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New Vanguard
OSPREY
PUBLISHING

US Navy Aircraft
Carriers 1942–45
WWII-built ships

Mar k Stille • Illustrated by Tony Br yan

 CONTENTS
ORIGINS 3
• US avy mid to late war carrier doctrine

DEVELOPMENT 4
• Mid to late war air groups and aircraft
• Weapons
Commander (retired) MARK • Radar
STILLE served as a career
Naval Intelligence Officer,
spending over five years of
CHRONOLOGY 10
his naval career assigned to
various US Navy carriers. He THE ESSEX CLASS 14
conti nues to work in this field
• Origin
in a civilian capacity. He holds
an MA from the Naval War
• Design and construction
College and has had several • Propu lsion
wargames published. He lives • Armament
in Virginia, USA. • Aircraft-handling facilitie
• Wartime modifications
• Operational hi torie
• As essme n t

THE INDEPENDENCE CLASS 36

• Origins
• De ign an d con truction
• Armament
• Aircraft-handling facilities
• Wartime modification
• Operational historie
• Asses ment
TONY BRYAN is a freelance
illustrator of many years'
BIBLIOGRAPHY 43
experience. He initially
qualified in Engineering COLOR PLATE COMMENTARY 44
and worked for a number
of years in Military Research INDEX 48
and Development, and has
a keen interest in military
hardware - armor, small arms,
aircraft and ships.
Tony has produced many
illustrations for partworks,
magazines and books,
including a number of titles
in the New Vanguard series.
New Vanguard • 130

US Navy Aircraft Carriers

1942–45
WWII-built ships

Mar k Stille • Illustrated by Tony Br yan

NVG 130 mono pp correx.qxd:NVG 130 mono pp correx.qxd 12/3/12 09:16 Page 2

First published in Great Britain in 2007 by Osprey Publishing,

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© 2007 Osprey Publishing Ltd.

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Index by Peter Rea
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E d i t o r ’s n o t e
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 US NAVY AIRCRAFT
CARRIERS 1942–45
WWII-BUILT SHIPS

ORIGINS
he US Navy’s seven prewar carriers had halted the Japanese advance

T in the Pacific by the middle of 1942 (see New Vanguard 114, US

Navy Aircraft Carriers 1922–45 Prewar Classes). This book focuses on
the Essex class fleet and Independence class light carriers that entered US
Navy service during the war. These ships would be essential elements in
the US Navy’s campaign to defeat the Japanese Empire. For the Essex class,
of the 24 built, 14 saw action during the war. The ships completed after
the war and the extensive postwar service and modernization of the Essex
class are not covered. Of the light carriers, all nine Independence class ships
saw action. Two other light carriers of the Saipan class did not see service
during the war and are not discussed.

US Navy mid to late war carrier doctrine

The arrival of a growing number of Essex and Independence class carriers
forced the US Navy to revise its carrier doctrine. Experience from 1942
clearly showed the benefits of operating several carriers together. The
early war practice of operating only one or two carriers in a task group
was abandoned. Now the arrival of new ships permitted up to four
separate carrier task groups to be formed under the Commander, Fast
Carrier Force Pacific. Each would operate up to five carriers (usually
four) – a mix of fleet and light carriers. These would be typically escorted
by a division of battleships, four cruisers (including some dedicated
antiaircraft cruisers), and a dozen or so destroyers. To provide the best
protection against air attack, the carriers would be placed in the middle
of a 4-mile (6.4km) radius circle of escorts. Task groups usually steamed
in formation with 12 miles (19.3km) between their centers, leaving

A study in sea power: Task

Group 38.3 enters Ulithi Atoll
on December 12, 1944, following
operations off the Philippines.
The lead carrier is Langley;
she is followed by Ticonderoga,
three battleships, and four light
cruisers. Ulithi Atoll was seized
in September 1944 and was
used as the fast carriers’
primary support anchorage
for the remainder of the war. 3
 8 miles (12.9km) from screen to screen. This cruising disposition was
based on the effective range of the formation’s heavy antiaircraft guns. In
addition to presenting any attacker with a continuous wall of antiaircraft
fire, it provided enough room for maneuver. It also provided overlapping
radar coverage, serving to fill in blind spots.
By 1943, the US Navy had transformed naval warfare in the Pacific.
Not only did the numbers of carriers in service dramatically increase, but
so did the effectiveness of each ship and its air group. A new generation
of aircraft manned by well-trained pilots, improvements in air search and
fire control radars, the effectiveness of the Combat Information Center
concept that fuzed information on a real-time basis, and the growing
number and effectiveness of shipboard antiaircraft guns combined to
make US fast carrier task forces essentially immune to conventional air
attack. This defensive capability forced the Japanese to rely on night
attacks and eventually on kamikaze, or suicide, aircraft.
Together with these technological advances, there was a corresponding
operational leap. A sophisticated mobile logistics capability was developed
which allowed the US Navy to forward deploy to fleet anchorages and
operate the Fast Carrier Force at sea for months at a time using underway
replenishment. This maintained a high operational tempo, keeping the
Japanese off-balance, and provided the capability not just to raid, as the
Imperial Japanese Navy’s carrier task force had done early in the war, but
to project power on a sustained basis. It was a war-winning formula.

DEVELOPMENT
M i d t o l a t e w a r a i r g ro u p s a n d a i rc r a f t
In 1942, carrier air groups were assigned numbers with the first being Air
Group 9. In June 1944, the designation of air groups was changed to
reflect the type of carrier they were assigned to. An Essex class carrier’s
air group was designated CVG and an Independence class carrier’s group
was designated CVLG.

The ability of the US Navy to

sustain operations at sea was
one of the unheralded reasons
for the American victory in the
Pacific. Here Hornet is shown
refueling from an oiler in
August 1944. As an example
of the US Navy’s logistical
capabilities, between October 6,
1944 and January 26, 1945, the
Fast Carrier Force was at sea for
13 of 16 weeks. To maintain this
effort required a dedicated force
4 of 34 fleet oilers.
 COMPOSITION OF ESSEX CLASS AIR GROUPS

Fighters Dive bombers Torpedo bombers

1943 36 36 18
July 1944 54 (4 night) 24 18
December 1944 73 (4 night) 15 15
Essex in May 1943 during
work-ups. This view shows
her early air group that included Essex class carriers, as commissioned, had an air group with a large
SBD Dauntless dive bombers
fighter squadron of 36 fighters, plus 18 aircraft scout, dive bomber, and
(the aircraft on the aft portion
of the flight deck without folding
torpedo squadrons. One additional dive bomber for liaison duties was
wings), TBF Avenger torpedo included for a total air group of 91 aircraft. There were also nine reserve
bombers, and F6F Hellcat aircraft, three of each type.
fighters. Early Essex class By 1944, the need for a dedicated scout bomber squadron was gone, so
air groups were notable
the two squadrons equipped with dive bombers were combined into a
for their large proportion
of strike aircraft at the expense
single 24-aircraft squadron. The fighter squadron grew and included
of fighters. Essex appears in special radar-equipped night fighter and photo-reconnaissance fighter
her early configuration with variants. As the kamikaze threat became paramount, the number of fighter
five radio masts, a single stern aircraft was again increased in December 1944. Now a single 73-aircraft
40mm quadruple mount, and
fighter squadron was embarked and the number of strike aircraft reduced
no starboard outboard sponsons.
Interestingly, she would remain
to 30, organized into two 15-aircraft dive bomber and torpedo squadrons.
basically unaltered throughout With 73 aircraft and 110 pilots, the fighter squadron had become
the war. too unwieldy. In January 1945 it was split into two squadrons, one with

5
 36 fighters, the other with 36 fighter-bombers. In practice, the two Hellcat fighters preparing to
squadrons were interchangeable. In 1945, two air groups discarded their take off from Ticonderoga. The
two leading aircraft are F6F-5N
dive bomber squadron and operated 93 fighters and 15 torpedo aircraft.
variants; the pod on the wing
Most Essex class carriers took a number of different air groups into contains a radar for night
action. With a large pool of aviators available, the US Navy could rotate operations.
tired veteran air groups. In addition to casualties, the air groups had to
contend with fatigue brought on by incessant combat. In January 1944,
it was decided that complete air groups would be rotated after six to nine
months of combat. This was later shortened in April to six months as the
pace of the war intensified. It became necessary to rotate some air
groups after only four months. This contributed to the requirement to
bring US Marine Corps fighter squadrons aboard the fleet carriers in
late 1944. Eventually, two air groups were planned for each carrier.
The arrival of the new carriers coincided with the arrival of new
aircraft. Most prominent among these was the Grumman F6F Hellcat.
The first mass-produced variant, the F6F-3, entered service in 1943 and
was faster and better armored and had more firepower than its Japanese
counterparts. The Hellcat was the mainstay fighter of the US Navy from
1943 to 1945, with over 12,000 built. The improved F6F-5 began to enter
service in April 1944. Late in the war, some CVGs received the Vought
F4U Corsair. Introduced in 1943, the Corsair would remain land-based
until late 1944, when the kamikaze crisis and a fighter shortage brought
it aboard fleet carriers on a permanent basis. With its speed and
ruggedness, it proved to be the best carrier fighter of the war.
Into the mid-war period, the dive bomber role continued to be filled by
the Douglas SBD Dauntless. The upgraded Dauntless SBD-5 was not finally
replaced until July 1944. Its replacement was the Curtiss SB2C Helldiver.
This aircraft experienced a long gestation period before being wholly
accepted for fleet use. Difficult to handle, it possessed no greater range
than the Dauntless, carried a similar bomb load, and proved more difficult
to maintain. It was, however, faster and more rugged. The torpedo bomber
mission was handled by the Grumman TBF Avenger from mid-1942 to the
end of the war. This aircraft also performed in a level bomber role. Some
6 7,500 were built under the TBF and the General Motors TBM designation.
 We a p o n s
The war-built US carriers were well provided for in terms of antiaircraft
protection. For long-range air defense, the mainstay weapon was the
5in/38 dual-purpose gun. This weapon had been fitted on the prewar
Yorktown class and had proved itself to be an excellent gun possessing
good accuracy, a long barrel life, and, most importantly, a high rate of
fire. It was the finest weapon of its type in service during the war and
remained in service long after. Aside from making a brief appearance on
the lead ship, the Independence class did not carry the 5in/38 gun. In the
middle of the war the effectiveness of the 5in was further increased when
Long-range antiaircraft the VT (variable timed) fuze, containing a tiny radio transmitter in the
protection for Essex class nose of the shell, entered service. The fuze sensed the reflected radiation
carriers was provided by the off the target and detonated the shell within 30ft (approx 9m) – a lethal
redoubtable 5in/38 dual-purpose range. When used with radar fire direction, it was a deadly combination.
gun. Two twin mounts were
located forward and aft of the
island; the forward mounts on
Intrepid are shown here, trained
SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE 5IN/38 GUN
to starboard. This photograph of Bore 5in (127mm)
Intrepid was taken after June Shell weight 55lb (25kg)
1944, as the ship has received Muzzle velocity 2,600ft/sec (792.4m/sec)
the modified bridge and the Maximum range 18,200yd (16,642m)
SC-2 radar has been moved to Rate of fire 15–20 rounds/min
the starboard side of the stack.

The Mark 37 Director provided primary fire

control for the 5in/38. On Essex class ships two
were fitted on the island, one forward and one aft.
This director was provided with a twin parabolic
trough antenna Mark 4 Radar to further increase
its performance. The Mark 37 proved very
successful in handling all but the fastest targets.
Later, the Mark 4 was replaced by the Mark 12
Radar, which used the same antenna, but which
offered a limited blind-fire capability. Introduced
with the Mark 12 was the Mark 22 Height-finder
Radar. This was a small parabolic antenna attached
to one side of the Mark 12. When completed, early
Essex class ships received the Mark 4 Radar, with
later ships receiving the Mark 12/22. Earlier ships
got the Mark 12/22 upgrade during the course of
refit or repair.
The next layer of air defense was provided
by the 40mm Bofors gun. These entered service
on Essex class ships in quadruple mounts and on
Independence class ships in quadruple and double
mounts. These proved very effective in service,
but later in the war even these lacked the power
to stop onrushing kamikazes. Fire control for the
40mm Bofors was usually provided by the Mark 51
Director. This was a simple and lightweight system
and incorporated the Mark 14 Gunsight. It proved
very effective out to about 3,000yd (2,743m). Early
ships used a mix of the simple Mark 51 and the 7
 Shown here is a 40mm
quadruple mount on Hornet in
February 1945, during the raids
on Tokyo. This is the gun mount
on the port side of the flight
deck, just forward of the aft pair
of 5in/38 single guns. Note the
expended shells to the right of
the photo and the ready rounds
lining the gun tub. The 40mm
gun was probably the most
successful medium-range
antiaircraft gun of the war.

more complex Mark 49 Director that was coupled with the Mark 19 Radar
in an attempt to provide a blind-fire capability. The Mark 49 proved
unsuccessful in service and was quickly removed. Beginning in late 1944,
some Mark 51s were replaced by the similar Mark 57 with the Mark 29
Radar. The Mark 57 did provide a blind-fire capability. In 1945, the
Mark 63 was introduced, which placed its associated radar directly on the
40mm mount. In some cases, both the Mark 51 and Mark 57 Directors
could be used to direct 5in guns, thus increasing the number of targets
that could be engaged by the ship’s 5in battery.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE 40MM BOFORS GUN

Bore 1.575in (40mm)
Shell weight 1.985lb (.9kg)
Muzzle velocity 2,890ft/sec (880.8m/sec)
Maximum range 11,000yd (10,058m)
Rate of fire 160 rounds/min (less in service)

The standard short-range antiaircraft weapon aboard US carriers

after 1942 was the Swiss-designed 20mm Oerlikon gun. It was originally
fitted in a single mount, but a double mount was later introduced
to increase the weapon’s firepower. The 20mm gun was air-cooled,
required no external power source, and was lightweight, so it was fitted
in large numbers. It was a last-ditch weapon that, by war’s end, had fallen
out of favor, as its weight of shell was clearly inadequate to stop
kamikazes. The 20mm was equipped with a ring sight for aiming, and
fire was spotted by the use of tracers. The Mark 14 Gunsight could be
mounted on the 20mm to provide target tracking. On both Essex and
Independence class ships, these guns were usually fitted on platforms along
8 the flight deck.
Each Essex class carrier
mounted a large number of
single 20mm guns. Most were
fitted on platforms alongside the
flight deck. The 20mm gun was a
reliable weapon that required no
external power source and could
be bolted to the deck anywhere
with a clear field of fire. These
are aboard Hornet in February
1945; by this time the weapon
was no longer in favor as it
lacked the stopping power to
break up incoming kamikazes
before they hit the ship.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE 20MM OERLIKON GUN

Bore .7874in (20mm)
Shell weight .271lb (.122kg)
Muzzle velocity 2,740ft/sec (835.1m/sec)
Maximum range 4,800yd (4,389m)
Rate of fire 450 rounds/min (less in service)

Ra d a r
The use and development of radar proved to be a critical aspect of carrier
operations in the war’s early period. Eventually, it became a central
component to US carrier doctrine. Radar proved essential to solving the
problem of fleet air defense. Only it could provide the warning needed
to direct fighters to incoming threats. Radar information was fed into
a Combat Information Center (CIC) and in turn used by the adjacent
Fighter Direction Office. In early ships, a crowded CIC was placed in the
island. Later in the war, when these ships received a bridge modification
that expanded the size of the flag plot, the CIC was moved to the gallery
deck (the level below the flight deck). Some ships, particularly those built
late in the war, had the CIC moved deep into the ship below the main
armored deck. This offered much better protection than the vulnerable
gallery deck location right under the unarmored flight deck.
No provision was made in the original Essex design for radar. Several
were added, but the cramped placement of antennae on the island
caused mutual interference problems that were never really solved.
Additionally, placement on the island made for smoke damage from
the stack and crowded conditions in the radar room. Throughout the
war there were a number of different radar fits, but originally it was
envisioned to give the Essex class carriers a primary air search radar, a
back-up air search radar, and two surface search radar. With the addition
of Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) equipment, radar beacons, the
YE aircraft homing beacon (a radio transmitter with a 30-mile range,
sending a specific signal allowing the pilot to approximate the carrier’s
bearing), and later passive and active electronic countermeasure gear,
this made for a growing profusion of antennae. 9
 The original long-range air search radar was the SK
placed on the radar platform just forward of the stack.
The SK had a 17ft2 (5.1m2) bed spring antenna with a
range of 100 nautical miles (185km) against targets at
an altitude of 10,000ft (3,050m). Later, the SK-2 was
introduced – this was an improved SK with a dish
antenna. The back-up air search radar, the SC-2, was
originally placed on a platform on the side of the stack.
The SC-2 had a 15ft by 4ft 6in (4.5m by 1.4m) antenna
and a range of 80 nautical miles (148km) against targets
at 10,000ft (3,050m). Late in the war, the SR replaced
the SC series. Its primary improvement was providing
shock mounting. The SR had a 15ft by 6ft (4.5m by
1.8m) antenna and a range of 110 nautical miles
(204km). Also on the radar platform (usually on the
topmast) was an SG for surface search. The second SG
set was usually mounted on the rear of the stack to cover
the blind spot to the rear of the ship.
With broad beam air search radars, it was still a problem to determine This is the radar-plotting screen
the height of incoming aircraft. This information was essential for effective aboard Hornet on August 5,
1944, while the carrier was
fighter direction. Accordingly, the SM height-finder was introduced for
operating off the Bonin Islands.
fighter control. It used a narrow beam to pinpoint contacts gained by Several of the Bonins are noted
air search radars. It had a 6ft (1.8m) dish antenna, a range of 50 nautical on the left of the display and
miles (93km) out to 10,000ft (3,050m), and an elevation accuracy of 500ft Japanese air activity (Raid I)
(152.4m). An SM height-finder radar prototype was mounted on Lexington is noted to the northeast
of the ship. The incorporation
in March 1943; this radar proved successful in service and production
of radar into carrier doctrine was
sets were fitted on other carriers in 1943. When introduced, height-finder essential in providing the carrier
radars occupied the best position on the forward portion of the radar task force with a high degree of
platform. On most ships, the platform was lengthened to fit both air search protection from conventional
and height-finder radars. The lightweight successor to the SM, the SP, was Japanese air attacks.
introduced in 1945. It possessed an 8ft (2.4m) diameter dish antenna with
a maximum range of 80 nautical miles (148km).

CHRONOLOGY
The following is an overview of the US Navy’s Pacific offensive from its
tentative start in 1943 to final victory in 1945. Because this offensive was
made possible by the introduction of the Essex and Independence class
carriers, this chronology is useful to gauge the steady increase in the
numbers of carriers in service, as well as the increasing tempo of activity
and the major operations.

1943
August Yorktown, Essex, and Independence conduct a raid against
Marcus Island in the Central Pacific.
September Lexington, Princeton, and Belleau Wood raid Tarawa
in the Gilbert Islands.
October Essex, Yorktown, Lexington, Independence, Belleau Wood,
and Cowpens raid Wake Island.
November Princeton and the older fleet carrier Saratoga strike
10 the Japanese base at Rabaul. Joined later by Essex, Bunker Hill,
 and Independence for additional strikes. Severe losses are inflicted
on land-based Japanese naval air units.
November Operation Galvanic: invasion of the Gilbert Islands.
Now the Fast Carrier Force has expanded to four separate task
groups including fleet carriers Essex, Yorktown, Bunker Hill, and
Lexington, and light carriers Independence, Cowpens, Belleau Wood,
Monterey, and Princeton. These are joined by prewar fleet carriers
Saratoga and Enterprise. During the operation Independence is
torpedoed by aircraft in a dusk attack.
December Raid on Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands by Essex,
Yorktown, Lexington, Bunker Hill, Belleau Wood, and Monterey.
Franklin under attack off the
Lexington is torpedoed by aircraft in a night attack.
coast of Japan on March 19,
1945. The ship is in its late war 1944
configuration with the modified January Task Force 58 formed under command of Rear Admiral
bridge and three visible Marc Mitscher.
starboard side 40mm sponsons.
The large circular SK-2 radar is
January Operation Flintlock: invasion of the Marshalls. Kwajalein
fitted outboard of the stack and is seized. Four Essex class, two prewar carriers, and six Independence
the SC-2 radar is just visible on class carriers operate in four task groups. Intrepid, Cabot, and Langley
the rear of the radar platform. join the fray.
The ship is listing to starboard – February First raid on the important Central Pacific naval base at
not because of battle damage,
but owing to the large amounts
Truk by Enterprise, four Essex, and four Independence class carriers.
of water being used to fight the Truk is neutralized and 250 Japanese aircraft and 39 warships and
fires on board. merchants are destroyed. Intrepid is torpedoed in a night air attack.

11
 This independent strike by nine carriers is the largest of the war Princeton soon after being
to date; it confirms US carrier doctrine and proves the Fast Carrier bombed on the morning of
October 24, 1944. This picture
Force to be the most powerful naval force in the world.
shows the ship on fire, with
February Strikes against the Mariana Islands with three Essex and three smoke columns resulting from a
Independence class carriers. The Truk and Marianas raids confirm the series of explosions from aircraft
strategic capabilities of the Fast Carrier Force when permitted to in the hangar. Later in the day
exercise operational freedom. They also demonstrate the futility of the ship’s torpedo store blew
up and the ship was finally
Japan’s island chain defense strategy as the US Navy simply deploys
scuttled. Princeton was the
overwhelming numbers against any part of the chain – once only Independence class
neutralized, non-essential islands can be bypassed. carrier lost during the war.
March Now part of the 5th Fleet, Task Force 58 neutralizes the
Japanese naval base at Palau with four Essex and six Independence class
carriers. Hornet joins the force.
April Fast carriers support General MacArthur’s landings at Hollandia
in New Guinea. Bataan joins Task Force 58.
April Task Force 58 returns to pound Truk.
June Operation Forager: invasion of the Marianas. The Imperial Navy
commits its carrier force for the first time since October 1942.
With nine Japanese carriers facing 15 US Navy carriers (including
Enterprise, Hornet, Yorktown, Bunker Hill, Wasp, Lexington, Essex, and
eight of the nine Independence class carriers), this is the largest carrier
battle in history. On June 19, 450 defending Hellcats and antiaircraft
fire destroy 300 Japanese aircraft for a loss of only 29 Hellcats.
No US carriers are sunk and only two are slightly damaged, but
the Japanese lose almost their entire carrier-based air force and three
carriers. The battle of the Philippine Sea marks the effective end of
the Japanese carrier force.
August Task Force 38 is formed under the Third Fleet. This dual
command system keeps the same ships, but changes their fleet and
task force designations. This allows the alternate command staff to
plan future operations. OPPOSITE This photograph, taken
September Strikes against Palau and the southern Philippines in prepa- at Ulithi Atoll on December 8,
1944, epitomizes the striking
ration for the invasion of the Philippines. Addition of Franklin gives
power of the Essex class in the
Task Force 38 eight fleet carriers (seven Essex class) and eight Inde- US Navy’s Pacific War campaign.
pendence class. Pictured in the front row are
October Strikes against Formosa (Taiwan). Over 500 Japanese aircraft Wasp, Yorktown, Hornet, Hancock,
are destroyed; no carriers are hit. Addition of Hancock gives Task and Ticonderoga, all in various
“dazzle” schemes. Behind them
Force 38 17 carriers embarking over 1,000 aircraft.
is Lexington, easily discernible
October Invasion of Leyte and the battle of Leyte Gulf. The Imperial in her solid Measure 21 scheme,
Japanese Navy commits its remaining strength to stop the US from and two Independence class
12 seizing the Philippines and cutting Japan’s access to resources in the light carriers.
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