DP IB Biology: HL Your notes

Gas Exchange
Contents
Gas Exchange in Organisms
Mammalian Lungs: Adaptations
Mechanism of Ventilation
Measuring Lung Volumes: Skills
Gas Exchange in Plants
Drawing Leaf Structure: Skills
Determining Stomatal Density: Skills
Haemoglobin & Oxygen
The Bohr Shift
The Oxygen Dissociation Curve

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 Gas Exchange in Organisms
Your notes

Gas Exchange in Organisms

Cellular respiration is a process occurring in all living cells that releases energy in the
form of ATP
This energy is released when substrate molecules such as glucose is oxidised
Organisms use this energy to perform important life functions such as nutrition and
excretion
Aerobic respiration requires oxygen to occur and it produces carbon dioxide as a waste
product
Living organisms acquire this oxygen from their environment and release carbon
dioxide back into their surroundings
The process by which these gases are exchanged between living organisms and their
environment is called gas exchange
This includes oxygen uptake and the release of carbon dioxide by organisms
In plants, carbon dioxide will be absorbed and oxygen released during the day as a
result of photosynthesis
Gas exchange takes place by the process of diffusion, the rate of which is determined
by the following factors:
Size of the respiratory surface - the bigger the surface, the higher the rate of
diffusion
Concentration gradient
Diffusion distance - the shorter the distance, the higher the rate of diffusion
Small, unicellular organisms such as amoeba have a large surface area compared to the
volume of cytoplasm and a short diffusion distance
This means that the rate of diffusion is sufficient to supply the organism with enough
oxygen to function

Single Celled Organism Diffusion Diagram

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 Your notes

Small, unicellular organisms have a large surface area to volume ratio and a short diffusion
distance to allow for effective gas exchange to occur

Challenges of gas exchange in organisms

As an organism increases in size, the challenges of gas exchange become greater
This is because an increase in size will result in a:
Smaller surface area to volume ratio
Greater diffusion distance
Large, multicellular organisms therefore cannot rely on diffusion alone to supply every
cell with oxygen
Another challenge is that the external surface of these organisms are designed to
provide protection to the tissue underneath and is therefore not suitable as a
respiratory surface
The cells of large, active organisms will require more oxygen than smaller, less active
organisms in order to meet their metabolic demands
These organisms will require specialised organs for gas exchange

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Make sure that you do not confuse respiration and gas exchange with each other.
Respiration is a chemical process occurring in all living cells while gas exchange refers
to the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide across a respiratory surface.

Gas Exchange Surfaces: Properties

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 To maximise the rate of diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide, gas exchange surfaces
require certain properties which include:
Your notes
Permeability in order for gases to move across the surface
Thin tissue layer to create a short diffusion distance for oxygen and carbon dioxide
Presence of moisture so that gases can dissolve
This will facilitate the diffusion of gases across a gas exchange surface
Large surface area so that many gas molecules can diffuse across at the same time

Maintaining a Concentration Gradient

A steep concentration gradient will ensure a high diffusion rate across a gas exchange
surface
In organisms, this will allow the diffusion of oxygen into the body and the diffusion of
carbon dioxide out of the body
These concentration gradients are maintained in the following ways:
A dense network of blood vessels to provide a large surface area for the diffusion
of gases
Blood provides a good transport medium for both oxygen and carbon dioxide
A continuous blood flow in the blood vessels to ensure that oxygen is constantly
transported away from the gas exchange surface and carbon dioxide towards them
This ensures that oxygen will always diffuse into the blood and carbon dioxide
out of the blood in the lungs
Ventilation with air in lungs and water in gills to bring oxygen close to the gas
exchange surface and to remove carbon dioxide

Alveolus Diagram

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 Your notes

The alveolus is the gas exchange surface in humans where a concentration gradient for
oxygen and carbon dioxide is maintained

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 Mammalian Lungs: Adaptations
Your notes

Mammalian Lungs: Adaptations

Air moves in through the nose and mouth before it is carried to the lungs through the
trachea
The trachea is a tube supported by rings of cartilage which help to support its shape
and ensure it stays open while allowing it to move and flex with the body
The trachea divides to form the two bronchi (singular bronchus) with walls also
strengthened with cartilage and a layer of smooth muscle that can contract or relax to
change the diameter of the airways. Both trachea and bronchi are lined with ciliated
epithelium to remove particles trapped in mucus that enter the airways
One bronchus leads to each lung
Bronchioles branch off the two bronchi to form a network of narrow tubes
The walls of the bronchioles are lined with a layer of smooth muscle to alter the
diameter of the bronchiole tubes
This helps to regulate the flow of air into the lungs by dilating when more air is
needed and constricting when e.g. an allergen is present
Groups of alveoli are found at the end of the bronchioles
Each alveolus is surrounded by an extensive network of capillaries to provide a good
blood supply for maximum gas exchange

Human Gas Exchange System Diagram

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 Your notes

The main structures of the human gas exchange system

Adaptations of mammalian lungs for gas exchange

Each mammalian lung is comprised of many, small alveoli
These provide a large surface area for gas exchange
Alveoli are grouped around the ends of bronchioles, which spreads out to form a
branched network across each lung
This ensures an even distribution of alveoli throughout the lungs
The clusters of alveoli are surrounded by an extensive capillary bed
This provides an increased surface area for the diffusion of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the alveoli and blood
Deoxygenated blood enters the capillary beds from a branch of the pulmonary
artery while oxygenated blood leaves the capillary beds via a branch of the
pulmonary vein
This maintains the concentration gradient of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the alveoli and blood
Cells of the alveolar wall secrete a substance called surfactant which lowers the surface
tension in the alveoli
This prevents the alveoli from collapsing and sticking together during expiration

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Human Alveoli Diagram
Your notes

Many, small alveoli and an extensive capillary network are examples of how the
mammalian lung is adapted for gas exchange

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Make sure of the terminology that you use here; do not confuse the alveolar wall with a
cell wall. The alveolar wall is a single layer of epithelial cells that forms the alveoli, while
a cell wall is a rigid structure that surrounds a plant cell.

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 Mechanism of Ventilation
Your notes

Ventilation: Mechanism
Ventilation is essential for the effective exchange of gases in the lungs
It replaces older air in the lungs with fresh air from the external environment
This helps to maintain the concentration gradient of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the alveoli and blood
Ventilation involves inspiration (breathing in) and expiration (breathing out)

Inspiration
The breathing-in, or inspiration, process causes the volume of the chest to increase
and the air pressure to decrease until it is lower than the atmospheric pressure
When gas is in a large volume container that allows the gas particles to spread out,
the pressure exerted by the gas on the walls of the container is low
As a result, air moves down the pressure gradient and rushes into the lungs
A gas will always move down a pressure gradient from an area of high pressure to an
area of low pressure
The inspiration process
The diaphragm contracts and flattens, increasing chest volume
In addition to the flattening of the diaphragm the external intercostal muscles
contract, causing the ribcage to move upwards and outwards; this also increases
chest volume

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 Your notes

The process of inspiration

Expiration
Breathing out, or expiration, occurs mostly due to the recoil of the lungs after they have
been stretched by the inspiration process, and is therefore a mainly passive process
Volume of the chest decreases and pressure increases, causing air to be forced out
down its pressure gradient
When gas is in a low volume container it is compressed, causing the gas particles to
exert more pressure on the walls of the container
The passive expiration process
External intercostal muscles relax, allowing the ribcage to move down and in
Diaphragm relaxes and becomes dome-shaped
The recoil of elastic fibres in the alveoli walls reduces the volume of the lungs

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The expiration process can be active when there is a need to expel excess air from the
lungs e.g. when blowing out a candle
Your notes
The active expiration process
Internal intercostal muscles contract to pull the ribs down and in
Abdominal muscles contract to push organs upwards against the diaphragm,
decreasing the volume of the chest cavity
This causes forced exhalation

The process of passive expiration

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Measuring Lung Volumes: Skills
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Measuring Lung Volumes

It is possible to investigate the effect of exercise on ventilation using an apparatus called
a spirometer
It contains a chamber filled with water which is covered by a hinged plastic lid
The person partaking in the experiment breathes through a mouthpiece which is
connected to the spirometer chamber
The plastic lid moves up and down as breathing occurs
The spirometer chamber could be filled with either air or oxygen
When filled with air, it can be used to determine lung capacity in different conditions
When filled with oxygen and soda lime (for absorbing carbon dioxide), it can
measure oxygen consumption in different conditions
Spirometer traces are created by:
Drawing a line on a revolving drum as the lid moves
A computer which draws a graph of the results
Several measurements can be made using spirometer traces such as:
Ventilation rate
Tidal volume
Reserve volumes during inspiration and expiration
Vital capacity

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 Your notes

A classic spirometer can be used to investigate ventilation

Using a spirometer to monitor ventilation can also be carried out with an electric
spirometer

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Analysis of spirometer trace
The effect of exercise on ventilation can be seen in the spirometer trace below Your notes

Tidal volume
The tidal volume is the volume of air inhaled and exhaled during normal breathing
Exercise will lead to an increase in the tidal volume as more air is moved in and out of
the lungs
We do have the potential to take extra deep breaths
The maximum volume of air that can enter the lungs during inspiration is known
as the maximum inspiratory level
Similarly, the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled during expiration is
known as the maximum expiratory level

Inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes

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 The reserve volumes of the lungs refer to the extra volume of air that can be inhaled or
exhaled when taking an extra deep breath and are determined as follows:
Your notes
The difference between the maximum inspiratory level and tidal volume is called the
inspiratory reserve volume
The difference between the maximum expiratory level and tidal volume is called the
expiratory reserve volume

Vital capacity
The vital capacity (VC) refers to the total amount of air exhaled after taking a deep
breath
This can be calculated by adding the tidal volume (TV), inspiratory reserve volume
(IRV) and expiratory reserve volume (ERV) together
VC = TV + IRV + ERV
Ventilation rate
The ventilation rate can be determined by counting the number of inhalations or
exhalations per minute
Exercise will cause an increase in the ventilation rate as you will be taking more
breaths per minute

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 Gas Exchange in Plants
Your notes

Leaf Adaptations for Gas Exchange

Gas exchange in plants occur through the leaf
The leaf contains the following tissues:
Epidermal tissue forming the outer boundary of the leaf
Mesophyll tissue that make up the bulk of internal structure of the leaf
Vascular tissue which transports substances between the leaf and the rest of the
plant

Epidermis
This is formed by a single layer of tightly packed cells
The leaf has an upper and lower epidermis which protects the inner parts of the leaf
The lower epidermis contains tiny pores called stomata (singular stoma)
Each stoma is surrounded by two guard cells which controls the opening and
closure of the pore
When water moves into the guard cells they become turgid and change shape
which opens the stomata
They become flaccid when water is lost and this causes the stomata to close
Stomata are the structures through which gas exchange occur in a leaf
They allow for the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide into and out of the
leaf
The epidermis is often covered by a waxy layer called the cuticle
This forms an impermeable barrier

Mesophyll tissue
These are formed by parenchyma cells which contain chloroplasts
This is where photosynthesis occurs in the leaf
Two types of mesophyll tissue are found in the leaf:
Palisade mesophyll forms a layer beneath the upper epidermis and contain many
chloroplasts for maximum photosynthesis
Spongy mesophyll contains large air spaces between the cells for gas exchange to
occur

Vascular tissue

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 Vascular tissue is arranged in vascular bundles and is responsible for the transport of
substances around the plant
Your notes
Vascular bundles form the veins in leaves
Xylem transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the leaves
Phloem transports the products of photosynthesis from the leaves to other parts
of the plant

Structure of a Leaf Diagram

The structure of a leaf has distinct layers each with their own function

Adaptations for gas exchange

The leaf has several adaptations that facilitate gas exchange

Leaf Adaptations for Gas Exchange Table

Adaptation Function

Waxy cuticle Prevents gases and water vapour from leaving through the epidermis so
that gas exchange must occur through stomata. This allows gas exchange
and water loss to be controlled

Epidermis Contain stomata for gas exchange. Most stomata are found in the lower
epidermis where the temperature is lower. This reduces water loss

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 Air spaces Maintains a concentration gradient of gases between the air and spongy
mesophyll cells by allowing movement of gases
Your notes
Spongy Increases the surface area for gas exchange
mesophyll

Guard cells Control gas exchange and water loss by opening or closing stomata

Veins Xylem vessels bring water to the leaf which is required for photosynthesis
and transpiration. Photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide to diffuse into
the leaf while transpiration involves the loss of water vapour

Transpiration: Consequence of Gas

Exchange
The majority of photosynthesis takes place in the leaves of plants
Some plants are able to carry out photosynthesis in the cells of their stems
During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is taken in by the leaf and oxygen is released
The pores in the epidermis of the leaf through which this gas exchange takes place
are known as stomata (singular stoma)
The stomata need to be open all the time in order for gas exchange, and therefore
photosynthesis, to continue
The problem for plants is that as the stomata open to allow gas exchange to occur,
water in the form of water vapour is also lost through the stomata
This water loss is known as transpiration
Most plants can use cells called guard cells to close their stomata in order to
reduce water loss, but this will also reduce gas exchange and therefore their rate of
photosynthesis
Transpiration is the inevitable consequence of gas exchange in the leaf
There are some advantages to the process of transpiration
It provides a means of cooling the plant via evaporation
The transpiration stream is helpful in the uptake of mineral ions
The turgor pressure of the cells, due to the presence of water as it moves up the
plant, provides support to the leaves and to the stems of non-woody plants
Leaves with high turgor pressure do not wilt and therefore have an increased
surface area for photosynthesis

Transpiration in the Leaf Diagram

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 Your notes

The loss of water vapour from leaves by evaporation through the stomata is unavoidable
as gas exchange for photosynthesis can only occur when the stomata are open

Factors affecting the rate of transpiration

Air movement
More air movement leads to increased rates of transpiration
The air outside a leaf usually contains a lower concentration of water vapour
than the air spaces inside a leaf, causing water vapour to diffuse out of the leaf
When the air is relatively still, water molecules can accumulate just outside the
stomata, creating a local area of high humidity
Less water vapour will diffuse out into the air due to the reduced
concentration gradient
Air currents, or wind, can carry water molecules away from the leaf surface,
increasing the concentration gradient and causing more water vapour to
diffuse out
Temperature
Higher temperatures lead to higher rates of transpiration, up to a point at which
transpiration rates will slow
An increase in temperature results in an increase in the kinetic energy of
molecules
This increases the rate of transpiration as water molecules evaporate out of the
leaf at a faster rate
If the temperature gets too high the stomata close to prevent excess water
loss
This dramatically reduces the rate of transpiration

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Light intensity
Higher light intensities will increase the rate of transpiration up to a point at which Your notes
transpiration rates will level off
Stomata close in the dark and their closure greatly reduces the rate of
transpiration
Stomata open when it is light to enable gas exchange for photosynthesis; this
increases the rate of transpiration
Once the stomata are all open any increase in light intensity has no effect on the
rate of transpiration
Humidity
Higher humidity levels reduce the rate of transpiration
If the humidity is high that means the air surrounding the leaf surface is
saturated with water vapour
This causes the rate of transpiration to decrease as there is no concentration
gradient between the inside of the leaf and the outside
At a certain level of humidity, an equilibrium is reached; water vapour levels
inside and outside the leaf are the same, so there is no net loss of water
vapour from the leaves

Several environmental factors affect the rate of transpiration in plants

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 Examiner Tips and Tricks
Take note that the movement of water molecules during transpiration is not by Your notes
osmosis. One of the requirements of osmosis is that water molecules move across a
cell membrane, which does not happen during transpiration. We therefore say that
water vapour diffuses out of the leaf through stomata during transpiration

Measuring the rate of transpiration

The effect of environmental factors on the rate of transpiration in plants can be
measured using a piece of equipment called a potometer
Note that while potometers are used to measure transpiration rates, they
technically measure the rate of water uptake rather than the rate of transpiration,
as a small amount of the water taken up by a plant will be used in photosynthesis
Because the amount of water used in photosynthesis is so small in relation to
the total amount of water that passes through a plant, the rate of water uptake
can reasonably be used to represent the rate of transpiration
Different types of potometer exist
Bubble potometers measure the movement of an air bubble along a water-filled
tube connected to a plant shoot as water is drawn up by the shoot
The position of the air bubble is recorded at the start of an experiment, and
then a researcher can either measure how far the bubble moves in a set
amount of time, or time how long it takes for the bubble to move a certain
distance
Mass potometers measure the change in mass of a water-filled test tube
connected to a plant shoot as it loses water over a set amount of time
The effect of various environmental factors on transpiration can be measured by
placing the potometer in different conditions e.g.
Wind speed
Humidity
Light intensity
Temperature

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 Your notes

A bubble potometer uses the movement of an air bubble to measure the rate at which
water is drawn up by a plant shoot. In this image the air bubble will move to the left along
the tube as the plant transpires
Environmental factors can be investigated in the following ways
Air movement
A fan on different settings could be used to vary the flow of air around a plant
shoot
Humidity
Enclosing the plant shoot in a plastic bag can increase the humidity
A humidifier or dehumidifier could be used to give a measurable variation in
humidiy
Light intensity
A lamp at different distances or with different types of light bulb can be used
to vary light intensity
Temperature
A thermometer or temperature probe can be used to find surroundings with
different air temperatures
A heater or air conditioner can be used to give a measurable variation in
temperature
A researcher would need to be aware of the importance of controlling any variables
other than the variable being investigated to ensure that any results are valid e.g.

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placing a plant shoot in different rooms could be a way of varying temperature, but
might bring the risk of also varying light levels and humidity; these variables would need
to be controlled Your notes

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 Drawing Leaf Structure: Skills
Your notes

Drawing Leaf Structure

You will be expected to identify the following structures in the leaf of a dicotyledonous
plant:
Chloroplasts
Cuticle
Guard cells
Stomata
Upper and lower epidermis
Palisade mesophyll
Spongy mesophyll
Air spaces
Vascular bundles (xylem and phloem)

Structure of Leaf Diagram

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 Your notes

Diagram showing the transverse section of a leaf

Drawing a plan diagram

Plan diagrams are drawings made from micrographs or from viewing specimens under a
low magnification
Keep the following in mind when drawing a plan diagram:
No individual cells are drawn, only tissue layers enclosed by lines should be present

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 Pay attention to the distribution of tissue throughout the plant organ
Use a sharp pencil and draw clear, continuous lines Your notes
Do not shade any part of your drawing
Make sure your proportions and observations are accurate
Draw what you actually see, not what you would expect to see from a textbook
Draw your drawing big enough to fill up at least half the available space
When labelling your plan diagram remember to:
Use a ruler to draw label lines, not freehand
Avoid using arrowheads and make sure the label lines stop at the structure
Make sure label lines do not cross each other
Write all labels horizontally, not at different angles

Worked Example
The following micrograph shows a transverse section of a dicotyledonous leaf.
Draw a labelled plan diagram of this micrograph.

By Berkshire Community College Bioscience Image Library, Public domain,

Wikimedia
Answer:

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 Your notes

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 Determining Stomatal Density: Skills
Your notes

Determining Stomatal Density

The density of stomata (the number of stomata per unit of area) can be a useful
measurement to biologists
To assess the plant's likely response to a dry spell of weather
To predict its behaviour in windy or wet climates if the plant was being moved for
agricultural / horticultural reasons
This technique can be used to assess how stomatal density varies from species to
species

Apparatus
A plant to sample a leaf from
Clear nail varnish (ideally solvent based)
Sellotape
Microscope
Microscope slides
Stage micrometer
Counting device (clicker/ phone app etc.)
Calculator

Method
Select a leaf from a live plant and cut it off the plant
Geraniums and spider plants make good subjects for this experiment
Place the leaf upside down on a flat surface such as a tile or worktop
Paint clear nail varnish onto the underside of the leaf
Wait for the nail varnish to dry (approx. 5 minutes)
Peel off the layer of varnish using sellotape
Discard the leaf
The layer of varnish now forms a leaf cast
Place the dried varnish impression on a microscope slide
A coverslip is not required as this isn't a biological sample, just an impression of one
A drop of water is not required either, so long as the sample is laid flat on the slide

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 Use the usual steps to focus on the sample (you can read about this in our revision note
on microscope skills)
Your notes
Adjust the zoom such that a countable number of stomata are visible in the field of view
Between 15 and 100 is ideal
Even if a stoma is partially visible at the edge, still count it as 1
Count the stomata in that field of view
You may wish to use a clicker or phone app so you don't lose count!
Move the field of view to another area of the nail varnish layer and repeat
Count at least 3 separate fields of view and take a mean value
Repeat readings allow you to eliminate anomalous results and calculate a reliable
mean
Measurements to take
Use a stage micrometer to measure the diameter of the field of view
This has to be at the same magnification power that you used when counting the
stomata
The stage micrometer will be calibrated in micrometers
A typical microscope allows the scientist to look at a field of view of about 0.5 mm
diameter when on full power (× 400)
You will have calculated a mean number of stomata per field of view from the previous
stage
You can read about using a stage micrometer in our revision notes on microscope skills

Worked Example
A study reveals a mean count of 16 stomata per field of view at a magnification of ×
400. The stage micrometer calculates the diameter of the field of view at a
magnification of × 400 to be 0.46mm
Calculate the stomatal density based on these data. Give units in stomata per mm2
Use a value of π = 3.14 and give your answer to the nearest whole number of stomata.

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 Your notes

Answer:
Step 1: Calculate the radius of the field of view
Radius = Diameter ÷ 2
Radius = 0.46 mm ÷ 2 = 0.23 mm
Step 2: Calculate the area of the field of view
Area = πr2 = π × 0.232
Area = 0.1662 mm2

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 Step 3: Divide the mean number of stomata by the area of the field of view to
calculate density
Your notes
Density = 16 ÷ 0.1662 = 96.27 stomata per mm2
Step 4: Round to the required precision (nearest whole number)
Density = 96 stomata per mm2

Limitations
Not all plant species have easily accessible stomata that create a strong imprint
Solvent-based nail varnish can destroy some of the cell structure it comes into contact
with
Does the plant grow more stomata (guard cells) according to the conditions in each
individual habitat?
Water-based nail varnish is safer to use but dries more slowly

NOS: Reliability of quantitative data is increased by

repeating measurements
Reliability refers to the level of trust that we can place in numerical measurements
These types of measurements are known as quantitative data
Repeating the stomatal count for the same species of leaf under the same conditions
will increase the reliability of the results
It is very possible that the data gathered during a single count could contain errors
that we may not be aware of
Taking repeated measurements will identify anomalous measurements and allow us
to calculate a mean
Anomalous measurements are those that deviate from the expected
measurements
Anomalies are omitted when calculating the mean for a data set
If repeated stomatal counts deliver similar results, the data is said to be reliable
We can therefore place a higher level of trust in the data than what would have been
possible if we got very different results with every count
Repeating measurements is a crucial step in gathering data during a scientific
investigation

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Anomalous results are sometimes referred to a outliers.

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 Haemoglobin & Oxygen
Your notes

Foetal & Adult Haemoglobin

Haemoglobin is the molecule responsible for binding oxygen in our blood
They are globular proteins found in abundance in red blood cells
Each haemoglobin molecule consists of four polypeptide subunits
At the centre of each subunit is an iron-containing haem group with which oxygen
combines
Each haem group can bind to one oxygen molecule
That means that each molecule of haemoglobin can transport four oxygen
molecules
Oxygen is one of the gases found in air and each of these gases exerts a pressure
The pressure of each gas in a mixture of gases is called its partial pressure
The symbol for partial pressure is p, therefore the partial pressure of oxygen can be
denoted as pO2
Due to the shape of the haemoglobin molecule it is difficult for the first oxygen molecule
to bind to its haem group
However, after the first oxygen molecule binds, the haemoglobin protein changes
shape, or conformation, making it easier for the next oxygen molecules to bind
This is known as cooperative binding
The ease with which haemoglobin binds and dissociates with oxygen can be described
as its affinity for oxygen
In areas where there are high partial pressures of oxygen (such as the alveoli of the
lungs), the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen is high
This means haemoglobin and oxygen will bind easily
In areas where there are low partial pressures of oxygen (such as respiring muscle
cells), the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen is low
This means haemoglobin and oxygen will dissociate easily from each other
This ensures that haemoglobin can easily bind to oxygen in the lung capillaries to
transport it to and then release it near respiring cells that require oxygen

Foetal haemoglobin
The haemoglobin of a developing foetus has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult
haemoglobin
This is vital as it allows a foetus to obtain oxygen from its mother's blood at the placenta

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 Foetal haemoglobin can bind to oxygen at low pO2
At this low pO2 the mother's haemoglobin is dissociating with oxygen Your notes
We can represent the percentage saturation of haemoglobin at different partial
pressures of oxygen as a graph
This is called the oxygen dissociation curve
On a dissociation curve, the curve for foetal haemoglobin shifts to the left of that for
adult haemoglobin
This means that at any given partial pressure of oxygen, foetal haemoglobin has a
higher percentage saturation than adult haemoglobin
After birth, a baby begins to produce adult haemoglobin which gradually
replaces foetal haemoglobin
This is important for the easy release of oxygen in the respiring tissues of a more
metabolically active individual

Foetal haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen; its oxygen dissociation curve
therefore lies further to the left than the curve of adult haemoglobin
Haemoglobin has the ability to change shape, or conformation, once oxygen binds to it
due to cooperative binding
Proteins like this are known as allosteric proteins as they can exist in multiple
conformations
Carbon dioxide is an allosteric inhibitor of haemoglobin
This means that when it binds to haemoglobin, it is more difficult for oxygen to bind
to haemoglobin as the protein cannot change its conformation

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 This lowers the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen
Carbon dioxide has less of an allosteric effect on foetal haemoglobin
Your notes
This enables foetal haemoglobin to have a higher affinity for oxygen even if carbon
dioxide is bound to it

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The Bohr Shift
Your notes

The Bohr Shift

Changes in the oxygen dissociation curve as a result of carbon dioxide levels are known
as the Bohr effect, or Bohr shift
When the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood is high, haemoglobin’s
affinity for oxygen is reduced
This is the case in respiring tissues, where cells are producing carbon dioxide as a
waste product of respiration
This occurs because CO2 lowers the pH of the blood
CO2 combines with water to form carbonic acid
Carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen carbonate ions and hydrogen ions
Hydrogen ions bind to haemoglobin, causing the release of oxygen
This is a helpful change because it means that haemoglobin gives up its oxygen more
readily in the respiring tissues where it is needed
On a graph showing the dissociation curve, the curve shifts to the right when CO2 levels
increase
This means that at any given partial pressure of oxygen, the percentage saturation
of haemoglobin is lower at higher levels of CO2

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 Your notes

The dissociation curve shifts to the right as a result of the Bohr effect. This means that any
given partial pressure of oxygen, the percentage saturation of haemoglobin is lower at
higher CO2 levels.

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The Oxygen Dissociation Curve
Your notes

The Oxygen Dissociation Curve

The oxygen dissociation curve shows the rate at which oxygen associates, and also
dissociates, with haemoglobin at different partial pressures of oxygen (pO2)
Partial pressure of oxygen refers to the pressure exerted by oxygen within a
mixture of gases; it is a measure of oxygen concentration
Haemoglobin is referred to as being saturated when all of its oxygen binding sites
are taken up with oxygen; so when it contains four oxygen molecules
The ease with which haemoglobin binds and dissociates with oxygen can be described
as its affinity for oxygen
When haemoglobin has a high affinity it binds easily and dissociates slowly
When haemoglobin has a low affinity for oxygen it binds slowly and dissociates
easily
In other liquids, such as water, we would expect oxygen to becomes associated with
water, or to dissolve, at a constant rate, providing a straight line on a graph, but with
haemoglobin oxygen binds at different rates as the pO2 changes; hence the resulting
curve
It can be said that haemoglobin's affinity for oxygen changes at different partial
pressures of oxygen

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 Your notes

The oxygen dissociation curve

Interpreting the curve

When the curve is read from left to right, it provides information about the rate at which
haemoglobin binds to oxygen at different partial pressures of oxygen
At low pO2 (the bottom left corner of the graph) oxygen binds slowly to
haemoglobin; this means that haemoglobin cannot pick up oxygen and become
saturated as blood passes through the body's oxygen-depleted tissues
Haemoglobin has a low affinity for oxygen at low pO2, so saturation
percentage is low
At medium pO2 (in the central region of the graph) oxygen binds more easily to
haemoglobin and saturation increases quickly; at this point on the graph a small
increase in pO2 causes a large increase in haemoglobin saturation

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 At high pO2 (in the top right corner of the graph) oxygen binds easily to
haemoglobin; this means that haemoglobin can pick up oxygen and become
saturated as blood passes through the lungs Your notes
Haemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen at high pO2, so saturation
percentage is high
Note that at this point on the graph increasing the pO2 by a large amount only
has a small effect on the percentage saturation of haemoglobin; this is
because most oxygen binding sites on haemoglobin are already occupied
When read from right to left, the curve provides information about the rate at which
haemoglobin dissociates with oxygen at different partial pressures of oxygen
In the lungs, where pO2 is high, there is very little dissociation of oxygen from
haemoglobin
At medium pO2, oxygen dissociates readily from haemoglobin, as shown by
the steep region of the curve; this region corresponds with the partial pressures of
oxygen present in the respiring tissues of the body, so ready release of oxygen is
important for cellular respiration
At this point on the graph a small decrease in pO2 causes a large decrease in
percentage saturation of haemoglobin, leading to easy release of plenty of
oxygen to the cells
At low pO2 dissociation slows again; there are few oxygen molecules left on the
binding sites, and the release of the final oxygen molecule becomes more difficult,
in a similar way to the slow binding of the first oxygen molecule
Explaining the curve
The curved shape of the oxygen dissociation curve for haemoglobin can be explained as
follows
Due to the shape of the haemoglobin molecule it is difficult for the first oxygen
molecule to bind to haemoglobin
This means that binding of the first oxygen occurs slowly, explaining the
relatively shallow curve at the bottom left corner of the graph
After the first oxygen molecule binds to haemoglobin, the haemoglobin protein
changes shape, or conformation, making it easier for the next oxygen molecules to
bind due to cooperative binding
This speeds up binding of the remaining oxygen molecules and explains
the steeper part of the curve in the middle of the graph
As the haemoglobin molecule approaches saturation it takes longer for the fourth
oxygen molecule to bind
This is due to the shortage of remaining binding sites, explaining the levelling off
of the curve in the top right corner of the graph

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