The Impact of Classical and Heavy Metal Music on Visual Working Memory

Performance in First-year psychology students at Cebu Institute of Technology –

University

In partial fulfillment of

PSYCH264 Experimental Psychology

AARON DAVE D. CANTERO

CHESKA ALESSANDRA A. ROSELL

JESSA MAE T. ATON

KENSHIN L. DAYONOT

LLOYD JEREMY C. LABTIC

MARIE CLYDE J. LEONES

MICHAL ZIENA L. PITOGO

Michelle Jane Marfa-Monteros, RPm, RPsy

Research Instructor

May 2025
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

TABLE OF CONTENTS ii

ABSTRACT iv

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION

Rationale 1

Research Objectives 3

Operational Definition of Terms 3

Review of Related Studies 5

2 METHODOLOGY

Research Design 18

Research Participant 18

Research Apparatus 18

Research Procedures 20

Statement of Hypothesis 22

Treatment of Data 23

Ethical Considerations 24

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Descriptive of Visual Working Memory 26

Difference Between Visual Working Memory 28

And Treatment Conditions

Limitations of the Study 32

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4 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusion 34

Recommendations 34

References 36

Appendix

A Informed Consent Form 41

B Research Instrument 45

C Experimental Room Layout 58

D Experimentation Script Guide 59

E Documentation 63

Curriculum Vitae 69
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ABSTRACT

With the increasing use of background music during study sessions, it is

important to explore how different genres may influence cognitive performance,
particularly visual memory. This study examined the effects of classical and heavy metal
music on the visual working memory performance of first-year college students at Cebu
Institute of Technology – University. A true experimental design using a between-
subjects approach was implemented with a total of 40 participants randomly assigned to
one of three groups: classical music (Chopin’s Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2), heavy metal music
(Demon Lament), and no music (control). Each group completed two trials of a visual
working memory task, which involved viewing 25 images for 2 seconds each, followed
by a worksheet containing 35 images (25 targets and 10 distractors) for recall.
Descriptive analysis showed that while mean scores varied slightly across groups, a
Welch ANOVA revealed no statistically significant difference in visual working memory
performance among the three auditory conditions. These findings suggest that music,
whether calming or arousing, did not significantly influence recall accuracy under the
conditions tested. The results imply that background music may not universally enhance
or hinder visual memory, and that individual differences and task complexity should be
considered. It is recommended that students evaluate their own learning preferences and
that future studies investigate more complex memory tasks or different genres to further
explore this relationship.

Keywords: visual working memory, background music, classical music, heavy metal
music, memory recall
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1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Rationale

Visual working memory (VWM) is a critical cognitive function that allows individuals to

temporarily store, manipulate, and retrieve visual information for goal-directed tasks (Luck & Vogel,

1997). It plays a fundamental role in academic and daily life activities, especially in tasks involving

the encoding, maintenance, and recall of visual stimuli such as diagrams, spatial layouts,

instructional charts, and visual presentations. Cowan (2001) asserts that the average capacity of

VWM is limited to about three to four items at a time, which underscores the importance of

attentional control, particularly in environments with competing stimuli such as background music.

Among college students, it has become increasingly common to incorporate background

music into study routines, with many reporting that music improves focus and reduces anxiety

(Perham & Currie, 2014; Schäfer et al., 2013). However, research findings remain inconsistent on

whether music aids or impairs memory performance. Some studies suggest that music may enhance

cognitive processing through mood and arousal mechanisms (Thompson, Schellenberg, & Husain,

2001), while others argue that music competes for limited attentional resources and may hinder

cognitive tasks (Kahneman, 1973; Furnham & Strbac, 2002). These conflicting results highlight the

need to investigate the specific conditions under which background music may influence memory—

particularly visual memory, which remains relatively underexamined in this context.

While visual working memory has been thoroughly studied alongside various psychological

and environmental factors such as sleep quality (Lo et al., 2012), stress (Schoofs et al., 2008),

emotional states (Schweizer et al., 2013), and lighting conditions (Huiberts et al., 2015), little

research has been dedicated to its interaction with auditory variables like music. Furthermore, the

majority of music-cognition studies focus on verbal memory or general attentional performance

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(Schellenberg, 2005; Perham & Currie, 2014), often neglecting the visual modality. Even when

music is included in experimental setups, researchers tend to overlook distinctions between types of

memory or fail to identify which sensory modality is most affected (Mastroberardino et al., 2015).

This creates a significant empirical gap—especially in educational contexts where students

frequently engage in visually demanding tasks while listening to music. Therefore, this study seeks

to isolate and examine the influence of background music on visual working memory using genre-

specific conditions.

This research is grounded in two key theoretical frameworks. The Arousal-Mood Theory

suggests that music can influence cognitive performance by enhancing emotional state and

physiological arousal, which may support attentional engagement and memory retention (Husain,

Thompson, & Schellenberg, 2002). In contrast, the Theory of Attentional Resources posits that

individuals possess a limited pool of cognitive resources that must be distributed across

simultaneous tasks (Kahneman, 1973; Lavie et al., 2004). If a secondary stimulus—such as music—

demands excessive attentional capacity, it may impair performance on the primary task.

This study aims to fill the research gap by empirically assessing whether classical music,

heavy metal music, or silence affects students’ ability to recall visual stimuli. Using a true

experimental design with controlled auditory conditions and standardized visual memory tasks, the

study will provide empirical insights relevant to students, educators, and cognitive researchers alike.

The results may inform study strategies, classroom practices, and future theoretical developments in

music cognition and sensory-specific memory research.

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Research Objectives

This study aims to examine the effects of heavy metal and classical music on the working

memory performance of first-year psychology students at Cebu Institute of Technology University.

Specifically, this to:

1. Describe the working memory performance of first-year psychology students exposed to

heavy metal music, classical music, and a no-music condition.

2. Determine whether there is a statistically significant difference in working memory

performance between students exposed to heavy metal music and those exposed to

classical music.

3. Determine whether there is a statistically significant difference in working memory

performance among the three experimental groups.

Definition of Terms

Working Memory (WM). Working Memory is a core cognitive system that temporarily

stores and manipulates information necessary for reasoning, problem-solving, learning, and

comprehension (Baddeley, 2012). It enables individuals to process incoming information while

simultaneously performing mental operations, making it essential for everyday cognitive tasks.

Working memory is typically divided into different components, including verbal and visual

processing. In this study, working memory refers to participants' ability to retain and recall visual

information while exposed to different auditory conditions. It is measured through a memory recall

task, where participants attempt to identify previously seen images from a set of target and distractor

images. Performance is quantified based on accuracy, with correct selections earning points and

incorrect selections leading to point deductions.

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Visual Working Memory (VWM). Visual Working Memory is a specific subset of

working memory responsible for temporarily storing and manipulating visual information

that supports tasks such as object recognition, spatial awareness, and pattern retention (Luck

& Vogel, 1997). Unlike general working memory, which encompasses both verbal and

nonverbal information, VWM is strictly concerned with visual stimuli and spatial

relationships. It plays a crucial role in memory-intensive tasks such as reading maps,

recalling faces, and tracking objects in motion. In this study, VWM is assessed through an

image recall task, where participants must differentiate between previously seen images and

distractor images after being exposed to varying auditory conditions. Performance is

measured by the number of correctly identified images and errors made, reflecting the

participants' ability to retain and process visual stimuli over a short duration.

Heavy Metal Music. Heavy metal music is a genre characterized by aggressive rhythms,

distorted guitar sounds, and intense tempos (Weinstein, 2000). In this study, heavy metal music

refers to the song “Demon Lament,” which will be played as the background music for one

experimental group. Exposure to heavy metal music is a categorical variable, as participants are

either assigned to the heavy metal condition or not.

Classical Music. Classical music is defined as a broad genre of music composed in

structured forms with harmonious melodies and intricate arrangements (Samson, 2013). In this

study, classical music refers to Chopin’s Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2, which will be played as the

background music for one experimental group. Exposure to classical music is a categorical variable,

as participants are either assigned to the classical music condition or not.

No Music Condition. The No Music condition serves as the control group in this study. In

this condition, participants complete the memory recall task in a silent environment, without any
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auditory stimuli. This allows researchers to determine whether background music (classical or heavy

metal) has a significant impact on VWM performance compared to a baseline (silent) condition.

Review of Related Studies

Theoretical Framework

Background music has been studied extensively in cognitive psychology, particularly

concerning its impact on attention, working memory, and learning efficiency (Thompson et al.,

2011). The Arousal-Mood Hypothesis suggests that music can influence cognitive performance by

modulating arousal levels and emotional states (Schellenberg, 2005). According to this theory,

background music that is moderate in tempo and volume (e.g., classical music) can enhance focus

and improve cognitive performance, while high-arousal music (e.g., heavy metal) may either

improve alertness or cause cognitive overload, depending on the listener’s ability to regulate

attention.

Several studies have found positive effects of instrumental music on cognitive tasks,

suggesting that non-lyrical, structured music facilitates concentration by reducing external

distractions (Dobbs et al., 2011). In contrast, other research has found that music with high

variability in tempo, rhythm, and complexity can interfere with working memory by increasing

cognitive load (Perham & Currie, 2014). This suggests that the impact of background music on

VWM is highly dependent on musical characteristics as well as individual differences in cognitive

processing.

The Theory of Attentional Resources is a foundational concept in cognitive psychology

which posits that individuals possess a finite capacity of cognitive resources that must be allocated

among concurrent mental processes (Kahneman, 1973). This theory is particularly relevant in studies

involving dual-task conditions, where the processing demands of one task may impair performance
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on another due to resource competition. When applied to cognitive tasks such as visual working

memory, the presence of background auditory stimuli—especially those that are complex or

emotionally engaging—can act as a secondary demand on attentional resources, thereby reducing

task efficiency.

Lavie et al. (2004) expanded on this model through their Load Theory of Attention,

proposing that when cognitive load is high, individuals are more vulnerable to distractions, as

attentional capacity becomes exhausted. In contrast, when the primary task load is low, individuals

can still process irrelevant stimuli, albeit at the cost of reduced performance on the focal task. This

has strong implications for auditory distractions such as background music, particularly genres like

heavy metal that feature rapid tempo, abrupt dynamic changes, and high intensity—elements likely

to compete with the cognitive demands of maintaining and manipulating visual representations in

memory.

Empirical evidence also supports these claims. For instance, Furnham and Strbac (2002)

demonstrated that background music significantly impaired performance on memory and reading

comprehension tasks, particularly in individuals who scored lower in cognitive control. Their

findings emphasized that attention must be actively managed when external distractions are present,

and that high-demand auditory input depletes the resources needed for effective encoding and

retrieval. Similarly, Perham and Currie (2014) found that music with high lyrical or rhythmic

complexity interferes with serial recall, highlighting the role of attentional resource allocation in

working memory tasks.

In the context of educational settings, where students often listen to music while studying,

understanding the limits of attentional resources is crucial. Visual tasks such as diagram

interpretation or image recall require uninterrupted focus and active visual encoding, which may be

disrupted if auditory stimuli draw upon overlapping cognitive mechanisms.

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Thus, the Theory of Attentional Resources provides a compelling theoretical foundation for

evaluating how different types of music impact visual working memory. It suggests that background

music—especially if it is cognitively demanding—can hinder memory performance by taxing the

limited attentional system, particularly when tasks already require substantial cognitive engagement.

Working memory (WM) is essential for language learning, aiding phonological storage and

retrieval (Baddeley, 2003). Learners with higher WM can process multiple inputs, while those with

lower WM may struggle with distractions (Gathercole & Baddeley, 1993; Sweller, Ayres, &

Kalyuga, 2011). Music has been linked to enhanced verbal memory through rhythm and melody

(Patel, 2008), with singing aiding word recall, particularly in second language learning (Ludke,

Ferreira, & Overy, 2014). However, its benefits vary across individuals.

Ong and Chan (2023) found that music’s effect on word learning depends on WM capacity—

beneficial for those with higher WM but disruptive for those with lower WM. Their study highlights

the need to consider cognitive differences in educational settings, suggesting that tailored approaches

can optimize music’s role in language learning.

Working memory is a fundamental cognitive function that allows individuals to temporarily

store, manipulate, and process information essential for problem-solving, decision-making, and

learning. However, research suggests that working memory is influenced by various environmental

factors, including circadian rhythms, weather conditions, lighting exposure, socioeconomic status,

and childhood environmental stability. Studies indicate that cognitive performance fluctuates

throughout the day, with younger adults performing better in the evening and older adults in the

morning due to physiological arousal differences (West et al., 2002). Additionally, weather-induced

mood changes affect memory recall, as individuals in negative moods tend to engage in deeper

cognitive encoding, leading to improved retention (Forgas et al., 2009). Similarly, lighting exposure

impacts cognitive function, with bright light improving performance on simple tasks but impairing
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complex tasks due to cognitive overload (Huiberts et al., 2015). These findings highlight how

external factors influence cognitive efficiency in task-specific ways.

Beyond immediate environmental influences, socioeconomic status and childhood

environmental stability play crucial roles in shaping working memory capacity. Children from low-

income backgrounds often exhibit weaker verbal working memory, attributed to chronic stress and

reduced access to cognitive enrichment (Engel de Abreu et al., 2013). However, recent research

suggests that individuals who grew up in unpredictable childhood environments may develop

specialized cognitive skills that enhance working memory under high-stress conditions (Young et al.,

2018). These findings challenge traditional assumptions that early adversity universally impairs

cognition, suggesting instead that cognitive development may be adaptive to environmental

demands. Overall, the literature underscores the need to consider environmental and contextual

factors when assessing cognitive performance and developing interventions that support individuals

with varying cognitive needs.

One of the most common challenges faced by college students is maintaining focus and

retaining information while studying in noisy environments. Dormitories, libraries, cafés, and shared

living spaces often expose students to background noise, making it difficult to concentrate and

process information effectively. As a result, many students turn to music as a way to either block

distractions or enhance their focus during study sessions. However, the effects of different types of

music on memory and cognitive performance remain a subject of debate (Perham & Currie, 2014).

Research suggests that the impact of music on cognitive tasks depends on factors such as

tempo, complexity, and an individual’s preference. Classical music, known for its structured and

harmonious nature, has been linked to cognitive benefits. The Mozart effect suggests that listening to

classical music may enhance memory, concentration, and spatial reasoning abilities (Rauscher,

Shaw, & Ky, 1993). In contrast, heavy metal music, characterized by fast tempos and intense
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auditory stimuli, has been associated with cognitive overload and distractions, potentially impairing

recall and comprehension (Thompson, Schellenberg, & Husain, 2001).

Despite these findings, many college students continue to use various music genres while

studying, without a clear understanding of how different types of music affect their memory

performance. Some students may believe that listening to their preferred music enhances

concentration, while others may find it disruptive (Furnham & Bradley, 1997). The conflicting

nature of these perceptions highlights the need for further research to determine whether classical

and heavy metal music influence visual working memory, which plays a crucial role in processing

and retaining visual information such as graphs, diagrams, and lecture slides.

This study aims to address this gap by examining how exposure to classical and heavy metal

music affects the ability of first-year psychology studentsto recall visual information. By

understanding the cognitive effects of different music genres in study environments, the findings

may help students develop more effective study habits and optimize their learning strategies.

Classical music has long been associated with cognitive benefits, particularly in memory-

related tasks. The Mozart Effect, introduced by Rauscher et al. (1993), suggests that listening to

classical compositions—especially those with structured melodies and moderate tempo—can

temporarily enhance spatial and working memory performance. Several studies have supported this

claim, indicating that classical music may improve concentration, reduce stress, and facilitate

cognitive processing (Jäncke & Sandmann, 2010).

Research by Schellenberg (2005) found that listening to classical music before engaging in

cognitive tasks enhanced memory performance, likely due to its ability to increase attentional control

and promote a positive mood. Similarly, studies suggest that classical music, particularly

instrumental pieces, minimizes distractions and helps individuals focus on visual stimuli, thereby

improving VWM efficiency (Huang & Shih, 2011). However, conflicting studies indicate that the
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positive effects of classical music may be temporary and highly dependent on task complexity and

individual preference (Thompson et al., 2011).

Unlike classical music, heavy metal is characterized by fast tempos, complex rhythms, and

high-intensity sound. Its impact on cognitive function remains controversial, with studies yielding

mixed results. Some research suggests that high-energy music can enhance cognitive arousal,

leading to improved performance on tasks requiring vigilance and sustained attention (Dobbs et al.,

2011). Others argue that the intensity of heavy metal music can cause cognitive overload, reducing

working memory capacity by increasing mental effort (Perham & Currie, 2014).

The Cognitive Load Theory proposes that when external stimuli require significant cognitive

processing, they may interfere with an individual's ability to retain and manipulate information

(Sweller, 1988). Heavy metal music, with its rapid tempo and high levels of variability, may

introduce attentional competition, making it difficult for individuals to maintain focus on visual

stimuli (Huang & Shih, 2011). However, some studies have found that individuals who regularly

listen to heavy metal experience less cognitive interference, suggesting that personal preference and

familiarity may moderate its effects (Schäfer & Sedlmeier, 2010).

The no music condition is frequently used in cognitive research to examine how the absence

of auditory stimuli influences cognitive performance, particularly in tasks involving memory,

attention, and creativity. Research has shown that the lack of music can improve task performance in

certain contexts. For example, Hallam and Price (2010) found that participants who worked in

silence performed better on tasks requiring concentration, suggesting that the absence of music

reduces distractions and allows for greater focus. Similarly, Rauscher et al. (1993) demonstrated that

individuals in no-music conditions had better memory recall, as music may interfere with memory

encoding and retrieval, especially in complex tasks. This supports the idea that silence may be

beneficial for tasks demanding high cognitive load.

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In addition to memory, the no music condition impacts attention and creative performance.

Krause et al. (2015) found that participants in silent environments exhibited improved sustained

attention, particularly for tasks requiring vigilance. Conversely, music can sometimes impair

attention and focus (Bainbridge et al., 2001). Regarding creativity, research by Ellis et al. (2011)

indicated that silence can foster enhanced creative problem-solving, as it minimizes external

distractions and facilitates deeper cognitive processing. These findings suggest that the no music

condition provides a useful baseline in cognitive research, allowing for a clearer understanding of

how silence influences cognitive processes such as attention, memory, and creativity without the

influence of auditory stimuli.

The genre of music has a different effect on memory recall. According to Hallam et al.

(2002), the relaxing effects and predictable structure of classical music, especially pieces with

structured patterns like those of Mozart and Beethoven, improve memory recall. This effect, which

suggests that listening to classical music may momentarily improve cognitive ability, is frequently

referred to as the Mozart Effect. A variety of elements, including genre, speed, lyrical content, and

individual variances, determine how music affects memory recall. Depending on the type of

cognitive task, more complex or lyrical genres of music may either benefit or impede performance,

even if classical and instrumental music generally improves memory retention. Future studies should

examine customized methods for incorporating music with techniques for improving memory and

learning.

The studies examined present significant insights into the ways in which music influences

visual working memory performance or cognitive processes. The current study on the effects of

heavy metal and classical music on visual working memory performance is directly informed by

these findings. The current study aims to explain whether music can be used as an effective

cognitive help or if it acts as a distraction in academic settings due to the variable effects of music on
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cognitive performance. Determining whether particular musical genres can improve or hinder

cognitive performance more than others will also be made easier with an understanding of the

impacts of different music preferences.

Visual Working Memory (VWM) is essential for temporarily storing and manipulating visual

information, contributing to tasks such as learning, recognition, and decision-making (Luck &

Vogel, 1997). Research has consistently shown that the effectiveness of VWM depends on various

factors, including image properties and environmental influences such as background music

(Baddeley, 2000). The study of how visual stimuli are encoded and retained in memory has led to

investigations into factors such as image distinctiveness, category uniformity, and spatial sparseness.

Recent studies highlight that image characteristics significantly impact VWM performance.

Lukavský and Děchtěrenko (2017) explored how memory sensitivity is affected by image-space

properties, specifically image-space sparseness and uniformity. Their findings suggest that people

remember more distinctive images better and are more prone to making recognition errors with

images that share categorical similarities with others. Similarly, Masarwa et al. (2022) examined

how image size influences memory encoding, demonstrating that larger images are better retained,

particularly in naturalistic encoding scenarios. These findings suggest that memory retention is

influenced by the spatial and categorical characteristics of the visual stimuli presented.

Given that VWM is influenced by image properties, the introduction of external stimuli such

as background music may further modulate cognitive processing. Studies suggest that background

music can act as either a cognitive aid or a source of interference depending on the complexity of the

task and the characteristics of the auditory input (Schäfer & Sedlmeier, 2010). The impact of music

on working memory is also influenced by individual preferences and cognitive styles (Perham &

Currie, 2014). Therefore, understanding how different genres, such as classical and heavy metal

music, interact with VWM performance remains an important research area.

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In summary, VWM performance is influenced by multiple factors, including the properties of visual

stimuli and external auditory conditions. Research suggests that distinctive images are more easily

retained, while categorically similar images may be more prone to recognition errors. Additionally,

music exposure can modulate cognitive performance, necessitating further investigation into how

classical and heavy metal music impact VWM. This study aims to build on existing literature by

examining the combined effects of music and image properties on visual working memory

performance in college students.

The study of visual memory retention suggests that individuals can retain approximately 3 to

5 meaningful visual chunks in working memory at a time (Cowan, 2001). This limitation is essential

for understanding how visual information is processed and retained. Research by Miller (1956)

introduced the concept of "the magical number seven plus or minus two," but subsequent studies

refined this estimate, suggesting that working memory for visual and verbal chunks is typically

closer to four (Cowan, 2001; Cowan, 2005).

Experimental evidence indicates that individuals retain visual information for only a few

seconds unless they actively rehearse it. For instance, research suggests that people can store about 2

seconds’ worth of verbal information through silent rehearsal (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). However,

when rehearsal is prevented, the working memory capacity appears to be limited to 3 to 5 chunks,

regardless of whether these chunks are single items or learned associations (Chen & Cowan, in

press).

Another study by Saults and Cowan (2007) demonstrated that when individuals are required

to store both visual and auditory information simultaneously, the total working memory capacity

remains limited to about four items. This suggests that working memory operates under a central

capacity constraint, rather than separate limits for different sensory modalities.
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These findings emphasize the constraints of human working memory, indicating that visual

information is retained for only a few seconds unless consolidated into long-term memory.

Understanding these limits has implications for cognitive psychology, education, and user interface

design, where optimizing visual information presentation can improve memory retention and

usability.

The neurobiological mechanisms underlying music processing and memory involve multiple

brain regions, including the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and auditory cortex (Koelsch, 2014).

Music activates the limbic system, which is associated with emotion and motivation, thereby

influencing cognitive performance (Zatorre et al., 2007). Studies utilizing neuroimaging techniques

suggest that different genres of music stimulate distinct neural pathways, which may explain

variations in cognitive outcomes (Levitin & Tirovolas, 2009).

Moreover, neurochemical responses to music, such as dopamine release, play a crucial role in

modulating attention and memory (Salimpoor et al., 2013). Research has shown that pleasurable

music enhances memory consolidation, whereas dissonant or unfamiliar music may create cognitive

interference (Blood & Zatorre, 2001). These findings suggest that the neurological basis of music’s

effects on memory is complex and influenced by both structural and functional brain activity.

Music taste is determined by individual differences in personality, cognitive style, and

emotional tendencies. It has been found that openness to experience is a strong predictor of musical

preference, and people with high levels of this trait tend to prefer classical and heavy metal music

because these genres are complex and emotionally rich. The Short Test of Music Preferences

(STOMP) classifies music preferences into four categories: Reflective & Complex (including

classical music), Intense & Rebellious (including heavy metal), Upbeat & Conventional, and

Energetic & Rhythmic. People who score high in openness are more likely to appreciate both

classical and heavy metal music because of their desire for novelty, intellectual stimulation, and deep
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emotional experiences. This personality-music preference connection suggests that people respond

differently to various music genres, and therefore it is necessary to take this into account while

studying the influence of music on cognitive processes like working memory. It is only by

understanding these subtleties that one can have a deeper look at the impact of background music on

cognitive performance, especially in educational contexts.

In cognitive studies, various music genres have been found to affect working memory

differently. Classical music, with its organized harmonies and soothing melodies, has been linked to

increased concentration and memory recall, as it is found to lower stress levels and keep the mind

calm. On the other hand, heavy metal music, in its high-speed and intense structure, might create a

higher cognitive burden, perhaps interfering with memory encoding and retrieval because of its

excitatory character. However, these responses are not absolute; the personality of an individual is of

great influence in deciding the response to various auditory settings. Extroverts might prefer

powerful music such as heavy metal, whereas introverts might exhibit better performance in less

energetic auditory environments, e.g., classical music. Based on these results, our research at Cebu

Institute of Technology – University explores the impact of individual differences in music

preference on the effect of classical and heavy metal music on visual working memory performance.

In analyzing both personality traits and cognitive processing styles, this study is designed to shed

further light on the intricate link between memory, individual differences, and music.

Music preferences are shaped by a variety of individual differences, including age,

personality, cultural background, and exposure to different musical genres. These preferences often

vary significantly across generations, influenced by the cultural, technological, and social changes

specific to each cohort. Hargreaves and North (2010) suggest that music preferences are not static

but evolve with changes in societal norms, technological advancements, and the music industry’s

commercialization. They argue that younger generations are often exposed to new music through
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different media platforms, leading to unique preferences compared to older generations who may

have had more limited access to music or different exposure contexts. For example, the rise of digital

music platforms like Spotify and YouTube has provided younger generations with broader access to

diverse music styles, leading to greater genre fusion and eclectic musical tastes (Juslin & Sloboda,

2010).

Generational differences in music preferences also reflect changes in societal values and

experiences. Lonsdale and North (2011) demonstrated that music preferences in adolescence are

strongly linked to identity formation, and this process has shifted over the years as generational

values evolve. In previous generations, music was often a marker of rebellion or social alignment,

with rock ‘n’ roll, punk, and heavy metal music representing countercultural movements. In contrast,

contemporary music preferences have become more individualized and varied, as younger

generations are exposed to a wider range of genres through social media and streaming platforms.

Rentfrow et al. (2011) further argue that these shifts reflect broader social changes, with younger

generations prioritizing diversity, inclusivity, and access to multiple music genres, whereas older

generations may retain a preference for specific, nostalgic genres tied to their formative years.

Research by Tarrant et al. (2000) has shown that individual differences in music preferences,

such as personality traits, can influence how people of different generations respond to music. Older

generations, for example, are more likely to prefer music that aligns with conventional structures and

melodies, reflecting more traditional and stable personality traits. In contrast, younger generations,

particularly millennials and Gen Z, often prefer more experimental and diverse forms of music,

likely reflecting a more open and flexible personality (McCrae & Costa, 2004). These generational

shifts in music preferences may also be linked to changes in technology, where accessibility to music

has become instantaneous, leading to shorter attention spans and a preference for faster-paced, more

upbeat music in younger generations (North & Hargreaves, 2008).

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Additionally, Hargreaves and North (2007) suggest that the cultural and political climate in

which each generation comes of age influences its collective music tastes. For example, the 1960s

and 1970s were marked by political activism, which influenced the popularity of protest songs and

socially conscious music. In contrast, today's music preferences are shaped by global connectivity,

social justice movements, and digital interactions, leading to an increase in genres like hip-hop,

electronic dance music (EDM), and socially driven pop music. Thus, individual differences in music

preferences across generations are not only the result of personal tastes but are also deeply rooted in

the broader socio-political and technological context of the time (Hargreaves & North, 2010).
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CHAPTER 2

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design

This study employed a true experimental in a between-subjects design to examine the effects

of classical music, heavy metal music, and no music on the visual working memory performance of

first-year psychology students at Cebu Institute of Technology University. A between-subjects

design was used, wherein each participant was exposed to only one auditory condition to prevent

carryover effects (Field, 2018). Overall, the design ensured strong internal validity by controlling

extraneous variables and attributing observed differences in performance solely to the auditory

conditions (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002).

Research Participants

The participants of this study were first-year psychology students from Cebu Institute of

Technology University, selected through a census sampling technique to include all eligible students

within the target population. A total of 40 participants were included in the study and evenly

assigned to one of three experimental groups: classical music (n = 13), heavy metal music (n = 13),

and no music control (n = 14). To ensure unbiased distribution, the drawlots method was employed,

where each participant randomly picked a labeled slip corresponding to one of the three groups. This
 19

random assignment maintained the integrity of the true experimental design by minimizing selection

bias.

Research Apparatus

To ensure the accuracy, reliability, and validity of data collection, this study employed

several carefully selected research apparatuses designed to control external variables and

consistently measure visual working memory performance. High-quality audio playback devices

were used to deliver the auditory stimuli—either Chopin’s Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2 for the classical

condition or Demon Lament for the heavy metal condition—while maintaining a controlled and

standardized volume level across all trials. This uniformity in audio exposure prevented

inconsistencies in auditory stimuli, which could otherwise compromise internal validity. For visual

stimulus delivery, a television screen or projector was used to present images at a consistent

brightness, resolution, and screen size to ensure that all participants received the same quality of

visual input, thus supporting the reliability of the task administration.

The image sets used in the study were standardized and derived from validated visual stimuli

databases, such as the Snodgrass and Vanderwart (1980) set, which includes a range of images

designed to minimize bias related to image familiarity or complexity. These images are frequently

used in cognitive research and are known for their effectiveness in controlling for cultural and

cognitive biases (Snodgrass & Vanderwart, 1980). To assess visual working memory performance

across different types of stimuli, two separate trials were administered, each consisting of 25 unique

images. In Trial 1, participants were presented with images of animals, and in Trial 2, the images

consisted of household items. This categorization ensured that each trial was equally challenging

while introducing diversity in the types of visual stimuli used. The trials were randomized to prevent

order effects and ensure consistency in cognitive processing (McDade & Purvis, 2014).
 20

Following the image presentation, participants were given a recall worksheet containing 35

images—25 targets and 10 distractors—randomized in arrangement. This controlled setup ensured

that memory recall was measured accurately, and the presence of distractors further allowed for

assessment of recognition errors, enhancing the construct validity of the visual working memory task

(Brewer et al., 2010). The test materials, including the image worksheets and scoring protocols, were

reviewed and validated by a licensed psychometrician to confirm content appropriateness, clarity,

and alignment with the intended cognitive construct, further reinforcing the tool’s content validity.

Participants responded using a printed visual working memory worksheet, where they

encircled images they remembered from the presentation. The scoring system was standardized and

objective: one point was awarded for each correct selection, and one point was deducted for each

distractor selected. Observation sheets were also used by trained researchers to document

participants’ behavior and engagement during the experiment, ensuring transparency and

consistency in procedural implementation. Moreover, the experiment was conducted in a quiet

classroom environment with minimized distractions, and seating arrangements were optimized to

guarantee that all participants had equal access to visual and auditory inputs. Collectively, these

measures were implemented to uphold both the internal and external validity of the experiment and

to ensure that the data collected would be both accurate and replicable.

Research Procedures

Before conducting the experiment, the research team prepared all necessary materials and

tools to ensure a smooth and systematic process. A television screen was set up in a classroom

environment to display standardized images, ensuring consistency in visual stimulus delivery, with

controlled brightness, resolution, and screen size. The images used in the experiment were sourced

from the Snodgrass and Vanderwart (1980) set, which is widely recognized for providing a set of
 21

images with controlled variables such as name agreement, familiarity, and visual complexity. For the

first trial, the images were categorized as animals, and for the second trial, they were categorized as

household items. Printed image worksheets were also prepared, where participants would later

encircle the pictures they recalled. A sound system was installed to play either classical music

(Chopin’s Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2) or heavy metal music (Demon Lament) for the experimental

groups. Observation sheets were designed for recording participants’ responses, noting relevant

behaviors and engagement during the trials. Participants were briefed about the nature of the

experiment, and informed consent was obtained from all participants. The classroom was arranged to

minimize distractions, ensuring that the environment remained controlled for all participants.

Background noise was kept to a minimum, and seating arrangements were designed to guarantee that

every participant had an equal opportunity to access both the visual and auditory stimuli.

The experiment was conducted in two phases across three groups: classical music, heavy

metal music, and no music (control group). The fishball drawlot method was used to randomly

assign participants to one of these groups. This method involved drawing small fishball-shaped

tokens, each indicating a specific group, to eliminate any potential bias in group assignment and

ensure a fair distribution. In the experimental conditions, participants in the classical or heavy metal

groups listened to their respective music while viewing a set of 25 random images displayed on the

television screen for 2 seconds each. They were instructed to focus on the images to aid in later

recall. The control group, on the other hand, viewed the images without any music, providing a

baseline for comparison. This setup ensured that the effect of background music could be isolated

and analyzed.

The experiment was structured into two trials to assess the reliability of the results. In Trial 1,

participants were shown a video displaying 25 random animal images from the Snodgrass set. They

were instructed to familiarize themselves with the pictures during the 2-second display time for each
 22

image. After the video, participants received a visual working memory worksheet containing 35

mixed-up images—25 targets from the video and 10 distractor images. They were asked to identify

and encircle the images they remembered from the video. In Trial 2, the procedure was repeated

using a different set of 25 household item images from the same Snodgrass set to assess consistency

in visual working memory performance. This second trial ensured that the effects observed in Trial 1

were not due to chance or order effects, providing a more reliable measure of visual working

memory across different image categories.

After both trials, the research team used observation sheets to document participants'

responses and engagement during the experiment. These sheets recorded any relevant behaviors,

such as difficulty focusing or external distractions, ensuring transparency and consistency in

procedural implementation. All collected data, including responses from the visual working memory

worksheets and notes from the observation sheets, were compiled and organized for statistical

analysis.

Research Hypothesis

Background music has been widely studied for its potential effects on cognitive performance,

particularly memory-related tasks. Prior research suggests that different genres of music may either

enhance or hinder cognitive function depending on factors such as tempo, complexity, and personal

preference. This study aims to investigate the impact of classical and heavy metal music on visual

working memory performance among first-year psychology students at CIT-University.

Null Hypotheses (H₀):

H₀₁: There is no significant difference in visual memory recall performance between

students exposed to classical music and heavy metal music.

 23

H₀₂: There is no significant difference in visual memory recall performance among

students exposed to heavy metal music, classical music, and no music.

Alternative Hypotheses (Hₐ):

Hₐ₁: There is a statistically significant difference in visual memory recall

performance among students exposed to heavy metal music, classical music, and no

music.

Hₐ₂: There is a statistically significant difference in visual memory recall

performance between students exposed to classical music and heavy metal music.

Treatment of Data

To analyze the impact of classical and heavy metal music on visual working memory

performance, the study employed quantitative statistical methods to determine whether there were

significant differences among the experimental groups.

Descriptive statistics, including the mean, standard deviation, minimum, and maximum

scores, were first computed for each group to summarize participants’ visual working memory

performance. These descriptive results provided an overview of the central tendency and variability

in scores under each auditory condition (classical music, heavy metal music, and no music). The

group with the highest mean score was interpreted as having the strongest average memory

performance, while the group with the lowest mean score reflected comparatively weaker

performance.

Before conducting inferential analysis, the data were tested for normality using the Shapiro-

Wilk test and for homogeneity of variances using Levene’s test. The results indicated that the

assumption of equal variances was violated; therefore, instead of the standard one-way ANOVA, the

study used Welch’s ANOVA, a more robust test that does not assume homogeneity of variance.
 24

Since the Welch’s ANOVA result did not reveal a statistically significant difference (p > .05), no

post hoc tests were conducted.

All data were processed and analyzed using JAMOVI, an open-source statistical software

that ensured accurate, transparent, and replicable computations. The level of significance was set at

0.05. Because the p-value exceeded this threshold, the null hypothesis was retained, suggesting that

background music exposure (classical, heavy metal, or none) did not produce a statistically

significant difference in participants' visual working memory performance.

The findings were interpreted in light of the research framework and relevant literature to

understand the cognitive implications of auditory stimuli during visual memory tasks.

Ethical Considerations

This study adhered to ethical principles to ensure the safety, privacy, and well-being of all

participants. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, who were provided with detailed

information about the study's purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits. Participants were

required to sign an informed consent form before participation, affirming their voluntary

involvement. The study also maintained confidentiality and anonymity, with participant data kept

strictly confidential and used solely for research purposes. No identifiable information was collected,

and all results were presented in aggregate form to ensure anonymity.

Participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any point without any

negative consequences, and their decision to discontinue participation was respected without the

need for explanation. Efforts were made to minimize risk, ensuring that participants were not

subjected to harm, distress, or discomfort. Measures were taken to avoid inducing significant stress

or fatigue due to the background music exposure. All participants were treated fairly and equally,
 25

with the study design ensuring no group was disadvantaged, and everyone had equal opportunity to

complete the memory tasks under their assigned conditions.

The research proposal was reviewed and approved by the appropriate ethics committee, ensuring

compliance with ethical guidelines in psychological research, and all procedures adhered to

institutional and professional ethical standards. The research team-maintained data integrity and

transparency, ensuring that data collection, analysis, and reporting were conducted honestly.

Potential biases were minimized, and results were presented accurately without manipulation.

Following the completion of the study, participants underwent a debriefing session, during which the

true purpose of the study was explained. Insights into how music affects memory performance were

shared, participants’ concerns were addressed, and they had the opportunity to ask questions about

the research process and findings. By following these ethical considerations, the study upheld high

standards of research integrity and participant protection.

 26

CHAPTER 3

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the results obtained from the statistical analysis conducted to examine

the effects of classical music, heavy metal music, and no music on the visual working memory

performance of first-year psychology students at Cebu Institute of Technology – University.

Table 1.0 Descriptive Statistics of Visual Memory

C N Mean SD
Visual Classical
13 40.2 5.77
Memory Music
Heavy Metal
13 36.0 7.39
Music
No music 14 39.0 6.29
 27

The results presented in Table 1.0 provide important insight into the influence of background

music on visual working memory performance. Among the three experimental groups, the classical

music condition produced the highest mean score (M = 40.2), followed by the no music condition

(M = 39.0), and the heavy metal music condition (M = 36.0). This outcome suggests that classical

music may facilitate memory recall more effectively than either heavy metal music or silence. The

enhanced performance observed in the classical group aligns with the well-documented “Mozart

effect,” which proposes that exposure to classical compositions, particularly those characterized by

structured melodies and moderate tempos, can temporarily enhance cognitive functioning, including

spatial-temporal reasoning and memory-related tasks (Rauscher, Shaw, & Ky, 1993; Thompson,

Schellenberg, & Husain, 2001). Classical music’s calming qualities may contribute to a focused

mental state, thereby supporting the processes involved in encoding and retrieving visual

information (Schellenberg, 2005).

In contrast, the performance of participants in the heavy metal condition was notably lower,

potentially due to the genre’s high arousal properties such as fast tempo, loud dynamics, and

complex rhythms. These auditory features are likely to increase cognitive load and reduce attentional

resources, resulting in diminished memory recall (Kämpfe, Sedlmeier, & Renkewitz, 2011).

Furthermore, the heavy metal group demonstrated the highest standard deviation (SD = 7.39),

indicating greater variability in performance, which may reflect individual differences in tolerance to

auditory stimulation or susceptibility to distraction (Furnham & Strbac, 2002). When compared

directly, the classical music group outperformed the heavy metal group by an average of 4.2 points,

reinforcing the notion that low-arousal, structured music can support cognitive performance more

effectively than high-arousal, dissonant auditory input. Additionally, when comparing the classical

music group with the no music group, a modest yet meaningful difference (1.2 points) was observed,

suggesting that classical music not only avoids disruption but may also actively enhance visual
 28

working memory by masking irrelevant environmental noise and improving attentional focus

(Salame & Baddeley, 1989; Schellenberg, 2005). These findings collectively underscore the

significance of auditory environment in modulating cognitive performance, with classical music

demonstrating both comparative and absolute advantages in visual memory recall.

While these mean differences are informative, they do not yet confirm a statistically

significant effect. Further inferential analysis (e.g., ANOVA) is needed to determine whether the

differences in visual memory scores across groups are meaningful or could have occurred by chance.

Nonetheless, the pattern observed supports the idea that auditory environment plays a role in

memory performance, and classical music may offer subtle cognitive advantages during visual

memory tasks.

Table 2.0 Independent Samples T-Test

Statisti
df p
c
Visual Student's 24. 0.12
1.60
Memory t 0 3

Note. Hₐ μ Classical Music ≠ μ Heavy Metal Music

An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the visual working memory scores

of students exposed to classical music and those exposed to heavy metal music. The results showed

no statistically significant difference between the two groups, t(24) = 1.60, p = 0.123.

This p-value exceeds the conventional alpha level of 0.05, indicating that the observed

difference in mean scores could have occurred by chance. Therefore, we fail to reject the null

hypothesis (H₀₂), which states that there is no significant difference in visual memory performance

between students exposed to classical music and those exposed to heavy metal music.
 29

Although the mean score for the classical music group was numerically higher than that of

the heavy metal F df1 df2 p group, this

difference was not statistically

Welch’s One-Way Anova 1.26 2 24.3 0.301
significant. This suggests that the

background music genre (classical vs. heavy metal) did not meaningfully affect the participants’

ability to recall visual information under the conditions of this study.

The findings imply that while classical music may appear slightly more beneficial, the

evidence is not strong enough to conclude its superiority over heavy metal music in enhancing visual

working memory performance among first-year psychology students. As a result, the null hypothesis

is retained, and the alternative hypothesis (Hₐ₂)—that there is a significant difference between the

two genres—is rejected. Other influencing factors such as individual differences in music

preference, arousal levels, or task complexity may have contributed to the lack of significant

findings.

Table 3.0 One-Way ANOVA

Upon preliminary analysis of the data, the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of

variances were assessed to ensure the appropriateness of a standard one-way ANOVA. Although the

Shapiro-Wilk test indicated that the data were approximately normally distributed across the three

groups, Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances revealed that the assumption of homogeneity was
 30

violated. Given this result, the researchers opted to use Welch’s ANOVA, a more robust statistical

method that does not assume equal variances between groups (Field, 2018). This approach allowed

for an accurate comparison of mean visual working memory scores among the classical music,

heavy metal music, and no music conditions, even in the presence of unequal variances and slightly

unbalanced group sizes.

Welch’s ANOVA results revealed no statistically significant difference in visual working

memory performance among the three auditory conditions, as indicated by an F-ratio of 1.26 and a

p-value of 0.301. Because this p-value exceeds the conventional significance level of 0.05, the null

hypothesis was retained—indicating that the background music type had no significant effect on

participants' ability to recall visual information.

The participants in this study were first-year psychology students at Cebu Institute of

Technology University, who engaged in a visual working memory task under three different auditory

conditions: classical music, heavy metal music, and silence. The analysis revealed no statistically

significant differences in visual memory performance across these groups, as indicated by the

Welch’s ANOVA results, which showed an F-ratio of 1.26 and a p-value of 0.301. This suggests that

the type of background music did not have a meaningful impact on the participants' ability to recall

visual information. Given that these students are accustomed to studying in various environments,

including those with background noise, they may have developed effective coping mechanisms to

manage distractions. Additionally, the task's relatively low cognitive load—focused on simple image

recognition—may not have sufficiently challenged their attentional resources to reveal any

significant effects of the auditory conditions. Therefore, the findings highlight the importance of

considering the cognitive characteristics and study habits of the participants when assessing the

influence of background music on memory performance. The students' familiarity with multitasking

in noisy environments could have contributed to their ability to maintain focus despite the auditory
 31

stimuli. Furthermore, the absence of significant differences may also reflect the nature of the task

itself, which required only brief visual encoding and recognition rather than deeper cognitive

processing. This indicates that for tasks of lower complexity, background music—whether calming

or stimulating—may not significantly alter cognitive performance. Overall, these results suggest that

while background music is a common study aid among students, its effectiveness may vary based on

individual differences, task demands, and the specific characteristics of the auditory environment.

These findings can be explained through the lens of the Arousal-Mood Theory, which posits

that music influences cognitive performance by modifying a person’s emotional and physiological

arousal state (Thompson et al., 2001). For instance, classical music is often thought to promote a

calm and focused mood conducive to learning, while heavy metal may induce heightened arousal or

distraction. However, arousal and mood responses to music can vary widely depending on individual

preferences, prior exposure, and cultural associations. In this study, the lack of a significant group

difference might be attributed to participants’ diverse emotional responses to the music. Some

students may have found classical music relaxing and beneficial, while others could have perceived

it as unfamiliar or even distracting. The same variability likely applies to heavy metal music—where

a heightened arousal state may either impair or enhance performance depending on how an

individual interprets that arousal. Consequently, such individual differences may have averaged out

any potential effects in group-level comparisons.

Furthermore, the findings can be analyzed through the Theory of Attentional Resources

proposed by Kahneman (1973), which asserts that individuals have a limited amount of cognitive

resources available at any given time, and concurrent tasks (such as listening to music while

encoding images) compete for these resources. However, in the current study, the visual memory

task employed—identifying previously seen images among distractors—may not have been

cognitively demanding enough to strain these attentional resources. As such, the addition of
 32

background music, whether classical or heavy metal, may not have been sufficient to divert attention

or enhance focus to a degree that significantly altered task performance.

This aligns with research suggesting that background music has a more pronounced impact

on tasks that are either highly complex or emotionally engaging (Furnham & Strbac, 2002). In

contrast, tasks with lower cognitive load, such as recognition-based memory assessments, may not

provoke sufficient mental effort for music to meaningfully modulate performance. Because the task

only required visual encoding and recognition over a short period (2 seconds per image, 25 images

per trial, repeated once), it may not have elicited deep processing or sustained attentional control—

conditions under which music is more likely to have an effect. This could explain why all three

groups demonstrated relatively comparable performances despite differing auditory conditions.

In sum, the absence of statistically significant differences in visual working memory

performance across auditory conditions suggests that background music may not universally

influence cognitive function, particularly when tasks are visually based and of moderate or low

cognitive load. The findings highlight the importance of task type, individual differences, and music

characteristics in determining whether and how background music impacts memory performance.

Limitations

Several limitations of the present study must be acknowledged. First, although the sample

size satisfied the minimum requirements for conducting statistical analyses, a larger and more

diverse sample could have improved statistical power and the generalizability of the results. The

limited number of participants may have constrained the ability to detect subtle differences in visual

working memory performance across the experimental conditions.

Second, individual differences in participants’ familiarity with or preference for classical and

heavy metal music were only minimally controlled. These factors can influence emotional arousal,

engagement, and cognitive load, potentially affecting memory performance. Incorporating a music
 33

preference inventory or baseline arousal assessment would have provided more rigorous control over

these individual variables and strengthened the internal validity of the findings.

Third, while efforts were made to maintain a controlled classroom environment, it was not

entirely impervious to distractions. Occasional external noise, participant fatigue, fluctuations in

motivation, and minor environmental inconsistencies may have introduced variance in performance.

These extraneous factors could have influenced the attentional focus of participants during encoding

or recall phases of the visual working memory task.

Fourth, although the study employed two separate trials to evaluate consistency, the reliance

solely on a visual image recall task constrains the scope of cognitive functions being assessed. The

findings cannot be confidently extended to verbal memory, executive functioning, or other cognitive

domains that may react differently to background music.

Lastly, while Chopin’s Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2 and Demon Lament were chosen to represent

classical and heavy metal music respectively, these selections may not capture the full range of

auditory features present within their genres. Moreover, the music selections were not validated or

formally reviewed by a professional musician or musicologist. Expert validation could have ensured

that the chosen pieces accurately embodied the typical structural, rhythmic, and emotional qualities

of their respective genres, thereby improving the content validity of the auditory stimuli used in the

study.
 34

CHAPTER 4

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusion

The findings of this study revealed that there was no statistically significant difference in the

visual working memory performance of first-year psychology students exposed to classical music,

heavy metal music, or no music. This suggests that background music, regardless of genre, did not

significantly affect the students’ ability to recall visual information under the given experimental

conditions.
 35

Recommendations

Based on the results of the study, the researchers recommend the following:

1. For First-Year Psychology Students: Experiment with different study environments by

varying the type of background music or opting for silence to determine what best supports

individual memory performance. Students are encouraged to engage in self-reflection to

assess whether music aids or hinders their concentration and recall, particularly during tasks

involving visual information.

2. For Educators and Academic Staff: Incorporate discussions about the cognitive effects of

background music into academic skill-building courses. By introducing students to research-

based insights on attention, memory, and environmental distractions, educators can help

learners make informed decisions about their study strategies based on personal needs and

task demands.

3. For Researchers in Cognitive Psychology: Future studies should explore the interaction

between music and cognitive function using a larger and more diverse sample population to

improve the external validity of results. Researchers may also investigate other genres of

music (e.g., pop, lo-fi, jazz), include tasks with higher cognitive demands, and examine long-

term memory, attention span, or academic performance over time to deepen the

understanding of music's impact.

4. For Academic Institutions: Institutions are encouraged to create flexible study environments

that support different learning styles, such as establishing quiet rooms and music-permissible

zones. Workshops that explain how factors like music, lighting, and noise influence cognitive

function can empower students to optimize their study routines and learning environments.
 36

5. For All Stakeholders: Maintain an open dialogue around the impact of environmental and

psychological variables on learning. Support systems that allow students to discover and

adapt to study conditions that maximize their individual productivity and cognitive efficiency

should be prioritized.

6. For Future Research: Further investigation is needed to examine how individual differences

—such as personality, arousal sensitivity, and music familiarity—moderate the relationship

between background music and cognitive performance. Additionally, future studies should

consider combining neurophysiological tools (e.g., EEG, fNIRS) with behavioral data to

explore the underlying mechanisms by which auditory stimuli interact with visual working

memory processes.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

Informed Consent Form

Aaron Dave D. Cantero

Cebu Institute of Technology – University
N. Bacalso Avenue, Cebu City, Cebu

To whom it may concern:

 42

My name is Aaron Dave D. Cantero, and I am leading a research study on how classical and metal
music affect working memory. This study seeks to understand whether a student's choice of music
influences their working memory, making it a significant area of research.

I will provide you with details about a research study and invite you to participate. Your
involvement is entirely up to you. If you decide to take part, you must agree to the study's terms and
protocols. However, if you choose not to participate, you are not required to do so.

This informed consent contains the following:

1. Information sheet (provides you the information about the research)
2. Certificate of Consent (this is where you sign if you agree to participate.)

You will be given a copy of the full Informed Consent Form.

You may discuss anything in this form with anyone you feel comfortable talking to. You can decide
whether to participate or not after you have talked it over. You do not have to decide immediately.

There may be some words you don't understand or things that you want me to explain more about
because you are interested or concerned. Please ask me to stop at anytime and I will take time to
explain). If you have further questions, you may contact me through 0927 438 5170 or
[email protected].

The success of this research relies in you. Have a nice day

Part 1: Information Sheet

This section provides an overview of the study, including its purpose, procedures, potential risks and
benefits, and how your information will be handled. Please read it carefully before deciding whether
to participate.

Purpose: Why are you doing this research?

This study aims to investigate how different types of music, specifically classical and metal music,
influence working memory in first-year college students.

Choice of Participants: Why are you asking me?

You have been invited to participate because you are a first-year college student with normal
hearing, making you a suitable candidate for this study.
 43

Voluntary Participation: Do I have to do this? Can I choose not to be in the research? Can I
change my mind?
Your participation is entirely voluntary. You may choose not to participate or withdraw at any point
without any penalties or explanations.

Procedures: What is going to happen to me?

In this study, you will perform a series of memory-related tasks while being exposed to different
auditory conditions. The purpose is to evaluate how classical and metal music influence working
memory performance in comparison to silence.
You will be placed in one of three groups: one group will listen to classical music, another to metal
music, and the third will work in silence. All participants will complete the same memory-based
tasks, such as recalling sequences of numbers or words.
This study includes an experimental aspect aimed at determining whether different types of music
affect cognitive performance. The tasks and procedures have been carefully designed to ensure your
comfort, and you are welcome to ask for clarification at any time. If you feel uneasy, you may
withdraw from the study at any point without any consequences.

Risks: Is this bad or dangerous for me? Will it hurt? What happens if I get hurt?
There are no significant risks associated with this study. However, you may experience slight
discomfort or distraction due to the music played during the experiment. If at any point you feel
uneasy, overwhelmed, or unwell, you may take a break or choose to discontinue your participation
without any consequences.
If you experience any discomfort, please inform the researcher immediately. If necessary, you may
also consult a parent, guardian, or faculty member for further guidance. This study does not require
any additional expenses, and participation will not interfere with your academic responsibilities.

Benefits: Is there anything good that happens to me? Do I get anything for being in the
research?
Your participation in this study will help contribute to a better understanding of how music affects
cognitive functions, particularly working memory. While there may be no direct personal benefits,
the findings may provide insights into the role of music in academic and cognitive performance.
To acknowledge your time and effort, you will receive free snacks as a token of appreciation.
However, this is not meant to serve as an inducement to participate. The study does not offer
financial compensation, but any reasonable expenses incurred as a result of participation, such as
travel costs, may be reimbursed if applicable within the study's guidelines. The compensation
provided follows ethical guidelines to ensure voluntary participation without coercion.

Confidentiality: Is everybody going to know about this? Will you tell me the results?
Confidentiality means that your personal information and responses will be kept private. Your
identity will not be disclosed in any reports, publications, or presentations related to this study. There
are limits to confidentiality. If required by law or institutional policies, certain information may need
to be disclosed. However, all efforts will be made to protect your privacy. Your parents or guardians
will not be informed of your individual responses, unless you choose to share that information with
them. Only general findings from the study will be made available. The research findings will be
shared in a timely manner through academic presentations, journal articles, or conferences.
 44

However, no personally identifiable data will be included in these reports. If you wish to receive a
summary of the findings, you may request a copy from the researcher after the study is completed.

Who to Contact: Who can I talk to or ask questions to?

If you have any questions or concerns about this study, you may contact any of the following
individuals:
 Aaron Dave D. Cantero
o Email: [email protected]
o Phone: 0927 438 5170

 Cheska Alessandra A. Rosell

o Email: [email protected]
o Phone: 0954 364 2630

 Jessa Mae T. Aton

o Email: [email protected]
o Phone:

 Kenshin L. Dayonot
o Email: [email protected]
o Phone: 0928 430 6913

 Lloyd Jeremy C. Labtic

o Email: [email protected]
o Phone:

 Marie Clyde J. Leones

o Email: [email protected]
o Phone:

 Michal Ziena L. Pitogo

o Email: [email protected]
o Phone:
Additionally, you are encouraged to speak with anyone you trust, such as a doctor, family friend, or
teacher, if you have any concerns about participating in this study. We are happy to answer any
questions at any time.

Do you have any questions? Feel free to ask.

 45

Part 2: Certificate of Consent

I, ____(respondent’s complete name)________, ___(age)___, understand that the research aims to

explore the effects of classical and metal music on working memory through a memory-based tasks
under different auditory conditions. I am aware of the safety measures in place for the study, and I
understand that my answers will be kept confidential.
I have read this information (or had the information read to me) I have had my questions answered
and know that I can ask questions later if I have them. I confirm that I am not coerced into giving
consent, and the consent has been given freely and voluntarily.

I agree to take part in the research.

Respondent’s signature over printed name Date

APPENDIX B

Research Instrument

A. Visual Working Memory Test

This test consists of a series of 25 images displayed in a video format, where each image appears for
2 seconds. After watching the video, participants must recall and encircle as many images as they
remember on the provided worksheet.
Materials Used:
 Projector/Screen for displaying images
 Pre-recorded video stimuli containing 25 images, including 10 distractor images
 Encircle-the-Picture Worksheet (Participants will select the images they recall)
 Stopwatch for timing
 Background music played via speakers (for Classical and Heavy Metal groups)
 46

Scoring Criteria:
 Each correctly recalled image = 1 point
 Maximum score = 25 points
 Selection of distractor images results in a point deduction

Video Instructions:

Phase 1: Familiarize yourself with the pictures as much as possible. In this phase,
your goal is to familiarize yourself with the pictures. Observe each image for one
second and try to remember as many details as possible.

Are you ready?

Get ready to familiarize yourself with the images. 3, 2, 1 Go!

Trial 1
47
43
44
45
 46

Trial 2
47
48
49
 50

Phase 1 is complete!

Did you observe and familiarize yourself

with the images? Try to recall as many

details as possible for the next phase.

Get ready for Phase 2: Memory Recall Test

B. Music Playback Setup

To ensure consistency in audio exposure, the following
setup was used:
 Classical Music
Condition:
Chopin’s
Nocturne Op. 9
No. 2
 Heavy Metal
Condition:
Demon Lament
 No Music
Condition: Silence
Playback was controlled via:
 High-quality speakers
 Volume set to a
standardized level (65
dB)

C. Visual Memory Recall

Worksheet

The Encircle-the-Picture Worksheet is

the tool used for testing participant recall. Participants

will be presented with a sheet containing 35 images, which

includes:
 51

 25 images from the video (correct answers)

 10 distractor images (incorrect answers)

Instructions for Participants:

1. Carefully encircle the images you remember seeing in the video.

2. Avoid guessing—only mark the images you are confident you saw.

3. Each correctly selected image adds 1 point to your score.

4. Each incorrectly selected image (distractor) deducts 1 point from your score.

TRIAL 1 WORKSHEET:
52
 53

TRIAL 2 WORKSHEET:

D. Scoring Sheet
 54

Participant’ Trial 1: Trial 1: Trial 1: Trial 2: Trial 2: Trial 2:

s Correct Distractors Total Correct Distractor Total
Number/ id Recall Selected Score Recall s Selected Score
(Out of (Out of (Out of (Out of
25) 10) 25) 10)
 55

Classical
Music
1 19 0 19 15 1 16
2 21 0 21 17 0 17
3 25 1 26 23 0 23
4 19 0 19 21 0 21
5 22 0 22 16 0 16
6 23 2 25 23 1 24
7 24 0 24 23 0 23
8 22 0 22 20 0 20
9 17 2 19 18 3 21
10 24 0 24 20 1 21
11 25 0 25 23 2 25
12 18 0 18 15 2 17
13 22 0 22 23 2 25
Heavy
Metal
Music
14 15 1 16 19 0 19
15 21 0 21 20 0 20
16 15 3 18 13 1 14
17 22 0 22 20 3 23
18 13 0 13 10 0 10
19 22 0 22 25 0 25
20 14 0 14 14 0 14
21 21 1 22 21 4 25
22 24 0 24 18 1 19
23 21 1 22 16 3 19
24 25 0 25 19 0 19
25 18 3 21 24 1 25
26 19 0 19 20 0 20
No
Condition
(No
music)
27 22 0 22 24 1 25
28 20 1 21 21 0 21
29 25 0 25 24 0 24
30 16 0 16 21 1 22
31 17 0 17 20 0 20
32 15 2 17 22 2 24
33 25 5 30 22 4 26
34 17 0 17 15 1 16
35 20 0 20 14 0 14
36 20 0 20 22 0 22
37 20 0 20 21 0 21
38 21 0 21 21 1 22
39 19 0 19 13 3 16
40 25 0 25 25 0 25
 56

To accurately assess participants' visual memory performance, a structured

scoring system is implemented using a standardized scoring sheet. This sheet records

essential details such as participant ID, age, gender, assigned experimental condition (No

Music, Classical Music, or Heavy Metal Music), and performance metrics related to the

memory task.

Each participant is exposed to a series of 20 images displayed for a limited

duration. Following the presentation, they must recall as many images as possible without

any visual cues and record their responses on an answer sheet. The scoring system

operates as follows:

Each correctly recalled image earns 1 point. The maximum possible score is 25 points,

corresponding to all images being correctly remembered. Participants may also

mistakenly recall distractor images, which were not present in the original set. Each

distractor image selected results in a point deduction of 1, impacting the total memory

score.

The final memory score is determined using the formula:

Total Memory Score=Number of Correctly Recalled Items−Number of Distractor

Images Selected

Additionally, an Observations column is included in the scoring sheet to

document any external factors that may have influenced performance. This may include

signs of fatigue, distractions in the environment, or anomalies such as participants

appearing disengaged or overly anxious. This qualitative data helps contextualize the

results and identify any confounding variables that may impact memory performance.
 57

E. Observation Sheet
58
59
 60

APPENDIX C

Experimental Room Layout

 61

APPENDIX D

Experimentation Script Guide

Part 1: Getting Started Experimenter

Experimenter 1:

"Hello, dear participants! Welcome to our session on 'The Impact of Background Music

on Visual Memory.' Thank you for taking the time to participate in our study."

Participants: (Response)

Part 2: Ground Rules and Expectations Setting

Experimenter 1:

"Before we begin, let’s go over some important reminders and ground rules. Your

participation in this experiment is entirely voluntary, and you may withdraw at any time

without any consequences. Your responses will remain anonymous, and there will be no

judgment on your answers."

"For our ground rules, please remain silent during the experiment to avoid distracting

others. Also, please refrain from using any electronic gadgets until the experiment is

over. When answering, be honest and avoid guessing, as accuracy is crucial for our

results. If you have any questions, feel free to raise your hand."

Participants: (Acknowledgment)

Part 3: Experimentation Structure and Information Guidelines

Experimenter 1:

"Now, let me explain the structure of the experiment. You will be divided into three

groups based on the type of background music you will be exposed to: Classical Music,
 62

Heavy Metal Music, or No Music (control group). Each of you will be given a blank

recall sheet after viewing the images."

"During the task, a series of 25 images will be displayed on the screen for 2 seconds

each. Afterward, you will have 3 minutes to recall and mark the images you remember

from a list of 35 images (which includes 10 distractor images)."

"We will be conducting two trials of this procedure to assess consistency in memory

recall. Each trial will follow the same steps. After both trials, we will collect your answer

sheets and conclude the session."

Experimenter 2:

"Now, we will divide you into three groups by counting off. Group 1 will remain inside,

while the other groups will follow one of the experimenters outside. You will be called

back in when it is your turn."

Participants: (Confirmation)

Part 4: Experimentation Proper (Trial 1)

Phase 1: Image Presentation

Experimenter 1:

"We are now ready to begin the first trial. Please focus on the screen and try to

remember as many images as possible."

 Group 1 (No Music Condition): The video plays silently.

 Group 2 (Classical Music Condition): Chopin’s Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2 plays

during the video.

 Group 3 (Heavy Metal Condition): Demon Lament plays during the video.
 63

Experimenter 2: (Observes participants and takes note of distractions, fatigue, or

anomalies.)

Phase 2: Memory Recall Task

Experimenter 1:

"You will now receive a recall worksheet containing 35 images. Encircle only the 25

images you remember seeing in the video. You have 3 minutes to complete this task."

 Experimenter 2: (Distributes worksheets and monitors participants.)

 Experimenter 1: (Starts the timer for 3 minutes.)

After 3 minutes:

Experimenter 1:

"Time's up! Please stop writing and hand in your worksheets to Experimenter 2."

Part 5: Second Trial

Experimenter 1:

"We will now proceed with the second trial. This will follow the same steps as the first

one. Please pay close attention to the images, as some may be different from the first

trial."

Repeat the same procedure as Trial 1:

 Phase 1: Video stimuli with assigned background music.

 Phase 2: Memory recall test with the same conditions.

After 3 minutes:

Experimenter 1:

"Time's up! Please submit your second recall sheet."

 64

Part 6: Ending Questions Experimenter

Experimenter 2:

"Thank you all for your participation. Before we conclude, does anyone have any

questions or comments about the experiment?"

Participants: (Responses, if any)

Part 7: Debriefing and Closing Notes

Experimenter 2:

"Now, let’s briefly discuss the purpose of this task. This experiment aims to investigate

how different types of background music influence visual memory. Your participation

helps us understand cognitive performance under different auditory conditions."

Experimenter 2:

"As a token of appreciation, snacks and refreshments are available. Please feel free to

enjoy them while socializing with the research team."

Experimenter 2:

"Once again, thank you for your voluntary participation. You are now free to leave the

experimental room at your convenience."

 65

APPENDIX E

DOCUMENTATION

Classical:

Participants assigned to this group listened to Chopin’s Nocturne Op. 9 No. 2 through
high-quality speakers calibrated to 65 dB. While the music played continuously,
participants were shown a series of 25 standardized Snodgrass images on a television
screen, each displayed for 2 seconds. After the image presentation, they were provided a
worksheet containing 35 mixed images (25 targets + 10 distractors) and were instructed
to encircle the images they recalled from the video.
 66

Participants remained in the same auditory condition. A second set of 25 images was
shown, also for 2 seconds each, accompanied by the same classical music. A new
worksheet with a different set of 35 images (corresponding to the new trial) was
distributed for the second round of recall.

Heavy Metal:
 67

Participants in this condition listened to Demon Lament (a heavy metal piece) at 65 dB

via speakers. During music playback, a different sequence of 25 images was displayed at
2-second intervals. Immediately afterward, they completed a recall worksheet with 35
images, identifying those seen in the trial.
 68

The procedure was repeated using a new set of 25 images and a fresh recall worksheet.
The heavy metal music continued to play, ensuring consistency in exposure throughout
both trials.
 69

No music condition:

Participants in this group performed the visual memory task in silence. A sequence of 25
images was presented for 2 seconds each, followed by a worksheet of 35 images where
participants identified the ones previously seen. No auditory stimulus was provided.
 70

A second, distinct set of 25 images was shown using the same procedure, again in
silence. Participants received a new worksheet with 35 images for recall.
 71

Name: Aaron Dave D. Cantero

Address: Barangay San Juan, Ormoc City Place 2x2 here

Contact number: 09274385170

Email Address: [email protected]

Educational Background:

Name of Elem School: San Juan Elementary School

Address: Barangay San Juan, Ormoc City

Year started – Year Ended: 2011 – 2017

Name of Secondary School: Margen National Highschool

Address: Barangay Margen, Ormoc City

Year started – Year Ended: 2017 – 2021

Name of Senior High School: Western Leyte College of Ormoc Inc.

Address: A. Bonifacio St., Ormoc City

Year started – Year Ended: 2021 – 2023

Name of College: Cebu Institute of Technology University

Address: Tres de Abril St., Cebu City

Year started – present: 2023 – 2025

Research Experience:

Research Title: Antimicrobial activity of Snake Plant on Staphylcoccus Aureus

Year: 2023
 72

Name: Kenshin L. Dayonot

Address: Sambag 1, J. Alcantara Street, Cebu City Pla

Contact number: 0928 430 6913

Email Address: [email protected]

Educational Background:

Name of Elem School: Ocana Central Elementary School

Address: Ocana, Carcar City, Cebu 6019

Year started – Year Ended: 2011 – 2017

Name of Secondary School: Our Lady of the Pillar Academy

Address: Sibonga, Cebu 6020

Year started – Year Ended: 2017 - 2021

Name of Senior High School: Ocana National High School

Address: Ocana, Carcar City, 6019

Year started – Year Ended: 2021 - 2023

Name of College: Cebu Institute of Technology - University

Address: Natalio B. Bacalso Ave, Cebu City, 6000 Cebu

Year started – present: 2023 – 2025

Research Experience:

Research Title: The Effects of Students’ Study Habits to their Academic Performance in

Ocana National High School

Year: 2023

Name: Michal Ziena L. Pitogo

Address: Door 1 Callantas St., Tisa Cebu City

 73

Contact number: 09915871305

Email Address: [email protected]

Educational Background:

Name of Elem School: City Central School

Address: P. del Rosario Cebu City

Year started – Year Ended: 2004 - 2010

Name of Secondary School: Alternative Learning System

Address: Urgello, Sambag 2 Cebu City

Year started – Year Ended: 2017-2018

Name of Senior High School: SWU PHINMA

Address: Main Campus Urgello St., Cebu City

Year started – Year Ended: (Withdrawn) 2018

Name of College: Cebu Institute of Technology - University

Address: N. Bacalso St., Cebu City

Year started – present: 2022 - 2025

Research Experience:

Research Title: None

Year:

Name: Cheska Alessandra A. Rosell

Address: San Antonio, Linao, Talisay, City Cebu

Contact number: 09543642630

Email Address: [email protected]

 74

Educational Background:

Name of Elem School: Lawaan Elementary School

Address: Lawaan 1, Talisay City, Cebu

Year started – Year Ended: 2010 - 2016

Name of Secondary School: Divino Amore Academy

Address: Mohon, Talisay City, Cebu

Year started – Year Ended: 2016 - 2020

Name of Senior High School: University of Cebu Pri

Address: J. Alcantara St, Cebu City

Year started – Year Ended: 2020 - 2022

Name of College: Cebu Institute Technology University

Address: Natalio B. Bacalso Ave, Cebu City

Year started – present: 2023 - 2025

Research Experience:

Research Title: Stress management of students in the new normal Education

Year: 2021

Name: Jessa Mae T. Aton

Address: 415 - H R. Padilla Fatima Street Cebu City

Contact number: 09953083829

Email Address: [email protected]

 75

Educational Background:

Name of Elem School: San Nicolas Elementary School

Address: C Padilla Carlock Street

Year started – Year Ended: 2010 - 2016

Name of Secondary School: Cebu City Don Carlos A Gothong

Memorial National High School

Address: T. Abella Street

Year started – Year Ended: 2017 - 2020

Name of Senior High School: University Of Cebu

Address: Sanciangko Street Cebu City

Year started – Year Ended: 2022 - 2023

Name of College: Cebu Institute Technology University

Address: Natalio Bacalso Ave Cebu City

Year started – present: 2023 - 2025

Research Experience:

Research Title: None

Year:

Name: Marie Clyde J. Leones

Address: Sunshine Village Inayawan, Cebu City

Contact number: 09262357216

Email Address: [email protected]

Educational Background:
 76

Name of Elem School: Inayawan Elementary School

Address: Inayawan Cebu City

Year started – Year Ended: 2007-2012

Name of Secondary School: Pardo National High School

Address: Pardo Poblacion, Gabuya St, Cebu City, 6000 Cebu

Year started – Year Ended: 2012-2016

Name of Senior High School: Senior High: Cebu Institute of Tech

Address: N. Bacalso Avenue, Cebu City, Philippines 6000.

Year started – Year Ended: 2016-2018

Name of College: Cebu Institute of Technology University

Address: N. Bacalso Avenue, Cebu City, Philippines 6000.

Year started – present: 2018-2024

Research Experience:

Research Title: None

Year:

Name: Lloyd Jeremy C. Labtic

Address: SY Residences San Vallet Drive

Place 2x2 here

Contact number: 09678916363

Email Address: [email protected]

 77

Educational Background:

Name of Elem School: Singco Elementary School

Address: Barangay Songco E. Samar

Year started – Year Ended: 2005 – 2011

Name of Secondary School: Comorenssive National Highschool

Address: Ato Borongan E. Samar

Year started – Year Ended: 2011 – 2015

Name of Senior High School:

Address:

Year started – Year Ended:

Name of College: Cebu Institute of Technology University

Address: Tres de Abril St., Cebu City

Year started – present: 2023 – 2025

Research Experience:

Research Title: None