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JIBS Special Collections

Series Editor
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Journal of International Business Studies (JIBS) is the official publication of the
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Alvaro Cuervo-Cazurra
Editor

State-Owned Multinationals
Governments in Global Business
Editor
Alvaro Cuervo-Cazurra
D’Amore-McKim School of Business
Northeastern University
Boston, Massachusetts, USA

ISSN 2397-8775 ISSN 2397-8783 (electronic)

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To Alvaro Cuervo, for all his guidance
Foreword

State-owned enterprises (SOEs) proliferated after the Second World War, and by
the 1970s were significant actors in many developed economies (excluding the
United States) and most developing ones. Governments in China, the Soviet Union,
and elsewhere had imposed state ownership as part of their communist ideology. In
market economies, state ownership predominated in utilities and natural resources,
such as oil, but there were also SOEs in some surprising sectors, such as movie
theaters, trucking firms, paper plants, or tobacco companies. Governments resorted
to state ownership for many reasons: to try to stimulate and direct the economy, to
prop up or take over failing private firms, and, in emerging markets, to nationalize
foreign-owned companies, especially formerly colonially-owned companies.
This rising wave of state ownership in market economies crashed in the 1980s
when SOEs began to flounder in red ink. State ownership frequently proved
hazardous to enterprise efficiency, especially when governments intervened to
prevent layoffs, stimulate hiring, capture rents, prop up failures, protect against
competition, or reward cronies. These multiple objectives, combined with soft
budgets, monopoly powers, and politically driven hiring undermined SOE perfor-
mance, especially in countries with weak governance institutions. Owner govern-
ments, frustrated with serial bailouts and futile reform efforts, began to liquidate
the worst performers, privatize others, and cut firms off from government subsidies
and protection. Privatization further accelerated when formerly communist coun-
tries began to transition to market economies. Today many of the early SOEs are
privatized, defunct, or much shrunken, but state ownership is not a dead issue.
While SOEs have faded, state-owned multinational enterprises (SOMNCs) have
proliferated and become giants in ways not envisioned by scholars (such as myself)
who studied SOEs. According to Musacchio and Lazzarini in this volume, 27 of the
world’s 100 largest firms by revenue in 2016 were SOMNCs, 16 of them owned by
the Chinese government.
The papers in this volume suggest that SOMNCs are different from SOEs, and
not just because they operate internationally and are typically much larger.
SOMNCs often have private shareholders; sometimes the government is not even
the majority shareholder. Because they operate in world markets, SOMNCs are

vii
viii Foreword

more likely to be exposed to competition. And because they have private share-
holders and may be publicly traded, SOMNCs are subject to more independent
monitoring by outside auditors, tax authorities, and the like. Governments’ objec-
tives for SOMNCs are also different. While SOMNCs may share some of the
political and social goals of SOEs (such as stimulating employment or generating
revenues), governments also expect them to invest in foreign countries in order to
control a supply of raw materials, capture new technologies and know-how, and
influence host countries for diplomatic, strategic, or military reasons.
The rise of SOMNCs raises numerous questions; to mention just a few: why did
governments move state ownership into international markets? How do SOMNCs
differ from private multinationals? How do majority-owned SOMNCs differ from
minority-owned? In some cases, the extent of state ownership is minimal; at what
point does state investment have no effect on enterprise behavior? We might expect
that SOMNCs suffer from the same incentives that undermined efficiency in SOEs.
But to what extent do global competition and private incentives counteract the
forces of soft budgets, multiple objectives, and state interference? SOE perfor-
mance varied across countries as different institutions influenced the behavior of
governments and enterprises. Since SOMNCs operate internationally, does that
reduce the influence of domestic institutions and state oversight and reduce the
differences between SOMNCs from different countries? In particular, what incen-
tives influence the behavior of the large Chinese SOMNCs? Many commentators
are concerned that the political and national security goals of government owners
affect the behavior of SOMNCs in ways that undermine global competition, but
data are scarce. What are the effect of SOMNCs on global markets and their private
competitors? What are the effects of SOMNCs investments on host country
economies and polities, especially in developing countries where large SOMNCs
sometimes overshadow local private and state actors?
This volume addresses some of these questions. Several chapters point out that
the principal- agent problems that plagued SOEs are present in SOMNCs as well.
Chapters also explore the complicated factors determining SOMNCs structures and
behavior in China, India, and worldwide. Many of the volume’s authors suggest
that we need new theories and more data to better understand SOMNCs behavior
and the full implications of SOMNCs for the world economy in general and the
host and origin economies in particular. This volume makes a vital contribution
toward plugging a gaping hole in our understanding of SOMNCs and pointing the
way toward future research.
December 2016 Mary M. Shirley
President, Ronald Coase Institute
Contents

State-Owned Multinationals: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . 1

Alvaro Cuervo-Cazurra

Part I Understanding Our Understanding of State-Owned

Multinationals
The Evolution of State-Owned Multinational Enterprise Theory . . . . . 9
Yair Aharoni
The International Aspects of State-Owned Enterprises . . . . . . . . . . 45
Raymond Vernon
European Government-Controlled Enterprises: Explaining
International Strategic and Policy Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Renato Mazzolini

Part II New Insights on a Renewed Phenomenon

Exploring the Role of Government Involvement in Outward FDI from
Emerging Economies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Chengqi Wang, Junjie Hong, Mario Kafouros
and Mike Wright
State Ownership Effect on Firms’ FDI Ownership Decisions Under
Institutional Pressure: A Study of Chinese Outward-Investing Firms . 111
Lin Cui and Fuming Jiang
Toward Resource Independence – Why State-Owned Entities Become
Multinationals: An Empirical Study of India’s Public R&D
Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Prithwiraj Choudhury and Tarun Khanna
Varieties in State Capitalism: Outward FDI Strategies of Central
and Local State-Owned Enterprises from Emerging Economy Countries . 175
Ming Hua Li, Lin Cui and Jiangyong Lu

ix
x Contents

Overcoming Distrust: How State-Owned Enterprises Adapt their

Foreign Entries to Institutional Pressures Abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Klaus E. Meyer, Yuan Ding, Jing Li and Hua Zhang

Part III The Future of Studies of State-Owned Multinationals

State-Owned Enterprises as Multinationals: Theory and Research
Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Aldo Musacchio and Sergio G. Lazzarini
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
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List of Figures

Fig. 1 Research model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Fig. 2 State ownership and government affiliation level . . . . . . . . . 82
Fig. 3 Moderating effects of government involvement on OFDI (based on
Table 4): (a) interaction effects of marketing resources and govern-
ment affiliation; (b) interaction effects of technological resources
and state ownership; (c) interaction effects of capabilities and state
ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Fig. 1 State ownership effect on FDI ownership decisions . . . . . . . . 115
Fig. 1 Theoretical explanation for domestic patent reform result
in context of SOEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Fig. 2 Patent filings in India (1970–2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Fig. 3 Foreign and Indian patent filings by CSIR around reform year of
1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Fig. 4 Trend of revenue from multinationals and government budgetary
support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Fig. 1 Institutional change processes and SOE diversity in emerging
economies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Fig. 2 The trickle-down effects of institutional change on SOE diversity
and FDI strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Fig. 1 Host country technology and institutions and SO MNEs’ entry
strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Fig. 2 Moderating effect of host country technology level on control
level in acquired subsidiaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Fig. 3 Moderating effect of host country rule of law on level of control
in acquired subsidiaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Fig. 4 Moderating effect of host country shareholder protection
on control level in acquired subsidiaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

xi
List of Tables

Table 1 Types of state investment in companies . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Table 1 Definitions of variables and descriptive statistics . . . . . . . 93
Table 2 Correlation matrix of independent variables . . . . . . . . . . 94
Table 3 Regression results: effects of government involvement on
OFDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Table 4 Regression results: interaction effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Table 5 Regression results: the role of government involvement in
explaining location and type of OFDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Table 6 Exclusion restriction test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Table 1 Sample firm and FDI location distribution, in comparison
with population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Table 2 Institutional pressure constructs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Table 3 Descriptive statistics and Pearson correlations . . . . . . . . . 130
Table 4 Logistic regression of FDI ownership structure . . . . . . . . 131
Table 5 Tobit regression of FDI ownership structure . . . . . . . . . . 134
Table 1 Comparison of patent systems in the United States and India
(pre and post reform) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Table 2a Summary statistics for CSIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Table 2b Correlation matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Table 3 Panel regression results – Impact of patent reform on patent
filings and patent mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Table 4 Panel regression results – Impact of domestic and foreign
patents on revenue from multinationals . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Table 5 Comparison of CSIR labs to other Indian SOEs and private
entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Table A1 Comparison of Indian SOEs and domestic private firms, 1991
and 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Table 1 State ownership patterns in selected emerging economies . . 182
Table A.1 Illustrative case references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Table 1 List of host countries and the number of investments in our
sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

xiii
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 Cybersecurity - Student Handbook
Winter 2023 - Department

Prepared by: Associate Prof. Smith

Date: August 12, 2025

Section 1: Theoretical framework and methodology

Learning Objective 1: Study tips and learning strategies
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Ethical considerations and implications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 6: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 8: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 9: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 9: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Methodology 2: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 13: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 15: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 16: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 17: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 20: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Quiz 3: Ethical considerations and implications
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 21: Literature review and discussion
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 22: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 23: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 24: Research findings and conclusions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 28: Case studies and real-world applications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Results 4: Literature review and discussion
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 33: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 35: Research findings and conclusions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 38: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Results 5: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 41: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 45: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 48: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Results 6: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Example 50: Research findings and conclusions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 55: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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