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 NAMING NAMES

11111
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An Introduction to Cybercultures 7
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An Introduction to Cybercultures provides an accessible guide to the major forms, 6
practices and meanings of this rapidly-growing field. From the evolution of hard- 7
ware and software to the emergence of cyberpunk film and fiction, David Bell 8
introduces readers to the key aspects of cyberculture, including email, the Internet, 9
digital imaging technologies, computer games and digital special effects. 20111
1
Each chapter contains ‘hot links’ to key articles in The Cybercultures Reader,
2
suggestions for further reading, and details of relevant websites.
3
Individual chapters examine: 4
5
● Cybercultures: an introduction 6
● Storying cyberspace 7
● Cultural studies in cyberspace 8
● Community and cyberculture 9
● Identities in cyberculture 30111
● Bodies in cyberculture 1
● Cybersubcultures 2
● Researching cybercultures 3
4
David Bell is Reader in Cultural Studies at Staffordshire University. He is the 5
co-editor of The Cybercultures Reader (Routledge 2000). 6
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An Introduction to 1
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David Bell 20111
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London and New York 311

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 CONTENTS

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2 First published 2001
3 by Routledge
4 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
15111 Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
6 by Routledge
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001
7
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.
8
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
9 collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
20111
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group
1
© 2001 David Bell
2
3 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
4 known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
5 any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
6 from the publishers.
7 British Library Cataloging in Publication Data
8 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
9 Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data
30111 A catalog record for this book has been applied for
1
2 ISBN 0-203-19232-X Master e-book ISBN
3
4 ISBN 0-203-19235-4 (Adobe eReader Format)
5 ISBN 0–415–24658–X (hbk)
ISBN 0–415–24659–8 (pbk)
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Acknowledgements vii
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1. Cybercultures: an introduction 1 1
2. Storying cyberspace 1: 2
material and symbolic stories 6
3
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3. Storying cyberspace 2: experiential stories 30 5
6
4. Cultural studies in cyberspace 65 7
5. Community and cyberculture 92 8
9
6. Identities in cyberculture 113 30111
7. Bodies in cyberculture 137
1
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8. Cybersubcultures 163 3
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9. Researching cybercultures 186 5
10. Last words 205 6
7
Further reading 208 8
Glossary 212 9
Bibliography 221 40111
Index 239
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Acknowledgements 8
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This is the first book I’ve written on my own; without the benefit of a co- 9
author or co-editor to bounce ideas around with, I have inevitably had to 20111
rely on the generosity of those people around me, and I’d like to thank them 1
for showing interest in what I’ve been doing, as well as for all the practical 2
help they’ve given. I couldn’t wish to work in a better intellectual environ- 3
ment. Thank you, then, to colleagues and students in Cultural Studies at 4
Staffordshire University, and especially those who’ve shared the experience 5
of learning about cybercultures on the undergraduate module Technocultures 6
and the postgraduate module Cyberdiscourse. Those with whom I have shared 7
the teaching of these modules deserve special mention: Mark Featherstone, 8
Mark Jayne, Barbara Kennedy and John O’Neill. Extra-special thanks, as 9
always, to Jon Binnie and Ruth Holliday. Rebecca Barden, my ‘virtual editor’ 30111
at Routledge (virtual in the sense that we still haven’t managed to meet f2f ) 1
has been everything an editor should be: generous, enthusiastic, patient and 2
good-humoured. And good luck with parenthood, Rebecca! Thanks also to 3
Alistair Daniel and Sue Edwards for seeing the book through the production 4
process. 5
Finally, I’d like to dedicate this book to three people, all of whom ‘got 6
me started’ in one way or another: to Derek Longhurst, who got me started 7
with Cultural Studies; to Tristan Palmer, who got me started writing books; 8
and in memory of my father, Colin Bell, who got me started with science 9
and technology. 40111
Note: In this book, I will be making substantial use of essays published 1
in The Cybercultures Reader (edited by Bell and Kennedy 2000). In order to 2
signal the primitive hyperlink between this book and the Reader, when I cite 311

vii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

11111 or quote from an essay in the Reader, it’s indicated in the text, abbreviated
2 to CR. So, when I cite Andrew Ross’ ‘Hacking away at the counterculture’,
3 I’ve written (Ross CR), rather than ‘Ross (2000)’. Links to the Reader appear
4 at the end of each chapter, not in the bibliography.
5
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viii
 NAMING NAMES

Chapter 1 11111
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CYBERCULTURES 8
9
An introduction 10111
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15111
6
7
My personal walkabout in cyberspace has given me glimpses of a truly 8
different world, and I wish to share them. 9
David Hakken 20111
1
pondering how to start 2
S ITTING HERE, AT MY COMPUTER,
this book, how to introduce my own ‘walkabout’ in cyberspace, I
find myself struggling. Maybe it’s because I’ve just been reading and writing
3
4
about hyperlinks and the web as text – as text, moreover, that is open and 5
infinite, that has no beginning or end. But a book is still a linear thing, decid- 6
edly non-hypertexty – despite various authors’ unsuccessful attempts to 7
simulate on paper the experience of the screen (see, for example, Taylor 8
and Saarinen 1994; Case 1996; Bolter and Grusin 1999). So I have to abide 9
by the logic of the book, even if it seems increasingly contradictory in the 30111
digital age to do so. The move from books to bytes, to borrow Anthony 1
Smith’s (1993) phrase, is still far from complete – and so here I am, sitting 2
here, the cursor blinking at me, thinking of a way to introduce you to my 3
book. 4
If I was to try to define in a sentence what this book is about – some- 5
thing I often ask students to do with projects and dissertations – I would 6
have to say that it is about thinking through some of the ways of under- 7
standing what the term ‘cybercultures’ means. It’s a series of ideas, issues 8
and questions about what happens when we conjoin the words ‘cyber’ and 9
‘culture’. Think of it this way, which I borrow from Christine Hine (2000): 40111
cyberspace as culture and as cultural artefact. Let’s work that formulation 1
through. First, what is cyberspace? It’s a slippery term, to be sure; hard to 2
define, multiplicitous. I think of it as combining three things, as the next 311

1
 AN INTRODUCTION TO CYBERCULTURES

11111 two chapters of this book show: it has material, symbolic and experiential
2 dimensions. It is machines, wires, electricity, programs, screens, connections,
3 and it is modes of information and communication: email, websites, chat
4 rooms, MUDs. But it is also images and ideas: cyberspace exists on film, in
5 fiction, in our imaginations as much as on our desktops or in the space
6 between our screens. Moreover, and this is the important bit, we experience
7 cyberspace in all its spectacular and mundane manifestations by mediating the
8 material and the symbolic. As I attempt to track in Chapters 2 and 3, thinking
9 about what cyberspace ‘is’ and what it ‘means’ involves its own hypertex-
10111 tuality, as we mingle and merge the hardware, software and wetware with
1 memories and forecasts, hopes and fears, excitement and disappointment.
2 Cyberspace is, I think, something to be understood as it is lived – while
3 maps and stats give us one kind of insight into it, they are inadequate to the
4 task of capturing the thoughts and feelings that come from, to take a mundane
15111 example, sending and receiving email. At one level, thinking of cyberspace
6 as culture emphasizes this point: it is lived culture, made from people,
7 machines and stories in everyday life. That’s why I often turn to stories of
8 my own and others’ experiences with cyberspace. In Chapter 3 especially, I
9 emphasize my story – not quite a tale of personal transformation from newbie
20111 to nerd, but not far off.
1 Thinking about cyberspace as cultural artefact means considering how
2 we’ve got cyberspace as it currently exists; it means tracking the stories of
3 its creation and on-going shaping, as well as the stories of on-going meaning-
4 making that make cyberspace over. From the perspective of someone working
5 in cultural studies, it seems relatively straightforward to see cyberspace as
6 cultural, in that any and every thing around us is the product of culture –
7 look at the shape of your computer, for example, and consider why it’s
8 turned out that way. The story of how computers ended up on our desk-
9 tops, and ended up connecting us to each other, is a profoundly cultural tale
30111 (Edwards 1996).
1 The trick is to think about cyberspace as product of and producer of
2 culture simultaneously – another hypertext moment. Keeping both perspec-
3 tives visible is important, because it avoids the all-too-easy slide into either
4 technophilia or technophobia. And, as Jonathan Sterne (1999) points out,
5 part of the task of cultural studies in cyberspace is to navigate a path between
6 these two extremes, though without necessarily abandoning them totally –
7 especially since they remain important framing discourses circulating in
8 everyday life (from the technophilic hype around ‘dot.com’ millionaires to
9 the technophobic imagery of Terminator).
40111 Chapters 2 and 3 of this book are a joint attempt to work through
1 ways of thinking about cyberspace, therefore. They can’t pretend to be
2 comprehensive, authoritarian accounts – they are fragmentary, flickering. I
311 hope that they are read not for grand answers, but for modestly thought-

2
 CYBERCULTURES: AN INTRODUCTION

provoking moments. In the chapters that follow, by focusing in on particular 11111

aspects of cyberculture, my aim is to get a slightly better understanding of some 2
things that ‘cyberculture’ means or might mean. To start off, I have tried to 3
think through what cultural studies has to contribute to this, and to suggest 4
some of the theoretical resources we can make use of. This involves establish- 5
ing a number of different ways of thinking about science, technology, comput- 6
ers and cyberspace, and I hope that by taking a walkabout through some of those 7
ways, I can trace some connections and directions that are productive. That’s 8
the agenda for Chapter 4, which ‘detours’ through theories and theorists that 9
we might make use of in the project understanding cybercultures. 10111
Chapter 5 takes us into one of the most interesting and contested areas of 1
cyberculture. The topic here is community – are new communities forming 2
in cyberspace? Are these replacing or augmenting offline communities? Is this 3
a good thing or a bad thing? The debate about cyber-community crystallizes 4
many of the important issues of cyberculture, therefore. It shows the ways in 15111
which cyberspace reworks our understandings of ‘community’, and the extent 6
to which that reworking is open to contestation. It brings to the surface the 7
troublesome question of marking boundaries between ‘virtual life’ and ‘real 8
life’, and asks what meanings and values we attribute to these terms. By 9
approaching cyber-community from a range of perspectives, and letting these 20111
rub up against each other, this chapter is my attempt to indicate the implica- 1
tions for how we think about both cyberspace and community. 2
Chapter 6 shifts our attention to questions of cultural identity in cyber- 3
space, and to do this I focus on race, class, gender and sexuality. Set in the 4
broader context of arguments about identity in contemporary culture – what 5
has been termed the decentring of the self – thinking through the ways in 6
which these aspects of identity are reworked in cyberculture gives us impor- 7
tant insights into what goes on when people enter virtual realms, cyber- 8
communities and digital worlds. How much of our ‘real life’ identity can we 9
jettison – and how much would we want to jettison? Does the possibility of 30111
‘playing’ with identity in cyberspace mean something productive, or does it 1
merely provide another arena for domination? 2
Closely but complexly related to questions about cybercultural identity 3
are issues of embodiment, and Chapter 7 takes these up, introducing and 4
exploring narratives about strange new figures on our cultural landscape: 5
posthumans, cyborgs, digital corpses and intelligent machines. From the 6
cyberpunk dream of ‘leaving the meat behind’ and existing in cyberspace as 7
pure data to the intricate readings of the cyborg provided by Donna Haraway 8
(CR), the shifting shapes and meanings of ‘the body’ in cyberculture open 9
up a number of important questions and challenges. As we enter into ever- 40111
more intimate relationships with an ever-increasing diversity of nonhuman 1
others, we have to radically rethink what we mean by ‘body’, what we mean 2
by ‘life’ and what we mean by ‘human’ – and consider the usefulness of 311

3
 AN INTRODUCTION TO CYBERCULTURES

11111 retaining categories and boundaries that are becoming increasingly difficult
2 to sustain.
3 Chapter 8 brings together some of the themes addressed previously,
4 through a focus on what I’ve termed ‘cybersubcultures’. Building on cultural
5 studies of subcultures – groups like punks, eco-warriors and football hooli-
6 gans – this chapter explores how different subcultural responses to and uses
7 of cyberspace work. In some cases, pre-existing forms of subcultural activity
8 have found a new home in cyberspace, and in this respect I look at fan
9 cultures and ‘fringe’ political groups (such as conspiracy theorists and neo-
10111 nazis). What we see there is an adaptive relationship to new media
1 technologies that is reshaping the practices and forms that these subcultures
2 take. Moving on from here, I look at subcultures that signal an expressive
3 engagement with cyberspace, focusing on MUDders, cyberpunks, hackers,
4 and neo-Luddites. Each of these groups has its own subcultural take on cyber-
15111 space, and each reintroduces debates about identity, embodiment and
6 community in cyberculture.
7 The final substantive chapter of the book explores the business of research
8 on, in and with cyberspace and cybercultures, and is intended as a partial,
9 critical commentary on the issues that come to the surface when the commu-
20111 nities, identities, bodies and subcultures of and in cyberspace are investigated
1 empirically. Two kinds of research are highlighted here: textual approaches
2 to the web and cyberethnography. The methodological challenges and ques-
3 tions that arise when we attempt to do research in and on cyberspace provide
4 us with a different way of thinking through what cyberculture means – indeed,
5 Hine’s (2000) neat discussion of cyberspace as culture and as cultural artefact
6 has its origins in her own online fieldwork. How we think about cyberspace
7 shapes how we research it, and how we research cyberspace shapes how we
8 think about it.
9 All of these chapters share a common architecture, and come with a
30111 common set of attachments. At the end of the chapters the following features
1 recur: links to chapters in The Cybercultures Reader (Bell and Kennedy 2000),
2 a handful of suggestions for further reading, and some URLs for websites on
3 related topics. The links to the Reader are intended to point readers towards
4 essays that illustrate, extend and contest the ideas that I introduce. This book
5 was partly conceived as a companion to the Reader, to provide space to work
6 through the issues raised by the essays collected there. So, in a way, that’s
7 my own gesture towards hypertexting. While I’ve tried to make this book
8 make sense in its own right, so these links aren’t essential, it’s always part
9 of academic writing to stage a primitive hypertextuality by referring across
40111 to others’ work. When we assembled the Reader, our aim was to gather
1 together what we thought to be the most useful and interesting essays on
2 cybercultures – so it’s not surprising that I would want to make use of them
311 in this book too.

4
 CYBERCULTURES: AN INTRODUCTION

The further reading and websites at the end of each chapter are a second 11111
kind of hypertexting, linking the reader to other places where the themes of 2
the chapter can be explored. The sites were all up and running in January 3
2001, but given the ephemerality of the web, I can only apologize if any of 4
them have vanished by the time you try to visit them. These sites aren’t the 5
result of any kind of exhaustive or systematic survey of available sites, either. 6
Despite Ananda Mitra and Elisia Cohen’s (1999) suggestions for ways to eval- 7
uate sites, the choice here is more personal than anything: these are sites 8
that I think are useful ways into particular topics. Each reader can move from 9
them in their own route, following the links that they find enticing. 10111
At the end of the book, I have added two more resources: a glossary 1
and another guide to further reading. These are my attempt to answer the 2
FAQs that get asked about cybercultures. The glossary is a weird thing – 3
compiling it calls for lots of pondering, decisions about what to include and 4
what can be left out. Terms from cyberspace enter our everyday speech 15111
reasonably easily (Shortis 2001), and yet usage in common parlance doesn’t 6
always equate with an ability to define any term. All I have done with the 7
glossary is to sift through a few other glossaries provided by authors with a 8
similar assumed audience to mine, and sifted my own text for the appearance 9
of terms that I think could do with defining. The act of definition is itself 20111
very tricky, and another partial and contingent thing: while glossaries, like 1
dictionaries and encyclopedias, pretend to be objective texts, we can clearly 2
see that they are the result of somebody’s thinking. This glossary is no more 3
than the result of mine. If I imagine my audience, I call up my own students: 4
students doing cultural studies, who have varying amounts of prior knowledge 5
about computers and cyberspace. In some cases, their knowledge outstrips 6
mine, so I apologize for talking down to some readers. 7
The guide to further reading at the book’s end is my attempt to suggest 8
what I think are the best handful of books for that same imagined audience. 9
These are the books I recommend to my students, as places to begin getting 30111
to grips with cyberspace and cyberculture. I’ve added in a little commen- 1
tary on the titles I’ve selected, just to help you decide which of my ‘top 20’ 2
might be interesting or useful to you. Like the websites at each chapter’s 3
end, this list is specific to the time and place of its compilation. Even if books 4
don’t disappear quite as dramatically as websites sometimes do, they do have 5
their shelf-life – and, of course, new titles appear with quite alarming 6
frequency. Again, like the websites, this list was put together by one person 7
(me), from one set of resources (my book shelves and teaching experience), 8
at a particular moment (January 2001). To echo David Hakken (1999: 227) 9
again, this book represents a ‘personal walkabout in cyberspace’ – and it’s 40111
a walkabout I think I’ll be on for a long time to come. 1
2
311

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