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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN MOLECULAR SCIENCE
CHEMISTRY OF FOODS
Pasqualina Laganà ·
Giovanni Campanella · Paolo Patanè ·
Maria Assunta Cava · Salvatore Parisi ·
Maria Elsa Gambuzza · Santi Delia ·
Maria Anna Coniglio

Chemistry and
Hygiene of Food
Gases

123
SpringerBriefs in Molecular Science

Chemistry of Foods

Series Editor
Salvatore Parisi, Al-Balqa Applied University, Al-Salt, Jordan
The series Springer Briefs in Molecular Science: Chemistry of Foods presents
compact topical volumes in the area of food chemistry. The series has a clear focus
on the chemistry and chemical aspects of foods, topics such as the physics or
biology of foods are not part of its scope. The Briefs volumes in the series aim at
presenting chemical background information or an introduction and clear-cut
overview on the chemistry related to specific topics in this area. Typical topics thus
include:
– Compound classes in foods—their chemistry and properties with respect to the
foods (e.g. sugars, proteins, fats, minerals, …)
– Contaminants and additives in foods—their chemistry and chemical
transformations
– Chemical analysis and monitoring of foods
– Chemical transformations in foods, evolution and alterations of chemicals in
foods, interactions between food and its packaging materials, chemical aspects
of the food production processes
– Chemistry and the food industry—from safety protocols to modern food
production.
The treated subjects will particularly appeal to professionals and researchers
concerned with food chemistry. Many volume topics address professionals and
current problems in the food industry, but will also be interesting for readers
generally concerned with the chemistry of foods. With the unique format and
character of SpringerBriefs (50 to 125 pages), the volumes are compact and easily
digestible. Briefs allow authors to present their ideas and readers to absorb them
with minimal time investment. Briefs will be published as part of Springer’s eBook
collection, with millions of users worldwide. In addition, Briefs will be available for
individual print and electronic purchase. Briefs are characterized by fast, global
electronic dissemination, standard publishing contracts, easy-to-use manuscript
preparation and formatting guidelines, and expedited production schedules.
Both solicited and unsolicited manuscripts focusing on food chemistry are
considered for publication in this series. Submitted manuscripts will be reviewed
and decided by the series editor, Dr. Salvatore Parisi.
To submit a proposal or request further information, please contact Tanja
Weyandt, Publishing Editor, via [email protected] or Dr. Salvatore
Parisi, Book Series Editor, via [email protected] or [email protected].

More information about this subseries at http://www.springer.com/series/11853

Pasqualina Laganà Giovanni Campanella
• •

Paolo Patanè Maria Assunta Cava

• •

Salvatore Parisi Maria Elsa Gambuzza

• •

Santi Delia Maria Anna Coniglio

•

Chemistry and Hygiene

of Food Gases

123
Pasqualina Laganà Giovanni Campanella
Department of Biomedical and Dental Department of Biomedical and Dental
Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging
University of Messina University of Messina
Messina, Italy Messina, Italy

Paolo Patanè Maria Assunta Cava

Department of Biomedical and Dental University Hospital Santa Maria della
Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging Misericordia
University of Messina Udine, Italy
Messina, Italy
Maria Elsa Gambuzza
Salvatore Parisi Territorial Office of Messina
Al-Balqa Applied University Italian Ministry of Health
Al-Salt, Jordan Messina, Italy

Santi Delia Maria Anna Coniglio

Department of Biomedical and Dental Department of Medical, Surgical Sciences
Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging and Advanced Technologies “GF Ingrassia”
University of Messina University of Catania
Messina, Italy Catania, Italy

ISSN 2191-5407 ISSN 2191-5415 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Molecular Science
ISSN 2199-689X ISSN 2199-7209 (electronic)
Chemistry of Foods
ISBN 978-3-030-35227-1 ISBN 978-3-030-35228-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35228-8
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
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to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents

1 Food Gases: Classification and Allowed Uses . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Food Gases. Why? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Regulatory Bases in the European Union . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Food Gases. Basic Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Food Gases and HACCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Classification of Food Gases and Permitted Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.1 FG Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.2 FG Uses… and Conditions for Use! . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 Food Gases in the European Union: The Legislation ............ 19
2.1 Gases Versus Food Gases in the European Union:
Reasons for Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.1.1 Food Gases in the EU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.1.2 Non-food Gases in the EU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3 Food Gases in the Industry: Chemical and Physical Features . . . . . 31
3.1 Food Gases: Physical and Chemical Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1.1 Liquefied Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1.2 Non-liquefied Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1.3 Dissolved Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.1.4 Cryogenic Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.1.5 Inert Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.1.6 Flammable Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.7 Oxidising Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

v
vi Contents

4 Safety Evaluation and Assessment of Gases for Food

Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 41
4.1 Food Gases and Food Hygiene—Connections
and Research Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.2 Food Gases and HACCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.2.1 Foaming and Propellants’ Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.2.2 Packaging Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.2.3 Raising Agents: Active and Intelligent Packaging
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 45
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 46
Chapter 1
Food Gases: Classification and Allowed
Uses

Abstract Food gases are supplied to the food industry as additives, support or in
contact with food ingredients. Consequently, these gases must respect very strict
standards in order to come into contact with foodstuffs and therefore in order to
ensure food security. In particular, they must comply with precise rules on labelling,
purity and hygiene criteria. The relevant legislation was inspired by the White Paper
on Food Safety, published in 2000 by the European Commission which has defined
the environmental, public health, animal health and consumer protection as joint
objectives, freedom of competition. The Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 defines a
food as any substance produced, processed or distributed to be ingested, or reason-
ably expected to be ingested. Food gases are used in the food industry in different
applications. This chapter considers the role of food gases in Europe on the regulatory
ground with several observations concerning basic features, food safety approaches,
classifications and conditions for use.

Keywords Compressed gas · Cryogenic liquid · European Union · Food business

operator · Food labelling · Food traceability · Liquefied gas

Abbreviations

EU European Union
FBO Food business operator
FG Food gas
HACCP Hazard analysis and critical control points
HARPC Hazard analysis and risk-based preventive controls
MSDS Material safety data sheet
MAP Modified atmosphere packaging
NVOC Non-volatile organic carbon
RASFF Rapid alert system for food and feed
VOC Volatile organic carbon

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

P. Laganà et al., Chemistry and Hygiene of Food Gases,
Chemistry of Foods, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35228-8_1
2 1 Food Gases: Classification and Allowed Uses

1.1 Food Gases. Why?

Food gases are supplied to the food industry as additives, support or in contact with
food ingredients. Consequently, these gases must comply with very strict standards
in order to come into contact with foodstuffs and therefore in order to ensure food
security. In particular, they must comply with precise rules on labelling, purity and
hygiene criteria. By the regulatory viewpoint, and with reference to the European
area, the relevant legislation was inspired by the White Paper on Food Safety, pub-
lished in 2000 by the European Commission which has defined the environmental,
public health, animal health and consumer protection as joint objectives, freedom of
competition. As a result, the Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 defines a food as ‘any
substance produced, processed or distributed to be ingested, or reasonably expected
to be ingested’ (European Commission 2002). With relation to allowed uses, food
gases can be used in different applications: they can also enter directly into the process
of transformation, packaging and transport of food commodities.
In particular, production losses and the so-called food waste within the global
chain (from producers to the final consumer) may be notably reduced by means of
the use of food gases in greenhouses, in the disinfestation of crops, in fish industries, in
cooling and freezing processes, in modified atmosphere packaging applications, etc.
Actually, it should be noted that the reduction of food waste is generally achievable
by means of a coordinated strategy, and the use of food gases cannot be the only
approach (Pellerito et al. 2019).
In particular, the use of food gases may limit food losses resulting from ineffi-
cient agricultural process or by technological limitations in different steps: storage,
transportation, processing, cooling, or packaging.
Anyway, the use of food gases involves necessarily the problem of allowed cir-
cumstances and the related regulatory classification. Consequently, an introduction
concerning the use of food gases—in the European Union (EU) at least—should
require a short premise based on existing laws.

1.2 Regulatory Bases in the European Union

By a general viewpoint, food gases are ruled in the EU by means of three main
regulatory documents:
(1) The Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Coun-
cil of 28 January 2002 laying down the general principles and requirements of
food law, establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down
procedures in matters of food safety (European Commission 2002)
(2) The Regulation (EC) No 852/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Coun-
cil of 29 April 2004 on the hygiene of foodstuffs (European Parliament and
Council 2004a, b)
1.2 Regulatory Bases in the European Union 3

(3) The Regulation (EC) No 1935/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Coun-
cil of 27 October 2004 on materials and articles intended to come into contact
with food and repealing Directives 80/590/EEC and 89/109/EEC (European
Parliament and Council 2004c).
Actually, there are possibly different national regulations on the same or similar
topics involving also the use of gases for food applications. On the other hand, the
common EU regulatory discipline is associated or relies on the above-mentioned
dispositions.
With relation to the main regulatory document, Reg. (EC) No 178/2002, the nor-
mal definition of ‘food’ (Article 2) does not exclude gaseous substances if these
compounds are ‘any substance or product, whether processed, partially processed or
unprocessed, intended to be, or reasonably expected to be ingested by humans’. Eight
different exclusions are provided when speaking of foods or ‘foodstuffs’ (European
Commission 2002):
(1) Feed;
(2) Live animals (unless they are prepared for placing on the market for human
consumption)
(3) Plants (prior to harvesting)
(4) Medicinal products as intended according to Council Directives 65/65/EEC and
92/73/EEC
(5) Cosmetics as intended according to Council Directive 76/768/EEC
(6) Tobacco and tobacco products as intended according to Council Directive
89/622/EEC
(7) Narcotic or psychotropic substances as intended according to the United Nations
Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961, and the United Nations Convention
on Psychotropic Substances, 1971
(8) Residues and contaminants.
Food gases cannot be included in these ambits, unless these compounds are not
intentionally used (contaminants) or present in a really little amount (residues).
On the other hand, the active subject of food preparations—the ‘food business
operator’—(FBO) is connected with each food production step or sub-step—pro-
duction, processing and distribution of food (Article 3, comma 3), including clearly
the addition of food gases when specifically and explicitly mentioned and declared.
On these bases, it may be inferred—and this opinion is commonly accepted—
that the nature of gases used for food applications—each possible food application,
no exclusions—is not incompatible with the meaning of ‘food’. Consequently, each
food gas producer is certainly a FBO (Danese 2016; Livesu 2007).
On the other side, it should be admitted that the above-mentioned definition of
food or foodstuff does not clearly and implicitly include gases for food applications.
On the basis of some national interpretations, it may be affirmed that ‘food gases’
have common features if considered as ‘ingredients’, ‘technological aids’ or ‘food
additives’ (Danese 2016; Juhasz and Salgo 2017; Laganà et al. 2018; Livesu 2007;
Parisi 2018; Szűcs 2014). Certainly, and on the basis of other regulations—Reg. (EC)
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