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The New Woman
The FlashPoints series is devoted to books that consider literature beyond strictly
national and disciplinary frameworks, and that are distinguished both by their
historical grounding and by their theoretical and conceptual strength. Our books
engage theory without losing touch with history and work historically without
falling into uncritical positivism. FlashPoints aims for a broad audience within the
humanities and the social sciences concerned with moments of cultural emergence
and transformation. In a Benjaminian mode, FlashPoints is interested in how liter-
ature contributes to forming new constellations of culture and history and in how
such formations function critically and politically in the present. Series titles are
available online at http://escholarship.org/uc/flashpoints.
series editors: Ali Behdad (Comparative Literature and English, UCLA), Edi-
tor Emeritus; Judith Butler (Rhetoric and Comparative Literature, UC Berkeley),
Editor Emerita; Michelle Clayton (Hispanic Studies and Comparative Literature,
Brown University); Edward Dimendberg (Film and Media Studies, Visual Studies,
and European Languages and Studies, UC Irvine), Founding Editor; Catherine
Gallagher (English, UC Berkeley), Editor Emerita; Nouri Gana (Comparative Lit-
erature and Near Eastern Languages and Cultures, UCLA); Susan Gillman (Lit-
erature, UC Santa Cruz), Coordinator; Jody Greene (Literature, UC Santa Cruz);
Richard Terdiman (Literature, UC Santa Cruz), Founding Editor
A complete list of titles begins on p. 346.
The New Woman
Literary Modernism, Queer Theory,
and the Trans Feminine Allegory

Emma Heaney

northwestern university press | evanston, illinois

Northwestern University Press
www.nupress.northwestern.edu

Copyright © 2017 by Northwestern University Press.

Published 2017. All rights reserved.

Scrapbook image related to “How It Feels to Be Forcibly Fed” and The Ambisexual Art
Dealer copyright © The Authors League Fund and St. Brides’ Church, as joint literary
executors of the Estate of Djuna Barnes.

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Heaney, Emma, author.
Title: The new woman : literary modernism, queer theory, and the trans feminine
allegory / Emma Heaney.
Other titles: FlashPoints (Evanston, Ill.)
Description: Evanston, Illinois : Northwestern University Press, 2017. | Series:
Flashpoints
Identifiers: LCCN 2017017682 | ISBN 9780810135536 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN
9780810135543 (cloth : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780810135550 (e-book)
Subjects: LCSH: Transgender people in literature. | Gender identity in literature. |
Male-to-female transsexuals. | Modernism (Literature) | Queer theory.
Classification: LCC PN56.G45 H43 2017 | DDC 809.9335267—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017017682
Contents

List of Illustrations vii

Acknowledgments ix
Note on Usage xiii
Preface xv

Introduction 3

Part I: The Modernist Allegory of Trans Femininity

1. The Development of the Allegory of Trans Femininity:
Sexology, Gay Rights, Psychoanalysis, and Literary
Modernism 23
2. Blooming into a Female Everyman: Feeling like a Woman
in Joyce’s Ulysses 67
3. The Flesh That Would Become Myth: Barnes’s Suffering
Female Anatomy and the Trans Feminine Example 99
4. Ceased to Be Word and Became Flesh: Trans Feminine
Life Writing and Genet’s Vernacular Modernism 153
Part II: Materialist Trans Feminism against Queer Theory
5. A Triumphant Plural: Post-Structuralism, Queer Theory,
and the Trans Feminine 203
6. Materialist Trans Feminism against Queer Theory 253

Notes 299
Works Cited 319
Index 333
Illustrations

Figure 1. Page from Djuna Barnes’s personal scrapbook 106

Figure 2. Thelma Wood, circa 1932 147
Figure 3. Djuna Barnes, The Ambisexual Art Dealer 152
Figure 4. Article from the September 1973 issue of
Moonshadow 254
Figure 5. List of trans liberation political organizations 262
Figure 6. Flyer promoting “Gay Women’s Free Spirit” 275
Acknowledgments

One of the sorrows of writing a book over the course of a decade is

having the knowledge slowly sediment in your body and mind that it
takes a lot of resources to write a book. You mourn all the books left
unwritten by people who did not have the time to write or the means
to get their writing to you in your present. I would like to begin by ac-
knowledging all those trans sisters and siblings in history whose names
we don’t know, but whose existence made the world safer and more
beautiful for all of us. Over the course of a decade, you marvel at those
who were not supported by the structures of power (universities, news-
papers, wealth) who nonetheless found a way to write, often because
of other resources (friends, comrades, collectively produced newsletters
and journals). I therefore would like to acknowledge all those who have
capacitated each other in the production of trans feminist thought and
political action.
This book is the result of both kinds of support. It began life as a
dissertation at the University of California, Irvine, under the direction
of Dina Al-Kassim, who reset my intellectual coordinates when I was
twenty-four years old by giving me Fanon, Genet, and Spivak among
others. I was lucky to study with Jennifer Terry in the Women’s Studies
Department, who, at every step, has been a source of intellectual en-
gagement, support, and inspiration. I thank Annettee Schlicter, who gra-
ciously joined my committee and saw what I was doing before anyone

ix
x ❘ Acknowledgments

else did. Many thanks to Bindya Balinga and Arielle Read for all the
daily ways they made my work at Irvine possible.
My time of labor and study at Irvine was marked by the necessity
to struggle for the future of both work and thought thanks to deep
austerity in California and a political climate that sought to stamp out
resistance to that austerity. This struggle was an education that formed
my book and my life. I acknowledge Robert Wood, Rei Terada, Carla
Osorio Veliz, Jordan Brocious, and everyone else whose terrain of strug-
gle was the University of California in those years for teaching me.
I thank the Sarah Pettit Fund at Yale University for supporting my year
of fellowship there during which I first conceived of this project. I particu-
larly thank Jane Pettit and her sister Rebecca for sharing Sarah’s memory
with me. Rachel Pepper was characteristically generous and kind to me
during my year in New Haven, and I am so lucky to have her as a friend.
Alternate versions of some of the work contained herein appeared
in Genre: Forms of Discourse and Culture, vol. 48, no. 1, and TSQ:
Transgender Studies Quarterly 3, no. 1–2. I thank Isabel Howe and
the Authors League Fund for permitting me to use images from Djuna
Barnes’s papers. Many thanks to Tommi Avicolli Mecca for taking the
time to scan and send me all the issues of Radical Queen and to all the
people who wrote them in the first place.
At Northwestern University Press I thank Ed Dimendberg and Gianna
Mosser for taking on the project and for being supportive and wonder-
ful to work with throughout the process. I thank Jody Greene for advice
and direction early on, and Nathan MacBrien for all his help turning the
manuscript into a book.
The years since I left Irvine have been marked, as they have been for
so many in our sector, by a feeling of itinerancy with no end in sight. In
such an environment, my students have been the reason to keep writing
and thinking. Among many others I thank in particular Erica Banks,
Jules Capone, Brianna Cox, Hannah Jocelyn, Anna Lyon, Theresa Stan-
ley, and Shannell Thomas. Special thanks to Catherine Mros for work-
ing as my research assistant and Angelina Eimannsberger for reading
my entire manuscript and giving me a critical boost as I was finishing.
I am grateful to Robin Nagle, Robert Dimit, and Ann Pellegrini for
hiring me at New York University and to Ann in particular for her sup-
port of my research while there. Thanks to Georgia Lowe, Joanna Byrne,
and Nicole Pandolfo for all your help. Lori Cole and Patrick Vitale
always popped into my office to encourage and share. They made my
time at New York University.
 Acknowledgments ❘ xi

I feel very lucky to have been hired by Ian Marshall, Rosa Soto, and
Maureen Martin in the English Department at William Paterson Univer-
sity. I look forward to becoming a solid colleague and moving together
to make the future of a great public university English department.
My work with the Liberation School of Los Angeles has been an ef-
fort to make a space for thought and struggle adjacent to the university.
Skira Martinez is a woman who makes so many things possible in Los
Angeles, and my love for her is deep. Carla Osorio Veliz has modeled
what it is to reproduce feminist and anticolonial struggle and she, along
with Patricia Ornelas-Moya, keep in my view that organizing is an ex-
pression of love. Edxie Betts and Julia Wallace show me how to live
revolutionary feminism, which is to say, how to work every day against
the colonial and antiblack order that is sustained by patriarchy. Muffy
Sundy and Yuisa Alegria-Gimeno remind me that the abolition of class
society is the work of coming together to hash out our perspectives and
practices. Love to all these rebels.
In a society that distributes ease along the vectors of whiteness, wealth,
ability, cisness, heterosexuality, and maleness my friends struggle to re-
distribute ease and give each other life. They also provide me with most
of the concepts through which I view my objects of study and the world.
Margaux Kristjansson is a brilliant trans feminist and scholar of indig-
enous thought whose interlocution revives me every day. Sophia Grady
fights borders and prisons, holds me up, and models the fearless pursuit
of family outside of capital’s prescription of heteropatriarchy. Amalle
Dublon and Catherine Gaffney taught me how to be a feminist by first
modeling how to kill the woman-hater in my head. Jazmin Delgado,
my dear friend, I’ll read everything your brilliant mind will ever write.
Raquel Salas-Rivera is a reinx and the great modern poet of fidelity and
treason. Caitie Moore is the great modern poet of intensity and a person
who sees other people and is for them, what grace. Timmy Straw and
Emily Wells taught me to hear sound and I’d listen to them anytime.
Greta La Fleur takes care of her people, and conversations with her
clarified so much for me. Gabriel Foster and I share a set of hopes, and
conversation with him is a solace. Jill Richards has shared the process
of finishing this book and been the best feminist comrade.
Much love to my family in Wisconsin. My aunties Pammy, Deb,
Margy, and Barb and their families always cheer my work and welcome
me home for rest. My brothers Noah and Forrest were my first friends
and I’m proud to be their sister. My dad, Eric Heaney, is a constant
source of love and care. He teaches me how to work through tasks
xii ❘ Acknowledgments

and apply logic to problems, which helped with this undertaking. My

mother, Cathy Murphy, transcribed my words on a typewriter before
I could write. We have shared books, from our days walking to the
Mauston Public Library to voice mails about Elena Ferrante. Together
they have worked all my life to provide me with the things that I need.
I am so grateful to them.
My sibling Sam Solomon has given me the example of his thinking,
his deep care for other people, and his life in struggle. My sibling Jess
Braverman has been the most consistent source of support in my life. I
am dazzled by them and so proud. My devotion to Lena Afridi orders
my days and has reordered my life. It is standing by her and listening
to her that I hope to live, as we common our place and the things that
we gather there.
Note on Usage

In this book, terms are used in the following ways:

Male assigned at birth and Female assigned at birth (MAAB and FAAB)
mean just what they say: people whom medical and state authorities
identify as male or female at birth. These are important terms because
they allow collective reference to people whose experiences are shaped
by a set of expectations associated with their assigned sex.
Cis is an adjective that indicates a rough alignment between assigned
sex and the sex with which one identifies. Cissexism is the presumption
that assigned sex and identified sex always align and the rejection of
any evidence that this is not a universal condition. A related but distinct
term, transmisogyny, is the particular denigration that is directed at trans
women and trans feminine people. It combines the force of misogyny
(grounded in sexual violence, devaluing of feminized work, and biolo-
gizing of intellectual inferiority) with the charge of either artificial or
inadequate womanhood and the imperative to prove one’s womanhood.
Trans feminine refers to MAAB people who avow a female or femi-
nine gender identity by using female pronouns, identifying with one or
more vernacular trans feminine terms (around the turn of the twentieth
century in the United States, Britain, and France these terms include fairy,
Mary, molly, queen, tante, and molle) and/or identifying as women. This
book uses the pronouns she/her for people of trans feminine experi-
ence who identify as women and/or whose self-representation is geared

xiii
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