soil remain
application, frequency of tillage, weather conditions, fertilization tech­ undisclosed. Moreover, the contamination process and ecological im­
niques, pesticide usage, and regional industrial emissions may also pacts of MPs within soil environments are intricately linked to their
impact the risk of contamination by MPs [28,43]. However, more work composition and properties, which also influence the biological and
is needed to confirm this in the future.

8
X. Bai et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 480 (2024) 136413

health hazards posed by these particles. Therefore, the following stra­ ρ > 1.2 g/cm3) are likely underestimated. However, considering the
tegies related to agricultural management and environmental policies current absence of standardized procedures for MPs detection, it is
have been proposed to reduce or control MPs pollution. imperative to incorporate standardized detection methods in future
(1) Controlling from the source: The most straightforward and effi­ research endeavors. This will not only enhance the accessibility and
cacious approach to mitigating MPs contamination in agricultural soil is comparability of existing data but also contribute to a more professional
to implement stringent regulations on using plastic materials in agri­ and academically rigorous presentation.
culture at their source. For example, the abundance of MPs in facility
agriculture can be mitigated through the regulation of MPs content in 6. Conclusion
organic fertilizers and the reduction of film usage. Currently, although
there are certain challenge associated with reducing the utilization of We investigated the distribution, potential sources, and risks asso­
agricultural plastic, it is imperative to advance the development of ciated with MPs in soil representative of facility agriculture in the QTP,
biodegradable films that are more environmentally friendly. For emphasizing the significance of considering multiple origins of MPs
instance, developing biodegradable alternatives to PVC, PET, PS, and PE contamination in agricultural soil. The total abundance of MPs in soil
plastics can enhance the recycling rate of these plastic products and samples within the study area ranged from 16.67 to 950 items/kg, with
mitigate the risk of MPs pollution. Furthermore, diminishing the pres­ samples exhibiting the highest average abundance (611.11 items/kg).
ence of MPs in fertilizers and irrigation water can also contribute to PET, PE, and PP were identified as the primary constituents of MPs
mitigating their accumulation in soil. found in farmland soil, predominantly measuring less than 3000 µm in
(2)Enhancing legislation and regulatory frameworks: Currently, diameter. The main MPs appeared as fibers and films in black, trans­
there is a dearth of specialized legislation and regulations governing parent, or blue colors. Furthermore, facility agriculture exhibited
MPs in agricultural soil. Instead, control over MPs is achieved through significantly higher levels of MPs abundance compared to non-facility
the modification of existing regulations and the proposal of measures agriculture (control soil samples). Moreover, The PCA revealed the in­
related to MPs pollution such as the “Zero Pollution Action Plan” of fluence of different cultivation conditions on the diversity of MPs
European Commission and “Opinions on Deepening the Battle Against communities, leading to variations among MPs communities across
Pollution Prevention and Control” of China. Although these proposed different regions. Various risk assessment models used in this study show
measures have played a certain role in preventing and controlling this that agricultural soil exhibited relatively high polymer-related risks,
pollution, improving relevant laws and regulations remains urgent. with 47% of the areas classified at level III, which is out of level IV. In
Furthermore, internationally recognized methods for detecting MPs in addition to being influenced by exogenous factors, the diversity of MPs
soil are yet to be perfected; laboratory methods established by scholars also plays an intrinsic role in regulating the risk of MPs pollution. The
remain predominant at this stage. Therefore, it is necessary to expedite present study investigates the distribution characteristics of MPs in
the development of detection methods, assessment standards, and farmland soil within the QTP by employing the concept of "MPs com­
technical specifications for monitoring MPs in agricultural soil. munity diversity" to enhance comprehension regarding the environ­
(3) Establishing a pollution monitoring system: It is suggested that mental impact and ecological risks associated with MPs.
the monitoring and early warning of MPs be strengthened in the soil to
provide a scientific basis for pollution prevention and control. Research Environmental implication
needs to be conducted on soil MPs monitoring, and technical regulations
should be established for soil MPs monitoring. Simultaneously, pro­ MPs have been detected as an emerging environmental pollutant in
moting and providing training on soil MPs monitoring technology is remote ecosystems. Despite the increasing attention given to MPs,
significant. Ultimately, a monitoring protocol needs to be established for studies on their distribution characteristics in highland facility agricul­
soil MPs, and a pilot study on monitoring should be implemented. ture soil have been limited. In recent years, the significant trans­
(4) Vigorously promoting technological innovation: There is a need formation of the farmland soil environment has been observed due to the
to encourage enterprises and research institutions to engage in scientific rapid development of plateau facility agriculture in response to human
research on the prevention and control of MPs pollution, while pro­ daily life demands. Of particular concern is the noteworthy impact of
moting technological innovation. For instance, further studies could be agricultural production on MPs pollution. Moreover, given that the QTP
conducted to reduce MPs in agricultural soil, such as enhancing the serves as the water tower of Asia and acts as a source for over 10 major
durability of plastics, optimizing wastewater treatment processes, and rivers in the region, it becomes imperative to accurately evaluate both
developing biodegradable clean films. Simultaneously, fostering inter­ distribution patterns and ecological risks associated with MPs pollution
national collaboration can be instrumental in collectively addressing the in an agricultural environment.
issue of MPs pollution and advancing global environmental governance.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
5. Limitations
Xiaogang Wu: Writing – review & editing. Xiaoming Sun: Writing –
Although this study offers a comprehensive analysis of MPs in review & editing. Lin Zhang: Writing – review & editing, Supervision.
farmland soil on the QTP, it is important to note three limiting factors Noman Shoaib: Writing – review & editing. Xiaoyun Bai: Writing –
and their associated influencing factors regarding the variation in MPs original draft, Visualization, Software, Data curation, Conceptualiza­
abundance. Firstly, despite being based on 90 sampling points, a larger tion. Kaiwen Pan: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project
number of soil samples should be collected due to the high coefficient of administration, Conceptualization. Zhifen Pan: Writing – review &
variation of MPs in greenhouse farmland soil and the vast area of the editing.
QTP for an accurate estimation of MPs abundance in greenhouse farm­
land. Secondly, the spatial distribution of MPs in the environment ex­ Declaration of Competing Interest
hibits significant heterogeneity, necessitating sampling methodologies
that accurately reflect the prevailing environmental conditions. How­ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
ever, currently employed sampling tools and techniques may not interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
comprehensively capture all sizes and shapes of MPs particles, particu­ the work reported in this paper.
larly those smaller than 20 µm. Moreover, potential human errors
introduced during the sampling process can also impact result accuracy.
Thirdly, it is worth noting that PET and other MPs denser than NaCl (ie.,

9
X. Bai et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials 480 (2024) 136413

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