:Building blocks of Computer:

Main Memory

Memory enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data and programs

Output Device

The results that are stored in the memory can be transformed into a form that can be
understood by users of a computer system by means of an output device. Some
common output devices are monitor, printer, speaker etc.

Mass storage Device

These devices allow computer to permanently retain large amounts of data. Common
mass storage device include disk drives and tape drives.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU or processor is the brain of computer. It is the component that actually
executes the instructions. The CPU itself has three components, namely, arithmetic
logic unit (ALU), control unit (CU), and memory unit (MU).

Arithmetic Logic Unit:- Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) performs two types of operations-
arithmetic and logical. Fundamental arithmetic operations include addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. Logical operations include comparisons like
equal to, less than, greater than etc.

Control Unit:- Control unit (CU) coordinates and controls the operations of a computer
system. It controls the activities between memory and ALU and between CPU and
input/output devices.

Memory Unit:

A memory unit (MU) is also called primary memory or main memory or RAM (random
access memory). It holds data for processing, instructions for processing data
(program), and information (processed data). The contents of main memory are lost
when the computer is turned off.

All general purpose computers require the following hardware components:

(i) Central Processing Unit (CPU): The ‘brain’ of the computer, them component that
actually executes instructions. 1

(ii) Memory : It enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data and programs.

1
(iii) Input device : Usually a keyboard or mouse is used to read data and programs into
the computer.

(iv) Output device: A display screen, printer, etc. that lets you see what the computer
has accomplished.

(v) Mass storage device: It allows a computer to permanently store large amounts of
data. Common mass storage devices include disk drive and tape drive.

vi)Memory - also known as the primary storage or main memory - is a part of the
microcomputer that holds data and instructions. Part of the contents of the memory is
held only temporarily, that is, it is stored only as long as the microcomputer is turned
on. When you turn the machine off, the contents are lost. The capacity of the memory
to hold data and program instructions varies in different computers. The original IBM
PC could hold approximately several thousand characters of data or instructions only.
But modern microcomputers can hold millions or even billions of characters in their
memory.

vii)Registers: Computers also have several additional storage locations called

registers. These appear in the Control Unit and ALU and make processing more
efficient. Registers are a sort of special hi-speed storage areas that hold data and
instructions temporarily during processing. They are parts of the Control Unit and ALU
rather than the memory. Their contents can, therefore be handled much faster than
the contents of the memory.

viii)Addresses: To locate the characters of data or instructions in the main memory,

the computer stores them in locations known as addresses. A unique number
designates each address. Addresses can be compared to post office mailboxes. Their
numbers remain the same, but contents continuously change.

Functions of CPU , ALU and Control Units, memory, Motherboard.

CPU (central processing unit):

General concepts

• The primary function of the Central Processing Unit is to execute sequences of

instructions representing programs, which are stored in the Main Memory.

• As mentioned before, the CPU consists of the ALU and CU.

• To carry out its role the CPU must be an interpreter of a set of instructions at Machine
language level.
• Program execution is carried out as follows:

•The CPU transfers instructions and, when necessary their input data, called
Operands, from the Main Memory into the registers of the CPU.

•The CPU executes the instructions in their stored sequence (one after another)
Except when the execution sequence is explicitly altered by a branch instruction.

•When necessary, the CPU transfers results from the CPU registers into the Main
Memory.

Sometimes CPUs are called simply Processors.

• Consequently, there exist streams of instructions and data between the Main
Memory and the set of general registers that forms the CPU’ s local memory.

• The CPU is significantly faster than the Main Memory, that is it can read from or Write
in the CPU’s registers 5 to 10 times faster than it can read from or write in the Main
Memory (MM). Nowadays, VLSI technology tends to increase the CPU/ Main Memory
speeds disparity.

• As mentioned before to remedy this drawback, the memory is organized in a

Hierarchical way; a new layer of memory, called Super operative Memory (SOM) is
Placed between the Main Memory and CPU. At present, the SOM is represented by The
CACHE Memory (CM); this CM is smaller and faster than MM and can be Placed wholly
or in part on the same chip as CPU (the so called internal Cache Memory).

• The main role of CM is to ensure a memory read or write operation in a single Clock
cycle, whereas a MM access(bypassing the CM memory) takes several clock Cycles.

• The CM and MM are seen by the CPU as forming a single memory space, because The
operation of CM is totally transparent to the CPU.

The operation or task that must perform by CPU is:

Fetch Instruction: The CPU reads an instruction from memory.

Interpreted Instruction: The instruction is decoded to determine what action is

Required. Fetch Data: The execution of
an instruction may require reading data from memory.

Process data: The execution of an instruction may require performing some Arithmetic
or logical operation on data.
Write data: The result of an execution may require writing data to memory or an. To do
these tasks, it should be clear that the CPU needs to store some data Temporarily. It
must remember the location of the last instruction so that it can Know where to get
the next instruction. It needs to store instructions and data Temporarily while an
instruction is being executed. In other words, the CPU needs a Small internal memory.
These storage location are generally referred as registers.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit):

An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit used to perform arithmetic .And logic
operations. It represents the fundamental building block of the central Processing unit
(CPU)of a computer. Modern CPUs contain very powerful and Complex ALUs. In
addition to ALUs, modern CPUs contain a control unit (CU). Most of the operations of a
CPU are performed by one or more ALUs, which load data From input registers. A
register is a small amount of storage available as part of a CPU. The Control unit tells
the ALU what operation to perform on that data, and the AL stores the result .In an
output register. The control unit moves the data between these registers, the ALU, and
Memory. The heart of every computer is an Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

• Arithmetic Section

• Logic Section

Consider an ALU having 4 arithmetic operations and 4 logical operation. To identify any
one of these four logical operations or four arithmetic Operations, two control lines
are needed. Also to identify the any one of these two Groups- arithmetic or logical,
another control line is needed. So, with the help of Three control lines, any one of
these eight operations can be identified. Consider an ALU is having four arithmetic
operations. Addition, subtraction, Multiplication and division. Also consider that the
ALU is having four logical Operations: OR, AND, NOT & EX-OR.

How an ALU Works: An ALU performs basic arithmetic and logic operations. Examples
of Arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Examples of logic operations are comparisons of values such as NOT, AND, and OR. All
information in a computer is stored and manipulated in the form of Binary numbers,
i.e. 0 and 1. Transistor switches are used to manipulate binary Numbers since there
are only two possible states of a switch: open or closed. An open Transistor, through
which there is no current, represents a 0. A closed transistor, Through which there is a
current, represents a 1. Operations can be accomplished by connecting multiple
transistors. Switch on or off depending on the state of the second transistor. This is
referred to As a gate because the arrangement can be used to allow or stop a current.

Control Units:

•CPU is partitioned into Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).

• The function of control unit is to generate relevant timing and control signals To all
operations in the computer.

•It controls the flow of data between the processor and memory and Peripherals.

FUNCTIONS OF CONTROL UNIT:

• The control unit directs the entire computer system to carry out stored program
Instructions.

•The control unit must communicate with both the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) And
main memory.

• The control unit instructs the arithmetic logic unit that which logical or Arithmetic
operation is to be performed.

• The control unit co-ordinates the activities of the other two units as well as all
Peripherals and auxiliary storage devices linked to the computer.

Types of Memory and Their Functions:

1. Primary memory:

• RAM (Random Access Memory): Temporarily stores data for quick access.

• Cache Memory: Stores frequently used data to speed up processing.

• Registers: Small, high-speed storage inside the CPU for immediate use.

2. Secondary Memory (Non-Volatile Memory)

• ROM (Read-Only Memory): Stores essential system instructions (BIOS/firmware).

• Hard Drives (HDD/SSD): Store files, software, and operating systems permanently.

3. Virtual Memory

Uses part of the hard drive as additional RAM when physical RAM is full. Helps in
running large programs that exceed RAM capacity.

Functions of a Motherboard
1. Connecting All Components

The motherboard acts as a central hub, linking the CPU, RAM, storage devices, GPU,
and input/output devices. It ensures that data can flow between these components
efficiently.

2. Power Distribution

The Power Supply Unit (PSU) provides electricity to the motherboard, which then
distributes the required voltage to different components.It ensures stable power
delivery to prevent system failures.

3. Data Communication

The motherboard facilitates communication between the CPU, memory and storage
using buses and chipsets. It determines the speed and efficiency of data transfer.

4. Expansion and Upgradability

The motherboard includes Pie and RAM slots, allowing users to upgrade components
like graphics cards, storage, and memory. It also has USB ports, SATA connectors and
M.2 slots for adding more devices.

5. BIOS/UEFI Firmware Management

The BIOS (Basic Input/output System) or UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface)
is stored on the motherboard. It initializes hardware during start-up and helps the
operating system load.

6. Managing Input and Output Devices

The motherboard connects to keyboards, mice, printers, monitors, and other

peripherals through USB, HDMI, and audio ports.