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Karoo rifting in western Tanzania: precursor of Gondwana break-up?

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 CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOLOGY AND PALAEONTOLOGY OF GONDWANA
IN HONOUR OF HELMUT WOPFNER
111-125,5 figs., Cologne 2001

Karoo rifting in western Tanzania:

precursor of Gondwana break-up?

Damien DELVAUXI

ABSTRACT. The Karoo basin system in the NW-trending Ubende Belt in Tanzania and East
Congo is a manifestation of the early stage of Gondwana break-up in East-Central Africa. The
Karoo tectonic evolution of the Tanganyika-Rukwa-Malawi (TRM) zone in the East African rift
was re-evaluated. A new model of evolution for the Karoo period (Late Carboniferous - Triassic)
in the Ubende belt is presented. Instead of a former model of transcurrent basin formation in
transtensional setting, an evolution in three successive tectonic stages is proposed. Karoo basins,
much larger than the remaining ones, formed initially as a result of tectonically controlled
subsidence during the Late Carboniferous - Permian and were filled by fluvial-deltaic to
lacustrine sediments. Along the Ubende belt, they probably formed two major basin systems: the
Kalemie - Lukuga - South Tanganyika (KLT) and the Rukwa - Songwe - North Malawi (RSM)
troughs. Karoo sedimentation in the Ubende belt ended by Late Permian-Early Triassic
transpressional inversion which caused strike-slip dislocation and tilting of the basins,
particularly well observed in the Namwele-Mkomolo coalfield and also reported for the Congo
basin (Cuvette centrale). In the NE-trending Karoo rift basins of Zambia and southeast Tanzania
it caused a sedimentation gap and slight unconformities. This transpressional inversion is a good
indication that intraplate compressional deformation was transmitted to the foreland of the
palaeo-Pacific active margin of Gondwana during the Permo-Triassic transition. The tectonic
inversion had a relatively short duration and was followed by a long period of regional uplift and
denudation in the Ubende belt during the Triassic-Early Jurassic, with formation of the
"Gondwana" morphological surface. In southeast Tanzania, sedimentation continued, probably
until Early Jurassic times, prefiguring the future crustal failure between Western and Eastern
Gondwana.

Keywords: Karoo, Rifting, East Africa, Tectonic evolution, Gondwana.

1 Dr. Damien DELVAUX, Royal Museum for Central Africa, B-3080 Tervuren, Belgium.
E-mail: [email protected]
112 Damien DELVAUX

Contents topographic maps. This will be supplemented by

field structural observations and results of paleo-
1. Introduction 112 stress analysis of minor fault data collected in the
2. Tectonic setting 112 field.
3. Karoo sedimentation and tectonics 114
3.1. NE-trending Late Carboniferous-Triassic
basins 114 2. Tectonic setting
3.2. NW-trending Late Carboniferous-Permian During the Late Paleozoic to recent times, the
basins along the Ubende belt 114
TRM segment of the western branch of the East
3.2.1. Kalemie - Lukuga and Congo basins 114
3.2.2. Rukwa - North Malawi basins in western African rift system was affected by repeated rifting
Tanzania 116 cycles (MCCONNELL, 1972). The western rift branch
3.2.3. Inferred architecture of the Karoo deposits 118 displays a sigmoidal geometry and is super-
3.2.4 Late Karoo transpressional reactivation 121 imposed on the Proterozoic mobile belts, which
surround the Archean Tanzanian craton (Fig. 1).
4. Discussion and conclusion 122
In particular, the North Malawi, Rukwa and South
References 122 Tanganyika rift basins developed in the NW-
trending Ubende belt, defined by QUENNELL et al.
(1956) and MCCONNELL (1950). The TRM zone
1. Introduction shows evidence of Permo-Triassic and Late
Mesozoic and/or Early Tertiary rifting, prior to a
Continents often break-up parallel to ancient major Late Cenozoic rifting cycle (DELVAUX, 1991,
orogenic belts (VAUCHEZ et al., 1997). The easiest 2000; MBEDE, 1993; DELVAUX et al., 1998; VAN DER
way to initiate the breaking up of continents is to BEEK et al., 1998).
reactivate long-lived crustal scale weakness zones The Rukwa rift basin (PEIRCE & LIPKOV, 1988) is
by transcurrent movements. It is well known that located in the relay zone between the Tanganyika
the Cenozoic rift basins of the East African rift in and Malawi (Nyasa) rift valleys (Fig.l), which
East Africa are generally superimposed on together form the NW-trending Tanganyika-
Paleoproterozoic mobile belts surrounding the Rukwa-Malawi (TRM) lineament. The TRM linea-
Tanzanian craton (MCCONNELL, 1972). They ment is interpreted by KAzMIN (1980), CHOROWICZ
formed mostly by extensional processes, but & MUKONKI (1980), TIERCELIN et al. (1988) and
largely reactivated older basin systems. In the WHEELER & KARSON (1994) as an intracontinental
Ubende belt, along the western margin of the transform fault zone, along which the Rukwa rift
Tanzanian craton, sedimentary basins formed as basin opened as a pull-apart basin in response to
early as in the Mesoproterozoic, apparently in a oblique, NW-SE extension. In contrast, MORLEY et
strike-slip context (KLERKX et al., 1998). al. (1992) favour an opening of the Rukwa rift basin
The Tanganyika-Rukwa-Malawi (TRM) seg- in a NE-SW direction, sub-orthogonal to its general
ment of the East African rift is a good example of a trend. Also SANDER & ROSENDAHL (1989) and
long-lived weakness zone that was repeatedly SPECI-IT & ROSENDAHL (1989) suggest a sub-
reactivated, even after long periods of tectonic orthogonal opening of the Tanganyika and Malawi
quietness. It was shown (DELVAUX, 2000) that the rift basins.
Permo-Triassic Karoo rift system developed in All these models generally do not consider
response to intraplate transpressional deforma- explicitly the possible existence of older rift basins
tions induced by stress transmission from both the along the TRM trend, although their occurrence
southern (Paleo-Pacific) and the northern (Neo- has been demonstrated. They largely influenced
Tethys) margins of the Gondwana continent. In the geometry and location of the Late Cenozoic rift
this context, the Karoo rift system in western basins by the classical process of tectonic reactiva-
Tanzania is a precursor of the late Cenozoic rifting. tion. It was shown recently (DELVAUX, 2000) that
This work will review the available evidence the NW-trending Ubende belt is a zone of repeated
for the development of a series of Karoo basins in reactivations since the Palaeoproterozoic, con-
the Ubende belt and their subsequent deformation. trolling successive stages of sedimentary basin
It will be based on existing data from the literature formation.
and geological maps, on the interpretation of In the Palaeoproterozoic, the Ubende shear belt
satellite images and a new digital elevation model formed by right-lateral oblique convergence with
(DEM) of the Ubende belt, produced at the Royal subduction under the western margin of the
Museum for Central Africa from 1/50.000 Tanzanian Archean craton (LENOIR et al., 1994;
 Karoo rifting in western Tanzania: precursor ofGondwana break-up? 113

THEUNISSEN et al., 1996; SKLYAROV et al., 1998). in East-Central Africa. Recent works (DAMBLON et
Left-lateral movements in retrograde greenschist al., 1998; DELVAUX et al., 1998; VAN DER BEEK et al.,
facies reactivated the NW-trending Ubende belt 1998) suggested the probable existence of an Early
during the Meso- and Neoproterozoic (THEUNISSEN Tertiary rifting stage. The Late Cenozoic rift
et al., 1992), controlling the development of a series system in the Rukwa-Malawi area started 8-9 Ma
of pull apart-type sedimentary basins (KLERKX et ago by semi-radial extension and evolved locally
al., 1998). to strike-slip deformation since the mid-
During the Late Carboniferous - Permian, NW- Pleistocene (DELVAUX et al., 1992; RING et al., 1992;
trending Karoo rift basins developed in response DELVAUX & HANON, 1993).
to compressional and transpressional deformations

8'

12'

• Karoo sediments

11I1 Late-Cenozoic sediments

Late -ceoozoc volcanics

38°

Fig.1: Karoo and Cenozoic rift depressions in southern East Africa (modified after VERNIERS et al., 1989 and
DELVAUX, 1991).
114 Damien DELVAUX

3. Karoo sedimentation and tectonics Early Jurassic evaporites in the Manadawa hole, in
southern coastal Tanzania (KAGYA, 1996).
During the Late Carboniferous to Early Triassic
times, the area of the future East African rift in
East Africa was affected by the formation of Karoo 3.2. NW-trending Late Carboniferous-
rift basins along two orthogonal trends, that are Permian basins along the Ubende belt
characterized by different histories (KLERKX et al.,
1998; DELVAUX, 2000). A series of Karoo basins developed along the
NW-trending Ubende belt. They contain Late
Carboniferous to Late Permian sediments, but they
3.1. NE-trending Late Carboniferous- lack Triassic sediments (MCKINLEY, 1965; DYPVIK et
Triassic basins ai.,1990). In the TRM transfer zone in Tanzania, it
was suggested that Karoo sedimentation was
A major system of Karoo rift basins developed controlled by transpressional reactivation of the
along a NE- trend. It includes the Zambezi and Ubende fabric (MBEDE, 1993; THEUNISSEN et al.,
Luangwa basins in Zambia (UTTING, 1976; NYAMBE 1996; KLERKX et al., 1998). West of Lake Tanga-
& UTTING, 1997), the Ruhuhu and Metangula nyika this trend continues by the Lukuga
basins on the eastern side of the Lake Malawi (Kalemie) basin, where Late Carboniferous to
(WOPFNER & KAAYA, 1992; VERNIERS et al., 1989), Permian sediments are present (FOURMARIER, 1914;
the Kilombero and Selous basins in East Tanzania LEPERSONNE et al., 1977; CAHEN & LEPERSONNE,
(WOPFNER & KAAYA, 1991; NILSEN et al., 1999), the 1978). From the interpretation of multichannel
Tanga basin in East Kenya and the Malagasi basin seismic profiles in lake Tanganyika, SANDER &
in West Madagascar (Figs. 1 and 5). All these ROSENDAHL (1989) suspected the presence of
basins contain a relatively complete stratigraphic Karoo sediments at the base of the sedimentary
succession, ranging from Late Carboniferous to succession in the southern half of the basin. In the
mid-Triassic (or even Early Jurassic in the Rukwa depression, geophysical exploration and
Luangwa and the Metangula basins), with a drilling for oil exploration by AMOCO demon-
marked regional unconformity at the Permian- strated the presence of up to 3.5 km of Karoo
Triassic transition. sediments (WESCOTT et al., 1991; MORLEY et al.,
In the Ruhuhu basin (Fig. 2), sedimentation 1992). Karoo series are also outcropping in several
continued during the Triassic, after a short inter- places in the accommodation zone between the
ruption and a widespread unconformity at the Rukwa and Malawi rift basins (Fig. 3).
Permo-Triassic transition (WOPFNER & KAAYA, Deposition of Karoo sediments apparently
1992). At the junction between the Zambezi and ended in the Late Permian in the TRM segment,
Luangwa rifts in Zambia (Fig. 1), Early Triassic to east of Lake Tanganyika (McKINLAY, 1965; DYPVIK
Late Cretaceous extensional tectonics are recog- et al., 1990). Little is known about the structure of
nised (OESTERLEN & BLENKINSHOP, 1994). The the Karoo deposits between Lakes Tanganyika and
Metangula basin of North Mozambique (Fig. 2) Malawi, due to sparse exposure and poor out-
evolved into a typical extensional graben after the cropping conditions.
Permo-Triassic transition, probably until Early
Jurassic times (VERNIERS et al., 1989). In coastal
Tanzania, sedimentation continued during the 3.2.1. Kalemie - Lukuga and Congo basins
Triassic with Karoo rifting activity and ended in Along the Congo side of Lake Tanganyika
the Early Jurassic (e.g. KAGYA, 1996). (Fig. 4), Karoo sediments of the Lukuga Group
This NE-trending basin system formed an inte- have been described in the Lukuga depression
gral part of the East Africa - Malagasy Karoo rift (Lukuga region near Kalemie). The Lukuga Group
system. It extended up to the present East African has been attributed paleontologically to the Upper
coast and used to reach the Nee-Tethys margin of Carboniferous-Permian (CAHEN & LEPERSONNE,
the Gondwana continent (Fig. 5). A short-lived 1978). It has been divided into a Lower sub-group
uppermost Permian marine incursion in the and an Upper SUb-group. The Lower SUb-group
Mik~mi Basin of East Tanzania (KREUSER, 1983, contains glacial and periglacial sediments: tillites,
1984) suggests that this rift system was connected calcareous sandstones, varval clays, and black
to the Tethys Sea margin of Gondwana, forming shales. The Upper sub-group contains first the
the "Malagasy Gulf" (WOPFNER & KAAYA, 1991; Lukuga black schist Formation, followed by the
WOPFNER, 1994; VISSER & PRAEKELT, 1996). This is coal-bearing beds Formation. Deposition of the
further confirmed by the presence of Late Triassic - Lukuga Group ended in the late Upper Permian by
 Karoo rifting in western Tanzania: precursor of Gondwana break-up? 115

the so-called Formation de transition, composed of on different layers of the Lukuga Group. This
brick-red sandstones and shales, conglomerates, suggests the presence of a local unconformity,
and nodular limestones. This formation is trans- which might be of tectonic origin.
gressive over the lower, coal-bearing beds and lies

KYELA PLAIN

, BASIN

I~
10"

11°

12"

13"

~ Major fault
~ Minor fault
~ Half -graben

~ Accommodation zone .... 14"

Platform

Lak. "a/omb.

33" 34° 35" 36°

Fig.2: General structure of the Malawi rift, based on SPECHT & ROSENDAHL (1989), compiled by DELVAUX (1991).
116 Damien DELVA UX

Important deformation of the Permian sedi- McKINLAY (1965) and DYPVIK et al. (1990). They
ments occurred' at the transition from the Permian show that tectonic movements had a dominant
to the Triassic (CAHEN & LEPERSONNE, 1978), In control in the alternations of coal, clastics partly
the Lukuga depression, FOURMARIER (1914) calcareous, and lacustrine sediments. A summary
showed that sedimentation was controlled by of the accepted stratigraphy based on these two
tectonic activity and that the deformations were works is presented hereafter.
intensified at the end of the deposition of the After the pre-Karoo glacial erosion in the Late
Lukuga (Permian) series. He mentioned also that Carboniferous, glacial to periglacial sedimentation
the Lukuga Karoo basin is affected by a major formed the K1 unit (tillites, varved clays, fine
system of NNW-trending subvertical faults, sandstones). The K2 unit forms the coal measures
dissecting the basin into a series of tilted blocks. with alternating claystones, siltstones, sandstones,
He named these faults as "radial", by analogy to and coals (Upper Carboniferous - Lower Permian)
subvertical faults with horizontal displacement in a lacustrine to fluviodeltaic and fluvial environ-
that affect the Westphalian coal basins of Belgium. ment. A slight unconformity between the K1 and
Additional synthesis of observations from mining K2 units in the Galula coalfield (Fig. 3) and syn-
operations and drilling (CAHEN et al., 1960; CAHEN sedimentary faulting during the deposition of K2
& LEPERSONNE, 1971) indicate that important sediments are described by SPENCE (1954). The
tectonic deformations of the Lukuga Group next unit (K3) is composed of red sandstones and
occurred certainly before the Lower Cretaceous, shales, deposited in a fluviatile to fluviodeltaic
probably even before the Lower Triassic. floodplain. On top of this unit, calcareous beds
Seismic reflection profiles in the Congo basin reflect more lacustrine conditions, arid to evapo-
(Cuvette Centrale, Fig. 5) evidenced that major ritic. The K4 unit, known in eastern Tanzania, is
compressional deformation affected the central apparently absent in the Rukwa-North Malawi
part of the continent during the Late Permian - region. Of possible Upper Permian ages the K5
Early Triassic (DALY et al., 1991), The stratigraphic fine-grained green to grey silty marls and silt-
interpretation of the seismic profiles is constrained stones deposited in freshwater conditions are
by well and outcrop data. The sparse seismic grid observed only in the Songwe-Kiwira coalfield,
shows the presence of a WNW-trending basement north of Lake Malawi (Fig. 3).
high, flanked by deep sedimentary basins, and Samples of lower Karoo coal-bearing beds from
bounded to the northeast and southwest by op- the Ruhuhu basin in South Tanzania (Fig. 2) have
posed divergent thrust systems. They correlated been analyzed by KREUSER et al. (1988) for
this event to extensional and strike-slip deforma- qualifying the maturity of organic matter. They
tions associated to rift basin formation in other obtained Tmax values ranging between 430 and
regions of central and east Africa. They further 440°C, vitrinite reflectance index Rc between 0.75
concluded that this intracontinental deformation and 0.82%, and a proportion of volatile matter
seems to be the consequence of distant collisional between 22 and 25%. This places the maturity of
process at the southern (in present coordinates) all samples into the "oil window" and implies a
margin of Gondwana. significant overburden. Assuming a paleo-
geothermal gradient of 25-30°Cjkm, an estimated
2-3000 m of sediments must have overlain the coal-
3.2.2. Rukwa - North Malawi basins in bearing Karoo beds in the Ruhuhu basin.
western Tanzania Further Rock-Eval analysis of coal samples
The original extention and thickness of the from the K2 coal bearing layers by DYPVIK et al.
Karoo deposits along the Ubende belt cannot be (1990) indicates a maturity in the lower part of the
precisely reconstructed, but estimations can be oil window for the Songwe-Kiwira basin (Fig. 2)
made of the maximum overburden of Lower (Tmax: 430-450°C). Two samples from the
Karoo sediments and the thickness removed by Namwele coalfield (Fig. 4) have a lower degree of
post Karoo erosion. Field observation of the maturity (Tmax: 413 and 416°C), and a sample in
different Karoo basins along the TRM zone in the Muze basin (Fig.4) gave a Tmax of 464°C,
Tanzania (McKINLAY, 1965) indicates that the area characteristic of a higher degree of maturity at the
of deposition of the Karoo sediments was origi- beginning of the gas window. The Namwele coal
nally much larger than the preserved distribution is highly volatile bituminous, containing 30-33%
in isolated tectonic basins. volatile matters, with a grade slightly inferior as
The stratigraphic succession of the Karoo sedi- for the Muze coal (McKINLAY, 1965). According to
ments in western Tanzanian has been described by MCCONNELL (1947), this coal formed from drifted
 LUPA BLOCK
8°30'
UFIPA ~
o
PLATEAU "'!
s.;
~.
S·
g
'"
1t
"'!
;::

TANZANIA ~
;::
N
;::,
;::
~.
ZAMBIA ~
~
~
I I Precambrian basement ~
"'!
_ Karoo sediments ~
CJ
SONGWE - KIWIRA o
r-.:::~.:;X·;i:·~l Red SandstoneGroup coal field _ ;::
~...
:; ..:.:,.:.-::....,;
:>->-
).,,. >-..........~). 9~0'
~
l~fg~1l;,;i!iii.INj Late Cenozoic sediments of
>- .:(
...>, ;::
;::,

\'\..... I<'~"
..,<........... <:::l'"
l..~..c
LVvVv\ Vvv l s.6-0 Ma Rungwe volcanics ~ ~ ~
T to. 1- 'I
~
- - - Major rift faults 'r' "
-I
....
-B'v
)" MALAWI
oI 50km \
I I ; ! I ....'\
~

/
32°00' 33°00' 34"00'
Fig. 3: Structure of the relay zone between Lakes Malawi (Nyasa) and Rukwa, with location of the Karoo outcrops and the Galula borehole
.....
.....
(modified after DAMBLON et al., 1998).
'-J
118 Damien DEL VA UX

vegetation accumulating in shallow lake basins paleontologically and palynologically to the Upper
surrounded by 'flat land surface, rather than deep Permian (CAHEN & LEPERSONNE, 1978).
water far from land. The sparse knowledge reviewed above suggests
Apatite fission track thermochronology by VAN that the Karoo formations along the TRM zone in
DER BEEK et al. (1998) on both flanks of the Rukwa Tanzania and the Lukuga-Kalemie zone in Congo
and North-Malawi basins evidenced a regional are part of originally much larger sedimentary
denudation event at the end of the Karoo deposi- basins, filled by up to 2000 m of sediments and
tion, that removed a similar amount of 2 km of whose deposition was tectonically controlled. The
overburden over the entire region (Triassic-Juras- maximum overburden at the Namwele-Mkomolo
sic). This corresponds to the widely recognised field might be less than 2000 m, and that on the
major erosional event, expressed partly in the Muze field might be more. Structural and facies
"Gondwana surface" (WOPFNER,1993). relationships indicate that this series of basins was
Later denudation events occurred in the Late apparently trending NW-SE, parallel to the
Jurassic-Cretaceous and in the Cenozoic, but the basement tectonic structures. It also appears that
effects were more limited to the immediate vicinity the fluvio-lacustrine sedimentation with coal
of the present rift depression. deposition was interrupted by a major phase of
The two outcrops of red "doubtful Karoo" at tectonic activity at the end of the Permian. The red
the north-western end of the Rukwa depression "doubtful Karoo", The Upper Sandstone series,
are described lithologically by ISKHAKOV et al. and the Formation de transition are probably
(1970) as red sandstones, siltstones, lenses of con- coeval with this event.
glomerates, grits, nodular limestones, and siliceous
carbonate rocks. They tentatively attributed them
to a "Cretaceous (?) System", without stratigraphic
3.2.3. Inferred architecture of the Karoo
arguments. In the Namwele-Mkomolo coalfield, deposits
MCCONNELL (1947) described the Upper Sandstone The known distribution of Karoo deposits at
Series as brick-red sandstones containing slay- the subsurface and their inferred presence at the
shales and marls with calcareous nodules at the bottom of the sedimentary succession of the
base. These form the upper part of the Karoo Rukwa basin and the South-Tanganyika basin
succession, also mentioned by McKINLAY (1965) as (Fig. 4) allow proposing the following tentative
possibly Cretaceous age. When compared, the paleogeographic reconstruction.
description of the red "doubtful Karoo" of the During the Late Carboniferous-Permian period,
Rukwa depression and the Upper Sandstone Series Karoo sediments were apparently deposited in
in the Namwele-Mkomolo coalfield appear litho- relatively shallow depressions, elongated along a
logically similar. They are also comparable with NW trend parallel to the general basement fabric.
the Formation de transition on top of the Permian The known and inferred occurrences of Karoo are
Lukuga Group near Kalemie (CAHEN & LEPER- aligned along two zones, which might represent
SONNE, 1978). two initial depression systems: the Kalemie -
The suggestion of a possible Cretaceous age of Lukuga - South Tanganyika (KLT) and Rukwa -
these red beds is based on a tentative correlation Songwe - North Malawi' (RSM) basins (Fig. 1).
with the Red Sandstone Group in the South Rukwa These probable zones of deposition are almost
- North Malawi area, itself correlated with the parallel to each other, arranged in an en-echelon,
Dinosaur beds in Malawi. However, biostrati- right-stepping system.
graphic analysis of the Galula borehole in the The Rukwa depotcenter was most probably
Rukwa depression (Fig. 3) by WESCOTI et al. (1991) extending up to the Namwele-Mkolomo coalfield,
and the determination of a fossil wood found in at the margin of the Ufipa block. The decreasing
the Songwe-Kiwira area, north of Lake Malawi gradation of coal maturity from the Muze to the
(DAMBLON et al., 1998) have shown that this Namwele fields and the characteristics of depo-
correlation is incorrect. The Red Sandstone Group sition of the Namwele coals suggest that the
appears now more likely as Eocene-early Miocene. Namwele-Mkolomo coalfield was located in a
Tentatively it is considered here that the red more marginal position than the Muze field.
" doubtful Karoo" at the northern end of the Structural interpretation of the seismic profiles of
Rukwa depression and the Upper Sandstone Series the Rukwa basin indicates that the deposition of
of the Namwele-Mkomolo coalfield are more likely Karoo sediments was intermittently controlled by
correlated with the Formation de transition of the fault activity (KILEMBE & ROSENDAHL, 1992). The
Lukuga depression. The latter is attributed same profiles also bear numerous indications of
 Karoo rifting in western Tanzania: precursor of Gondwana break-up? 119

3·

" Major fault

, Minor fault

~ Half-graben
4·
~ Accommodation zone
Platform

t¥\~?f:":f~:~
...... , ... Lukuga sequence inhalf -graben
• Karoo basins
5·

6·

8·

9·

o 40
;
I

28· 29· 30· 31·

Fig.4: General structure of the Tanganyika rift, based on SANDER & ROSENDAHL (1989),
compiled by DELVAUX (1991). N.-M. = Namwele Mkomolo coalfield.
120 Damien DELVAUX

strike-slip faulting in a N-NW direction (flower deposition and migration of depotcenters, parallel
structures, en-echelon and "zigzag" fault patterns). to the trend of the rift. The stratigraphic interpre-
The travel time isopach maps for the Karoo in the tation of the profiles evidence large lateral facies
Rukwa basin highlight the longitudinal trend of variations.

TETHYS SEA
A
.-A- *A

(j§:@c:'N?
A Subduction zone
~ Thrust, strike-slip, normal faults
Triassic sediments

SOUTH

Parana Basin

ANTARCTICA

PALEO - PACIFIC OCEAN

Fig. 5: Palaeotectonic map for the Permo-Triassic transition in the African sector of Gondwana. Compilation from
DALY et al. (1991) and VISSER & PRAEKELT (1996). CFB: Cape fold belt in South Africa.
 Karoo rifting in western Tanzania: precursor ofGondwana break-up? 121

The structural high separating the inferred two of Sumbawanga. Crushed fragments of red sand-
Karoo depressions (Fig. 4) corresponds to the stone have also been observed along it. Similar
Ufipa block (to the SE) and the Ubende block (to normal faults affect the Ufipa plateau more to the
the NW). No Karoo deposits have been found west (Mkunda and Mwimbi faults), probably also
there, although MCKINLAY (1965) has referred reactivating earlier fault systems.
outcrops of sandstones and conglomerates near Paleostress investigation in the coal series of the
Karema to doubtful Karoo"/ possibly basal Karoo
U Namwele sub-basin and along the Kanda fault
or pre-Karoo. In places, these sediments are indicates that the strike slip movements occurred
slightly metamorphic and sandstones were turned in a transpressional stress regime with N-S hori-
into quartzites. In later works (ISKHAKOV et al., zontal principal compression (DELVAUX et al.,
1970) these sediments were considered as more 1998). Additional paleostress data were obtained
likely pre-Karoo (late Neoproterozoic). and partly published in DELVAUX et al. (1998).
They are from the northern extremity of the Mahali
Mountains along the eastern coast of Lake
3.2.4. Late Karoo transpressional reactivation
Tanganyika (Fig. 4), from the Lupa fault on the
Between the Rukwa and Tanganyika depres- north-eastern margin of the Rukwa basin, from the
sions/ the Ubende belt has been affected by inten- Mbeya-Tunduma area between the Rukwa and
sive brittle deformation. Examination of the DEM Malawi basins (Fig. 3), from the Livingstone fault
constructed from 1/50.000 topographic maps and zone along the northeastern margin of Lake
Landsat-TM satellite images clearly evidence a Malawi, and from the Ruhuhu basin (Fig. 2). The
network of narrow topographic depressions (linea- obtained directions of compression range from
ments), which highlight the fault systems and their NNE-SSW to NW-SE, with a strike-slip to tran-
associated crushed zones. As most of this fabric spressional stress regime.
affects the Proterozoic basement, few indications More can be learned by integrating the struc-
are preserved to constrain the age of this fault tural interpretation of the DEM image and the
system. First of all, it is reasonable to believe that satellite images with the detailed map of the Nam-
this fault system evolved into several stages, one of wele-Mkolomo field produced by MCCONNELL
them might be of late Karoo age and the most (1947). It appears that the lineaments observed at
recent one, associated to the Late Cenozoic rifting. the vicinity of the coalfield lie in the continuation
Information on these basement faults is given in of the major faults with crushed zone and fault
the detailed description of the Namwele-Mkomolo breccia mapped by MCCONNELL. Therefore, it is
coalfield by MCCONNELL (1947) and McKINLAY reasonable to estimate that a significant part of the
(1965). The coalfield is composed of several sub- fault network that affect the basement in the
basins/ tilting to the SW by 20° and limited on Rukwa-Tanganyika transfer zone might have been
southwestern side by the so-called "Main (re)activated during the late to post-Karoo tectonic
Boundary Fault". Detailed field observations event.
made by MCCONNELL (1947) allowed him to Under this probable N-S compression, the NW-
suggest that this fault is subvertical and has a trending faults that controlled the deposition of the
considerable horizontal component, greater than Karoo sediments in the Kalemie - Lukuga - South
the vertical one. This fault is associated to a wide Tanganyika and Rukwa- Songwe - North Malawi
zone of tectonic breccia and crushed rocks. Also, basins were reactivated by dextral strike-slip. The
red sandstones of the Upper Sandstone Series have movement was transferred from one basin system
been observed along it. These movements neces- to the other trough the Karema transverse zone.
sary post-date the deposition of the Lower This forms a WNW-trending tectonic boundary
Permian Karoo coal measures (K1-K2) and the between the Ubende and Ufipa blocks, resulting
undifferentiated Younger Karoo (? K3 - K4). They from sinistral movements of Mesoproterozoic age,
must also pre-date the formation of the Mid- following THEUNISSEN (1988)/ but which might be
Miocene African I peneplain capped by laterites. also Neoproterozoic (THEUNISSEN et al., 1996).
The boundary fault of the Namwele-Mkomolo During the late Karoo dextral transpression, this
coalfield lies in the prolongation of the Kanda fault zone probably acted as a transpressional bridge
further south. This is presently a normal fault between the two Karoo depressions. It should
system with marked Holocene activity that reac- have concentrated deformation along the existing
tivated an earlier dextral strike slip fault (VITTORI weak tectonic boundary.
et al., 1997; DELVAUX et al., 1998). The normal slip
on the Kanda fault dies out just north of the town
122 Damien DEL VA UX

4. Discussion and conclusion (Nyasa) rift basins evidenced regional uplift and
denudation. A total amount of 2000 m of over-
The review presented above evidences a burden was probably removed during this period,
succession of three different tectonic stages during leading to the formation of the "Gondwana"
the Karoo period in the Ubende belt: Late morphological surface. In eastern Tanzania, this
Carboniferous-Permian rift-type evolution, Late was paralleled by intensified rifting activity along
Permian-Early Triassic transpressional inversion, the future zone of crustal failure between Western
and Triassic-Early Jurassic regional uplift and and Eastern Gondwana (FOSTER & GLEADOW,
denudation with formation of the "Gondwana" 1993).
morphological surface. The model proposed here for the Karoo period
During the Late Carboniferous-Permian, the in the Ubende belt is more detailed than the earlier
former glacial morphology is progressively eroded model proposed by KLERKX et al. (1998). In this
and a series of en-echelon basin systems developed model, the Karoo basins of the Rukwa-Tanganyika
in the NW-trending Ubende belt, orthogonal to the area are considered to be strike-slip basins
NE-trending Zambezi-Malagasy basin system. controlled by the reactivation of the Ubende
The basins along the Ubende belt were much structures. Globally this seems still valid, but here
larger than their present outcrop and were is proposed that the tectonically controlled sedi-
possibly assembled in two major basin systems: mentation in subsiding basins and the strike-slip
Kalemie - Lukuga - South Tanganyika (KLT) and deformation at the basin margins are two subse-
Rukwa - Songwe - North Malawi (RSM). They quent tectonic stages rather than being two coeval
were filled by Late Carboniferous - Permian processes in a transtensional setting. In this model,
fluvial-deltaic to lacustrine sediments and their the Karoo basins are supposed to have formed in
subsidence was apparently tectonically controlled. response to Late Carboniferous-Permian extension
Deposition of the late Karoo red sandstones in and subsequently deformed by Late- to post-
.the Lukuga basin (Formation de transition), in the Permian right-lateral wrench faulting.
Namwele-Mkomolo coalfield (Upper Sandstones
Series), and at the northern extremity of the Rukwa
basin was possibly coeval with the transpressional Acknowledgments
inversion in the Late Permian-Early Triassic. This
tectonic pulse caused dextral transcurrent move- This article is devoted to Professor H. WOPFNER
ments along the Ubende belt, reactivating its who introduced me to the geology of the Karoo
earlier fabric and deforming the Karoo sediments. deposits in western Tanzania in 1990-1991, and
Karoo sedimentation stopped at the end of the with whom I had the chance to work in the field
Permian but resumed after a regional uncon- and learn much from his long experience in Africa
formity in the NE-trending basins (Ruhuhu, and in sedimentary geology. I thank him for his
Metangula, Selous ... ). This N-S intraplate com- friendship and kind advices during this collabora-
pression can be related to the latest Permian - Early tion. This article is based on the work carried out
Triassic development of the Cape fold belt of South between 1989 and 1995 in the frame of FRFC-IM
Africa (HALBICH et al., 1983). This belt was part of and SSTC projects funded by the Belgian Govern-
the palaeo-Pacific active margin of Gondwana, ment. I thank also Prof. J. KLERKX who initiated
associated with the palaeo-Pacific subduction these projects and encouraged me to work on the
beneath Gondwana during the Late Carboniferous problematic of rifting. Collaboration with the
to mid-Triassic times (ZIEGLER, 1993; VISSER & University of Dar-es-Salaam (A. MRUMA, E.
PRAEKELT, 1996). The observed intraplate com- MBEDE), TPDC (E. KILEMBE), and the Geological
pressional inversion in parts of East and Central Survey Dodoma was appreciated. This paper is a
Africa indicates a strong coupling between the contribution of IGCP 400 project Geodynamics of
orogen and the foreland during the Permo-Triassic Continental Rifting.
transition, allowing the transfer of compressional
stresses in the foreland. This occurred probably in
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