Jurnal Kejuruteraan 34(1) 2022: 11-28

https://doi.org/10.17576/jkukm-2022-34(1)-02

User Mode Choice Behavior in Public Transportation:

A Systematic Literature Review

Abigail Jee Qian Suaa, Hui Na Chuaa*, Hooi Ling Khoob, Yeh Ching Lowa, Angela Siew Hoong Leea & Maizatul Akmar Ismailc

a
Department of Computing and Information Systems, School of Engineering and Technology, Sunway University, Malaysia
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia
c
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Received 1 April 2021, Received in revised form 13 July 2021

Accepted 13 August 2021, Available online 30 January 2022

ABSTRACT

With the staggering concerns in environmental pollution caused by the transportation industry, researchers have
ventured their studies to identify the primary factors that may affect an individuals’ propensity to choose public
transportation as more sustainable transportation. Numerous research studies are surrounding this subject; however, no
effort has been made to systematically review them for a synthesized analysis. There is also a lack of study in identifying
contributing factors that may potentially affect each other to determine the propensity to take public transportation and
identify their relationships to each other to provide a guide for future researchers to analyse and consider for future
work. With the motivation to tackle the existing research inadequacies, we conducted a study that focuses on using a
systematic literature review methodology with validated analyses on existing studies. This study found that demographic
factors are the most analysed aspect, followed by transportation, trip-related and environmental. Secondly, our study
provides new insight into several contributing factors affecting each other in predicting public transportation ridership.
Thirdly, our findings also demonstrate the trends and gaps that occur in different geographical areas. The outcomes of
our research present a consolidated view for relevant authorities to cater their strategies tactically according to each
geographical area and identify potential opportunities for future research.

Keywords: Public Transportation; systematic literature review; user preferences; influential factors; user behaviour

INTRODUCTION Therefore, numerous studies have taken an approach to

advance public transportation into smart public
transportation to accommodate a smart city concept. For
The rapid overpopulation of the world has provoked
example, Naik et al. (2019) suggest that electrified public
expeditious urbanization, diversification, and increased
transit can reduce motor vehicle usage which leads to better
density to developing cities globally. To accommodate the
air quality. Mohamed et al. (2021) examined the factors
density of large populations, the need for a sustainable
affecting the travel time reliability of bus transport, while
transportation system becomes imperative every day. This
Tuan (2015) assessed people's travel behavior patterns to
is due to the dependence on automobile transportation
anticipate mode choice for better policymaking towards
which contributes to major environmental problems such
sustainable public transportation development. Gohar et
as traffic congestion and the emission of greenhouse gases
al. (2018) has designed a structure for a smart transportation
(Majumder et al. 2019). To reduce these transportation
system that incorporates "city-wide traffic management,
ramifications, it is necessary to encourage the public to
smart parking assistance, public transportation services,
change their behavior in mode choice from private vehicles
logistics, real-time traffic, and road speed limit monitoring
to public transportation (Ercan et al. 2017).
and management” (p. 117). Jang et al. (2020) investigated
Public transportation (PT) has been recognized as a
how pricing schemes affect mode choice on sustainable
more sustainable and environmentally friendly option for
transportation.
transportation needs compared to cars (Litman 1999).
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Before urban planners implement any transportation RQ 2: Are there any combined factors that occur
architecture into a city, it is important to understand the frequently and how can we demonstrate their potential
area of study and if the contributing factors in the area are relationship?
suggestive enough to confirm a positive acceptance or Motivation for RQ 2: Identify potential contributing
preferred mode choice from its users to take public factors that may affect each other to determine the
transportation more often. Identifying the factors that propensity to take public transport and identify their
influence public transportation mode choice is important relationships to each other to provide a guide for future
because it helps in better strategies in implementing a more researchers to analyze for future work.
sustainable transportation system structure to suit users' RQ 3: What are the underlying trends and gaps that
needs and preferences. can be found from influential factors to take public
Based on our literature study, it shows that research transportation from different parts of the world?
conducted in different countries demonstrate different mode Motivation for RQ 3: Provide thorough descriptive
choice. Although there are numerous literatures review statistics of the studies which address factors affecting
related investigation on public transportation mode choice, public transportation ridership and provide an overview of
there is lack of study systematically review how different the range of time, area of coverage, and the main categories
demographics in different regions may influence mode mentioned in these articles. Furthermore, this study aims
choice. The current state of a literature review regarding to identify any trends that vary geographically over time.
public transportation use although several, but is widely The remainder of this study is organized as follows.
scattered across different locations, perspectives, time, and Section 2 presents a literature review on the background
analytical approaches (Hanssen et al. 2019; Unworth et al. of public transportation, common contributing factors to
2019). We consider a systematic literature review is use public transport such as demographic effects,
required to provide a synthesized view of the data and a environmental effects, trip-related and transportation-
guide for academics to perform further research to extend related effects as well as a background of systematic
the findings to directly address how different demographic literature reviews. Furthermore, this study continues with
aspects in the different regions impact each influential an in-depth research methodology of the study in Section
factor as well as the gaps that lie within the field of study. 3, followed by the results in Section 4 which are displayed
Furthermore, urban planning authorities would be able to by each research question with a detailed discussion on the
use our research outcomes to structure their strategies review. We discuss the results and recommendations in
accordingly based on their regional and demographic Section 5. Finally, Section 6 concludes our study and gives
characteristics to map out the mode choice factors to be suggestions for future study.
considered for the development of public transportation
infrastructure.
To fill the research gap, this study aims to examine the LITERATURE REVIEW
influential factors that cause individuals to take public
transport from systematic literature reviews, and how INFLUENTIAL FACTORS TO USE PUBLIC
different regional characteristics impact the influential TRANSPORTATION
factors. This study also investigates the evolving trends of
mode choice factors studied through time as well as There have been many different studies addressing public
systematically highlights the gaps that have not been transportation mode choice from various disciplines and
studied by literature. The objectives of the study are to points of view. Mode choice analysis consists of analyzing
address the research questions (RQ) listed below with the the factors that may affect an individual's decision to take
following contributions to each research question: a transportation mode. The following presents the relevant
RQ 1: What are the individual significant factors studies analyzing common factors from the effects of
identified by prior studies that influence public transportation demographic attributes, environmental attributes, trip-
mode choice and how do they evolve through time? related attributes, and transportation-related attributes.
Motivation for RQ 1: Provide a consolidated view and Demographic data is one of the most common and
contextual view of mode choice factors in different settings contributing factors that can be used to analyze human
for transportation planning authorities and policymakers behavior. Some studies that addressed specialized
to consider to encourage public transportation use. This demographic variables like age, specifically elders, noticed
study also analyses mode choice factors that have evolved a positive response to public transportation use as age
in the past 15 years to suggest potential factors underlined increases (Böcker et al. 2017; Habib 2015) whereas others
within the trends, gaps, and opportunities for future showed negative responses (Moniruzzaman et al. 2013).
research. Some research papers indicated that individuals from
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higher economic income choose public transportation less Concerning environmental related factors, findings
(Molin et al. 2016; Myung-Jin et al. 2018). Asgari et al. show that a general effect of good weather tends to increase
(2017), as well as Tal and Handy (2010), analyzed the mode public transportation use in some studies (Ahern et al. 2017;
choice behavior of immigrants based on survey data. In Etminani-Ghasrodashti et al. 2018; Outwater et al. 2011).
this case, both studies showed similar responses indicating However, this finding was opposed to a study by Anta et
that immigrants are more likely to use public transportation al. (2016) which concluded that on the occasion of
compared to migrants. Raveau et al. (2014) emphasized favorable weather, individuals choose public transportation
that it is vital to understand the behavior of the demographic less. Most studies concluded that snow and rainfall provide
in public transportation planning. Generally, when an a negative impact on public transportation use. De Abreu
individual is favorable of public transportation, they will Silva et al. (2012) and Guerra et al. (2018) proved that
be more motivated to take public transportation. However, residents who are concentrated in dense, urban areas are
along with those effects, a positive evaluation of cars could highly likely to take public transportation in Canada,
also produce a negative effect on public transportation use Belgium, and Mexico respectively. Fatmi and Habib (2017)
(Schoenau & Müller 2017). as well as Frank et al. (2008) derived similar views
The trip characteristics can also be a contributing regarding areas with mixed land use as a suggestive factor
factor to the travel behavior of each person. For trip for public transportation propensity. Mixed land use is an
purposes, Currie and Delbosc (2011) and Meloni et al. urban planning strategy that incorporates residential,
(2013), and many others found that there is a significant commercial, and industrial sectors in one single area with
positive use of public transportation for work purposes, accommodating transportation such as public transportation
whilst other scholars found a negative use for shopping to benefit the citizens in the area (Mohammed et al. 2016;
trips (Chikaraishi et al. 2011). Other than that, researchers Appleyard et al, 2020). The social influence of an
concluded that individuals tend to use public transportation individual's environment such as employment social
for longer distances trips (Zhang et al. 2017; Ahern et al. construct and school-related attributes have also been
2017; Goel & Tiwari 2016). Michelson and Lachapelle highlighted from previous studies. Grimsrud and El-
(2016) argue that the traveling period of public transportation Geneidy (2013) along with Guerra et al. (2018) and Ding
is highest during the morning and afternoon rush whilst et al. (2017) studied the travel behavior of individuals that
Böcker et al. (2013) argue that the traveling period is higher are affected by the employment density of the area to
at night. Besides that, Ahmad Termida et al. (2016) positively affect public transportation.
mentioned that the summer period has a positive effect on
public transportation use whilst Pronello et al. (2017) SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW (SLR)
mentioned that the summer period has a negative effect. It
is useful to note that these areas may have different An SLR is one of a qualitative approach that adopts
environmental changes during the summertime as they are meticulous identification and synthesis of a collection of
studied in different countries. empirical data which are mined according to a set of
Many transportation system characteristics can drive predefined research questions (Higgins & Green 2011;
an individual to use public transportation or not. Based on Moher et al. n.d.). The history of the implementation of
past research, good quality, comfort, safety, and reliability SLRs started in the medical science and education field
are the few types of service quality attributes of public and was formally referred to as a “meta-analysis” research
transportation that would encourage more public (Smith and Glass, 1980). Although it appeared as a common
transportation use. Individuals would be more likely to medical method of analysis, this methodology was not
take public transportation if the cost for taking public shyly adjusted into other areas of interest, proving that it
transportation is lower, either from cost deductions (Abou- ranks itself as a reliable and transparent process to analyze
Zeid et al. 2012; Desai & Joshi 2016) monetary discounts qualitative studies (Tranfield et al. 2003).
(De Vos et al. 2016), or by a using a public transportation The main difference of an SLR to narrative reviews is
card (Hasnine et al. 2018). The effects of transportations the application of a pellucid scientific standard of
other than public transportation may independently affect methodology which produces unbiased deductions by
a person's choice to take public transportation regardless exhaustive and specifically protocol-driven screening of
of the quality of public transportation. With car ownership, literature studies to address an objective or research
the accumulative costs of car usage for parking, fuel rates, question (Cook et al. 1997; Burgers et al. 2019). Traditional
a congestion fee may induce a person's decision to switch narrative reviews are not directed with a purpose or
to a cheaper option like public transportation (Delsaut intention other than to give a summary of the specified
2014; Levin et al. 2017). topic (Kysh Lynn, 2013). Unlike narrative reviews, this
14

approach proved a more legitimate data analysis which in contribution objectives to provide a clear guide during the
turn would produce more legitimate results (Parris & research for considering the inclusion of literature papers
Peachey 2013). that have been included in the introduction (Higgins &
The outcomes of an SLR can be useful to academics, Green 2011).
practitioners, or managers to provide a dependable source
of information collated from many different studies 2) Search Strategy and Selection Criteria
(Tranfield et al. 2003; Kushwah et al. 2019). Burgers et al.
(2019) gathered a list of applications of SLR in The resource collection was obtained from several
interdisciplinary research. Firstly, an SLR can describe a electronic sources and databases. The search strategy of
specific subject matter that has been addressed by many the literature extraction is to obtain journals from databases
different disciplines. Furthermore, it acts as a data mining according to a set of keywords used as a search criterion
approach to collate different insights and analyze the through legitimate e-journal database resources as follows:
interactions between opposing or agreeing on opinions. As
there is no one fixed standard to approach theoretical study, 1. ScienceDirect (http://www.sciencedirect.com/)
there are numerous methodologies adapted to confront a 2. IEEE Xplore (http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/)
particular research question. An SLR acts to synthesize and 3. ACM online library (http://dl.acm.org/)
define the different approaches as well as identify 4. Springer (http://www.springer.com/)
opportunistic gaps to approach the problem statement. 5. Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com)
Finally, the ability to expand quantitative meta-analysis on
weighted effect sizes on SLR reveals new insights across A variety of keywords as well as combination strings
varying disciplines. of keywords were used to mine the relevant work. Different
combination strings or keywords with different synonyms
are used to increase the probability of obtaining the most
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY pertinent papers (Pang et al. 2017; Miteniece et al. 2017).
The keywords are as follows: “transit”, “travel”,
SLR MODEL “commute”, “transport”, “behave”, “intention”, “pattern”,
“smart card”, “trip”, “route choice”, “path choice”,
The motivation behind using an SLR model is to provide “prefer”, “mobility”, “flow”, “journey”,” attitude”,
a comprehensive view to obtain general conclusions that “trajectory”, “public”, “characteristics”.
can be made given the number of prior researches obtained. In this research study, we only focus on public
The following steps were conducted: transportation on lands, such as road transportation (bus,
taxi, e-hailing, etc.) and rail transportation (intercity rail,
1) Developing an SLR Protocol and identifying the intracity rail, etc.) instead of water or air transportation
research questions because land-related transportation is more relevant to the
implementation of more sustainable transportation
To provide a clear aim to lead the systematic review, an architecture into a city based on our findings in PT mode
SLR protocol is formed to list each step of the reviewing choice as we explained in the Introduction section.
process. A review protocol is defined as a structured scheme The following selection criteria are implemented
to guide the entire SLR methodology (Kitchenham, 2007). during the extraction of papers to ensure that all the related
The research questions, selection and deselection criterion, works are relevant and suitable:
search strategy, quality assessment, and reliability are all
specified within the protocol (Dybå & Dingsøyr, 2008; 1. English Language Papers
Kitchenham, 2004). This protocol adopts some of the 2. Published between 2004 to mid-2019
practices from Higgins and Green’s (2011) Cochrane 3. Peer-reviewed papers
Handbook for Systematic Review of Interventions as well 4. Published in the listed online databases
as the process based on Kitchenham (2004) to systematically
review literature that outlines influential factors that 3) Study Selection Process
correlate to the propensity of public transportation mode
use. The classification of a transportation mode which Referring to Figure 1, Stage 1 produced 2732 journal papers
would be defined as public transportation will be referred just by extraction using keywords from the chosen
to the definition given previously by APTA (American databases. The stopping criteria for the searching and
Public Transportation Association 2019). The SLR began scraping process were determined when three consecutive
by outlining a set of research questions along with pages of the database contain less than 2 relevant articles.
 15

As Higgins and Green (2011) suggest, two different 5) Data Extraction, Aggregation, and Analysis
reviewers were involved in the screening of the 2732 papers
separately in the next processes. In Stages 2 and 3, The final 280 chosen studies were reviewed systematically
Duplicate papers and non-peer-reviewed papers were for data extraction using a data extraction form, one at a
removed. In Stage 4, the title and abstract are reviewed time both reviewers to extract the influential factors that
and excluded if the literature fell under the exclusion influence individuals to take public transportation along
criteria. The abstract was screened only if the title did not with research settings of the chosen studies. The
include evidence of any exclusion criteria. In Step 5, both aggregation of the factors of interest, excluding the paper's
reviewers independently assess eligibility according to the metadata was collated according to their relevance to each
inclusion and exclusion criteria. Papers that did not fell other or a categorized level. To allow a better evaluation
under the selection criteria were discarded from the of the summarized results, all the factors were aggregated
analysis. Any disagreement was discussed with rationale into categories that share similar topics. In this study, we
evidence to decide inclusion or exclusion. The final stage have obtained 4 different levels of aggregation: i)
of screening obtained 280 pieces of potential literature for Demographics; ii) Trip characteristic; iii) Transportation
analysis. system characteristic and iv) Environmental aspect.

RESULTS

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

The findings of this study were found to span 6 major

continents around the world, including mixed or unspecified
continents. Most of the studies come from Europe (35.0%),
Asia (29.6%), and North America (25.7%) which covers
slightly more than 90% of all the prior studies found. The
prior studies have been conducted in over 43 countries,
with the top 10 that cover more than 77% of the relevant
studies are listed in Table 1.

TABLE 1. Top 10 list of percentage of analysed articles by

country
Country (Continent) Percentage of all articles found
USA (North America) 17.5%
China (Asia) 15.4%
UK (Europe) 8.9%
FIGURE 1. Study Selection Process
Canada (North America) 7.9%
Netherlands (Europe) 7.1%
4) The Validity of the Data Collection Process
Germany (Europe) 6.3%
A triangulation test was done to increase the confidence in Australia (Oceania) 5.7%
the selection criterion of both reviewers (Hartley & Sturm Spain (Europe) 3.2%
1997). To ensure the validity of the data collection process, India (Asia) 3.2%
Cohen's κ was run to determine if there was an agreement Japan (Asia) 2.1%
between two researchers' judgment on whether the 2732 Others 22.7%
articles were qualified according to the selection criteria
for analysis. The selection validation was reflective of Figure 2 displays the distributions of the included
Cohen Kappa's statistic which shows the agreement of articles by their publication date. The publications of the
selected papers based on both reviewers to evaluate the analyzed articles range from 2005 up to 2019 (till the end
quality of the selection method. There was strong of March 2019). As we can see from the graph, there is a
agreement between the two researchers' judgments, κ = general increase through the years, a spike of articles
0.890 (95% CI, 0.300 to 0.886), p < .0005 based on Kappa's addressing factors that affect public transportation ridership
statistic.
16

around 2012 to 2014 extensively in Asia and Europe continued...

followed by an exponential growth to 2018 (data from 2019 Social influence
January-June is not included in Figure 2 to avoid misleading Value of Time/
visualization as we are comparing whole year data) from Energy
studies around Asia, Europe, and North America. General behavior
Perceived safety
Trip Related Trip Related Other Trip details
Traveling period
Destination related
Transportation Car or other Car Parking
transportation
Car costs
Car characteristics
Alternatives for
PT
FIGURE 2. Frequency of published articles through time by Public PT service quality
continent Transportation
(PT)
characteristics
In total, there were 157 individual factors obtained
which were significant predictors for people to take public Accessibility of
PT
transportation. Based on the 157 factors identified from
Cost/Discounts
the 280 articles, we further mapped and aggregated the
of PT
factors into Level and 1 and Level 2 as listed in Table 2 to
Stations/Route
enable further generalized analyses. A detailed description Related
of the rationale for the aggregation mechanism can be
PT characteristics
obtained from the Additional Materials provided in the
PT amenities
earlier section.
From Table 3, we can observe that demographic factors Environment Location Structure Basic
Environment
gained the most attention from prior studies, followed by Characteristics
public transportation characteristics and trip-related factors.
Environment Sizes
Area density
TABLE 2. Aggregated Levels of Factors Identified Traffic Congestion Traffic Congestion
Aggregation Aggregation Factors studied Road Road-related
Level 1 Level 2 Non-Automobile
Demographics Basic Immigrant Related Road
Demographic Social Structure Employment-
Basic related
demographic Government
Economic/social Regulations
status School
Education Environment
Work-related Weather-Related Weather-related
Physical health
Parent Information
Household related
Car/Bike usage
attributes
Behavioral /beliefs Car/Bike
behavior/belief/
Perception
PT related
behavior
continue...
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TABLE 3. List of the occurrence of factors by category and continents in the second level of aggregation
Continent
1 Level
st
2nd Level Aggregation (*%) Africa Asia Europe Mixed/ North Oceania South
Unspecified America America
Aggregation (*%) Basic Demographic (65.7%) 2 157 141 1 184 31 4
Demographics Behavioral /beliefs (12.9%) 1 28 36 2 16 3 0
Trip Related (24.3%) 1 68 62 3 38 12 0
Trip Related Car or Other Transport (6.1%) 0 14 17 4 9 5 0
Transportation PT Characteristics (42.5%) 5 122 119 15 109 19 3
Location Structure (19.3%) 1 19 54 3 50 8 0
Environment Traffic Congestion (1.1%) 0 1 3 3 3 2 1
Road (3.6%) 0 6 1 0 10 2 0
Social Structure (3.6%) 0 4 2 1 10 0 0
Weather-Related (2.1%) 0 4 6 0 4 3 0
* Percentage of total distinct articles over 280 articles studied

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1) Demographic. Findings for demographic factors are

BASED ON RQS summarized in Table 4.
It is found that 33.9% of the total studies mention age
group and 31.8% mentioning economic or income factors,
RQ 1: What are the individual significant factors identified
making them the most mentioned significant factors of all
by prior studies that influence public transportation mode
157 factors. This shows that the adoption of taking public
choice and how do they evolve through time?
transportation differs for different age groups and different
The results for the following research will follow per the income groups. The results obtained are not far from the
aggregated groups to give a more substantial and expectations as younger individuals are more likely to be
summarized finding. of lower income and better physical health to take public
transport.
TABLE 4. Summarized table for Demographic factors
Level 2 Aggregated Factor Percentage (%)* Characteristics contributing to the positive response to taking public
Category transport
Basic Demographic Gender Out of 54 studies on gender:
For males: 12=positive (9 from Asia), 7=negative, 35=insignificant (14 from North
America)
For female: 25=positive, 10 = negative, 19=insignificant (11 from Asia)
Overall observation: Comparatively females are more favorable of public transport

Age group 27/34(79.41%) Age groups below 30 and above 50

Economic 52/89(58.43%) Lower economic status and income
Status
Education 16/28(57.14%) Individuals with higher education especially higher than high school
or university level
Physical 4/4(100%) Better physical health and physical activeness without medical
Health conditions or disabilities
Household 2/2(100%) If parents of riders are less available and less willing to drive their
related children around
21/39(53.85%) The smaller household size especially if households are children
Immigrant 6/6(100%) Immigrants with a short settlement period
Related (all 6 studies from North America)
Car Related 2/2(100%) High immigrant concentration areas
(all 2 studies from North America)
35/36(97.22%) Non-car or bike owners
(With the exception for car owners who ‘Park and Ride’)
continue...
18

continued...
45/50(90.00%) Lesser cars owned in household
5/5(100%) Lower car dependency
20/23(86.96%) Non-licensed drivers
Behavioral / Beliefs Behavior 3/3(100%) High familiarity
towards 4/4(100%) A longer history of usage
public 6/6(100%) High habit to take public transport
transportation 8/8(100%) Positive social influence from parents of other household members
11/11(100%) Positive self-evaluation and satisfaction with public transportation
2/2(100%) High acceptability on wait time
17/18(94.44%) High concerns for the environment
Public 8/8(100%) Low concerns for privacy, crime, terrorist attacks on public
transportation transport, and safety
safety More concerns for pedestrian crashes
*Percentage = (number of articles that showed a specific factor positive response to take public transport/number of articles that
address the specific factor with positive and negative responses to take public transport)

Besides that, findings indicated that if the immigration transportation. All studies that analyzed immigrant-related
concentration in an area is high, the individuals are more information are from the USA, which holds an immigrant
likely to take public transport. However, the longer the percentage of 28% of the whole population according to
settlement period of the immigrant, specifically longer than the recent 2019 Current Population Survey (CPS).
10-15 years the less likely they will be to take public

FIGURE 3. Aggregated factors studied through years 2005-2018

The proportion of researched aggregated factors seems research was only conducted between 2010-2012 in Africa,
consistent throughout the years, which demographic and and the years 2014 and 2018 in South America. Trip-related
transportation-related factors attracted more attention factors were found not studied in South America before
compared to others as shown in Figure 3. the year 2019. North America, Europe, and Asia
Figures 4 – 9 compare the aggregated factors studied demonstrate a similar pattern in terms of the proportion of
between different continents. Based on observation of this different factors studied, which demographic-related
comparison, PT mode choice research is scarce in both factors gain the highest numbers of research throughout
Africa and South America before 2019, where the related most of the years, followed by transportation-related
 19

factors. After the year 2010, the Oceania continent

consistently shows research interest in the impact of
environment-related factors on mode choice and follows
by the other factors throughout the years.
In summary, it is observed that the mode choice
contributing factors are affected spatially and temporally.
The mode choice contributing factors are differ based on
the geographical locations (spatially) and with time
(temporally). Most of the studies were carried out in Europe
and North America as compared to Asia in the early years
(2005-2010). However, when more cities are developed in
Asia, more studies are catching up since the year 2013. FIGURE 7. Aggregated factors studied in North America

2) Trip Related. Findings for trip-related factors are

summarized in Table 5.

Overall, there are many conflicting opinions on trip

distance, with some favoring public transportation with an
increase in distance and others with a decrease in distance.
Most of the articles analyzed in Asia and Europe
specifically seem to favor public transportation more with
an increase in trip distance. Several studies agree that there
is a positive correlation to take public transportation on
long journey trips. However, further analysis into journey
FIGURE 4. Aggregated factors studied in Africa
duration shows that there is a negative correlation to take
public transportation when the journey time is longer in
Asia, North America, and Europe.

FIGURE 5. Aggregated factors studied in Asia

FIGURE 8. Aggregated factors studied in Oceania

FIGURE 6. Aggregated factors studied in Europe

FIGURE 9. Aggregated factors studied in South America

20

Our findings show that leisure trips have both positive Asia, whilst some who do not favor public transportation
& negative effects on public transport, with more studies for leisure in Europe.
who favor public transportation for leisure especially in
TABLE 5. Summarized table for Trip related factors
Factor Percentage (%) Characteristics contributing to the positive response
Trip Distance 34/47(72.34%) Longer distance trips
Journey duration 39/48(81.25%) Short journey
Multimodal travel 2/2(100%) More modal of transport is preferred in Europe
Trip Purpose 39/48(81.25%) Types of a trip that are purposed for:
(21/48=Work and school)
(18/48=Non-work/Leisure Trips)
Travelling Period 5/8(62.5%) A travel day on a weekday
6/8(75%) Travel during daytime

3) Transportation System Related. Findings for competitive in getting travelers which are reflected in the
transportation system-related factors are summarized findings as shown in Table 7. The car/bike-related factors
in Table 6. show that the attractiveness of private vehicle usage reduced
when there are more negative aspects in the system. It was
The transportation system factors play a key role in shown that higher parking charges, higher fuel rates, and
influencing public transportation usage. This is because the lesser parking availability at destinations discourage
choice to use public transportation laid on the ground travelers from using a private vehicle. These are identified
comparison between public transportation and private as the push factors, which discourage (push away) the
vehicle. This means that both modes of transportation are travelers from using private vehicles.
TABLE 6. Summarized table for Transportation factors
Category Factor Percentage Characteristics contributing to the positive response
Car or bike related Parking Rates 12/13(92.3%) Higher parking rates for cars except in Park and Ride situations
factors Parking Availability 11/11(100%) Lesser parking availability in settlements and destinations
3/4 (75%) More parking in railway stations or park-and-ride facilities
Car use costs 10/10(100%) Higher fuel rates
Public Transportation Public 10/10(100%) Highly convenient
(PT) related Transportation 23/23(100%) Reliable
Service quality 7/7(100%) Flexible
32/33(96.97%) Comfortable
24/24(100%) High Quality
19/19(100%) Safe
PT Accessibility 62/65(95.39%) Highly accessible to shopping, work, or other facilities
16/19(84.21%) Shorter distance to Public Transportation
Cost of PT 54/55(98.18%) Cheaper fee
20/20(100%) More concession cards for students and the elderly
Station and 2/2(100%) A higher number of routes
Route Related 9/9(100%) A higher number of transfers
4/7(57.14%) A higher number of stops
Characteristics 2/2(100%) Higher seat availability
of PT 2/2(100%) A higher level of Public transportation connectivity
17/18(94.44%) Higher frequency of public transport
9/10(90%) The higher speed of public transport
11/11(100%) Shorter wait time
PT Amenities 3/3(100%) Contains air conditioning
2/2(100%) Contains Wi-Fi
5/5(100%) Contains Real-Time PT Information
1/1(100%) Contains surveillance
 21

TABLE 7. Summarized table of Environmental factors

Factor Percentage Characteristics contributing to the positive response
Basic Environmental Characteristics 54/78(69.23%) Urban neighborhoods (trend increases from 2002 to 2015)
5/5(100%) Shorter distance to the central business district and shopping areas
22/27(81.48%) A denser and more compact city
2/2(100%) Higher residential density
7/8(87.5%) Areas of mixed land use
12/13(92.31%) More Congested traffic
Traffic Congestion and Road Related 6/6(100%) More road intersections, higher road density, and longer lengths of
highways
2/2(100%) More sidewalks
Non-Automobile Road 4/4(100%) More weather-protected walkways
8/8(100%) Areas of high employment rate especially in North America
Employment-Related 2/4(50%) Individual works from home or near retail locations
11/14(78.5%) Better weather especially with areas of lesser rainfall is more favorable
Weather 2/3(66.67%) Higher temperature (in North America and Europe)
2/3(66.67%) Higher temperature (in North America and Europe)

On the other hand, improvements to the public especially in Europe and North America. We can compare
transportation system act as pull factors that attract more and notice that each continent responds differently to each
ridership. This includes enhancing public transportation type of neighborhood.
service quality (such as convenience, reliability, flexibility, As there are many references to trip purposes to work
comfort, and safety). Nonetheless, these are soft aspects or shopping, accessibility to shopping areas, and high
of the system as they involve travelers' perception of propensity to take public transportation in urban areas, it
service quality. Different passengers on the same public is also essential to ensure that there are accessible walkways
transportation system may perceive differently as everyone from the public transportation to these areas. With higher
has a different standard perception. The hard aspects of the sidewalk density, Whalen et al. (2013) found that users are
system could influence travelers as well that include public less likely to take public transportation as they would be
transportation accessibility and distance, availability of more likely to walk than to take public transportation in
park-and-ride facilities, route numbers, transfers, Canada. However, a surprising finding from Spears et al.
connectivity, frequency, speed, waiting time, and others. (2013) in Los Angeles found that more pedestrian lanes in
These are from the supply-side which are controlled neighborhoods result in a high propensity to take public
variables by the system provider or operator. Some of these transportation. This could be because most individuals in
(such as the location of transit stations, connectivity, park- Los Angeles are required to walk to public transportation
and-ride facilities, and others) required careful consideration stations. Furthermore, many studies have extended their
during the planning stage. studies that it is also a contributing factor to have weather-
Other important factors that could attract ridership are protected walkways to increase the propensity to take
the existence of Wi-Fi on public transportation and real- public transportation.
time information about public transportation. The existence
of Wi-Fi on-board allows the passengers to access the RQ 2: Which combined factors are found to occur most
internet for leisure and work-related affairs. The frequently and how can we interpret their relationship?
dissemination of real-time information allows passengers
to plan their journey. These are new factors that could affect
travelers' mode choice behavior in this digital era. The direction behind this question is to analyze deeper and
Several articles expressed that a type of neighborhood isolate any findings that may not provide a clear split of
could greatly influence if an individual would take public opinions. This is because, many contributing factors may
transport. Findings show that urban areas are known to not just revolve around one individual factor, but rather
positively respond to public transportation in Europe, Asia, two or more factors in combination. Overall, the type of
and North America. The results show that this is an transportation and age are the most occurring contributing
increasing trend from the years 2002 to 2015. In the same factors. This is an important insight that should be taken
timeline, we may also notice an increase in a negative by future researchers to ensure that they can analyze these
response to public transportation in suburban areas contributing dimensions. There is an even split of studies
22

that found that as individuals age, they have lesser of traveling time and type of public transportation can be
likeliness to take public transportation, and contradictorily a stronger predictor of preference. Most travel periods are
also discovered that as individuals age, they have more positive for public transportation around the weekday. This
likeliness to take public transport. Since the results did not finding is in line with prior literature that weekends are
give a certain answer, there could be a contributing factor less traveled for most individuals unless if they are younger.
that influences this outcome. For example, several studies This could indicate that age may be a contributing factor
shared similar views that there is a positive likeliness for to the time of travel if on the weekends or weekdays.
older males to take public transportation more. 75% of Conclusively, we can observe that factors do not
these findings are only prevalent in Asia, which can prove always affect individually, rather a collection of several
that there is a positive correlation that older males in Asia factors which can make a situation favorable or unfavorable
prefer public transportation more. Jana and Varghese for public transport. The most occurring contributing factor
(2017) proposed a finding that positive propensity for elders from our findings is the type of transportation and age.
only occurs when the type of transportation is rail while Table 8 presents the summary of all the contributing factors
having opposing views for buses. Hess et al. (2018) on the addressed in this study.
other hand noticed a positive propensity for elders towards
rail only. This suggests that age, continent, and type of RQ 3: What are the underlying trends that can be found
transportation may be contributing factors to the ages that from influential factors to take public transportation from
take public transportation. different parts of the world??
Income is another factor that shows opposing views
across different studies. Several other conditional factors
apply to income such as how a few researchers observed The results from clustering each of the influential factors
a positive propensity to take public transportation for high- according to continents revealed some underlying trends
income individuals but only for metro and rail, suggesting that may emerge specifically in these geographical areas.
that income and type of public transportation may influence Amongst continents, North America and Asia revealed
each other. different perspectives of influential factors to take public
General studies have shown similar findings to prefer transport. Asia showed characteristics regarding trip-
public transportation during the daytime. However, some related factors such as the purpose, journey, destination,
articles analyzed that night and overnight travels on rail and length of the trip.
are favorable. This may indicate that combining the factors
TABLE 8. Summarized table of contributing factors
Co-occurring Factors Remarks
Age, Gender, In Asia, collectively 86% of the relevant studies show older Males Prefer Public Transportation
Continent (Guo et al. 2018; Ji et al. 2018; Sanko, 2014; Ding & Zhang, 2016; Rahman & Baker, 2018; Gadepalli
et al. 2018, Szeto et al. 2017), whereas younger females are likely to take PT (Can, 2013; Yagi &
Mohammadian, 2010).
In Europe, 78% of the relevant studies show females prefer PT to males, and the older ages increase
the likelihood to choose PT (Arbués et al. 2016; Tyrinopoulos & Antoniou, 2013; Böcker et al. 2017;
Prillwitz & Bar, 2011; Clayton et al. 2014; Garcia-Sierra et al. 2018).
When comparing relevant studies on North Americans, the results do not show a consistent tendency
between the association of age groups and gender in mode choices, though 60% of the studies indicates
females prefer PT (Grimsrud & El-Geneidy, 2013; Pasha et al. 2016; Habib, 2015; Habib & Weiss,
2014; Li et al. 2018; Hasnine, 2018).
Similar to North America, studies on Oceania and South America also demonstrate inconsistent
tendency between age groups and gender in preference.
Income, Continent Relevant studies show that lower-income individuals prefer PT in Asia, North America, and Oceania,
however, Europeans demonstrate different findings across different years. Figure 10 presents the
comparison. Those continents and years that do not contain relevant studies are excluded from Figure
10.
Travel time, Trip As shown in Table 9, relevant studies show that North Americans and Europeans have different
purpose, Continent considerations of trip purpose in choose PT. North Americans tend to consider PT for a work-related trip
during daytime rush hours and consider rail for overnight trips. Two European studies consistently show
individuals are likely to use PT for shopping/non-leisure trips, and night time is the preferred travel time
which this may imply the travel time for non-working-related trip.
Travel period, Age Three out of three relevant studies in Oceania (Ho & Mulley, 2013; Tao et al. 2017) and Europe (Böcker
et al. 2017) show that younger individuals are more likely to prefer to travel on weekends.
 23

FIGURE 10. Association between PT preference and Income over time

TABLE 9. Trip purpose, travel time, and PT preference in Europe and North America
Continent Trip Purpose to choose PT Preferred Travel Time
Europe Non-leisure/shopping trip Night-time (Böcker et al. 2013; Chikaraishi et al. 2011)
North America Work-related trip Daytime, during morning and afternoon rush hours (Michelson & Lachapelle,
2016); overnight trips prefer using rail (Hess et al. 2018)
Note: No relevant study between 2005 and 2018 reported in other continents, therefore they are excluded in Table 9

North America showed characteristics to be affected adoption differs around the world. The results from
by the social structure of the environment, employment- classifying countries according to United Nations (2014)
related factors, economic status, immigrant-related list of categories revealed that countries of developed
information, and safety-related information as well as the economies are more affected by basic environmental
accessibility of public transport. It can be expected that characteristics than the overall studies such as neighborhood
income is a swaying factor to take public transportation as type, a mixed land-use area, location, transport oriented,
economic status, social structure, immigrant information development areas, distance from the central business
as well as employment-related factors are all factors related district and neighborhood accessibility to commercial
to ones' economic freedom to drive a car or take public facilities. This finding can be supported by the justification
transportation as a means to save money. However, it is that developed countries have a higher standard of living,
not the only factor as we may observe that providing good where choosing transportation can be a choice and their
service quality in terms of safety and accessibility is one decision can change based on the type of neighborhood or
of the most important factors for people to take public the accessibility of the destination. Places in developing
transportation in North America. Upon further analysis of countries, however, would have a lower standard of living
the economic status of the demographic, it can be reasoned and may take public transportation regardless of the
that higher-income groups may opt to choose public condition of the environment. The areas of study are
transportation out of preference however lower-income varying, and certain areas of study may have received
groups may not have many alternatives due to constraint limited attention although it has been proved to be
of household factors and the type and location of their significant in some countries.
employment. Overall, little research has been reported on traffic
The development of different areas of study can be congestion factors, factors regarding other transportation,
found to be a justifying factor of why public transportation social structures, and weather.
24

DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS incorporating the latest technology such as travel time
information and WIFI facilities on public transport.
The findings from this critical review reveal the
The position of the current research brings a wider view
important model shift influential factors that can be used
of public transportation mode choice factors in comparison
as a reference. By proper understanding of these
to previous research in the past. Hansson et al. (2019) has
contributing factors, transport experts and policymakers
a similar scope but specializing merely in regional public
could formulate the appropriate mode shift strategy to
transportation and mainly focusing on quality attributes.
encourage more travel via public transportation than private
The current research is found to cover the general public
vehicles. The potential strategies are listed as follow:
transportation mode choice spanning a wider sampling
size, year, and country coverage. The range of dimensions
1. It was shown that mode choice behavior is not
of factors covered by this research is also wider than other
spatially transferrable. The travelers in Asia exhibit
past research spanning, across demographics. Some of the
different concerns and behavior to those in other parts
clear differences can be noted in Table 10.
of the world. The traveler behavior is also different
It is observed from Table 10 that this study is more
for those who resided in developing countries as
comprehensive as compared to the previous summary
compared to developed countries. This signals that
study. It has a length (15 years) and depth (280 articles).
the mode shifts strategies that could work in America
It has a wide variety of coverage by considering more than
might not be useful in Asia and vice versa. The
100 influential factors. This shows the strength of the study
individual country needs to carry out its research
by providing an in-depth analysis concerning the mode
and formulate the necessary strategy to influence the
choice contributing factors. Furthermore, this study
mode shift.
reviewed the latest trend in mode choice study by

Table 10. Comparison of current research and past research

Research Findings This Study Hansson et al. (2019) Unsworth et al. (2019)
Research purpose Systematic literature review Systematic literature review of A systematic review of public
of public transportation quality attributes of regional public transportation accessibility for people
mode choice factors transportation and their influence using mobility devices
on modal choice, demand, and
customer satisfaction
Analysis Method Qualitative Analysis using a Qualitative Analysis using a Narrative analysis using a systematic
systematic literature review systematic literature review literature review
Quality Assessment Cohen’s Kappa Statistic (Not mentioned) Checklist with a 5-point scale
and Validation
Country Coverage 43 Countries (as mentioned 4 Countries 10 Countries
in descriptive statistics)
Year Coverage 2005 to 2019 (15 years) 2009-2019 (10 years) 1995 to 2019 (24 years)
Data Sampling size 280 research articles 37 research articles 26 research articles
Influential factors Covers all influential Covers influential factors related Covers influential factors related to
of mode choice factors found in prior to transportation quality attributes transportation accessibility issues
investigated studies worldwide regionally regionally
Coverage of findings • 157 Influential mode 9 main influential mode choice 4 main categories of Issues regarding
choice factors ranging from factors ranging from transportation waiting, boarding, alighting, moving
demographic (65), trip- (8) and Environmental (1) within a public transportation,
related (14), transportation and traveling to and from a public
(43), and environmental transportation stop
(35) factors
• Identified combined
factors that occur most
frequently
• Covered the analysis of
factors and how they evolve
over time
 25

2. The demographic characteristics of the travelers are These policies could be used as tools to achieve some
an important factor in mode choice. Policymakers transportation objectives. For example, to encourage more
could formulate specific strategies for the target travelers to shift from private vehicles to public
group. This will improve the strategy efficiency. transportation. This can only be done if one has the overall
For example, most of the public transportation users understanding of mode choice contributing factors.
are within the age group of 30-50 years old who
belong to an active working group. A monthly fare ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
discount card that reduces their travel cost would be
an effective strategy to increase ridership from this This paper was supported by Partnership Grant CR-UM-
group of travelers. SST-DCIS-2018-01 and RK004-2017 between Sunway
3. The public transportation types (rail or bus) and University and the University of Malaya.
their locations are found to be significant factors.
This indicates that policymaker needs to do
appropriate planning on the public transportation DECLARATION OF COMPETING INTEREST
types and facilities. These are fundamentals in public
None
transportation planning and design.
4. The utilization of communication technologies
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