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 Using Graywater
and Stormwater
to Enhance Local Water Supplies
AN ASSESSMENT OF RISKS, COSTS, AND BENEFITS

Committee on the Beneficial Use of Graywater and Stormwater:

An Assessment of Risks, Costs, and Benefits

Water Science and Technology Board

Division on Earth and Life Studies

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS

Washington, DC
www.nap.edu
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth
Street, NW Washington, DC 20001

This activity was supported by the City of Madison, Wisconsin; Grant

No. EP-C-09-003, TO #23 and EP-C-14-005, TO #9 from the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency; the Los Angeles Department of
Water and Power; this material is based on work supported by the
National Science Foundation under Grant No. CBET-1321776; the
National Water Research Institute; the Water Environment Research
Foundation; the Water Research Foundation Agreement No. 04521;
the WateReuse Research Foundation; and with additional support
from the National Academy of Sciences Arthur L. Day Fund, the
National Academy of Sciences W.K. Kellogg Foundation Fund, and
the National Academy of Sciences George and Cynthia Mitchell
Endowment for Sustainability Science. Any opinions, findings,
conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication do
not necessarily reflect the views of any organization or agency that
provided support for the project.

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-38835-1

International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-38835-X
Digital Object Identifier: 10.17226/21866
Epub ISBN: 978-0-309-38838-2

Cover credit (clockwise from top left): Images courtesy of Water

Replenishment District of Southern California; Innovative Water
Solutions, LLC, Austin, Texas; and Mother Earth News.

Additional copies of this report are available for sale from the
National Academies Press, 500 Fifth Street, NW, Keck 360,
Washington, DC 20001; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313;
Internet, http://www.nap.edu.

Copyright 2016 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights

reserved.
Printed in the United States of America

Suggested citation: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering,

and Medicine. 2016. Using Graywater and Stormwater to Enhance
Local Water Supplies: An Assessment of Risks, Costs, and Benefits.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi:
10.17226/21866.
The National Academy of Sciences was established in 1863 by
an Act of Congress, signed by President Lincoln, as a private,
nongovernmental institution to advise the nation on issues related to
science and technology. Members are elected by their peers for
outstanding contributions to research. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is
president.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964

under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to bring the
practices of engineering to advising the nation. Members are elected
by their peers for extraordinary contributions to engineering. Dr. C.
D. Mote, Jr., is president.

The National Academy of Medicine (formerly the Institute of

Medicine) was established in 1970 under the charter of the National
Academy of Sciences to advise the nation on medical and health
issues. Members are elected by their peers for distinguished
contributions to medicine and health. Dr. Victor J. Dzau is president.

The three Academies work together as the National Academies of

Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to provide independent,
objective analysis and advice to the nation and conduct other
activities to solve complex problems and inform public policy
decisions. The Academies also encourage education and research,
recognize outstanding contributions to knowledge, and increase
public understanding in matters of science, engineering, and
medicine.

Learn more about the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering,

and Medicine at www.national-academies.org.
 COMMITTEE ON THE BENEFICIAL USE OF
GRAYWATER AND STORMWATER: AN
ASSESSMENT OF RISKS, COSTS, AND
BENEFITS

RICHARD G. LUTHY, Chair, Stanford University, California

RICHARD W. ATWATER, Southern California Water Committee,
Studio City, California
GLEN T. DAIGGER, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
JÖRG DREWES, Technische Universität München, Garching,
Germany
BENJAMIN H. GRUMBLES, Maryland Department of the
Environment, Baltimore
ARPAD HORVATH, University of California, Berkeley
ROBERT E. PITT, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa
MARCUS M. QUIGLEY, OptiRTC, Boston, Massachusetts
ROBERT S. RAUCHER, Stratus Consulting/Abt Associates, Boulder,
Colorado
SYBIL SHARVELLE, Colorado State University, Fort Collins
CLAIRE WELTY, University of Maryland Baltimore County
MARYLYNN V. YATES, University of California, Riverside

Academies Staff
STEPHANIE E. JOHNSON, Study Director, Water Science and
Technology Board
MICHAEL J. STOEVER, Research Associate, Water Science and
Technology Board
 Preface

Much of the United States faces chronic or episodic water

shortages. It is the topic of daily news in the West, where a historic
4-year drought has caused California to restrict the delivery of water
to cities and farms. At the same time, the Midwest and Northeast
have received drenching rains and heavier than normal snow.
Against this backdrop—of not enough water or too much water—the
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine’s Water
Science and Technology Board initiated a study on the beneficial use
of stormwater and graywater. Graywater is a year-round source of
water for nonpotable use, and use of urban stormwater can
augment local water supplies, reduce demand for imported water,
and lessen impacts from discharge.
As detailed in this report, increased attention to the use of
stormwater and graywater has been driven by factors forcing change
in the design and management of urban water supplies and
infrastructure. Among the drivers are water scarcity in regions of the
country facing water shortages and the impacts of climate change
and population growth that exacerbate these shortages. In these
places stormwater and graywater use may diversify the water supply
portfolio, thereby achieving greater resiliency in the face of uncertain
water deliveries. Furthermore, in many parts of the country—from
the humid midcontinent to coastal cities—pollution control and
discharges to impaired water bodies are driving changes in the ways
that stormwater is managed, and stormwater capture and use can
reduce pollution from urban runoff, including combined sewer
overflows.
Stormwater and graywater use exemplify a growing trend of
embracing sustainable urban water management and green design
practices. The concept of a re-imagined urban water infrastructure—
variously termed low-impact design, blue-green city, or water
sensitive city—embraces sustainable practices in which metropolitan
regions could serve as water supply catchments, provide ecosystem
services, and prioritize livability, sustainability, and resilience.
However, realizing this vision raises questions on exactly how
graywater and urban stormwater should be captured, stored, and
used. Because of the absence of ample documentation of costs,
performance, and risks, many utilities are hesitant to integrate the
practices into their long-term water resource plans beyond the
simplest applications. Potential public health risks from microbial or
chemical contamination associated with graywater or stormwater use
raise concerns about safety, regulation, and management. To better
address these challenges, the Academies formed a committee to
study the risks, costs, and benefits of stormwater and graywater use
to augment and conserve existing water supplies. Although there are
challenges in advancing ever-more use of graywater and urban
stormwater, this report documents the committee’s finding that
graywater and urban stormwater have substantial potential to
contribute to local water supply needs while providing other benefits
such as stormwater pollution reduction, water supply diversification,
and increased local control of water supplies. Graywater and
stormwater use could be an important part of a broader effort to
reimagine urban water infrastructure to efficiently use water, energy,
and financial resources while enhancing water supply reliability and
resiliency and the livability of cities.
This study was supported with funding from the Environmental
Protection Agency Office of Water and Office of Research and
Development; National Science Foundation; Water Research
Foundation; Water Environment Research Foundation; Los Angeles
Department of Water and Power; WateReuse; City of Madison,
Wisconsin; National Water Research Institute; and the National
Academies’ President’s fund. We appreciate the sponsor liaisons,
including Robert Bastian, Robert Goo, Christopher Kloss, John
Whitler, and Andy Niknafs, for help with information gathering in
support of the study and the many presenters to the committee for
the helpful insights provided. The committee also appreciates the
research assistance from Amy Streitwieser, Adam Schempp, Will
Derwin, Jonathan Bradshaw, and Thomas Hendrickson.
The committee had the excellent fortune to be assisted by a
dedicated and talented Academies staff, including Stephanie Johnson
and Michael Stoever. I speak for the entire committee in expressing
our profound respect and appreciation to Stephanie Johnson for her
tireless effort and clear thinking. This report would not have been
possible without her exceptional support and good humor.
I very much enjoyed working with the Academies’ staff and the
committee members. I am sure each of us learned more than we
contributed, and we offer this report in hopes that it will advance our
nation on a path toward more sustainable urban water futures.

Richard Luthy, Chair

Committee on the Beneficial Use of Graywater and
Stormwater: An Assessment of Risks, Costs, and Benefits
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towards the

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and

be

that clerk

reck captivity

every on the

will of Phoenicians