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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ARCHITECTURE.

DICTION AE Y
OF THE

SCIENCE AND PEACTICE PRACTICAL SCIENC

OF

FHCIM

THE EAELIEST AGES TO THE PKESENT TIME,

FORMING A COMPREHENSIVE WORK OF REFERENCE FOR THE USE OF ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS,
CARPENTERS, MASONS, ENGINEERS, STUDENTS, PROFESSIONAL MEN,
AND AMATEURS.

BY PETER NICHOLSON,
ARCHITECT AND BUILDER.

EDITED BY

EDWAKD LOMAX AND THOMAS GUNYON,

ARCHITECTS AND CIVIL ENGINEERS.

ILLUSTRATED WITH TWO HUNDRED AND THIRTY ENGRAVINGS ON STEEL,

MOSTLY FROM WORKING DRAWINGS IN DETAIL.

IN TWO VOLUMES.
<J I
VOL. I.

NEW YORK:
PUBLISHED BY MARTIN AND JOHNSON,
27 BEEKMAN STEEET.
 PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION.

IT is the design of the presentwork to give an account, not only of ARCHITECTURE itself, but also of the
various other ARTS and SCIENCES connected with it, and without which a comprehensive and complete know-
ledge of it cannot be attained.
Analphabetical arrangement was adopted by
the author, MR. P. NICHOLSON, as considered the best

adapted for the use of mechanics, as well as the most expeditious, a knowledge of the meaning of the terms
of art, which are very numerous, being more easily acquired by this mode than by any other.
The ElSE AND PROGRESS of every department are given as far as authentic information could be obtained.
The greatest attention has been paid to the DEFINITIONS and it is hoped that they will be found to be far
;

more intelligible than those which have been hitherto given in Dictionaries, and in Treatises on Architecture.

Geometry being the key to works of this description, such GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS are introduced as will be
found useful in delineating the various kinds of objects that may occur.
ORTHOGRAPHICAL AND PERSPECTIVE DRAWING being necessary, not only to the Architect, but also to the
Builder and Workman, their principles are laid down, and their application is shown by means of numerous
examples.
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY, also, are here treated in a manner far superior to that which characterizes any
previous work upon those subjects.
In the other branches has been given, not only what has fallen under the immediate observation of the author,
but also the valuable information which has resulted from the diligent inquiries he has made of the most skilful
workmen. An account, also, of the PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIALS used in the execution of works, and of
the RULES FOR JUDGING OF THEIR QUALITY, is given at large.

In preparing the present edition for the press, the Publishers have availed themselves of the valuable
labours of MR. EDWARD LOMAX and MR. THOMAS GUNYON, practical Architects and Engineers.
The improvements are rather those of enlargement than of alteration, the greater part of the work being
left in its original condition, more especially such parts as related to CARPENTRY, and subjects of a kindred

nature, in which the Author is universally accredited as an authority of the highest standing.
Some parts of the original edition, however, had become obsolete and out of date, and such it was con-
sidered advisable to expunge, or modify in such a manner as might make them suitable to the more advanced

knowledge of the present day. The articles on BRIDGES, STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, THE ORDERS, and such
like, will afford a fair specimen of the treatment of such subjects as required modification or enlargement.
As an illustration of the new matter which has been added, may be particularly enumerated a series of
papers treating of the HISTORY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE, which,
it ishoped, may prove an interesting and not unuseful feature in the present Dictionary. Besides these, many
papers of an ARCHAEOLOGICAL and general, as well as of a practical character, have been added, and a very
large number of Definitions introduced, which were not in the original work. Amongst the Archaeological

papers, those on CHURCH ARCHITECTURE and ECCLESIOLOGY in general, may, it is hoped, be referred to with
satisfaction ;
whilst those of a practical character may be fairly represented by the articles on ROADS, SEWERS,
CEMENT, &c.
The work have also been very carefully compared with the text. Several
Plates contained in the original
errors of importance have been corrected, besides a very large number of others of less importance, such as
would, however, tend to perplex the student, and even render the information useless to those of more advanced
knowledge, who have not the leisure to make the corrections for themselves.
In fine, the Publishers venture to hope, that, while the sterling matter of the original edition is
preserved,
some Additions and Improvements have been made which may be of service not only to the student and working
man, but also to the mature and experienced practitioner; and they natter themselves that nothing is wanting
now presented to the
to render this work, as
public, containing all the improvements down to the present day,
a COMPLETE ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY.
LIST OF
LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED IN PREPARING THE PRESENT EDITION OF THE

ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY.

8vo., London. Britton, J. Antiquities of Cathedral Church of Norwich,

Archeeologia,
8vo., London, 1844. fol., London, 1816.
Archaeological Journal,
Written, J. The History and Antiquities of the Cathedral
on Church of Salisbury, fol., London, 1821.
Barr's Anglican Church Architecture, with some remarks
Brown. Sacred Architecture, 4to., London.
Ecclesiastical Furniture, 8vo., Oxford, 1846.
for understanding the Genealogy Buck, G. W. Practical Essay on Oblique Bridges,
Harrington's Plain Hints
4to.,

and Armorial Bearings of Sovereigns of England, Svo., London, 1839.

Buckler, J. C. Elevations, Sections, and Details of St.
London, 1843.
Peter's Church, Wilcote, Oxon., Oxford, 1844.
Chronological Chart of British Architecture, fol.,
Harrington's
Buckler, J. C. Views of Cathedral Churches of England
fol., London, 1843.
Bartholomew's Specifications, 8vo., London, 1846.
and Wales, 4to., London, 1822.
Bentham's History of Gothic and Saxon Architecture,

fol., London, 1798. Carter, J. Specimens of Gothic Architecture and Ancient

Bingham's (J.) Origines Ecclesiastics,

or Antiquities of the Buildings in England, 12mo., London, 1824.
Christian Church, and other Works, wi.th additional anno- Chambers, Sir W. A Treatise on the Decorative Part of
and edited by Rev. R. Bingham, Civil Architecture, edited by Jos. Gwilt, 8vo., London,
tations, revised 8vo.,
London, 1821-9. 1825.
Bloxam's Glimpse of the Monumental Architecture and Chambers, Sir W. Designs of Chinese Buildings, Furni-
Sculpture from earliest period to 18th century, 12mo., ture, &c., fol., London, 1757.
London, 1834. Coney, Engravings of Ancient Cathedrals in France,
J.

Bloxam's Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical Architecture Holland, and Italy, fol., London, 1839.
elucidated by question and answer, 12mo., London, 1843. Cotinan, J. S. Architectural Antiquities of Normandy,
Do., do., 9th Edition, I2mo., London, 1849. fol., London, 1822.
Brande, W. T. Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art, Cotman, J. S. Etchings Illustrative of Architectural Anti-
8vo., London, 1842. quities of Norfolk, fol., London, 1818.
Brandon, T. A. Parish Churches, London, 1848.
8vo., Cranstoun, E. Elevations, Sections, and Details of Chapel
Britton, J. The Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, of St. Bartholomew, near Oxford, fol., Oxford,
4to., London, 1801-7. 1844.
Britton, J. Dictionary of the Architecture and Archaeology Cresy, E. Architecture of Middle Ages in Italy, Illustrated

of the Middle Ages, 4to., London, 1838. by Views, Plans, Elevations, Sections, and Details of
Britton, J. The History and Antiquities of the Cathedra Cathedral of Campo Santo at Pisa, by E. Cresy and
Church of Salisbury, fol., London, 1814. G. L. Taylor, fol., London, 1829.
Britton, J. Antiquities of Winchester Cathedral, fol.
Cresy, E. Illustrations of Stone Church, Kent, with
London, 1817. Historical Account, fol., London, 1840.
 LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED.

Dallaway, J. Discourses upon English Architecture from Kendall. Gothic Architecture, 8vo., London, 1-842.
Norman Era to Elizabeth. Knight H. G. Ecclesiastical Architecture of Italy, fol.,

Davies, E. Celtic Eesearches on the Origin, Traditions, London, 1842.

and Language of Ancient Britons, 8vo., London, 1804,
Lloyd, H. E. Architectural Beauties of Continental Europe,
Denisis, J. Architectura Sacra, 8vo., Exeter, 1818.
fol., London, 1831.
Denon, V. Voyage dans la basse et la haute Egypte, fol.,

Paris, 1802. Mackenzie, C. Crosby Place described, 8vo., London, 1842.

J. A General and Bibliographical Dictionary of the Mackenzie, F. Specimens of Gothic Architecture, 4to.,
Elmes,
London.
Fine Arts, 8vo., London, 1820.
Mant, R. Church Architecture considered in relation to the

Fawcett, J. Churches of York, by Mr. Monkhouse and Mind of the Church, 8vo., Belfast, 1843.
Mr. E. Bedford ; with Historical and Architectural Notes
Moller, G. Essay on Origin and Progress of Gothic
by F. Fawcett, 4to., York, 1843. Architecture, 8vo., London, 1824.
Floury. Ecclesiastical History from A.D. 400 to 429, trans- The Arabian
Murphy. J. C. Antiquities of Spain, fol.,

lated, with Notes, by J. H. Newman, 8vo., Oxford, London, 1813.

1843.
Nash, J. Mansions of England in the Olden Time, Series
Gray, H. Tour to the Sepulchres of Etruria. 1, 2, 3, fol., London, 1839-41.

Grose, F. Antiquities of England and Wales, fol., Lon-

Neale, J. P. Views of Collegiate and Parochial Churches in

don, 1773-6. Great Britain, 4to., London, 1824-5.

Grose, F. Antiquities of Ireland, 8vo., London, 1791-5.
Monuments Anciens Parnell, Sir II. A Treatise on Roads.
Guilhabaud, J. et Modernes, Vues
Petit, J. L. Remarks on Church Architecture, 8vo., Lon-
generales et particulieres, &c.
don, 1841.
Gunn, W. An Inquiry into the Origin and Influence of
The Practical Builder, 4to., London, 1838.
Gothic Architecture, 8vo., London, 1819.
Pugin, A. W. Apology for revival of Christian Architec-
Gwilt, Jos.Encyclopedia of Architecture, Historical,
ture, 4to., London, 1843.
Theoretical, and Practical, 8vo., London, 1842.
Rudiments of Architecture, Practical and Theo- Pugin, A. W. Contrasts, or Parallel between Edifices of
Gwilt, J.
Middle Ages and Present Day, 8vo., London, 1841.
retical, 4to., London, 1826.
Pugin, A. W. Glossary of Ecclesiastical Ornament, 4to.,
Habershon, M. The Ancient Half-timbered Houses of Eng-
London, 1844.
land, fol., London, 1836. Gothic Ornaments selected from various Buildings
Pugin, A.
Hakewill, J. An attempt to Determine the exact Charac- in England and France, 4to., London, 1831.
ter of Elizabethan Architecture, 8vo., London, 1835.
Pugin, A. Specimens of Gothic Architecture from Ancient
Halfpenny, W. The Art of Sound Building, fol., Lon-
England, 4to., London, 1821.
Edifices in
don, 1725.
Pugin, A. W. The True Principles of Pointed, or Chris-
Halfpenny, W. Practical Architecture. 12mo., London,
tian Architecture, 4to., London, 1841.
1736.

Hall, Sir J. Essay on Origin and Principles of Gothic Rich. Narrative of a Journey to Babylon in 1811 Memoir
Architecture, 4to., London, 1813. on Ruins Remarks on Topography of Ancient Babylon
Hawkins, J. History of Gothic Architecture, with an
E. by Major Rennell, &c., 8vo., London, 1839.

Investigation of its Principles, 8vo., London, 1813. Richardson, C. J. Remains of the Reigns of
Architectural

Hope, Thomas. An Historical Essay on architecture, 8vo., Elizabeth and James

London, 1838-40.
I., fol.,

London, 1835. Rickman, T. An attempt to discriminate the Styles of

Hughes, T. S. Travels in Sicily, Greece, and Albania, English Architecture from Conquest to Reformation,
8vo., London, 1830. 8vo., London, 1820.

Hunt, T. F. Examples of Tudor Architecture, 4to., Lon- Rickman, T. An Essay on Gothic Architecture, 8vo.,

don, 1830. London, 1825.

Inghirami, F. Monument! Etruschi o di Etrusco Nome, Shaw, H. History and Antiquities of Chapel at Luton

4to., Fiesol, 1821-6. Park, fol., London, 1830.

 LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED.

Simpson, F. Series of ancient Baptismal Fonts chronolo- Wilkinson, J. G. The Manners and Customs of the Ancient

gically arranged, 4to. Egyptians, 8vo., 1837.

Smirke, (Sir E.) Specimens of Continental Architecture, Wilkins, H. Suite de rues pittoresques des mines de Pom-
fol., London, 1806. peii, fol.,Rome, 1819.
Smith. Paronama of Science and Art, 8vo., London. Willis, R. Remarks on Architecture of Middle Ages, espe-

Stuart, J. Antiquities of Athens, London, 1830.

fol., cially of Italy, 8vo., Cambridge, 1835.
Stuart, R. Dictionary of Architecture, 3 Vols., 8vo., Willis, B. A Survey of the Cathedrals, 4to., London, 1727.
London. Wood, J. Letters of an Architect from France, Italy, and

Stukeley, W. Palaegraphia Britannica, 4to., London, Greece, London, 1828.

4to.,
1743-52. Wood, R. Ruins of Palmyra, fol., London, 1753.

Wood, R. Ruins of Balbec, fol., London, 1757.

Tappen, G. Professional Observations on the Architecture A few Words Church Builders, published by Cambridge
to

of France and Italy, 8vo., London, 1800. Camden Society, with Appendix, containing List of Fonts,

Trcdgold. Elementary Principles of Carpentry, 4fc>., Lon- Svo., Cambridge, 1841.

don, 1840.
A few Words to Churchwardens on Churches and Church

Ornaments, 8vo., Cambridge, 1841.

Vitruvius. Civil Architecture,

Church Enlargement and Church Arrangement, 8vo., Cam-
by Gwilt, 4to., London,
1626. bridge, 1843.

Ecclesiastic, 8vo., London, 1846.

Walsh, R. An Essay on Ancient Coins, Medals, and Gems Eccleologist, 8vo., Cambridge, 1841-4.

Progress of Christianity in Early Ages. 2nd

A Glossary of Terms used in Grecian, Roman, Italian, and
illustrating
Gothic Architecture, 8vo., London, 1836.
12mo., London, 1828.
Edition, enlarged,

Warton, J.
Essays on Gothic Architecture. Gothic Architecture A Chart of English, Ecclesiastical, or

Weale. Quarterly Papers on Architecture, GothicArchitecture from Commencement in Saxon dynasty

4to., London,
to Sixteenth century, fol.
1843-4.
Weale. Rudimentary Treatises, 12mo., London, 1851.
A Guide to the Architectural Antiquities in Neighbourhood
W. Architectural Notes on German of Oxford, 8vo., Oxford, 1844-5.
Whewell, Churches,
Instruments Ecclesiastioa, a Series of Working Designs for
Svo., Cambridge, 1842.
Whittington, G. D. Historical Survey of Ecclesiastical Furniture, Fittings, and Decorations of Churches. Edited

Architecture of France, 4to., London, 1809. by Cambridge Camden Society, 4to., London, 1844.
Hints to young Architects, Prospects of all the Cathedrals and Collegiate Churches of
Wightwick. 8vo., London,
1846. England and Wales, 12mo.
Wild, C. Cathedrals 12 Specimens of Ecclesiastical Ar- Quarterly Review, Vols. of 1845, 8vo., London, 1845.
chitecture of Middle Ages, fol., London. The Student's Guide to Measuring and Valuing Artificers'
Wild, C. Twelve Examples of Ecclesiastical Architecture Work, 8vo., London, 1843.
of France, fol. The Builder.
II K T A I L S P AT E
, 1L, I

'/.///

t*re-.
 ARCHITECTURAL DICTIONARY.

ABU ACC
ABACI, according to Vitruvius, any flat tabulated surface. there be no rocks to rest upon. The foundation of an abut-
The term is applied to the panels of walls formed in stuc- ment, raised upon a sloping bank of rock, gravel, or good
co, of which examples may be seen in various remains of solid earth, will be a great saving of materials and labour;

antiquity ; and to certain decorations of the walls above a but if no such natural advantages occur, it will add greatly
part of the podium, or dado. Newton's Vitruvius, Chap. to the strength of the abutment to lay the stones with radia-
III. and IV. Book 7. ting or summering joints, according to the practice in laying
ABACUS, (from Greek, a/3a,) the uppermost member of the voussoirs, at least as high as the springing of the arch,
the capital of a column, consisting of a flat, rectangular table and this disposition will present a greater resistance to the
contained between two horizontal planes. In all the existing lateral thrust of the adjacent arch, than if the stones had been
Doric buildings, with perhaps one or two exceptions, it is in laid on level beds ; and instead of the returning sides from
the form of a parallelepiped of equal rectangular sides. ^ the side of the aperture of the arch being vertical planes,
The same form is preserved in the other orders, but the thick- they would be much stronger when reclining, and more par-
ness considerably diminished.
is In the Corinthian and Com- ticularly so if curved in a vertical direction. See BRIDGES
posite, however, the sides are of a curvilinear form in plan. and WALL.
See Dome, IONIC, CORINTHIAN, TUSCAN, and COMPOSITE ABUTMENTS, in carpentry and joinery, are the junctions, or
ORDERS. meetings, of two pieces of timber, of which the fibres of
ABBEY, a monastery, or religious house, governed by a the one run perpendicular to the joint, and those of the other
superior under the title of Abbot. For a particular account parallel to it. M. Perronet, the celebrated French architect,
of this species of building, and its distribution, see the article formed the abutments of the timbers, in roofing, in the arches
MONASTERY. of circles, making the centre in the other extremity. With
ABBREVIATION, a kind of shorthand, much used by respect to the tranverse strain on the various pieces of a
surveyors in measuring work, and greatly facilitating the roof, the abutting joint is of little importance. For farther
process. See MENSURATION of Artificers' Works. explanation, see JOGGLE.
ABREUVO1R, or ABREVOIR, (from the French,) in ma- ACADEMY, in antiquity, a public grove or villa, six

sonry the interstice, or joint, between two stones, to be filled stadia (half-a-mile) distant from Athens, which it is said
up with mortar or cement. See JOINTS. took its name from one Academus, a citizen of Athens, to
ABSTRACT, in artificers' works, is used in a general sense, whom it
originally belonged, and who appropriated it to
to signify the collecting of sundry articles into one sum, when gymnastic sports.
the same price is affixed to equal parts of each ; or, to ascer- ACANTHUS, an ornament used in the enrichment of the
tain measure. See MENSURATION of Artificers' Works. Corinthian capital, and so called from its resemblance to the
ABUTMENT, or BUTMENT, that which receives the end of, leaves of an acanthaceous plant. It is also commonly em
and gives support to anything having a tendency to spread or ployed in sculptural and architectural enrichments generally/
thrust outwards : or it may be defmed as the resisting sur- in the enrichment of modillions, of mouldings, and of vases,
face of a body, on which another body presses in an oblique as well as of foliated capitals. In the ancient Roman models,
direction to the horizon, or in a different direction to the this ornament is full and luxuriant while hi the Greek it
;

height or length of the body pressed upon ; such are the is characterized
by a graceful and restrained simplicity. See
abutments of arches and the joggles of truss-posts, which ORDERS.
resist the pressure of the struts or braces. In bridge-building ACCESSES, the passages of communication to the various
it is the extreme
pillars only of one or a series of arches, and apartments of a building. See PASSAGES.
thus connects the bridge with the bank of a river, &c. ACCIDENTAL POINT. See VANISHING POINT.
Abutments should be made to resist a greater force than ACCOMPANIMENT, an ornament added to some other
what is just sufficient to balance the abutting works, provided ornament, for the greater beauty of the work.
 ADY AIS

ACRE, a quantity of land, containing four square roods, admitted into it, and that but once a year, on the great day
or 160 poles or perches. The acre is in length ten chains, of expiation.
and one in breadth ; consequently contains ten square ADZE, an edged tool, the iron part of which is called the
chains and as the chain contains 22 yards in length, there
;
blade, and is a small portion of a cylindric surface on both
will be 4840 square yards in the acre. The proportion sides it has a
:
piece of wood, called the handle, fixed into a
between the English and Scottish acre, supposing the feet socket at one extremity of it, in a radial direction ; and the
to be alike in both, is as 1089 to 1809, or nearly as four to other extremity, parallel to the axis of the cylinder, and
five the English chain being 66 feet, and the Scottish 74.
; consequently at right angles to the handle, is edged with
The French acre, arpent, contains 1^ English acre, or 54,450 steel, and ground sharp from the concave side. The adze is
square feet. chiefly used for taking off thin chips of timber or boards,
ACEOL1NTHON, or ACROLINTHOS, a colossal statue, and for paring away certain irregularities which the axe
placed in the temple of Mars, and situated in the middle of cannot come at; and in most joinings of carpentry, particu-
the citadel in the ancient town of Halicarnassus. larly those which are notched upon each other, scarfings,
ACROPOLIS, (from apoc, heir/lit, anil 7roA<c, a city,) the thicknessing of flooring boards opposite to the joists, &c. See
fortress or citadel of Athens, which derived its name from an TOOLS.
eminence on which it stood. The summit is fortified by a jKDES, in antiquity, a chapel, or inferior kind of temple,
wall built on its extreme edge, and encompassing the whole as the fif/rarium, or treasury, called ^fc'des Saturni.
upper surface, which is nearly level. The natural strength jEDlCULA, otherwise called SACELLUM, generally sign!
of its situation is said to have induced the first inhabitants fied a small temple, but had various significations ; some-
to settle there, and as their number increased they began to times denoting the inner part of the temple, in which the
build on the adjacent ground, till the Acropolis, being sur- altar and statue of the deity were placed ; at other times, a
rounded on every side, became the fortress of a large and niche in the wall, for receiving a statue.
populous city. It was richly adorned by the Athenians, in vEDICULUS, in Roman mythology, the deity who pre
the days of their prosperity, with temples, statues, paintings, sided over the construction and conservation of buildings.
and votive gifts to their divinities. Of this ancient place AEOLUS, in mechanics, a small portable machine, for
there arc still many fine ruins, some of which are very refreshing and changing the air in rooms that are too
entire. The remains of the famous Propylea, the little close.

temple of Victory without wings, the Doric temple of Mi- AERIAL PERSPECTIVE, is that which represents
nerva, called the Parthenon, and Hecatompcdon, erected in bodies diminished and weakened in proportion to their dis-
the time of Pericles, under the direction of Phidias, with the tance from the eye. Linear perspective may be considered
cell of Pandrossus, are still to be seen. Its walls have at the material guide of the artist, originating in, and governed
different times been rudely
repaired, or rebuilt, as little of by, mathematical science; but aerial perspective is depend-
the ancient masonry remains; but numerous ent for its application only on the capacity and perceptions
fragments
of columns, cornices, and sculptures, are seen in several of the artist.
parts, and exhibit a ruinous appearance. ./ESTUARY, in the ancient bath, a secret passage from the
ACROTEHIA, a term applied to the little pedestals stove into the chambers.
placed on the pediment or fastigiuin one on the apex, and one
; yETHERlUS, an architect, who lived in the beginning
on each lower extremity, serving to support statues. Accord- of the sixth century. He built the edifice named Chalcis, in
ing to Vitruvius, those at the extremes ought to be half the the palace of Constantinople ; and is supposed to have con-
height of the tympanum, and that in the middle an eighth structed the strong wall which extends from the sea to
part more. Acroteria likewise signify figures placed as orna- Selimbria, for preventing the incursions of the Bulgarians
ments or crownings on the tops of temples, or other build- and Scythians.
ings ; they also denote the sharp pinnacles, or spiry battle- AGGLUTINATE, to unite one part to another.
ments, which stand in ranges about flat buildings with rails AGORA, the forum, or market-place, at Athens.
and balusters, and which are sometimes called acroteral AGYCI, in antiquity, obelisks sacred to Apollo, and
ornaments. in the vestibule of houses.
placed
ACT, Building. See BUILDING ACT. AISLE, or AILE, (from the French aile, a wing, or al/ee,
ACTUS, in building, a measure used
by the Romans, and a path.) When the breadth of a church is divided into three
equal to 120 Roman feet. See FOOT. or five parts, by two or four rows of pillars parallel to the
ACUMINATED, ending in a point, or sharp-pointed. sides, the church is denominated a three or five aisled
ADIT, or ADITUS, (from adire, to go to,) in general, the fabric. The middle and principal compartments is called the
approach or entrance to anything ; in which sense we meet nave the side divisions adjoining, the aisles or, if the term
; ;
with adit of a house, of a circus, &c. Adits of a theatre, be applied to all the compartments, as it lawfully may be,
aditus theatri, in
antiquity, were doors on the stairs, whereby they are distinguished as the middle and side aisles.
persons entered from the oufer porticus, and descended into In French, this term is applied to the outlying and return-
the seats. The term is now generally applied to denote the
ing ends of a building, called by us wings such as the ;

opening by which a mine is

entered, and which is
usually columned ends of the front of the General Post Office,
made in the side of a hill. London.
ADJACENT, anything which lies
immediately by the The ecclesiastical buildings in Great Britain are generally
side of another.
throe-aisled and no instance occurs of a five-aisled church,
;

ADYTUM, (from a, dvu,) the most retired place in the except a building at the west end of Durham cathedral ;

pagan temples, into which none but the priests were ad- but on the continent there are several the great church at
;

mitted, and in which the oracles were declared. The word Milan is one. Old St. Peter's, at Rome, was also a five-
originally signifies inaccessible, being compounded of a, not, aisled fabric.
and dvu or dvvu, to enter. The sanctum
sanctorum, or holy It is rather remarkable, that in Westminster abbey-
of holies, of the temple of Solomon, was of the nature of the
church, and Redcliffe church, at Bristol, the aisles are con-
pagan advrov, or adytum, none but the high-priest being tinued on each side of the transept, and in Salisbury cathe-
I I

]!1!M I
1

1
1 !!M II ! 1 1 .11 11.1 IL
 ALH AMP
dral on one side only; but in no other church in this From the Mesuar the traveller passes to the Court of the
country. Lions, which is also paved with white marble, and measures
Other particulars in connection with Aisle, will be found 100 feet by 60. In the centre is a large basin of alabaster
under the articles CHURCH, TRANSEPT, and WING. supported by twelve lions, from which rises a smaller one.
ALABASTER. See GYPSUM. From this a large body of water spouts into the air, and,
AL/E, two apartments on the right and left of the vcsti- falling from one basin to the other, is sent forth through the
bulum, and separated from it either by columns or walls. mouth of the lions. A gallery, supported by light and ele-
A-LA-GKEC, or A-LA-GRECQUE. See FRETS. gant columns, surrounds the court ; and at each end projects
ALBAK1UM, Opus, in ancient buildings, the incrusta- a sort of portico or gallery, supported by similar columns.
tion or covering of the roofs of houses with white plaster, The Sala de Comares was undoubtedly the richest in the
made of mere lime. The workmen were called albini or Alhambra. Its walls are ornamented with arabesques of
albarii. This is otherwise called opus album, and differs the most exquisite workmanship ; its ceiling of cedar-wood,
from tectorium, which is a common name given to all roofing inlaid with ivory, silver, and mother-of-pearl, while the
or ceiling, including even that formed of lime and sand, or softened light, admitted by windows sunk in the immense
of lime and marble ; whereas albarium was restricted to that thickness of the wall, chastens the splendour of its richness,
made of lime alone. and enhances its surprising beauty and magnificence.
ALCOVE, in a sleeping room, is a recess made in the side Lost in the contemplation of the charming objects which
for receiving the bed, either wholly or in part. Alcoves surround him on all sides, the traveller forgets the world and
were formerly much in use in bedchambers, and were often its dry realities, and seems
transported into one of the
raised upon two or three steps, with a rail at the foot of the palaces described in the "Arabian Nights"
bed but now they are seldom employed except to obtain
; ALIPTERION, (a/Ut</>&), to anoint,) the anointing-room
uniformity, or a communication to another apartment. The in the bath.
word is derived from the Spanish a/coba, and this again from ALMS-HOUSE, a small hospital, or edifice, endowed
the Arabic al kubbch, the place for the bed. with a revenue for the maintenance of a certain number of
There is little doubt but the alcoves were of Asiatic or poor, aged, or disabled people.
African origin ; for we frequently read of them in Arabian AMBO, or AMBON, in ancient churches, a kind of pulpit
stories and descriptions of Asiatic palaces and gardens. or desk, ascended by steps. The modern reading-desks have
They were introduced into Spain, from Arabia, by the been gradually substituted fur the ancient ambte there are,
:

Saracens ; and by the Spaniards into France, Germany, and however, remains of them in some Roman churches still to
other nations. It is remarkable, that in the
designs of be seen, as in that of St. John de Lateran, at Rome, where
Palladio and other contemporary Italian writers, there arc there are two movable ambae.
no examples of alcoves ; whence we may reasonably conclude AMPH1PROSTYLOS or AMPIIIPROSTYLE, in ancient
that they had not become fashionable cither in Rome or architecture, a temple with a portico in front, and another in
Venice. Swinbimi mentions two, yet remaining, in the the rear. The term is derived from afuf> bolh, TT/>O before,
royal bedchamber of the Moorish palace of Alhambra, at and ;t>/lof column, signifying columns on both fronts. Set
Granada, which are probably the oldest in Europe. The TEMPLE.
word is also applied to a recess or arched seat in a AMPHITHEATRE, (from a/ifa, around; and Oearpov,
garden. theali-e,) in Roman antiquity, a large edifice, of an elliptic
ALESSI, a famous architect, born at Perugia, in 1500. form, with a series of rising scats or benches disposed around
He attained to such eminence in his profession, that he was a spacious area, called the arena, in which the combats of
applied to from France, Spain, and Germany, for plans of gladiators, wild beasts, and other sports, were exhibited. It

public buildings. His plan for the monastery of the church consisted exteriorly of a wall pierced in its circumference by
of the Escurial was preferred to those of the ablest archi- two or more ranges of arcades, and interiorly of vaulted
tects of Europe. He died in 1572. passages radiating from the exterior arcades towards the
ALHAMBRA, an ancient palace of the Mohammedan arena, and several transverse vaulted corridors opening a free
kings of Granada, situated on a hill which runs out to the communication to the stairs at the ends of the passages, and
east of the town, and surrounded by strong walls flanked to every other part of the building the corridors and ranges
by ;

square towers. These walls were built of a kind of cement of scats forming elliptical figures parallel to the boundary
formed of red clay and large pebbles, which, being exposed wall.
to the action of the weather, quickly acquired the Sometimes, in the middle of the fabric, there was an
solidity and
hardness of stone. intermediate corridor, which, like those on the ground-floor,
The beauties of this magnificent specimen of Arabian surrounded the whole, and served as a common landing-place
taste and splendour, have been described at great length by to all the staircases that led to the higher galleries ; as in the
Swinburn and other writers, who express the highest admira- amphitheatre at Nismes and sometimes each staircase had its
:

tion of the exquisite taste displayed throughout the whole. distinct landing, without any gallery of general communi
In visiting the Alhambra, the traveller ascends through cation :as in the amphitheatre at Verona.
a wood of lofty elms, whose interlaced branches shelter him The four passages in the direction of the greater and
from the sun's rays, to the Gates of Justice, and passes lessor axes were generally made wider than the rest, and,
beneath its horse-shoe arch, so characteristic of its Arabian by intersecting arched passages, laid open to the adjoining
architecture, to the Plaza de los Algibes, or Square of passages on either side of them. The principal entrances,
Cisterns. through which the emperor, the senate, and other distin
On the ease side of this Plaza is the palace of Charles V., guished persons passed, were placed in the direction of the
a beautiful specimen of the style of the fifth century, by lesser axes. The other two led directly to the arena by large
Alonzo Berrequette. On the north is the Mesuar, or com- arched gateways, which were appropriated to the beasts and
mon bathing-court, 150 feet long and 50 wide, paved with gladiators. Through the other passages, the different orders
white marble, and its walls covered with arabesques of the of people passed to the staircases, which led to the respective
most admirable workmanship. seats. Every arcade around the exterior was numbered, as
 AMP AMP
bases the second was Ionic, with the Attic base its volutes
well as the divisions, or wedge-formed parts, called cunei,
: ;

which separated the people into different orders. were slightly formed, and the dentil band uncut: the third
The amphitheatre was regulated by certain laws, by which and fourth orders were Corinthian, with unraffled leaves.
each person knew the entry through which he was to pass,
The diameter of the columns, in the several ranges, was two
The door-ways, which opened from feet eight inches and three quarters, as also the breadth
to his appropriate seat.
the stairs and passages, were denominated vomitoria. The of the pilasters ; the columns of the lower range were
were about two feet four twentv-six feet high, and each of the others twenty-four
benches, on which the people sat,
inches broad, and one foot eight inches high. Before every feet only. This makes the Doric columns higher than either
of communication, called a the Ionic or Corinthian, and the altitude of the Ionic and
range of vomitoria, a passage
four feet eight inches broad, Corinthian equal to each other, while all the columns have
precinctum, was formed, about
and bounded on the ascending side by a wall of about three equal diameters, and are of the same breadth with the pilas-
feet four inches high. Surrounding the arena was a platform
ters of the upper range. The sima of the cornice of the
called the podium., which was of greater breadth than the lower Corinthian was supported by modillions, without the
which was defended on the front by strong intervention of the corona, and the column has a Tuscan
precinctum, and
and rails of iron armed with spikes, and also with base. The upper Corinthian had its cornice formed in front
netting,
strong rollers of timber,
which turned vertically, te prevent by three faces, and a cymatium like an architrave, and sup-
the hunted animals from leaping over. The emperor's ported by cantalivers, projecting out of the frieze; or the
the suggestum, was in the podium, at one entablature may bo looked upon as an architrave cornice, reck'
pavilion, called
extremity of the minor axis of the arena, highly decorated, oning the frieze and cantalivers a part of it. The whole
and lined with silk. The seats of the most distinguished edifice was crowned with a blocking course.
in the podium, and covered with cushions, The first colonnade was raised on several steps, about
persons were also
while marble benches were in general covered with boards ; three feet two inches above ground, and the bases of the
but as the podium was not sufficiently large to contain all columns stood on the uppermost step, which formed the pave-
the people of high rank, other contiguous places were allotted ment of the entrances. In the superior stories, the piers and
for that purpose. Over the spectators, in time of rain or columns were elevated on stylobatse and podia, and the second
intense sunshine, a covering of woollen of different colours, and third ranges of arcades stood upon podia also. The
called the velum, was occasionally stretched by means of boundary wall was diminished upwards in its thickness on
drawn up or let down at pleasure. both sides, but more particularly from the exterior side of
pullies and cords, and
On the sides of the passages, and under the stairs, on the it, in each succeeding story, and the columns of the two
which were pro- lower ranges projected three quarters of their diameter,
ground-story, are many cells and rooms,
for criminals condemned to fight or to be while those of the third range did not project more than the
bably prisons
devoured, and in which the beasts might be occasionally half; and therefore the axes of the columns of each succeed-
stabled. It was sometimes the practice to give novelty to the ing range upwards, were more recessed than those of the
This recession is more observable in the
games, by erecting pieces of machinery on the arena, repre- inferior range.

senting mountains, on which real trees were planted, and upper range of columns than in that immediately below ;
under them hidden caves were formed, from whence the ani- but still more in the pilasters of the third order. The dimi-
mals rushed out to encounter the combatants, or to devour nution of the columns commences from the third part of
their victims. their height. The straight soffits of the fillets and other
Amphitheatres are undoubtedly of Roman invention, and horizontal projections rise more in the front than in the rear.
were at first constructed of timber and it was not till the
;
The lower range of the rectangular windows had one window

reign of Augustus that one of stone was built by Statilins disposed in every alternate podium, below the upper order ;
Taurus, but this does not appear to have been held in much and had the upper range of windows in the inter-pilasters
estimation as it was very seldom resorted to. The Roman above the imperforated podia. The cornice of the uppermost
amphitheatre, called the Coliseum, or Colosseum, was begun order was pierced with square mortises, through which the
by the emperor Vespasian, and finished by his son Titus, and awning poles passed to a range of corbels below, something
is deservedly celebrated as a prodigy among the ancients. higher than the middle of the pilasters. Seventy-six of the
At the solemn games, when this edifice was dedicated, five lower range of arcades were about thirteen feet four inches
thousand wild beasts, according to Eutropius, and nine thou- broad, and the four placed upon the extremities of the axes,
sand, according to Dio, were destroyed on its arena. When about fourteen feet six inches. The lowest range of arcades
the hunting was concluded, the arena was suddenly filled radiated vault-wise towards the arena, in a direction almost
with water, in which aquatic animals were made to contend, at right angles to the curve of the plan of the exterior wall,
and then a sea-fight ensued. According to Tappen, the and intersecting two vaulted corridors, passed on to the stair-
greater axis of the ellipsis of this stupendovis edifice was cases in the same direction. Two other corridors were placed
627 feet, and the lesser, 520. According to Desgodetz, the between these stairs and the wall of the podium, and other
height of the exterior wall was 156 feet, the greater axis of stairs between the second and fourth corridors. The first
the arena about 264 feet, and the lesser 165 feet ; therefore staircases were entered by the second and third corridors,
the medium breadth of the circuit, for seats, galleries, and and those next to the arena by the third corridor only this
;

wall, was about 179 or 180 feet. This edifice covered some- corridor was lighted from above, by vertical square holes,
thing more than five acres of ground. descending through the crown of the vault and, it is pro-
;

The boundary wall was pierced by five ranges of aper- bable, that the fourth corridor, adjoining the wall of the
tures, of which the three lower were arcades, having eighty podium, was lighted in the same manner. The second story
openings in each range, and the upper two rectangular win- had three corridors, laid open to one another by radiating
dows. Its exterior side was decorated with orders, in four passages the first two were placed over the first and second
:

ranges, with continued entablatures; the three lower were corridors on the ground-floor, and between the second and
colonnades, and the upper a pilastrade. third were placed stairs, which ascended on the one hand to
The lowest order was Doric, without mutules, triglyphs, the second range of vomitoria, and on the other, to another
and guttse ;
but the shafts of the columns terminated with high-groined corridor, forming a mezzanine, which was
 AMP ANC
of the gallery above, and from which wall only a small part remains. From some mutilated courses
lighted from the floor
the stairs ascended to the next story. The third story con- of rustic work, and the lower part of two plain pilasters
sisted of a double corridor, from which the stairs continued which remain, it has been supposed that the building had
also a fourth story. The height of the three existing stories
upwards to the fourth galleries, the interior wall of which
was pierced with windows and doors, or vomitoria, that is about 90 English feet. Tin's edifice was erected without

opened to the uppermost cunei of benches. On the inside cement ; the stones being nicely joined with cramps of iron,
of the exterior wall are vestiges of stairs which led to a covered with lead. The greater axis of the ellipsis of the
is 433 feet 8 inches, and the
fifth gallery
;
this again had four staircases, which led to plan, according to Desgodetz,
a sixth gallery and from thence the stairs continued to the lesser 333 feet 4 inches ; the greater axis of the arena 237
;

The two upper floors were contained in the height of feet, and that of the lesser 136
feet 8 inches; the breadth,
top.
the pilastrade. for benches and wall, being 100 feet 4 inches ; each range
The stone employed in this edifice is the produce of the of arches were seventy-two in number, which opening into
neighbourhood of Home, and is called Travertine-stone, of the first range of arcades, radiated towards the arena, in
the
which the exterior walls, the piers between the two outer passages and staircases, crossing a corridor surrounding
corridors, the heads of the passages and corridors, and some whole ;
the passages, proceeding forward, crossed two other
bcndstones, are constructed all the rest is of brick.
: The surrounding corridors, between which were other stairs.
exterior wall is cramped with ligatures of iron, without The second story has one corridor above the exterior lower
cement; some of the internal walls have remains of plaster one. Above are forty-six tiers of seats, rising by equal
ornaments, and others are lined with marble. The floors degrees from the arena to the wall upwards. The interior
of the corridors are paved with flat bricks, and covered with of this edifice is entire, having been wholly reinstated by
a hard incrustation of stucco. This building is supposed to the inhabitants, from time to time, for the purpose of
have contained 100,000 persons; but it will be found that exhibiting plays, and other diversions.
by allowing two feet two inches from seat to seat, and one The greatest diameter of the ellipsis of the Amphitheatre
foot nine inches to the breadth of each person, not more at Nismes is 430 feet, and the least 338 feet ; the whole
than 80,000 could be accommodated, even supposing all the height 76 feet 6 inches.
upper galleries to be filled. The two stories of open arcades and
elevation consisted of
"The proportions of this edifice," says Tappen, " were in an attic. Each story had sixty arcades in its circumference,
such perfect harmony with each other, that there was nothing of which the four placed upon the extremities of the axes
gigantic in its appearance, although the greatness of its form the grand entrances, and are decorated with pediments.
dimensions never fails to impress every mind with ideas of Against the solid parts of the masonry are Tuscan pilasters,
its resting on pedestals, and supporting an
entablature which
suldimity."
A
structure of such dimensions, and of such contrivance breaks over them. On the top are short, hollowed stone
and ingenuity as the Colosseum, eclipses the most magnificent corbels, in which,it is supposed, poles were placed, for bear-

works of the Egyptians and Greeks, and even those of modern ing an awning over the spectators. Many of the rows of
times. The structures of Egypt, such as we may conjecture seats are entire.
from what now remains, have little to recommend them, The remains of the Amphitheatre at Pola, in Istria, consist
except their magnitude and the enormous stones employed of an elliptic wall, pierced around its circumference with 72
in their construction. For beautiful simplicity, and chastity arches ; containing two stories on one side, and one on the
of parts, the Greeks excelled every other people yet the ; other, being built on the side of a hill. Above the upper
Romans, though licentious in the detail and embellishments, arcade is an attic, pierced by 72 square-headed windows,
showed much ingenuity, not only in the arrangement of their which surround the whole through this are grooves for the
:

plans, but in the construction of the elevated parts, both poles that supported the velum. The greatest diameter of
with regard to the solidity of the work, and the end to be the ellipsis is 416, and the least 337 feet.
answered by the design. Our finest embellishments and The Romans constructed Amphitheatres in England one ;

best proportions are of Greek origin ; but the Romans have at Dorchester, and one at Ilchester.
set us the example in a beautiful diversification of plans. AMPIIITHURA, (from the Greek, a/ifaOvpa, both doors,)
The Amphitheatre at Verona consisted, formerly, of three in ecclesiastical antiquity, the veil or curtain which divided
stories of arcades, with pilasters against the piers of each the chancel from the rest of the church ;
so called on
story, bearing continued entablatures. The pilasters and account of its opening in the middle, after the manner of
arches are all rusticated and unwrought on the face. The folding doors.
orders which decorate the solid parts of the masonry are of ANABATHRUM, (from avafiaivu, I ascend,) a kind of
no~legitimate species, but more nearly allied to the Tuscan ladder, or steps, by which an eminence may be ascended.
than any of the other three. The second pilastrade stands In this sense, we read of the anabathra of theatres, pul-
upon a plinth, and the third upon a triple plinth. The pits, &c.
pilasters of the first and second ranges are very slender, ANAGLYPHICE, or ANAGLYPTICE, (from ava, yXvifxj,
particularly the second ; those of the third range are double to carve or engrave,) a species of sculpture wherein the
the breadth of those of the second range, contrary to the strokes of the figures are prominent or embossed in opposi-
:

laws of strength. tion to the Diagli/phice, where the strokes are indented.
The arches forming the heads of the first and second arcades ANAMORPHOSIS, (ava pop^r],) in Perspective and
are extradossed, and project out beyond the rustics, which Painting, a monstrous projection, or a representation of some
form the horizontal courses above ; the arches forming the image, either on a plane or curved surface, deformed or dis-
heads of the third arcades are also extradossed, but each has torted, but which, in a certain point of view, appears regu-
another concentric extradossed arch, springing on each side lar and in just proportion.
from the pilaster, with its face in the same plane with the ANCHOR, an ornament
form of an anchor, or arrow's
in

pilasters, and its inner diameter equal to the clear distance head, employed or ovolo, between the borders
in the echinus,
of the pilasters. The edifice is finished with a blocking which surround the eggs. This anchor, with its concomi-
course, resting upon the upper entablature: of the outer tants, are generally carved on the ovolo of the Ionic capital ;
 ANG I ANG
and in the Grecian, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, upon all and endeavour to explain, as clearly as possible, the method
large mouldings of this form they are not employed in the
:
of comparing angles.
Grecian Doric, though they are used in the Trajan and Let A B c, D E F, (see the plate) be two angles formed by
Antonine columns of the Tuscan order, at Rome. the intersection of the straight lines A B, B c, D K, E F, at tho
ANCONES, the trusses or consoles sometimes employed points B E, respectively.
in the dressings of apertures, as an apparent support to the Apply the angle A B c to angle D E F in such a manner, that
cornice, upon the flanks of the arrhitravc. In many ancient the points B E, and the lines B c, E F coincide, then the posi-
doors, the ancones were narrower al t,he bottom than at the tion of E D with respect to B A is determined. Such being
the position of the two figures, if E D fall upon B A, the two
top, and, in some instances, were not in contact with the
flanks of the architrave, but placed at a small distance from openings coincide, or, in other words, the angle A B c is
them ; the ancones being further separated from each other. equal to the angle D E F. If, howevpr, E D fall between
Vitruvius calls them prol/tyrides. is c and B A, the opening or angle D E F is less than the
ANDREA DE PISA, a sculptor and architect, born at other ABC; if, on the other hand, E D fall without or
Pisa, in 1270. He built several castles, and the church of beyond n A, the angle D E F is said to be greater than the
St. John, at Pistoia ; but his skill in architecture was prin- angle ABC.
cipally displayed at Florence, where he erected many man- Again, supposing the angles to be applied as before, and
sions, enlarged and fortified the palace of the duke, and sur- E D to fall within A B ; let E D remain fixed in that position,
rounded it with magnificent towers and gates. On account but let E F be turned about E D as an axis, until it fall on
of thesr'e works, he obtained the right of citizenship. At the the opposite side of it ; then, if E F coincide with B A, it is
request of the duke of Athens, he made a model of a citadel, evident that the angle A B c is equal to twice the angle
which he intended to erect for restraining the Florentines. DBF. In the same manner may be explained the notion of
On this account, they took the alarm, and expelled the duke ; one angle being three, four, or any number of times greater
but Andrea passed the remainder of his days at Florence, or less than another.
cultivating the fine arts, such as painting, poetry, and music, It may be
necessary to observe, that the magnitude of the
besides those which were professedly his own. He died in angle in no wise depends upon the length of the intersecting
1345, aged 75. lines ;for, if we suppose a part D d to be cut oft' from the
ANDRON, or ANDKONA, (from avrjp, a man,) in antiquity, side D E, upon applying the angle D E F to
angle A B c, as
an apartment in houses, assigned to the use of men. It was above, we shall find that the line E d will stili fall in the
sometimes called andronitis, in opposition to gynecceum, the same position with respect to A B, as it did before D d
apartment appropriated to the use of women. The Greeks was cut oft'; and will do so, however short E n may become,
also gave their dining-rooms the title of andron, because the until the line, and therefore the angle, ceases to exist.
women were not admitted to feasts in company with the men. Again, let us suppose a line starting from a certain station
Androna, in ancient writers, denotes a public place where A u, to revolve round one of its extremities A as a fixed-
people met to converse on business, such as our exchanges; point or axis, and to arrive at the situation A B, ; it will
however, it is more, particularly used to signify the space or then, with its original position, describe an angle B A B,. Let
alley between two houses ;
and in this sense it was used by it now continue its revolution, until it has
passed over
the Greeks, for the
passage between two apartments in a another space equal to the preceding, and in so doing has
house. This word is sometimes written, audra, reached the position AS,; it will then be readily understood
andrion, or
aiulroniuin, and is of the same import as the Roman term that the angle BAB, equals twice the angle BAB, and thus
mesanlie. we might describe an angle any number of times greater
ANGLE," rectilinear, (Lat. anyulws, the elbow,) according than BAB.
to Euclid, the inclination of two Euclid's notion of an angle has been very much enlarged
straight lines to one an-
which meet, but are not in the same direction." This
other, upon by later mathematicians, as we proceed to illustrate
definition, if indeedit
may be termed such, is so very indis- by reference to the last diagram. Let us conceive the line
tinct, and even inaccurate, that it has been entirely discarded A B to continue its revolution to BJ, and thence to B 4 ; we say
by modem mathematicians, who have individually given then that A B 4 forms with its first position the angle B A B 4 ,
many suggestions for its improvement, but have not agreed and thus far Euclid allows; but if the revolution be con-
so far as to
adopt any as a standard definition. give We tinued until A B arrives in the position A B 5 , so as to form
"
the following as one of the most correct : An angle is the a straight line with its first position which event takes
ratio of the
plane surface bounded by two infinite right lines place when it has performed half a revolution Euclid no
which meet, to the plane surface on all sides indefinitely longer recognizes the opening so formed as an angle. Such,
extended about the point where
they meet." Thus the A n c however, it is reckoned to be by the moderns, and that not
is the ratio of the
plane surface, bounded by the straight without reason for it will be readily acknowledged that the
;

lines A n, n c
infinitely extended to the unbounded plane of opening formed by the lines A B and A B S is greater than that
,
the paper about the be formed by A B and A B 4 thus showing that such opening is
point u. Objections, doubtless, may ,

urged against this, as against all other suggestions but the ;

liable to comparison in the same manner as any other angle.
subject is unquestionably a difficult one, as it The same reasoning will apply to openings formed by a whole
necessarily
involves the long-disputed revolution or more ; indeed, the moderns do not restrict
question concerning infinite
magnitudes. The following description, the term to any number of revolutions however great.
though not
amounting in preciseness to a definition, affords a very A RIGHT ANGLE is that traced out by A B while perform
intelligible notion of the idea intended to be conveyed bv
ing a quarter revolution.
the term, viz the
:
opening made two intersecting ri^ht
by AN OBTUSE ANGLE is that which is greater than one right
lines.
angle, and less than two.
Comparison of Angles. As every theory respecting the AN ACUTE ANGLE is that which is less than one right
comparison of infinite spaces is attended with considerable angle. The angle formed when A B has completed one revo-
difficulty, we shall leave the consideration of the more
abstruse points of this
lution and arrived at A B, is described as four right angles +
subject to works of a different nature, angle BAB.
 ANG ANN
Measurement of Angles. Referring again to the last dia- ANGLE BRACKET. See BRACKETING.
gram, it be seen that the point n in the line A B, during
will ANGLE RAFTER. See Hipped ROOF.
its revolution round its axis A, describes a circle. Now the ANGLE RIB, a curved piece of timber, placed between
circumference of any circle so described is supposed to be those two parts of a coved or arched
ceiling, or vault, which
divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees, each of such form an angle with each other, so as to range with the com-
degrees into CO minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds. mon ribs on each side, or return part. Examples will be
This division is made use of for the measurement of angles seen under the articles DOME, GROIN, and flipped ROOF.
in the following manner : As the angle traced out by a ANGLE-STAFFS, or STAFF-BEADS, vertical beads, generally
whole revolution passes over in its progress 360 of the larger of wood, fixed to exterior angles, flush with the intended
divisions, it is styled the angle of 3(iO degrees; similarly, the surface of the plaster, on both sides, for the purpose of
right angle, which makes only a quarter revolution, is named fortifying the angles against accident they serve also for
:

the angle of 90 degrees ; and so on for angles of any dimen- floating the plaster. Their section is about three-fourths of
sions whatsoever. a circle, with a projecting part from the other quarter, by
The measure of the arc is sometimes used indiscriminately which they are fastened to the wood bricks, plugging,
for that of the angle ; but such measurement is, strictly or bond-timbers. The section of angle-stafis is sometimes
speaking, incorrect. See ABC. that of a triple bead, the middle one being larger than that
External ANGLE, in civil architecture, the same as Saliant on either side of it, and flush with it and the plaster. Angle-
ANGLE, which sec. beads of wood, around the intradosses of circular arches, are
in civil architecture, the same as Re- difficult to bend without
cutting or steaming them ; the for-
Internal ANOLK,
entering ANGLE, which see. mer has a very unsightly appearance, and the latter is both
Re-entering, or Re-entrant ANGLE or A SOLID; an angle inconvenient and troublesome for this situation of angle-
:

whose vertex recedes, or is turned inwards, from a right beads, no other material will finish better than the plaster
line extended between any two points in the legs ; or it is itself; and it be sufficiently strong, as at that height it
will
a cavity or void, formed by two planes on the surface of the is more out of the reach of accident. Whenever wooden
solid. Artificers call all such angles, made by walls or and plaster beads are employed in the same margin, or angle,
partitions, Internal Angles. they should never join each other, but should always have
Saliant or Sortant ANGLE OF A SOLID, an angle, of which an impost to intervene, as, otherwise the joint will show.
the vertex is prominent ; or it is the solid matter contained In grand finishings no corner beads are employed ; but the
between two planes inclined to each other in an angle less plaster is well gauged, and brought to an arris.
than two right angles ; or, it is such, that if a point be taken ANGLE TIES. See ANGLE BRACES.
in each plane, the straight line joining the two points, will ANGULAR, something relating to angle.
pass through the solidity. Artificers call all such angles, ANGULAR CAPITAL, is generally applied to the Scam-
made by walls or partitions, External Angles. mozzian, or modern Ionic capital, which is formed alike on
Solid ANGLE, the mutual inclination of more than two all the four faces, so as to return at the
angles of the build-
plane rectilineal angles meeting in a point, and not contained ing, as in the Temple of Concord. It is also
applied to those
in the same plane. capitals of Grecian edifices which had two fronts alike on
ANGLE OF A WALL, the angle contained by the two ver- ea h angle of the building, in order to face the front and
tical planes which form the angle of a building. It would flank alike, and to correspond to the other capitals, upon the
be better denominated the angle of a building, a term suffi- columns ranged in the flank, as well as in the front. See
ciently explanatory of itself; but as it is to be found in other PLATE.
dictionaries of this nature, it is here inserted. The angle of ANGULAR CHIMNEY, one which stands in the angle of an
a wall is said to be " the point where the two sides meet ;" apartment, with the plane of its breast intersecting the adja-
but it should be the line where the two sides meet, which is cent walls. For the method of measuring angular chimneys,
commonly called by workmen the arris; still the arris is not see CHIMNEY.
the angle, but the line of concourse formed by the two sides, ANGULAR MODILLIONS, those which are placed at the
or planes, containing the angle. return of a cornice, in the diagonal vertical plane, passing
ANGLE BAB, in joinery. When a projecting window through the angle or mitre of the cornice.
stands on a polygonal plan, the upright bar at the meeting As angular modillions are not to be traced among the ruins
of any two planes of the sides of the window is called an f Grecian edifices, it may be concluded, that they were
angle bar. When there are mouldings on the other bars, seldom or never used by the Greeks ; nor are they to be found
the angle bars should be made to mitre with the horizontal
among the ruined edifices of ancient Rome ; it is however
bars on either side of them. The manner of finding the probable, that they may have been used in the decline of the
section of an angle bar, is shown under the term Raking
empire, since they, are to be seen in the remains of the palace
MOULDINGS. of the emperor Diocletian, at Spalatro, in the vestibulum,
ANGLE BRACES ;
when a quadrangular frame has a timber and in the temples of Jupiter and ^Esculapius. The ruined
opposite each angle, fixed to each of the two sides forming cities of Balbec and Palmyra exhibit many specimens, in the
the angle, and thereby making the inside of the frame of an large porticos, and in the entablatures of doorways.
octagonal figure, the timbers so fixed, arc called angle-braces, ANGULAR VAULT, a vault supported upon two circular
or diagonal ties, or angle ties; the angles of wall-plates are fre- walls ; such as the temple of Bacchus, at Rome ; the Temple
quently braced in this manner. Also when a well-hole, of a cir- church, London ;
the church of the Holy Sepulchre, at
cular section, is made through a roof or floor, for a sky-light, Cambridge, &c.
&c., the framing is first made quadrangularly ; then braces ANNULETS, (from the Latin, annulus, a ring,) the annular
are fixed opposite to each angle, and the aperture becomes an fillets between the hypotrachelion and echinus of the Doric
octagon ; and lastly, pieces are again fixed in each angle of capital. In the Roman Doric, they are generally three in
the octagon, meeting each other in the middle of its sides, number, and of equal size,with rectangular sections. One
so as to transform the section of the aperture into a circle, side of each annulet is a horizontal soffit, seen from below,
and thus the well-hole is shaped as required. the other is a vertical cylindrical surface, having the same
 ANT APA
and answer to what our modern builders call
axis with the column, the projection of each
soffit being equal epeiafiara,
of its vertical side. In the axisal counter-forts,and archbutants ; by the Italians they are called
to the height respective
section of "the Grecian Doric, except in the case of the
Doric barbicane, and speroni, or spurs. They are also sometimes
the number of annulets vary from three to called antes, sometimes crismce.
portico at Athens,
five ; the sinkings between each two follow the
line of the ANTE-ROOM, a room through which a person must pass,
of the fillets form a curve parallel in order to enter into another room. In many constructions
echinus, and the outer sides a necessity for introducing ante-rooms,
of houses, there is
to that of the sinkings ; the upper side of each is perpendicular
from the peculiar arrangement of the plan and in many
to the curve, and the lower side is concave towards
the space ;

situations, besides being useful, they

add both grandeur and
between each two the concavity begins in a direction per-
:

to the curve of the moulding ;

the flutings of the elegance to the design.
pendicular ANTES. See A-STJE.
shaft of the column terminate under the lowest annulets.
There are also other names by which an annulet is sometimes ANTHEM1US, a distinguished architect, a native of
Tralles, in Asia Minor, and employed by the emperor
Jus-
called, as cincture, fillet,
and list, or Kstella, which are equally
tinian in the construction of various edifices, particularly the
to rectilineal members, and therefore should never
applicable
church of St. Sophia, at Constantinople, which he designed,
be used but in a general description, where there is some
common property to be explained, as they do not particularly and also superintended 10,000 workmen in its execution.
Anthemius was also a sculptor, a mathematician, and an
imply circularity.
ANNULUS, a Cylindrical Ring, a solid formed by the experimental philosopher.
resolution of a circle about a straight line without the cir- ANTICS, figures of men, beasts, &c., placed as ornaments
cumference as an axis, and in the plane of the circle. For to a building.

the method of measuring an annulus, see MENSURATION. ANT1CUM, the porch before a door; also, that part of
AN1VE. When the two parallel side-walls or flanks of the temple which is called the outer temple, and lies between
a temple, or other edifice, are protruded or lengthened out the body of the temple, and the portico.

beyond the end of the building, and when

each of the two ANTIPORTICO, a word sometimes used to denote a ves-
tibule, or porch, at the entrance of an
body, projecting on
edifice.
is covered with a vertical
projections
each side of the thickness of the wall, having a base, a pris- ANT1QUARIUM, among the ancients, an apartment in
matic trunk, and a capital, similar to a pilaster ; then these which their antique monuments were preserved.
bodies, or terminations, are called
an tee. The breadth of ANTIQUE, in a general sense, denotes something an-
the antce on the flanks of the temple was always less than cient ;
but the term is chiefly employed by architects, sculp-
in the front and the two edges of the antae which faced
;
tors, and painters, and applied to works, in their respective
each other within, and on the sides of the pronaos, were professions, executed by the Romans,or others anterior to their
the columns placed between them, time such as the Colosseum at Rome, the temple of Minerva
equal to the diameter of ;

while that of the opposite, or outsides of the flanks of the at Athens, &c.

edifice, was much less.

The capitals of the antoe never cor- ANTIQUES, a mixed composition of the effigies of men,
with those of the columns, though the mouldings inferior animals, utensils, and implements of war, with foli-
responded
were more or less enriched, as the order had more or fewer age, flowers, and fanciful ornaments. The ornaments on the
decorations. In the temple of Minerva Pollias, and the tr tu- walls of the Vatican, at Rome, painted by Raphael, are of
this kind, and were imitated from the grottos of the baths
ple of Apollo Didymanis, in Ionia, the capitals of the ante
have a strong resemblance to those of the columns they ;
of Titus, of which there were ample remains in his time. This
called arabesque, or
having also volutes, though not of the same proportion, nor species of decoration is frequently
depending in the same way ; as these are hung to an upright, grotesque ; the latter is the more correct appellation, as the
and those to a horizontal hem, connecting the two. Antce former applies solely to Arabian ornaments, which consisted
differ from not only in their capitals, but also in
pilasters, of foliages and fruit, without any animal representations.
their situation. A
portico is said to be
"
in antis" when ANTIS. See TEMPLES, AN.
columns are placed between the two antse. See TEMPLE. ANTISTATES, one of the architects employed in raising
ANTECHAMBER, (from the Latin, ante, before, and the foundation of the temple of Jupiter Olympus, at Athens.
camera, a chamber,) an outer chamber, before a principal ANTONINE COLUMN, a pillar of the Tuscan order,
one, where servants wait, and strangers are detained till the erected in Rome, by order of the senate, to the memory of the
person to be spoken with is at leisure. emperor Antoninus. It is 175 feet in height, viz., 168 feet
ANTEFIX^E, blocks with vertical faces placed at above ground, and 7 feet beneath the surface and has ;

regular intervals on the uppermost member of a cornice, a winding staircase, with 198 steps in the ascent, and 56
for the purpose of hiding the ends of the covering windows, or loop-holes. The sculpture, and other parts, are
or joint-tiles of the roof. The faces of antefixse are similar to those of Trajan's column, but the work is greatly
usually carved with some ornamental device, as a flower, inferior. See COLUMN.
leaf, &c. APART, the distance between the nearest surfaces of any
ANTEMURAL, (from ante, before, and murus, a wall,) two bodies. This term is much used in building, particu-
an outer wall, environing the works and walls of a fortified larly in the art of carpentry ; as, joists are placed
from eleven
place, in order to prevent the enemy from approaching too to twelve inches apart.
In some writings, it signifies the same as an outwork.
near. APARTMENT, any part of a house that is walled round,
ANTEPAGMENTA, or ANTIPAGMENTS, (from Greek and that may be entered through doors ; as kitchen, vesti-
avn, irT]yvv[ii, to fa,) in ancient architecture, the jambs of a bule, saloon, dining-room, drawing-room, chamber, closet,
door moulded like an architrave. The lintel returning at library, passage, &c. All the apartments, on the same floor,
the ends, with similar mouldings, down upon the taken collectively, when opening one into another, without an
antipag-
menta, was called the supercilium. Also carved ornaments intermediate passage, are called a suite of apartments.
of men, animals, &c., placed on the architrave. The word apartment may also denote a portion of a large
ANTERIDES, in ancient architecture, the buttresses house, wherein a person may lodge separately, having all
erected to strengthen a wall :
they are called in Greek, the conveniences requisite to make a complete habitation.
 APA 9 APA
A complete apartment is said to consist of a hall, a the height is the height of a story ;
but the length is inde-
chamber, an ante-chamber, a closet, and a cabinet, or finite.

ward-robe. With respect to the staircase apartment, the area occupied

When an apartment has one or more of its sides contigu- by the floor depends on the height of the story, the rise and
ous to one or more of the exterior walls, and has no other tread of the steps, the formation of the plan, the number of
apartment above, it may be lighted either through apertures quarter or half paces, and the size of the passage, or lobby,
in the vertical sides of the exterior walls, or
by a skylight, as at the beginning or landing; also whether the stair be made
may be found most eligible. single or double ; or whether it consist of one or two revo-
When an apartment is contiguous to one or more sides of lutions in the height of the story. The proportion of the
the building, but has one or more apartments above, it be- dimensions of the plan of the staircase depends on the pro-
comes necessary to light it from apertures in the external portion of the individual dimensions of each apartment, the
walls. Dining-rooms, withdrawing-rooms, and bed-chambers, proportion of the area of the plans to one another, and their
are more conveniently and agreeably lighted from the exte- disposition. A
principal staircase should never consist of two
rior walls, than from the roof. revolutions. The more of an oblong the plan of a staircase
When an apartment is surrounded on all sides by other is, the less room will be required, provided the going of the

apartments, but has no other above, it may be lighted by a steps be placed in the breadth, and that each flight on the
skylight; or, if its height exceed the height of the adjoining opposite side consist of an equal number of steps, connected
apartments, it may be lighted from windows in the sides, by windows, between the flights since by such means the
;

above the roofs of the surrounding apartments. A

saloon, lobby and landing above are shortened, and also less room is
a staircase, or a dome, is more elegantly lighted in this man- occupied by the newal. What further relates to staircases,
ner, than in any other. will be seen under the article STAIRS.
When several contiguous apartments, above each other, To preserve the best possible proportions in a floor of
are surrounded on the sides, they may either be lighted apartments, the principal rooms may have flat ceilings the ;

horizontally through the sides by borrowed lights, or verti- middle-sized ones may have their altitudes reduced by intro-
cally, through apertures in the several ceilings and the roof. ducing cove and flat ceilings, cylindrical vaults, domes,
Sometimes the situation of passages renders it necessary to groins, &e., as may be most suitable to their heights ; and
light them in the latter method, by forming apertures through the smallest rooms may have mezzanines over them, wherever
the several ceilings and the roof, over each other, with a sky- they are accessible to back stairs; but when the disparity is
light at the top, and rails round the openings in the floor. great between the height of the principal rooms, and those
Granaries and warehouses, consisting of several stories, and of the middle size, the whole of the rooms in the suite,
surrounded with buildings, cannot lie lighted in any other except the principal ones, may have mezzanines above ; the
way, than from skylights in the roof, and apertures through middle-sized rooms may have flat ceilings; and the smaller
the several floors, vertically over each other. To save room, rooms arched ceilings. Mezzanine apartments are not only
the space allotted for the passages, upon each floor,
may be necessary on this account, but they may be employed with
directed across the openings, and the openings may be rib- great advantage, since they aftbrd servants' lodgings, baths,
bed or latticed with strong bars, for walking upon. wardrobes, &c.
The method of proportioning and finding the number of In buildings where beauty and magnificence are preferred
apertures for lighting an apartment or room, will be seen to economy, the halls and galleries may be raised to the height
under the article WINDOWS ; and the proportion of chimneys of two stories. Saloons are most frequently raised the whole
to the cubature or sides of apartments, is shown under the
height of the building, and have galleries at the height of
article CHIMNEYS. the stories, around their interior circumference, communi-
What relates to the ceilings of apartments, will be found cating with the various apartments. In general the area
under the articles, CEILINGS, COMPARTMENT CEILINGS, and occupied by the saloon, may be half of that occupied by the
VAULTS. dining-room, drawing-room, or principal-room.
The proportions of apartments depend much on their use. The walls of apartments may be ornamented with columns,
The length of rooms may be extended from once to twice pilasters, entablatures, niches, recesses, panels, &c., as also
the breadth, and galleries even to three or four times. It is, with foliated and other enrichments.
however, to be observed in general, that the greater the When an apartment is adorned with an entire order, the
cubature of the room, the greater also must be the ratio of entablature may occupy from one-sixth to one-seventh part
the dimensions of the plan. Thus the dining-room, or of the height of the order, or of the room itself, when the
withdrawing-room, in a very small house, may be square, ceiling is flat. If a cornice, frieze, and astragal are executed,
but that in a large edifice may be a double square, or less, instead of the full entablature, their height may be equal to
according as the disposition of the plan of the building may one-tenth. If a cornice only is executed, its height may be
turn out ; the length of the largest rooms should, however, one-twentieth or one-thirtieth part of the height of the room.
never be less than once and one-third of their breadth. As In general, all interior proportions and decorations should be
to the height, it may be three-fourths of the breadth, when smaller and more delicate than those of the exterior: pilas-
the ceiling is flat and equal to the breadth, or once and one- ters should not project more than one-eighth, or one-tenth
fourth of the breadth, when the ceiling is covered or arched, of their breadth; and architraves round apertures should,
according to the rise of the arch. It may be thought, that in most cases, not exceed one-seventh of the openings.
there might be some ratio between the height and length, When the sides of rooms are straight, and are adorned with
but this idea vanishes when it is considered, that the eye can columns or pilasters ranged the whole length of each side,
only take in a certain portion of the length, and therefore the the columns or pilasters may be either single or coupled, as
comparison must be made with the breadth. the piers of the windows may admit: if each extreme pier
If the apartment be a principal passage, its breadth
may be be equal to, or more than the half of each intermediate pier,
one-third of the breadth of the principal room ; and if it be a the columns or pilasters may be placed single, or in couples,
by-passage, or that of a very common house, its breadth as the breadth of the intermediate piers may allow ; but i(
may be one-fourth of the breadth of the principal room : each extreme pier, or one only of them, be less than the half
 APE 10 APP
of each intermediate pier, it will then be necessary to couple APODYTERIUM, (cmoSvfu, to put of,) an apartment at
the pilasters. If one of the extreme piers is greater than the the entrance of the ancient baths, wherein the bathers
of undressed.
other, the former may be made equal by forming the end
the room cylindrical ; if each extreme pier exceed the breadth APOLLODORUS, a most distinguished architect, bora
of each intermediate pier considerably, then both ends may at Damascus, who flourished in the reigns of the emperors
be formed into cylindrical surfaces, or otherwise columns Trajan and Adrian, about the beginning of the second cen-
be introduced at each end, and the entablature con- Under the former, he built the stone bridge over the
may tury.
tinued over the columns ; the recesses also may be adorned Danube, which was esteemed one of the most considerable
in a different manner, or one of the ends may be made cylin- undertakings of that prince: he also raised several edifices
round the forum Trajanum, at Rome, among which were
drical, and the other colonnaded.
Apartments of a quadrangular plan arc cither constructed
the sculptured column of Trajan, still existing, and a
so as to have the same symmetry on the opposite sides ; or triumphal arch.
to have no corresponding symmetry whatever, on either pair Historians relate, that as Apollodorus was once conversing
of these sides. 'When bows are introduced into apartments, with Trajan about some architectural designs, Adrian inter-

they are generally at the ends ; but

if upon one or both sides, fered, and gave his opinion, which was treated by the artist
" "
should be proportioned to the length. Sometimes, in with contempt Go," said he,
: and paint gourds, (an
they
with a at each end, two bows amusement which he knew Adrian to be fond of,) for you
very large apartments, fireplace
are introduced. are very ignorant of the subject on which we are convers-
In the best houses, kitchens, halls, servants' rooms, and ing." This affront was not easily to be forgiven or for-
water-closets, are frequently wainscoted to the height of gotten ; accordingly, when Adrian had succeeded to the
about four and a half feet, and coped with a neat moulding, empire, he sent to Apollodorus the plan of a temple he pur-
which is generally a bead. posed erecting in honour of Venus, and desired to have his
Halls, passages, staircases, and bedrooms, have frequently opinion, which, however, he did not intend to follow, being
bases without dado, or surbases. Principal rooms have only desirous to show that he could do without his services.
always complete pedestals. Apartments laid with stone- Apollodorus wrote his opinion freelv, and pointed out such
pavements, should have stone plinths, with wooden bases. essential faults in the design, that the emporoc could neither
All further information respecting the finishing of apart- deny nor remedy them. But instead of acknowledging the
ments, will be found under the heads, CEILINGS, COMPART- merit and genius of the artist, Adrian threw himself into a
MENT CEILINGS, VAULTS, DOORS, WINDOWS; and other par- violent passion, and banished him and some time after-
;

ticulars relating to distribution will be found in the article wards, under pretext of some supposed crimes, ordered him
DESIGNING. to be put to death.
APERTURE, an opening through a body. An aperture APOMECOMETRY, (from OTTO, from, [iTjicog, distance,
in a wall has generally three straight sides, two of which are [le-Qeu, to measure,) the art of measuring things at a dis-
perpendicular to the horizon, and the third parallel in it, tance.

connecting the lower ends of the vertical ones. The stones APOPIIYGE, (a.TTO<f>vyeiv,)
a concave quadrantal mould-
forming the perpendicular sides are called jambs, the level ing, joining two vertical members of different horizontal
side below is called the sill, and the upper part is called the projections, and forming an exterior angle with that which
head. The head of an aperture is cither an arch, or a
single has the greatest projection, and a tangent with the other.
stone, or beam. The apophyge is used in the Ionic and Corinthian orders,

Apertures are either made fur entrance, light, or orna- for joining the bottom of the shaft to the base, as well as
ment. See DOOR, RECESS, and WINDOW. to connect the top of the shaft to the fillet under the astragal.
A narrow aperture may be covered with a single stone, to The word is
originally Greek, and signifies flight ; and
such horizontal dimensions as may be found convenient to the French call it
by a term which implies escape. English
raise from the quariy. architects and builders also call it the scape or spring of the
When the aperture wide, stones in separate pieces may
is column. See COLUMN.
be joggled together, in order to form a straight arch, as it is APOTIIECA, (from aTTOTiOr/fU, to lay aside,) among the
absurdly called by workmen; or the same kind of arch may ancients, a store-room.
be made with radiating joints concealed within the thickness APOTHESIS. See APOPHYGE.
of the wall, and vertical joints on the front, secured by strings APPEA RANGE, in perspective, the projection of a figure,
or cramps of iron, if necessary when an aperture is very
; body, &c., being the same as the representation of an original
wide, it becomes necessary to arch it over. object. See PERSPECTIVE.
Too great a variety of 'apertures in the same front of a APPLICATE, in geometry, a right line drawn within a
building destroys its uniformity. curve, and bisected by the diameter of the curve, otherwise
The ancient Greeks and Romans made the sides of aper- called an ordinate.
tures frequently incline toward each other at the top. APPLICATION, in mensuration, the art of applying
Apertures are sometimes made quite circular or elliptical ; one thing to another by approaching or bringing them
but these forms are not in general use. In apertures of together; thus any number of magnitudes of the same
stone-work, if the jambs be of one entire piece, every alter- kind may be compared together by the successive application
nate stone in the height of the aperture, next to the jambs, of a small magnitude of the same kind to each of them.
should be bond-stones likewise, if the jambs consist of
;
APPLICATION, in geometry, the act or supposition of placing
several stones in the height, every alternate jamb-stone one figure upon another, to find whether they be equal or
should be a bond-stone. See STONE WALLS and WINDOWS, unequal, which seems to be the primary mode by which the
in MASONRY. mind first acquires both the idea and proof of equality. In
When the heads of apertures are arched, they require to this way the first principles of
geometry are demonstrated.
be supported on centres while building ; the method of con- Thus, if two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two
structing which is shown under the article CENTRE. sides of the other, and the angle included be also equal, then
APEX, the highest point or summit of a structure. the two triangles are themselves equal in every respect:
 ARA 11 ARC
conceive the one triangle to be so placed upon the other, Sometimes animal representations are introduced, but such
with the two corresponding equal sides upon each other, the are not strictly allowable.

angles included by these sides being equal, the other

sides ARABO-TEDESCO a style of architecture, exhibiting
will also coincide, and the two figures will agree in all re- a mixture of the Moorish, or low Grecian, with the German
spects. The same may be observed of other figures. Gothic. Of this style is the Baptistry at Pisa, erected by
same FLASHING, which Dioti Salvi, in 1152. is a circular building, with an
APRON, in plumbing, the as It

see. arcade in the second order, composed of pillars with

APRON, a platform, or flooring of plank, raised at the Corinthian capitals and plain round arches ; between each
entrance of a dock, against which the gates shut. arch rises a Gothic pinnacle, and above it is finished by
APRON-PIECE, or PiTCHlNO-PlKCE, a horizontal piece of sharp pediments, which are enriched with foliage terminating
timber in a wooden double-flighted stair, for supporting the in a trefoil.

carriage pieces or rough strings, and joistings in the half spaces AR/EOPAGUS. See AREOPAOUR.
or landings. The apron-pieces ought to be firmly wedged AU/EOSTYLE, or AR^EOSTYLOS. Sec INTERCOLUMNIA-
into the wall. See STAIRS. TION and COLONNADE.
ApKON-LlNINQ, the facing over the apron-piece. ARyEOSYSTYLE. See COLONNADE.
APSIS, (from Greek arpic;, an arch,) a term generally ARBOR, the principal part of a machine, which serves to
applied to any projecting portion of a building, having u sustain the rest. Also the axle or spindle on which a machine
semicircular or polygonal plan, and vaulted roof. In eccle- turns.
siastical structures, it signifies that part where the altar is ARC (from the Latin arcus, a bow) in geometry, a part
situate, and which is reserved exclusively for the clergy. It of any curve line which does not consist of contrary curva-
diflers from chancel in having the form above described. See tures, for then two or more arcs would bo formed, though in
ClIASCEL. contrary directions.
APSIS GRADATA, a term peculiarly used for the bishop's ARC OF A CIRCLE, any part of the circumference less than
seat or throne, in ancient churches, as it was raised on steps, the whole.
above the ordinary stalls. It was also denominated exedru, The line joining the extremities of an arc is called its
and in later times, tribune. chord.
APTERAL, a building without columns on its flanks or Ares are named after the angles which they subtend or
sides. are opposite to, and arc measured by such angles and the
APYKOI, (from a, rrvp, fire.) a name given by the radii of the circles to which they belong ; in other words,
ancients to altars, on which sacrifice was offered without are varies as angle X radius.
fire. In this sense the word is in contradistinction to ARCS, concentric, arc those that have a common centre.
empijroi. ARCS, equal, such as subtend equal angles in equal
AQUEDUCT, or AQUEDUCT, (from Latin aqua, water, circles.
and to lead,) a construction upon or through uneven
iluco, A KCS, siiiiili/r, such as subtend equal angles, whether in
ground, for the purpose of forming a level canal for conduct- equal or unequal circles.
ing water from one place to another. Aqueducts were ARCADE, a range of apertures with arched heads, sup
formed either by erecting one or several rows of arcades ported upon square pillars, or other columns. Arcades are
across a valley, and making these arcades support one or sometimes employed to form porticos instead of colonnades ;

more level canals, upon one or each of the ranges, or by and though they are not so beautiful, they are stronger, more
piercing through mountains which would have interrupted solid, and less expensive. In such buildings, the utmost
the watercourse. They were built of stone or brick, and care should be taken that the piers be sufliciently strong to
covered with a vaulted roof, or with flat stones, to shelter resist the pressure of the arches, particularly the piers at the
the water from the sun and rain. Some aqueducts were extremities, for they alone support the whole.
paved ; but others conveyed the water through a natural The lateral pressure upon the extreme piers in the range,
channel of clay, to reservoirs or castella of lead or stone, will be equal to that on the piers of a single arch, and all the
whence it was brought to the houses by leaden pipes. intermediate piers will be without such lateral pressure ; for
Aqueducts had also ponds disposed at certain distances, the lateral pressures of any two adjoining arches upon the
where the sedimentof the water might be deposited. When intermediate piers are equal, and being opposite they destroy
the water was conveyed under ground, there were each other's eded but the extreme pier having only one
openings :

at about every 240 feet. Some of the Roman aqueducts adjoining arch, must be sufliciently strong to withstand the
brought water from the distance of sixty miles, through hori/ontal thrust of that arch. The greater the weight or
rocks and mountains, and over valleys, in places more than vertical pressure put upon the extreme piers, the more will
109 feet high. The inclination of the aqueduct, according to these piers be able to counteract the thrust of the adjoining
Pliny, was one inch, and, according to Vitruvius, half a foot arch ; consequently, if each extreme pier have to support a
in the hundred. The proportions adopted by the moderns wall, the higher the wall, the less dimensions the pier
is
nearly the same as that mentioned by Pliny. The prin- requires. It is upon this principle, that the slender pillars,

cipal aqueducts now remaining are Aquae Virginia, repaired dividing the nave on either side from the aisle, in churches
by Pope Paul IV. ; Aqua; Felice, constructed by Pope of the Saxon and pointed styles of architecture, are capable
Sextus V. ; the Aquce Paulina, repaired by Pope Paul V. in of withstanding the horizontal thrust of the groins ; for if the
the year 1611 ; and that built by Louis XIV. near Maintenon,
insisting wall were taken away, the pillars of most of these
to convey water from the river Bure to Versailles. This buildings would not be able to withstand the thrust of the
perhaps the largest aqueduct in the world, it being
latter is arches for one minute.
7,000 fathoms long, is elevated 2,560 fathoms, and contains Arcades were employed in triumphal arches, theatres,
242 arcades. amphitheatres, and aqueducts of the Romans, and frequently
ARABESQUE, or MORESQUE, an Eastern style of orna- in their temples : towards the decline of the empire, the
ment, consisting of a fantastic mixture of foliage, flowers, intercolumns were formed into arcades ; but what relates to
fruits, &c., made use of both in painting and sculpture. their history will be found under the article ARCH.
 AEG 12 ARC
used with propriety in the gates of cities, innumerable other instances; in the conventual buildings
Arcades may be of a detached arcade.
and parks they are much employed in the
:
at Canterbury is a very fine specimen
palaces, gardens,
of Italian cities, and, in general, are of The engaged form came into very extensive use with the
piazzas or squares
both shade and shelter in hot and rainy intersection of the semicircular arch, and was employed in
great use in affording
climates ; but they are nevertheless a great nuisance to the almost every situation both on the interior and e.xten; t of
the decoration of their furniture, such
inhabitants, as they very much darken
their apartments. buildings, as well as in
with great propriety, in as fonts, &c. The arcade indeed was a very prominent, if
Lofty arcades may be employed,
the courts of palaces and noblemen's houses. There are not the principal feature in all Gothic architecture, and is
various methods of decorating the piers of arcades, as with that which adds so greatly to the solemn grandeur of our
or terms noble cathedrals.
rustics, columns, pilasters, caryatides, persians,
surmounted with appropriate entablatures. Sometimes the This term is also applied to any arched covered way, more
close passages recently introduced, such
piers are so broad as
to admit of niches between columns or particular! v to the
The arch is cither surrounded with rustic work, as the Burlington and Lowther arcades, which are used as
pilasters.
as well as for purposes of trade.
or with an archivolt, sometimes interrupted at the summit promenades,
by a key-stone form of console, or mask, or some
in the ARCBOUTANTS, (from the French, arc, an arch, and
other appropriate ornament in sculpture. The archivolt rises boutei; to abut.) See BUTTRESS.
sometimes from a plat-band, or impost, placed on the top of ARCH. A
structure composed of separate inelastic

the piers, and at others from an entablature, supported by bodies, arranged in such a manner that their lower surface
columns on each side of the arch. In some instances, the shall form the arc of a curve, being supported at its two

arches of arcades are supported entirely by single or coupled extremities.

columns, without the entablature, as in the temple of Faunus, Jfiaturif. The invention of the arch has been assigned by
at Rome. This form is far from being agreeable to the eye, different writers respectively to
Babylonians, Egyptians,
and it wants stability, as the columns would be incapable of Greeks, 1 tomans, and Etrurians.
of the arches, were they not The claim made for the Babylonians rests principally on
resisting the lateral pressure
a passage found in Strabo, wherein he states, that the Hang-
tied together by a circular wall. In large arches, the key-
stone should never be omitted, and should be carried to the ing-Gardens were formed by means of arches a passage of :

soffit of the architrave, where it will be useful for supporting Herodotus also quoted, as favouring the supposition.
is

the middle of the entablature, which w ould otherwise have

r
This historian, speaking of the great gates in the city-wall,
too great a bearing. relates, that Nitocris was buried in a chamber above one of
When columns arc detached, as in the triumphal arches them, and is urged by the supporters of this opinion,
it

at Rome, necessary to break the entablature, and make

it is that so heavy superstructure could not have been supported
a
its projection in the intercolumns the same as if pilasters over an aperture of such dimensions by mere beams, or
had been used instead of columns, or so much as is just suf- indeed by any other contrivance than that of the arch. On
ficient to relieve it from the naked appearance of the wall ; the other side it is ai'gued, that Nitocris would have made
this isunavoidable in all intercolumns of great width but
;
use of the arch in the erection of her bridge, had the prin-
instead of the
should be practised as little as possible, as it destroys the ciples of its construction been understood,
genuine use of the entablature. Arcades should never be awkward application of horizontal timber beams; and with
much more, nor much less, than double their breadth the :
respect to the gateways, it is stated, that Herodotus,
in this
breadth of the pier should seldom exceed two-thirds, nor be instance, of
speaks and lintels, and makes not the
jambs
less than one-third of that of the arcade ; aud the angular slightest mention of an arch. Besides, it is
argued, if
pier should have an addition of a third
or a half, as the the arch was used to any extent, we should certainly find
nature of the design may require. The impost should not be some vestiges of it in the ruins
of that city, whereas the
more than one-seventh, nor less than a ninth and the archi-
;
concurrent testimony of all travellers goes to prove that
volt not more than one-eighth, nor less than a tenth of the none such exist, while lintelling has been found in several
breadth of the arch. The breadth of the bottom of the key- instances, where the arch might have been applied
with
stone should be equal to that of the archivolt, and its length advantage.
not less than one and a half of its bottom breadth, nor more In favour of the Egyptian title to this distinction, we are
than double. In porticos, the thickness of the piers depends referred to specimens of arched work still to be found in
on the width of the portico and the superincumbent building ; the remains of Egyptian temples. The first specimen pro-
but with respect to the beauty of the edifice, it should not duced is from Abydos, where the roof is certainly of an
be less than one-quarter, nor more than a third of the breadth arched form, but on proves to be constructed
inspection
of the arcade. When the arcades form blank recesses, the of three horizontal stones; the centre one, which is the
backs of which are pierced with doors, windows, or niches, largest, overlapping the two side-ones. The under surface
the recesses should be at least so deep as to keep the most of these stones is cut out in such a manner as to form
prominent part of the dressings entirely within their sur- a semicircular arch. The other specimens adduced, are
face. without doubt true arches, and if their antiquity be allowed,
In the upper stories of the theatres and amphitheatres of the question is at once set at rest. These arches arc found
the Romans, the arcades stood upon the podiums or inter- at Thebes, and are formed of four courses of bricks arranged
pedestals of the columns, perhaps as much for the purpose in a semicircle. If the fact of their antiquity, however, be
of proportioning the apertures, as to form a proper parapet admitted, it is difficult to understand why the arch should
for leaning over. not have been more generally employed.
In Gothic Architecture arcades, whether detached or The same reasoning may be applied in the case of the
engaged, are of very frequent occurrence ; more especially Greeks, for, although it is said that true arches are found
in the Transition and early English styles. Engaged arcades in their works, yet it seems probable that they were not in
are very common indeed, and may be found frequently use previous to the second or third century before the
running round the interior walls of a building, as at West- Christian era, as, if so, we should naturally expect to find
minster Abbey, the Chapter-House, Canterbury, and in them employed in many cases where they would have proved
 If R T A 1 JL '
PTI. ATK .' .

AI'T'i,
 ARC 13 ARC
most useful. The general arrangement of their buildings The under or concave surface is denominated the intrados,
would scarcely have been such as it is, if they had been the upper or convex the extrados. The supports of an arch
acquainted with the principles of the art. are called piers, abutments, springing walls or reins. Piers
The first example of any arched construction to be found arc distinguished from abutments, the former term being
among the Romans, is that of the cloaca maxima, or public applied to a support to resist a vertical pressure, the latter
sewer, said to have been built by Tarquin. The identity an horizontal thrust. The upper parts of the supports on
of the existing remains with the original structure has been which the arch rests, or from which it is said to sjiriny, arc
doubted, but in fact this is of no great importance, as there named imposts. The span of an arch is the width between
is no
scarcity of examples of this kind, although of somewhat the points, where the intrados meets the imposts on either
later date than the reign of Tarquin. There are some who side, which in the case of circular arches coincides with the
assign the merit of the introduction of the arch among the chord of the arc the rise is the height of the highest point
:

Romans to the Etrusci, and who are not entirely without in the intrados above the springing or spanning-line.
reasons for this assumption. They say that Tarquin brought Arches which have the curves of both intrados and
this knowledge with him from Etruria, his native country, extrados concentric or parallel, are said to be extradosscd ;
and that Etrurians were employed by him in the construc- and such as rise from supports at unequal heights, are called
tion of the sewer; others, however, refer the actual con- rainpant arches. There are other kinds of arches, but these
struction to Greeks. It is possible indeed that the Etrurians are more applicable to VAULTING, under which head they
may have introduced this form of building, as it is well will be treated of.
known that that people had arrived at some excellence in In order to avoid farther extending this article, we must
the arts at an early period, and also were in close commu- refer the reader for the THEORY of the ARCH, to STONE
nication with the Romans ; be this, however, as it may, there
can be no doubt that we are principally indebted to the ARCH, TRIL-.MPIIAL; an edifice erected by the Romans
latter people for the full development of the power and in various situations, but more
especially at the entrances
utility of the arch ; whoever it may have been who first of their cities, in honour of victorious generals, and in later
became acquainted with the principles, whether Egyptians, times of the emperors. These structures were originally
Greeks, Romans, or Etrurians, there never was any doubt built of brick, but afterwards of stone, or marble ; their
as to the people who carried its knowledge into execution. form was that of a parallelopipedon, having one, and often
As far as the Greeks or their predecessors are concerned, three, arched apertures in the longer side, decorated with
ve might have remained in utter ignorance as to the utility columns, sculpture, and other embellishments; the whole
of this style of building. It is to the Romans we owe our
being surmounted with a heavy attic. 'When three arches
practical knowledge on the subject they it was who made
;
were employed, they were situate so as to have one large
a worthy application of their knowledge, and put their one in the centre with a smaller one on each side of it.
theories into extensive execution ; and
although they em- Under the emperors, triumphal arches became very
ployed this form to a greater extent than perhaps good taste nuinerous, and were made
of costly materials richly orna-
might sanction ; yet this we judge to be the natural pro- mented. The oldest of such structures remaining in Rome
cedure of any people upon first becoming acquainted with is that of Titus, enriched with
sculptures representing the
a principle of so peculiar a character and such unlimited Two other arches erected in
triumph of that emperor.
usefulness. honour of Trajan are still in existence, the one at Ancona,
Although the Romans employed arches in the construction the other at Benevento; the former is of white marble of
of their edifices, to a very great extent, yet they always chaste ornamentation, consisting in part of bronze statues ;
confined them to one form, namely the semicircular. It is the latter has several fine relievos, and is in a state of
good
to the architects of the middle ages we are indebted for the The above are single-arched several, however,
preservation. ;

great variety of figure employed in this kind of construction ; were constructed of three arches, amongst the most remark-
among others we may especially notice the pointed arch, but able of which are those of Constantino and Scptimius
subject, we beg to refer the
for further information on this Severus that of Constantino has been cleared of the soil
;

reader to that particular style of architecture. which had accumulated to some height round its base, and
Of the forms, dr. of arches. Arches are named according is
perhaps the most beautiful and complete of any at Rome,
to the curve assumed by them, as circular, but manifests some discrepancies of parts, as it was built
elliptical, cycloidal,
parabolical, hyperbolical, catenarian, &c. circular arches
:
partially of old materials from an earlier monument of
are again subdivided according to the
quantity of the circum- Trajan that of Severus is a noble structure, but is much
;

ference described by them, such as semicircular, more

segmental dilapidated ;
it is
sixty-one feet in height, seventy-one
or surbased, containing less than the semicircumference, in length, and twenty-two in depth, the central archway is
surmounted, horse-shoe or Moorish, containing more than twenty-two feet wide, and thirty-six high, the side ones ten
the semicircumference. Arches are also denominated accord- feet wide, and twenty-two feet high.
ing to the method adopted in
describing the curve, as two, But few structures of this kind have been erected by the
three, or four-centred arches ; also by the nature of the angle moderns ; amongst them, however,
we may notice one triple
formed at the apex, thus, pointed arches are distinguished arch of Bonaparte on the Place du Carrousel, and a much
by the appellation of lancet, equilateral, and depressed. finer one at Milan.
Further, there are arches of equilibration and of discharge ; ARCHEION, the treasury, and most secret and retired
askew and reversed arches. place in Grecian temples, where not only the richest trea-
The separate masses or stones, of which the arch is com- sures appertaining to the deities were deposited, but also
posed, are called voussoirs or arch stones, the central or other valuable articles, which they were desirous of
keeping
uppermost of which is called the key-stone, the lowermost, secure. The practice of the Romans was very similar to
or those nearest the supports, springers. The highest that of the Greeks, but
they confined the deposition of their
point in an arch is termed the vertex, or crown, the lowest public treasure to the temple of Saturn.
line the springing line, and the
spaces between the crown ARCHITECT, (Greek ap^oc TeKTuv, the chieffabricator.)
and springing line on either side, the haunches, or flanks. In considering the correct application of this word, we shall
 ARC 14 ARC
not confine ourselves to any one period of time, as the word of such as dwelt in tents, whereas Cain had built a city

has been variously applied under different circumstances. sometime before Jabal's birth. What this city was, we have
We word dp%iTSKTUV employed by Herodotus, and
find the no means of judging of its materials and its form we are
;

alsoby Homer, in their respective works, who seem to have alike ignorant. The next mention made of a city in the
sacred writings is that of Babylon, which was built by
given to it a very extensive signification. In one and
the
same passage, (iii. 60,) Herodotus uses the term in two dif- Nimrod here it was that the famous tower of Babel was
;
"
ferent senses, for he speaks of the architect" of a tunnel commenced, in the building of which, it is stated, burnt
for supplying water, as well as of the "architect" of the bricks and slime (bitumen) were made use of. The same
great temple of Samos. Homer uses the same term to sig- Nimrod is related to have built Nineveh and three other
nify a carpenter, a house-builder, and also a ship-builder.
It cities. Whether the above were the first cities that were
seems probable, then, that in these early ages, the word built after the flood is left doubtful, for we find no mention
" in the sacred history of any Egyptian cities, yet doubtless
architect" was not restricted to any one signification, but
was applied as circumstances required. In succeeding ages, such must have existed at a very early period ; we cannot,
however, when the more perfect civilization of mankind therefore, say for certain whether the sons of Gush or
required structures not only more numerous
and more ele- Mizraim took the precedence in such works ; nor can we
tell whether the
gant, but also in greater variety, and suited to
multifarious buildings seen by Herodotus and other
uses, it was found inconvenient, if not utterly impracticable, pagan historians were in any part the same as those whose
erection is mentioned by Moses.
for any single individual to qualify himself to superintend These, as well as all other
the construction of so great a variety of buildings. Thus subjects connected with the early ages of mankind, must
resulted a division of labour the duties of the "architect"
: ever remain matters of mere conjecture ; yet with respect to
were alleviated by allotting to several the task originally the latter question, it does appear somewhat worthy of atten-
undertaken by one. Thus arose the distinct duties of archi- that Herodotus relates having visited, situate in the
tion,
tect and engineer, which are again subject to several subdi- midst of Babylon, a tower of vast dimensions and unusual
visions, distinct departments of one grand and comprehensive height ; the coincidence of the two accounts is, to say the
whole. least, remarkable. If we allow the towers spoken of by the

AUCHITECTOGRAPIIIA, the description of ancient two historians to be identical, and also that the separation of
buildings, as temples, theatres,amphitheatres, triumphal mankind did not take place, at least to any extent, before
arches, baths, pyramids, tombs, mausoleums, aqueducts, &c. the confusion of languages, we shall have no difficulty in
ARCHITECTURE, the art of building. Djd we apply accounting for the remarkable affinity of the Persian, Hin-
to this word the signification derivable from the original doo, and Egyptian architecture, especially with reference to
Greek, we should have before us a very extensive field for the pyramidal form of their structures we shall also be
:

investigation. Custom, however, has limited the application enabled to form some notion of the progress of mankind in
of the term to the science of erecting artificial structures. this art, as well as of the nature and method of building at
The origin of this department of science is involved in the period.
impenetrable obscurity. It is reasonable to
expect that man, We
have hitherto been considering the first rise and pro-
a being of acute feelings, should soon have sought out some gress of architecture in the earliest ages of the world ; we
method of protecting himself against the inconveniences to must bear in mind, however, that some people in later ages
which his physical conformation rendered him obnoxious. have, by some means or other, lost all traces of the civiliza-
Exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather and the variations tion of their ancestors. This fact may appear strange, but
of temperature, he must, at a very early period, have dis- it isnot our part to account f >r it in this place the fact is
;

covered some means of shelter and security ; the method, before us, startling perhaps, but undeniable notwithstanding.
however, which he adopted for elfecting this object is left We intend here briefly to consider, how those people, after
entirely to conjecture. Various speculative opinions have having lost all their previous knowledge of architectural
been hazarded on the subject, remarkable for the most part science, set about to regain it. And here we might intro-
not more for the inventive imaginations of their authors, duce the theory of Vitruvius, but not, as he does, in the shape
than for the crudeness and absurdity of the speculations of a general fixed rule for although it may be true, even in
;

themselves. Vitruvius, the first writer on the subject, has the majority of cases, that the first rude attempts in the
given a very elaborate, if not very correct account of the erection of dwellings have been, as he states, of a conical
contrivances of our primeval ancestors in the
way of house- form, yet this was by no means universally the case. The
building this account, strange to say, has been transmitted
; fact is, the method of building so much depended upon the
as an authority from time to time almost down to our own character of the people, the nature of the locality inhabited
age, gathering in its progress additional strength from the by them, as well as that of its productions, upon the materials
names of those who have given credence to its manifold and resources for building, and lastly, upon the examples
absurdities. which nature more prominently set before them ; that it is
In considering the subject, we must not
forget that man- utterly impossible to lay down any rule as that by which
kind originally inhabited a warm climate, where the incle- mankind have been universally governed in the erection of
mency of the weather was but little
comparatively and felt, their first structures.
where consequently there was no need of such defences as in
Although Architecture had its rise doubtless in the con-
a colder region. The chief inconvenience arose probably struction of buildings for the purposes of shelter and defence,
from the extreme heat, a natural retreat from which was
yet it is no less certain that it is indebted for its rapid
found in the shelter afforded by the luxuriant of the advancement, and its ultimate perfection, to the religious
trees. We might reasonably suppose that, as foliage
there was no
feelings of mankind. It is in the temples we look for beauty
necessity for a very substantial edifice, tents formed of the of design, for appropriateness of embellishment, for grandeur,
skins of beasts offered in sacrifice, or of other convenient and magnificence. Had it not been for religion,
ideality,
substance, would have formed the primitive dwellings of architecture would never have risen to that eminence which
mankind ; this, however, there is some reason to it so early attained in the sacred edifices of the ancients
suppose, ;
was not the case, as we read that Jabal was the father and which have attracted such universal admiration. It i
 ABC 15 ARC
to temples, theu, we must look for the progress of a people the arch gave the Romans great advantage over all previous
in this great art ; by them must we compare nations as to nations, and permitted of great variety in the construction of
their advancement in skill, taste, and science, as well as in their buildings. This people aimed rather at utility than
the general progress of civilization. ornament; and although many of their buildings are well
Having thus far considered the origin of Architecture as a worthy of admiration on account of their appropriateness to
science, we shall now give a very concise sketch of its pro- the purposes for which they were intended, and even of some
gress in different countries. degree of beauty, yet they may not be compared with the
Our very first steps in entering upon the history of purity and grandeur of Grecian taste. The Greeks were
Architecture are greatly impeded for want of trustworthy lovers of art for own sake, the Komans for the sake
its
information on the subject. We are left in the dark as to of the benefits afforded them.
it We
must not, however,
what style may justly claim precedence in point of time. consider the Romans as devoid of taste or original concep-
Following the account of the creation and civilization of tion, for they may claim the Corinthian order almost entirely
mankind, as given by Moses, we should naturally enough as their own, and this says not a little for their appreciation
look towards the East for the first origin of this, as of all of the beautiful. They had this advantage also over the
other arts, and this supposition is confirmed as well by the Greeks, that whereas the latter were confined to one plan,
concurrent testimony of history, as by the investigation of the parallelogrammic, which gave their structures a mo-
the remains of Eastern edifices. But although we may, notonous appearance, they, on the contrary, could vary the
without hesitation, yield the priority to the ancient Eastern form in any way they deemed suitable ; and this intro-
edifices as a whole, we still meet with difficulties in assign- duced the practice of grouping, or composition, as it is called.
ing its proper position to each separate style. We should The introduction of another practice we owe to the Romans,
prefer to place the Babylonish or Persian architecture first namely, that of internal decoration. Thus, while the Greeks
on the list, as well for the reason previously assigned, as may claim the palm for purity of taste, the Romans take
that, as far as we are enabled to judge from the specimens precedence in utility and variety of construction.
that remain to us in the ruins of Babylon, the buildings of Having thus considered the history of our subject from its
this style appear to be of ruder construction than those earliest commencement to the perfect development of the
either of India or Egypt. For this latter cause, we should great principles of construction, we deem it advisable to
give to Egypt the next place, as we find the sculptures of postpone the consideration of the later styles to their respec-
India of more rounded form, and more elaborate workmanship tive heads. We have now arrived at the grand model of all
than the Egyptian. future eras, and to which all modern styles owe their origin.
In endeavouring to give to each stylo its relative chrono- The Romans, owing to wide-spread dominion, have
their

logical position, we do not mean to deny that they were introduced their knowledge of the arts throughout almost the
equally indebted to each other for various improvements at entire world, and so their architecture has been the grand
different periods. We would especially instance the case of prototype of all succeeding ages. For although the variation
Persepolis, the principal specimen of Persian architecture of different styles from each other, and also from their com-
remaining to us: here we find truly a great advance upon mon pattern, be considerable, yet there can be no doubt as to
the architecture of Babylon, and we can have no doubt the source from whence they all had their origin. It is true

respecting the introduction of some peculiarities of the that, at first sight, the elaborate edifices of the style known
Egyptian style. Whatever doubts, however, there may under the name of Perpendicular, seem to have but little
remain concerning the relations of the above styles, sepa- affinity to the heavy Norman structure ;
and yet when the
rately, in respect of age, there can be none as to their intermediate links arc added to the chain by which they are
general resemblance and affinity, or as to their position, connected, few persons will be found to question their imme-
taken as a whole, in the chronology of Architecture. diate relation; and certainly the step between the Norman
Next in the order of age comes Grecian Architecture. and late Roman requires but little explanation. Considering,
Here again Vitruvius has given us some very fanciful sug- therefore, the Roman as the foundation upon which medi-
gestions respecting the prototype of the entire edifice, as well eval, as well as modern architecture was erected, we leave
as the origin of its varied details nothing, however, can be
;
each style to be considered under its separate title.
more absurd than his notions respecting the latter ; and as to It is our intention to enter into a more minute investiga-
the former, he gives the Greeks credit for inventive genius, tion of this subject under the following heads BABYLONIAN
:

which certainly cannot lawfully be claimed for them. We ARCHITECTURE, BYZANTINE, CELTIC, CHINESE, EGYPTIAN,
may, with equally the same justice, yield to them their ENGLISH, ETRUSCAN, GOTHIC, GREEK, HINDOO, ITALIAN,
boasted title of avroxfleveg, as their claims to originality in MEXICAN, MOORISH, NORMAN, PELASGIAN, PERSIAN, POINTED,
their style of building. Obscure as are the traditions respect- and ROMAN.
ing the colonization of Greece, we have ample evidence to ARCHITRAVE, (from ap*;oc, chief, and trabs, a beam,)
show that it was indebted to Egypt, Phoenicia, and other that division of the entablature which rests upon the
parts of the East, for the majority of its inhabitants ; add to columns, and which may perhaps represent the lintcling
this the similarity existing between the earlier styles of beam placed over the columns, and over the Intel-columns,
Grecian architecture, and those of Egypt and Persepolis, and for supporting the cross beams, in the roof of the primitive
there can, we think, remain no hesitation in assigning to the wooden structure.
latter the origin of Grecian art. While, however, we refuse In the remains of ancient Grecian structures, the archi-
the claims of Greece to originality, we cannot forget how trave is of
very great height, being nearly equal to the
much we are indebted to her for the introduction of so superior diameter of the column, and in some instances
many and valuable improvements. In her hands this even more, as in the Doric temples of Theseus at Athens,
department of art arrived at its greatest excellence, insomuch Corinth, near the ancient city of that name, Paestum in Italy,
as to form a new era which for purity and chaste gran- and in the Ionic temple on the river Ilissus at Athens ; but
deur has never been surpassed. there are few or no instances where it is so high as to be
The great distinction between the last mentioned and the equal to the inferior diameter. Examples in which the low.
Roman style is in the employment of the arch. The use of est architraves are to be found are the portico of Philip, king
 AEG 16 ARC
of Macedon, and the Doric portico at Athens ; the altitude bond-stone : the fewer pieces the architrave jamb consists
of the former being only thirty-eight minutes, and that of of, the more beautiful will the work appear, therefore one is
the latter forty-five minutes, or two-thirds of the bottom dia- preferable to several.
meter. In the remains of Roman buildings, the architraves In the arched apertures of ancient buildings, the jambs ar
are low, being in most cases between two-thirds and three- seldom or never moulded as an architrave, but the arch is
fourths of a diameter. The lowest architrave in these frequently ornamented with members of an architrave sec-
remains is that of the theatre of Marccllus at Rome, which tion ; these members are called the archivolt, which always
is
only half a diameter. This proportion has been generally rests upon imposts. The imposts project in most cases from
followed in the Doric order by the modern restorers of an- the naked of the wall, and in a few cases form the capital of
cient architecture. What relates particularly to the forms pilasters upon the jambs.
and parts of the architrave of each particular order will be ARCHITRAVE, in joinery, is one constructed of wood.
seen under the heads of TUSCAN, DORIC, IONIC, CORINTHIAN, Architraves may be wrought out of a solid piece of wood ;
and ROMAN ORDKKS. this, however, would be attended with a waste of both

The soflits of the architraves of Grecian buildings are stuff and time. The best method is to glue it up in two or
always found to exceed the upper diameter of the columns ; more longitudinal pieces, as may be judged proper from the
but in the Roman they are equal. combination of its parts. For a full description of this
In the Saxon and early Norman styles of architecture, method, see JOINERY.
arches rise from the capitals of the pillars, instead of being ARCHITRAVE CORNICE, is an entablature which consists of
linteled by the architrave as in the Egyptian, Grecian, and an architrave crowned with a cornice, without the interven-
Roman buildings: this is one of the most striking differences tion of the frieze. There are few ancient examples where
between ancient architecture and the styles afterwards prac- an architrave cornice is supported by columns or pilasters :

tised in the middle ages. the only ones which we can recollect are, that on the inside
ARCHITRAVE OF A DOOR, a collection of members surround- of the portico of the Pantheon, and the entablature of the
ing the aperture, of a section similar to the architraves of third order of the Colosseum at Rome (if it may be so called)
the Ionic, Corinthian, and Roman orders. The head or and that supported by the caryatides of the temple of Pan-
lintel is called the traverse, and the sides the jambs. Vitru- drosus at Athens the imposts of the arch of Septimius
:

vius calls the jambs anlepa gmenla, and the head or traverse Severus are also formed like an architrave cornice. The
mipercilium. In the remains of the edifices at Balbec and remains of antiquity exhibit many instances where the
Palmyra, and in the palace of Diocletian at Spalatro, the dressings of rectangular apertures are finished with archi-
architrave jambs are often flanked with consoles, which gives trave cornices, as in the temples of Erechtheus at Athens,
an apparent support to the cornice, and the cornice frequent- Vesta at Rome, and in other ruins exhibited in Adam's
ly rests upon the traverse, without the intervention of the Spalatra, and in Wood's Balbec and Palmyra.
frieze ; but the flank pilasters under the consoles are scarce- ARCHITRAVE JAMBS. See ARCHITRAVE OF A DOOR.
ly to be met with among ancient ruins, though practised by ARCHIVAULT. See ARCHIVOLT.
the modern Italians, and represented in their works. This AKCIIIVE, an apartment wherein the records or charters
is however an
improvement, as it diminishes the apparent of a state or community are preserved, in order to be con-
weight of the top, by spreading out the lower part. The sulted occasionally.
proportion of the architrave to the aperture, in ancient edi- The word comes from the Greek ap%aiov, which signifies
varies greatly
iiees, the usual proportions given by the
: that part of their temples in which the public treasury was
moderns is from one-seventh, to one-sixth part of the open- deposited. Colleges and monasteries had all their archives ;
ing. When the architrave jambs are flanked with pilasters but that of the Romans was restricted to the temple of
and consoles, the breadth may be one-seventh of that of the Saturn in particular.
aperture, and the breadth of the pilasters two-thirds of that ARCHIVOLT, a collection of members on the face
of the architrave ;
but when it is unaccompanied with these of an arch, adjacent to, and concentric with the intrados,
ornaments, it ought not to be less than a sixth part of the supported upon the imposts. The word is derived from
breadth of the aperture. the French archivolte, which signifies the same thing as
In the ruins of Roman and Grecian amis volutus.
buildings the archi-
trave rests upon the floor, and has no flanking consoles ; but The archivolts in Roman and Grecian edifices are formed
in the ruins of Balbec
they are supported by plinths. upon the face of the arch with their section perpendicular
When there is too much surface of naked wall on each to the curve of the intrados and the wall, and similar in
side of the architrave jambs, the sides of the architrave
figure to that wrought on the face of an architrave;
the
may
be flanked with pilasters and consoles, in order to reduce the intrados being, in most cases, the surface of a cylinder, and,
naked, and proportion it to the dressings of the front. The in some few cases, that of a cone. In the latter ages of the
dressing of an aperture may be heightened by adding a cor- Roman empire, arches with archivolts were substituted
nice, or a cornice and frieze, as the space above will admit; instead of the horizontal entablature, by supporting the
and the space above requires further diminution, the alti-
if arches upon the capitals of columns as imposts. This inno-
tude of the dressing may be still further
increased, by sur- vation gave birth to that style of building most commonly
mounting the cornice with a pediment. When the material known the name of Gothic, and forms one of the most
by
of the architrave is stone, the jambs are either built in characteristic features of this style of building. The archi-
heights corresponding to the courses of the naked of the volts of Saxon edifices were at first very similar to those of
wall, or if stones can be procured, each jamb is made of one the Romans, but in process of time, the pillars became
entire piece, or sometimes in two or clustered with small columns, and each shaft of the clustered
three, according to the
difficulty of raising them from the quarry. pillarhad its separate capital ; therefore, in order to make
When they are coursed with the work, every alternate the bottom extremities of the arch bear equally on the tops
stone should be a bond-stone, and, if the jambs are in one of the pillars, it became necessary to form the archivolt in
height, or not coursed, every alternate stone in the altitude deep recession from the soffit, rather in a conical than a
of the naked, adjoining each architrave jamb, should be a cylindrical surface. The archivolt was separated into several
 ASH 17 AST
similar divisions, each one consisting of a collection of pointed, chiselled, nor random-tooled ashlar are employed
in good work in some parts of the country, herring-bone
mouldings, with deep sinkings between. :

ARCS DOUBLEUX, the soffits of arches. ashlar, and herring-bone random-tooled ashlar are used.
AREA, in architecture, is the surface of the ground of ASHLAR! NG, is the act of setting an ashlar facing.

a court, or the bottom of the part of an excavation sunk ASHLERING, in carpentry, is the fixing of short upright
below the general surface of the ground, before the basement quarterings between the rafters and the floor in garrets, in
story of a building, and level with its floor. order to make more convenient rooms by cutting off" the
AREA, in geometry, is the quantity of surface on a body, acute angles at the bottom. The triangular spaces on the
or the superficial extent of any figure. sides are either left unoccupied, or formed into cupboards or
ARENA, the plain space in the middle of the Roman closets.

amphitheatre, where the gladiators fought the same term :

ASIMINTHOS, a large vessel used by the Greeks for
was also used by the Romans to denote the amphitheatre bathing in.

itself. This term is further applied to the body of a temple, ASPIIALTUM, a kind of bituminous substance, found
including the whole space between the antae and extreme sometimes a solid, sometimes in a soft or liquid state, in
in
wall. various parts of the world. A
species of it discovered in
ARENATUM, a word used by Vitruvius to signify a Neufchatel, has been used with great success, as a cement
kind of plaster : mortar made up of lime and sand. for walls and pavements ; it is very durable in air, and
AREOPAGUS, a place near Athens, where the Athenians impenetrable by water. Of late years, various combinations
held their court of justice. of Asphaltum with other materials have been employed
ARONAUE, Embattled, a conjunction of several lines, under the name of Asphalte, or Asphaltic Cement, for cover-
forming indentations like the boundary of an embattled wall, ing roofs, floors, &c., and for other useful purposes. The best of
"
except that the iniddle of every raised part is terminated by these "Asphaltes" is that known as
Claridye's Aaphalte
the convex arch of a circle, which arch does not extend to of Seyssel" which has a deserved reputation as an excellent
the length of that part. pavement, and valuable material for the different purposes
ARRIS, the intersection, or line, on which two surfaces above named.
of a body forming an exterior angle meet each other. This ASSEMBLAGE, the joining or uniting of several things
term is much used by all workmen concerned in building, together, or the things themselves so united. Carpenters
as the arris of a stone, of a piece of wood, or of any other and joiners have various kinds of assemblages, as by mortise
material. Though the edge of a body conveys the same and tenon, dove-tailing, &c.
meaning in general language as arris, yet, in building, the ASSEMBLAGE OF THE ORHERS, the placing of the columns
word edge is restrained to those two surfaces of a rectangular upon one another in the several ranges, so that their axis
parallelopipedal body, on which the length and thickness shall be in the same straight line.
may be measured, as in boards, planks, doors, shutters, and ASSERS, in ancient carpentry, were the laths which
other framed joinery.
supported the tiles of the roof: from the projecting ends of
ARRIS FILLET, a slight piece of timber of a triangular these the denticulated cornice is supposed to have originated :

used in raising the slates against chimney shafts,

section, they were not disposed horizontally, but according to the
or against a wall that cuts obliquely across the roof, and in inclination of the roof; and hence Vitruvius forbids the use
forming gutters at the upper ends and sides of-thosekinds of dentils in pediments.
of skylights that have their plane coinciding with that of ASTERS were also the ribs of brackets of an arched
the roof.
ceiling.
When the arris fillet is used in raising the slates at the ASTRAGAL, (from a<rpayaAof, the heel-bone?) a mould-
eaves of a building, then called the eaves-board, eaves-
ing of a semicircular section, projecting from a vertical dia-
it is

lath, or eaves-catch. meter. It is remarkable that Vitruvius does not mention

ARRIS GUTTER. See GUTTERING.
any astragal between the shaft and the hypotrachclion of the
ARSENAL, a public store-house for depositing arm^ or Doric and Tuscan columns, as is to be found in the Doric of
warlike ammunition. the theatre of Marcellus, at Rome; so that it is probable, the
ASAROTUM, a kind of painted pavement, used by the hypotrachclion might be formed without any mouldings what-
Romans before the invention of Mosaic work. The most ever, by making it recede in a small degree within the shaft,
celebrated was that painted by Sesus at or by fluting it, as in the column of Trajan.
Pergamus, which This doctrine
exhibited the appearance of crumbs, as if the floor had not is also very conformable to all the Grecian examples of the
been swept after dinner. Doric order; for the hypotrachelion is separated from the
ASHLAR, among builders, signifies common or free- shaft one, two, or three annular channels, without any
by
stones, as they come from the quarry, of various sizes. projecting moulding, and the flutes are continued upwards
ASHLAR, the facing of squared stones on the front of through the hypotrachelion, to meet the under side of the
a building. When the work is smoothed or rubbed, so as annulets. In the Ionic order of the temple of Erechthcus,
to take out the marks of the tools
by which the stones were at Athens, the hypotrachelion is however separated from the
cut, it is called plane ashlar. Tooled ashlar is understood shaft by an astragal ; and in the temple of Minerva Polias,
lo be that, the surface of which is same place, they are separated by a plain fillet.
wrought in a regular at the
manner like parallel flutes, and placed perpendicularly itrthe In all the other numerous Grecian examples of this order
building ; but when the surfaces of the stones are cut with there is no hypotrachelion the astragal is placed imme-
:

a broad tool, without care or

regularity, the work is said to diately below the echinus. The same is to be found in the
be random-tooled: when wrought with a narrow tool, it is few remaining Roman examples of this order. In the Corin-
said to be chiselled, or boasted: and when the surfaces of thian and Composite orders, the astragal is never omitted
the stones are cut with very narrow tools, the ashlar is said between the under row of leaves and the shaft, except in the
to be pointed. When the stones project from the joints, Corinthian of the monument of Lysicrates, at Athens, which
the ashlar is said to be rusticated: in this is one of the oldest examples of this order
kind, the faces where, instead ;

may either have a smooth or broken surface. Neither of the astragal, there is an annular groove, from which, and
3
 ATR 18 ATT
from the beauty and delicacy of this example, it seems pro- cavcedium, which was an enclosure still further within the
bable that the astragal might be originally formed of a metal interior. This author assigns three different proportions to
the length and breadth of the atrium the first is 5 to 3,
:
ring.
The the second 3 to 2, and the third is the ratio which the dia-
astragal is a moulding of very frequent application,
not only at the upper ends of the shafts of columns, but also gonal of a square has to its side. Their height to the
in their bases and entablatures. It is the simplest of all under side of the ceiling is equal to their length, wanting a
mouldings, and the only one which can stand alone by itself,
fourth part. The difference between the atrium of a city
and project from a plane surface without the aid of a fillet or and country residence was this, that in the former it was
straight part. placed near the entrance, and in the latter, the peristylium
The Greeks and Bomans frequently cut their astragals was placed between the atrium and the gate.
into beads, formed alternately of oblate and prolate sphe- The Greeks had no atrium in their houses. In some tem-
roids, or, instead of prolate 'spheroids, figures consisting of ples an atrium was to be found.
double cones, with cylindrical parts between, are intro- ATRIUM, in ecclesiastical antiquity, a large open court
duced this practice is followed by the moderns with various
:
before a church, making part of what was called the narthex.
innovations. or anlc-tcmpk ; it was surrounded with a cloister or portico.
In the Egyptian architecture, wo meet frequently with apartment the penitents stood to beg the prayers of
In this
clusters of astragals, circumscribing the shafts of the columns ; went into the church; and here those
the faithful, as they
in various places dividing them into several compartments, remained who were not suffered to go further into the
of which some of them arc frequently receded vertically with church.
astragals. The capitals often join upon the tops of the shafts, ATTIC, is a part of a building standing on the cornice,
without any horizontal moulding between them'. similar in form to that of a pedestal, and is cither broken or
The astragal and torus are exactly similar figures the : continued. It is so named from its being supposed to have

only distinction is, that when they are compared with th>.! been used in Attica. The use of an attic is to conceal
first

other, in the same piece of work, the torus is large, and the roof, and give greater dignity to the design. The
the astragal small, perhaps not exceeding one-third part Romans employed attics in their edifices, as may be seen in
of the diameter of the torus but in most cases any propor-
;
the remains of the triumphal arches, and in the forum of
tion less, so that it may be sufficiently distinct. Nerva. In the arch of Constantino, pedestals are raised
ASUL^E, marble chips. over the columns as high as the base of the attic, and these
ASYMPTOTE, a straight line, which continually ap- pedestals are again surmounted with insulated statues. In
proaches to a curve without meeting it. the ruins of Athens there arc no attics to he found ; except
ATJIENEUM, or ATHENAEUM, the name applied in one over a Corinthian colonnade at Thessaloniea, with
ancient times to public buildings erected for rehearsals and breaks forming dwarf pilasters over the columns, and with
lectures. In modern times, the title of Athenaeum has been statues placed in front of the pilasters, as in the arch of
frequently given to establishments connected with literature Constantino. The attic carried round the two courts of the
and art, public reading-rooms, &c. a celebrated club-house
; great temple 6f Balbec, is also broken into dwarf pilasters
hi London is called the Athenteum. over the columns and pilasters of the order ; and the dwarf
ATLANTES, ATLANTIDES, or ATLAS, the name given pilasters have blocking courses over them, on which statues
by the Greeks to the figures or statues of men used to sup- are supposed to have been placed. Attics are very dispro-
port entablatures with mutules instead of pilasters or columns. portional in the ruins of these ancient edifices, some of them
They were also called ZELAMON-ES and PERSIANS. being nearly one half of the height of the order. The
In the architecture of the modern Italians, the Atlantes moderns make their height equal to that of the entablature:
are often found supporting the entablature over an entrance as to the proportion of the height of the members, it may be
to a palace or garden. At Milan there is a colossal example thesame as that for pedestals.
of the former ; and the rustic gate to the Farnese Gardens at The pilasters employed in attics are sometimes plain, and
Home is a specimen of the latter. at other times panelled they have no diminution, nor any
;

ATRIUM, a court or hall in the interior of the Roman regular base and capital. Attics are much used by the
noblemen's houses, of an oblong plan. Three sides of the moderns, particularly by Italian architects ; and when
atrium were supported on columns, the materials of which, applied to modern houses, they have frequently windows in
in later times, were marble. The side opposite to the gate the podium or dado.
was called tabliiium, and the other two sides alee. The
Amongst the best examples of the use of the attic in
tablinum was filled with books, and the records of what modern public
any buildings, may be adduced Somerset House,
one had done in his magistracy. It was in the atrium where in the view towards the street.
the nuptial couch was erected, where ATTIC BASE, is that which consists of an upper and lower
anciently the family
used to sup, where the mistress and maid-servants torus, a scotia, and fillets between them. It is described by
wrought
at spinning and weaving, and where the clients used to wait Vitruvius as follows " The bases are fixed in their places,
:

on their patrons. The atrium was adorned with

pictures, and so proportioned, that, including their plinth, they have
with statues of their ancestors, and with column ; and in projection
plate ; and was in height half the thickness of the
usually the most splendid and important part of a Roman what the Greeks call eK(j>opav, ekphoran, a quarter so that :

house. the breadth and length will be once and a half the thickness
In later times, the atrium seems to have been divided into of the column. Their height, if they are to be attic, must
different parts, separated from one another by hangings, be so divided, that the upper part is one-third of the thickness
intowhich persons were admitted, according to their different of the column, and the remainder is left for the plinth. The
degrees of favour. The atrium was frequently in ancient plinth being excluded, the remaining part is divided into
times confounded with vestibulum, which was four equal parts, and the upper torus has one-fourth
only a recess the :

on the exterior side of the building, and what is now called remaining three are equally halved : one-half makes the lower
by the Italians loggia. and the other the which the Greeks
torus, scotia,
Even Vitruvius, in chap, iii., book vi.,. confounds it with trochilon, with its squares."
 AUG AXI
In "many examples, both Grecian and Roman, the fillet terminated at the bottom with steel. The modern augers
over the trochilus projects as far as the most prominent part are pointed and sharpened like a centre-bit, the extremity
of the upper torus, and leaves a deep recess between the of on'e of the edges being made to cut the wood clean at the
upper surface of the fillet and lower side of the torus. circumference, and the other to cut and take away ihe core,
This base seems to be as much a favourite of the moderns the whole length of the radius.
as it was of the ancients. AULA, a court or hall in the ancient Roman houses.
ATTIC DOOR. See DOOR. AXE, a tool with a long wooden handle, and a cutting
ATTIC ORDER, a term improperly used to denote the pilasters edge in a plane passing longitudinally through the handle.
which are frequently employed in the decoration of an attic. Its use is for hewing timber, by
cutting it vertically the :

ATTIC STORY, a term frequently applied to an upper adze being employed in forming horizontal surfaces. The axe
story of a house. differs from the hatchet in being much larger, and by its

ATTITUDE, in painting and sculpture, the posture or being used with both hands; while the hatchet is used with
action in which a figure or statue "is placed. one hand only. Axes are also used by stone-cutters and
ATTRIBUTES, in painting and sculpture, are symbols bricklayers, the particular forms of which depend upon the
given to figures. quality of the materials. See TOOLS.
AUDITORY, in ancient churches, the nave, where the AXIS, of a rotative figure, is the straight line passing
people stood to be instructed in the gospel. through the centres of the circular sections at right angles
AUGER, a carpenter's and joiner's tool, for boring large to them. In a sphere, any right line
passing through its
holes with, and formed of a wooden handle, and iron spindle, centre may be the axis.

BAB BAB
BABEL, a city and tower built by Noah's posterity in the masses of convenient size for bricks to the furnace, and
plain of Shinar. Its precise situation is not ascertained. It there burnt; when this process was complete, the bricks
was however within the province of Shinar, and, probably, were employed in lining the sides of the ditch, and erecting
the ancient Babylon was but an enlargement of it. Its the superincumbent wall the work was cemented together
:

situation supposed to have been on

is the north-west of by bitumen, and bonded at every thirtieth course by layers
Bagdad, on an extensive plain, between the Euphrates and of reeds. The wall on each side was a hundred and twenty
the Tigris as an extensive, insulated,
; shapeless heap of stadia in length, fifty royal cubits in thickness, and two
ruins is there to be seen, called the tower
of Nimrod. hundred in height; on the top, and on each side of it, was
In sacred Scripture we are informed, that the materials of erected arow of houses of one story in height, facing each
which this tower was constructed were burnt brick, and other,and leaving a space or roadway between them, wide
slime for mortar. The slime was of a pitchy substance, enough to allow four horses to be driven along it abreast.
similar probably to bitumen. See ARCHITECTURE. Where the outer walls met the river, a return wall was
BABYLONIAN ARCHITECTURE. In commencing carried along each opposite bank to fortify the city against
this article, we must premise that we cannot pretend to any attacks from this quarter, and behind this again another,
detailed description, as the materials for such an undertaking but of smaller dimensions. In the four walls surrounding
are almost entirely wanting. An account of this style of the city, were a hundred apertures or entrances closed by
architecture must needs be very imperfect, when the very means of brazen gates, from each of which was con-
situation of the ancient Babylon remains uncertain. This tinued a street to the corresponding ones on the opposite
once vast city, the metropolis of one of the great empires side, intersecting the roads which led from the transverse
of the world, is now but one mass of undistinguishable walls at right angles. Where the streets met the return
ruins. wall along the banks, an opening was made down to the
to the interest belonging to so ancient and
Owing power- river, provided with brazen gates. The city was filled with
fulan empire, much pains have been taken in the examination houses of three and four stories in height; and among the
of the remains of the city, but so great is the confusion, most remarkable buildings, were the temple of Belus and
that it has hitherto baffled the exertions of travellers to the palace, one in each of the principal divisions on either
determine with certainty the situation and extent of any of side of the Euphrates. The former is a very remarkable
the buildings mentioned by ancient authors among the
:
building on account of its supposed connection with the
more successful of our modern travellers, we may especially tower of Babel mentioned in the Mosaical account of the
mention the names of Rich and Ker Porter; and among colonization of the earth. Herodotus gives the following
the ancients, those of Herodotus, Str'abo, and Diodorus. description : The tower was of a square plan, surrounded
We shall proceed to give an account of the city as described by a wall of similar form, having each of its sides two stadia
by the latter class of writers. in length ; the sides of the structure itself were only half
Herodotus in his usual circumstantial manner, gives us this length, or one stadium. Our author does not give the
a very exact and lengthened description. According to his height, but he states that the tower consisted of eight tiers,
account, the city was of a quadrangular form, four hundred which gave to it the appearance of being composed of eight
and eighty stadia in circuit, divided into two districts by the towers, placed one above the other ; but this in reality was
river Euphrates: it was defended on all four sides by a not the case; such resemblance being occasioned by an
deep trench and wall, of which the following is the method inclined platformwinding round outside the building, and
of construction. In the first place, the earth was excavated thereby making eight revolutions this platform formed the
:

to form the trench, and, as it was dug up, was carried in only means of ascent. About halfway up tho incline, was
 BAB 20 BAB
a resting-place, and at the highest extremity a large temple "The ruins of the eastern quarter," says Mr. Rich,
there was
"commence about two miles above Hillah, and consist of
dedicated to the god Bel, or perhaps Baal :

another chapel in this building, containing an image of the two large masses or mounds connected with and lying north
god, of which we have no particular description.
and south of each other, and several smaller ones which
Our historian further relates, that Nitocris having tem- cross the plain at different entervals. These ruins are termi-
course nated on the north by the remains of a very extensive build-
porarily diverted the waters of the Euphrates by a
outside the city, embanked a part of the river, and made ing called the Mujelibe, from the south-east angle of which
a descent into it from each of the gates in the return wall. proceeds a narrow ridge or mound of earth wearing the
This embankment was constructed of baked bricks in the appearance of having been a boundary wall. This ridge
same manner as the walls; a different material, however, forms a kind of circular enclosure, and joins the south-east,
y-as used by this queen in the construction of a stone bridge, point of the most southerly of the two grand masses. The
or perhaps we should more correctly say piers of a bridge, river-bank, on the south-west of the tomb of Amram, is
as the roadway was formed of horizontal timbers, laid, as skirted ruin extending nearly eight hundred yards
by a it ;

seems probable, from pier to pier. The beams were taken is hundred yards forty feet perpendicular a little
for three ;

up at night, thus forming a kind of draw-bridge. In the above this is a piece of ground formerly the bed of a river ;

piers, hewn stones were employed, which were securely

here earthen vases with bones were found. From the
connected together with iron and lead. Another remarkable east angle of the ruin on the river bank, commences
work of this reign, was the erection of a building over the another mound similar to that first mentioned, but
principal gates, to be used as a place of sepulture.
broader and flatter; this mound is the most southerly
Thus far Herodotus; later authors differ from him in of all the ruins.
"
several particulars, still however preserving the same general On from south to north, the
taking a view of the ruins
account. Diodorus considerably diminishes the size of the object that attracts attention is the low mound connected
first

outer wall, both in length and height, but the difference in with the ruin on the south-west of the tomb of Amram on :

the latter easily accounted for, as he relates their condition

is it two small walls close together, and only a few feet in
are
as they appeared after the time of Darius Ilystaspes, who height and breadth. This ruin, which is called Jumjuma,
reduced the height to fifty cubits. Strabo also gives the and formed part of a Mohammedan oratory, gives its name
circuitof the wall at three hundred and eighty-live stadia. to a village a little to the left of it. To this succeeds the
Diodorus further makes mention of two palaces, one on first grand mass of ruins, which is 1100 yards in length, and
each side of the river, and connected by means of a bridge 800 in its greatest breadth; its figure nearly resembles that
above and a tunnel below he gives the circuit of the new
;
of a quadrant; its height is irregular; but the most elevated
palace as sixty stadia, that of the old thirty stadia the new
; part may be about fifty or sixty feet above the level of the
palace was surrounded by circular walls, enriched with plain, and it has boon dug into for the purpose of procuring
decorations of sculptured animals, painted in colours on the bricks. Just below the highest part of it is a small dome
bricks, and afterwards burnt in. The connecting tunnel in an oblong enclosure distinguished by the name of Amran
our author states to have been vaulted, being twelve feet in Ibn Ali. On the north is a valley of 550 yards in length,
height, and fifteen broad. This palace also contained the the area of which is covered with tussocks of rank grass,
hanging gardens said to have been built by Nebuchadnezzar and crossed by a line of ruins of very little elevation. To
for his wife the Median Amytis. The gardens, occupying this succeeds the second grand mass of ruins, the shape of
a space of ground four hundred feet square, consisted of which is nearly a square of 700 yards length and breadth,
terraces built one above the other until and its south-west angle is connected with the north-west
they reached a height
equal to that of the outer walls of the city ;
the terraces angle of the mounds of Amran by a ridge of considerable
being supported on piers and arches, as stated by Strabo, height, and nearly 100 yards in breadth.
over which were laid large flat stones, sixteen feet "
long by Not more than 200 yards from the northern extremity
four in breadth, and above those a layer of reeds mixed with of this mound is a ravine, hollowed out by those who dig for
bitumen, covered with two courses of bricks in cement. The bricks, in length 100 yards, and 10 feet wide by 40 or 50
extreme covering consisted of thick sheets of lead, on which
deep. On one side of it a few yards of wall remain standing,
was placed the mould for the garden. The spaces between the face of which is very clean and perfect, and appears to
the terraces were formed into magnificent apartments, and have been the front of some building. Under the foundations,
on the highest terrace was a pump, by means of which a at the southern end, an opening is made, which discovers a
supply of water was raised from the Euphrates to irrigate subterranean passage, floored and walled with large bricks
the gardens. The ascent to the top was by steps ten "feet laid in bitumen, and covered over with pieces of sandstone
in width. Strabo gives us one additional particular a yard thick and several yards long; the weight above has
respect-
ing the tower belonging to the temple of Belus, namely, the been so great as to have given a considerable degree of
which he states to be one
obliquity to the side-walls of the passage ; the opening
height, is
furlong; according to
Wesseling's reading, however, this particular is given by nearly seven feet in height, and its course is to the south.
Herodotus. The superstructure over the passage is cemented with bitu-
Such is the
description afforded by the ancients; let us men, other parts of the ravine with mortar, and the bricks
now turn to the investigations on this
subject by modern have all writing upon them." The souterrain widens consid-
travellers, aud in doing so we shall take the liberty of This passage seems to form
laying erably as you proceed farther.
before our readers the account
given by Mr. Rich, who has part of the kasr, or palace, and may have been perhaps the
examined the ruins of this city with tunnel alluded to by ancient authors. The principal portion
perhaps greater care
than any other person. We must premise, that the site of of this ruin, to which alone the term kasr is applied at pre-
the ancient city is a matter of
dispute, but is allowed to be sent by the natives, is situate a little to the west of the
situate somewhere in the
neighbourhood of Hillah and ravine, and presents a remarkably fresh appearance, inso-
Mohawill. This position has been determined
upon on account much so, that Mr. Rich was not willing, until after a very
of the mounds and heaps of ruins which are found close inspection, to allow its claims to being considered an
dispersed
about this quarter, on or near the banks of the " " of
Euphrates. original Babylonian remain. It consists," says he,
 BAB 21 BAB
several walls and piers, which face the cardinal points, eight The only ruin of any consequence to be found on the
feet in thickness; in some places ornamented with niches, western side of the Euphrates is that which is termed by
and in others strengthened by pilasters and buttresses, built the Arabs the Birs Nemroud, and by the Jews Nebuchad-
of fine burnt brick still perfectly clean and sharp, laid in nezzar's Prison ; it is situate about six miles to the south-
lime cement, of such tenacity that it is almost impossible to west of Hillah, and is perhaps the most remarkable of all
extract a brick whole. The tops of these walls are broken, the ruins. Mr. Rich gives us the following description:
"
and may have been much higher on the outside they have
;
The Birs Nemroud is a mound of an oblong form, the
in some places been cleared nearly to the foundations but ;
total circumference of which is 762 yards. At the eastern
the internal spaces formed by them are yet filled with rub- side it is cloven by a deep furrow, and is not more than fifty
bish, in some parts almost to the summit. One part of the or sixty feet high ; but at the western side it rises in a conical
wall has been split into three parts, and overthrown as if by figure to the elevation of 198 feet, and on its summit is
an earthquake some detached walls of the same kind, stand-
;
a solid pile of brick, thirty-seven feet high by twenty-eight
ing at different distances, show what remains to have been in breadth, diminishing in thickness to the top, which is

only a small part of the original fabric; indeed, it appears broken and irregular, and rent by a large fissure extending
that the passage in the ravine, together with a wall which through a third of its height. It is perforated by small square
crosses its upper end, were connected with it. holes disposed in rhomboids. The fine burnt bricks of which
" A mile to the north of the kasr, or palace, five miles it is built have inscriptions on them ; and so excellent is the

from Hillah, and 950 yards from the river-bank, is a ruin cement, which appears to be lime-mortar, that it is nearly
called the Mijelibe, meaning the overturned; its shape is impossible to extract one whole. The other parts of the
oblong, and its height, as well as the measurements of its summit of this hill are occupied by immense fragments of
sides, irregular. The sides face the cardinal points ; the brickwork of no determinate tumbled together and
figure,
northern is 200, the southern 219, the eastern 182, and converted into masses, the layers of brick
solid vitrified
the western 186 yards in length ; and the elevation of the being perfectly discernible. These ruins stand on a pro-
south-east, or highest angle, is 141 feet. The western face, digious mound, the whole of which is itself a ruin, chan-
which is the least elevated, is the most interesting, on nelled by the weather, and strewed with fragments of black
account of the appearance of building it presents. Near stone, sandstone, and marble. In the eastern part, layers of
the summit of it appears a low wall, with interruptions, unburnt brick, but no reeds, are to be seen. In the north
built of unburnt bricks mixed up with chopped straw, or side may be seen traces of building exactly similar to the
reeds, and cemented with clay-mortar of great thickness, brick pile. At the foot of the mound a step may be traced
having between every layer a layer of reeds; and on the scarcely elevated above the plain, exceeding in extent, by
north side are also some vestiges of a similar construction. several feet each way, the true or measured base ; and there
The south-west angle is crowned by something like a turret, is a
quadrangular enclosure round the whole, as at the
or lantern the other angles are in a less perfect state, but
:
Mujelibe, but much more perfect, and of greater dimensions.
may originally have been ornamented in a similar manner. At a trifling distance, and parallel with its eastern face, is
The western face is lowest and easiest of ascent ; the northern a mound not inferior to that of the kasr in elevation, but
the most difficult. All are worn into furrows by the wea- much longer than broad; on the top of it are two koulbcx, or
ther; and in some places, where several streams of rain- oratories round the Birs are traces of ruins to a considerable
:

water have united together, these furrows are of great extent."

depth, and penetrate a considerable way into the mound. Having thus given a description of the ruins as they now
The summit is covered with heaps of rubbish, in digging exist, it remains to determine the identity between them, and
into some of which, layers of broken burnt brick, cemented the buildings mentioned by ancient authors. On this sub-
with mortar, were discovered, and whole bricks with inscrip- ject great differences of opinion exist ; the chief difficulty
tions are sometimes found. The whole is covered with arising from the almost entire absence of any vestiges of
innumerable fragments of pottery, brick, bitumen, pebbles, building on the western side of the Euphrates this it has :

vitrified brick, or scoria, and even shells, bits of glass and been attempted to obviate in various ways. Major Rennell,
mother-of-pearl. In the northern face of the Mujelibe, near the author of a " Geography of Herodotus," is of opinion
the summit, is a niche, or recess, high enough for a man to that the river has left its original bed, and formed a new
stand upright in, at the back of which is a low aperture channel for itself, which, he says, is a common occurrence in
leading to a small cavity ; whence a passage branches off to alluvial tracts of land, such as that upon which Babylon was
the right, sloping upwards in a westerly direction till it situate ; he supposes the ancient course of the river to have
loses itself in the rubbish." Receiving intimation that been between the Kasr and Mujelibe. In favour of this
human remains had been discovered near this spot, our supposition, he quotes the words of Mr. Rich, where he says
traveller commenced a strict investigation, and after exca- that the valley on the north of the Amran Ibn Ali is covered
vating to some depth through a hollow pier, formed of fine with tussocks of rank grass; this, Major Rennell conjec-
bricks laid in bitumen, and in size sixty feet square, he met tures to have been the bed of the river. In opposition to
with several antiques, amongst which were a number of this opinion, Mr. Rich states, that there are no sufficient
earthen vessels, some thin and Prosecuting grounds for supposing the river to have taken this course,
highly .glazed.
another passage was laid open ; this
his labours still further, but rather that the buildings seem entirely to preclude such
cavity was narrow, about
ten feet high, composed of both idea ; besides, he adds, every occasion was made use of to
burnt and unburnt bricks, the latter with a layer of reeds prevent the alteration in the course of the Euphrates in this
between every course, except the two lowest, where they neighbourhood ; the possibility of such an occurrence was
were laid in bitumen. In this passage Mr. Rich discovered obviated by the artificial canals and cuts which were so
a wooden coffin containing human remains, which presented numerous in this part of the country. He further accounts
the appearance of being of great antiquity. To the north for the existence of the tussocks of rank grass, by the cir-
and west of this mass of ruins, and at about 70 yards dis- cumstance of the river occasionally overflowing its banks, and
tant from it, runs a low mound, which on its subsidence, leaving some portion of its waters in the
may have formed an
enclosure round the whole. hollows ;
this appears, we must confess, in some degree to
 BAB BAB

invalidate his former argument; it does seem, however, some- reading states the building to have been of a square plan, yet
what premature to suggest any material alteration in the that this reading has been with good reason objected to, and
course of the Euphrates, if difficulties can be accounted for has been altered by Wesseling in his edition; we do not
think, therefore, that this objection ought to have much
by any other method; if any alteration is allowed to have
taken place, it seems more reasonable to suppose the original weight. To return The ruins present the appearance of a
:

course to have been through the ravine to the west of the building of 702 yards periphery, surrounded by an outer wall ;
the present height of the building is 235 feet, in which space
ruins, especially as a number of bones have been
found at
this spot. The difficulty respecting the position of the river, Mr. Rich discovered traces of three different stages, similar
to those described by Herodotus and Mr. Buckingham, a
however, is
principally owing to Major Bennell's considerably ;

he considers the later traveller, in the same space, thinks four stages clearly
contracting the dimensions of the city :

statements of ancient authors respecting its magnitude as discernible. Now, if we add the same height for other four
merely fabulous ; but seemingly without any other reason stages to complete the number of eight as given by Herodo-
than their improbability, or rather inaptitude, to our present tus, we shall find the total height of the building equal to
notions of a city. If, however, present experience
were to 470 feet, or about a stadium, the height given by the ancients.
be universally applied, we should, with equal justice, deny This we, think amounts to almost conclusive evidence for the
the existence of many erections of which we have ocular supposition of Mr. Rich; further, however, the appearance
of the kasr answers very well to the description of the
demonstration, for instance, of the Pyramids and Sphinxes of
true that the circuit of Babylon, as given by
It is ancient palace, and one part is especially to be noted for its
Egypt.
ancient authors,is immense, but it is not
entirely unaccounted
resemblance to the hanging-gardens the hollow shaft men-
:

for; for Quintus Curtius tells us, that nearly one-half of the
tioned amongst the discoveries of Mr. Rich, is very similar
to the hollow piers supporting the terraces as described by
city was occupied in gardens and other cultivated lands, and
not, as modern cities, composed almost entirely of houses. Strabo. The author, from whoso narrative we have so
Internal evidence also respecting the truth of his statement, copiously extracted, supposes the whole of that mass of
is furnished by Herodotus, when he relates that, at the cap- ruins on the eastern bank ofthe river, enclosed by circular
ture of Babylon by Cyrus, the inhabitants of the interior walls, to have formed a part of the ancient palace, for, says
parts were not aware of what was taking place until some ho, it is manifest that the palace was not merely a single
time after the circumstances occurred. It' we allow the edifice, but consisted of a number of buildings, surrounded
account of the ancients to be correct in this respect and probably by an outer wall ; and this supposition appears very
indeed \vc see little reason to the contrary our difficulty in probable, especially as it related that the hanging-gardens
determining the localities of the ancient city will be consider- were within its precincts. Major Rennell, however, while
ably diminished as we shall then he able to discover at least
;
he assigns the kasr especially to the palace, and the Mujelibe
some remains on both sides the Euphrates, thmigh not so to tin? temple of Belus, considers the circular rampart which

great a number on the western side as we may have been led encloses them as an erection of modern date. In opposition
to expect. to this notion, Mr. Rich suggests that we have no accounts
Another mistake which, in our opinion. Major Rennell has of any later erection on this spot, whereas Diodorus expressly
been led to rruike, is the determining, at the very commence- states that the palace was surrounded by circular walls.
ment of his inquiry, the site of the temple of Bolus. Whether Besides this, he brings forward what he considers a con-
the position he has assigned it be the correct one, is another vincing proof of its antiquity, which is this -that wherever
question; all that wo suggest at present is, that such alloca- bricks engraved with the arrow-headed characters are here
tion is, in this case, premature; it at once
puts a limit to free found, they are all placed with the engraved sides downwards.
inquiry, as it determines what must be the relative position This circumstance he considers sufficient evidence of the
of every other edifice. Mr. Rich, on the other hand, com- walls having been erected at a very early period ; for during
mencing the subject entirely afresh, and taking a more his extensive researches, he observed that in the old build-

comprehensive view of the matter, arrives at a different con- ings the bricks were invariably laid in this particular posi-
clusion ;
he gives it as his opinion that the Birs Nemroud- tion ; in later erections, where the old materials had been
has the better claims to be considered as the ancient tower. made use of, this peculiarity had
not been attended to.
In favour of this opinion it may be
observed, that it would The question respecting the identification of the remains
at once obviate the difficulty we have in with the ancient buildings, has elicited considerable informa-
reconciling the state-
ment of the ancients, respecting the location of the palace and tion on the subject, and has been very ably treated by many
temple of Belus on opposite sides of the river, with the dis- learned men. A variety of opinions has arisen
in conse-
coveries of the moderns. But, it may tie objected, Herodotus quence of the difficulties with which the subject is attended,
states that these edifices were in the centre of either division none of which, however, have been broached without good
of the city now the word used reason: we are inclined to give the preference to Mr. Rich's
:
by that author is k.v \ikau>,
which, we think, may be translated literally enough by in suggestions, but at the same time we
must confess that the
ike midst, or even
by the preposition within, and certainly other views taken of this case are worthy of most careful
more correctly so than by in the centre.
Should, however, consideration.
any objection be made we would argue
to this translation, We have extended the present article to so great a length,
that in so large a space, our author
may be allowed a little on account of the interest which must necessarily appertain
latitude in cursorily
describing the position of principal build- to a style of building of such early date. Much as the origi-
ings in the plan of so vast a city. Moreover, we have further has been discussed,
nah'ty ofthe various modes of architecture
evidence in favour of this assumption, in the remarkable and although many weighty reasons have been alleged*in
similarity of the remains to the descriptions we have of the proof of the superior antiquity of some few ofthe
other styles,
old edifice. Before proceeding further, we and the Indian ;
may as well get of, f< 5r instance, the Cyclopean, the Egyptian,
rid of one objection which may be a claim to
urged in opposition to the yet it seems to us that the Babylonian has greater
statements we are about to make the plan of the remains
: than any other. As far as we can discover from
originality
is an
oblong, and not a square, as stated by Herodotus; now, historical records, it is very evident that the first great
we must remind our readers that, although the more common empire established in the world was' that of Babylon. The
 BAB 23 BAB
account given in the sacred history, and which is confirmed, reading this account, there can, we think, be little doubt, that
as far as may be, by all other historical records, tells us that it was the writer's intention to signify, that Babel was the

the first great kingdom was founded, and the first city built, first permanent erection of any significance, that it was the

by Nimrod, a name which has been preserved by tradition joint erection of all men then in existence, and also that it
even up to the present time, and is still held in especial was the origin of the city afterwards known by the name of
reverence; thus proving, at least, the existence of such a Babylon.
It now rests with us to shew the identity of the existing
person, and his pre-eminent usefulness to the city and people
of Babylon. It may be said, we are well aware, that this is remains, and of the city erected by Nimrod, and in this case
mere tradition ; yet we cannot allow that tradition, even again we must rest content with probability. Now it seems
when it appears in its most absurd colouring, is entirely to universally allowed that some part of the mounds are identi-
be despised we cannot account for the promulgation of any
: cal with the ruins described by Herodotus; how large a

legend that has absolutely no origin, such an idea is indeed portion this may be we do not pretend to assert, but we have
absurd; every traditional story must have some real, tangi- already stated that Mr. Rich includes a large proportion of
ble source, and reality cannot but be truth ; such stories the existing remains. We
have only in continuation to give
may have been embellished, or, if you please, disfigured our reasons for considering the buildings described by Hero-
by fiction, but they must have their foundation at least in dotus as identical with those referred to by Moses. In the
fact. first place, then, the former writer seems to speak of Babylon as

Many persons, we know,

are very unwilling to assign a very ancient city in his time, and mentions it as a remark-
much credit to the Mosaical narrative
;
but we think we are able occurrence that the tower of Belus was then standing ;
fully entitled to claim for
it
equal authority with that of most he speaks of a long line of kings, and relates that Semiramis
of the other historians who make any reference to the occur- made some improvements in the city, thus implying that the
rences of so early a date, especially as its author is allowed to city had been erected some considerable period before her
be the earliest historian, and for this reason must have lived reign. This queen is supposed to have lived from twelve
closer to, and have been, we should suppose, more competent hundred to two thousand years before our era, thus bringing
to relate the occurrences of, the times to which he refers. the erection of the city close upon that of Babel, as recorded
Claiming so much authority, then, for our author, we would in the Scriptures. Another proof of identity is seen in the
beg our readers to allow a fair modicum of credit for his nature of the materials used in the buildings, and in the
sketch of the early history of Babylon ; we say sketch, for manner of their erection, and in these matters the two
it has no higher pretensions, nor could we naturally expect accounts perfectly coincide. Moses, in that part of his nar-
"
any detailed history from an historian living eight hundred rative already quoted, says, And they said one to another.
years posterior to the period whose history he is relating. Go to, let us make brick, and burn them thoroughly ; and
We may here apply a very sensible remark made by liollin they had brick for stone, and slime (bitumen) had they for
"
in speaking of.the history of this empire where," he says,: mortar." The account of Herodotus, although of a more
"
certainty is not to be.had, I suppose a reasonable person will detailed description, agrees in every particular with that just
be satisfied with probability." It is true that Moses does given ;
we need not refer to it here, as it has already been
not expressly state that Babylon was the first city, but we given in full. Again, is there not every reason to believe
have every reason short of certainty to believe that he that the tower of Babel and that of Belus are one and the
intended to imply as much. In giving the genealogy of same edifice'? Herodotus evidently looks upon the towi-r as
Noah's descendants, he stops at the name of Nimrod, to tell of very remote origin, as the oldest building in Babylon;
us that " he began to be a mighty one in the earth ;" which indeed, it seems to be a building remarkable on many
expression, if it does not indeed say in so many words that accounts, standing out distinct from all surrounding edifices,
he was the first one who obtained superiority, may, at least, as well by its great height, as by its unusual construction ; it
when taken in connection with all other attendant circum- is apparently looked
upon by all those who have seen it with
stances, imply quite as much ; and it is further told us, that a kind of awe, as though its erection, and every other thing
"the beginning of his kingdom was Babel." Further on in connected with it, was entirely beyond their comprehen-
the narrative, we are told where and what this Babel was, sion.
as well as when its erection took place, namely, in the time
Taking all these circumstances into consideration, we
of Peleg, the fifth from Noah, probably at some particular venture to assert there will be considered sufficient evidence
"
period of his perhaps shortly after his birth for,
life ; in to satisfy any reasonable person of at least the probable
his days was the earth divided :" the causes of this division,
identity between the buildings referred to in the Mosaical
and the particulars of the building of Babel, are related as narrative, and the rums now in existence, as described by
"
follows The whole earth was of one language, and of
: recent travellers.
one speech ; and it came to pass, as they journeyed from the The remains of this great city do not aflbrd us an oppor-
east, that they found a plain in the land of Shinar ; and they tunity of stating, with any preciseness, the style, so to speak,
dwelt there. And they said, Go to, let us build us a city, adopted in its architecture. The buildings generally are
and a tower whose top may reach unto heaven ; and let us rude, and show but little evidence of constructive science ;

make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of they are of gigantic proportions, and very massive, on which
the whole earth. And the Lord came down to see the city quality they rely chiefly for their strength ; their construc-
and the tower which the children of men builded. And the tion is indicative of greater antiquity than that of the Indian
Lord said, Behold, the people is one, and they have all or Egyptian styles, for, whereas, in the latter, we find
one language ; and this they begin to do and now nothing : detached columns, in the Babylonian we see no traces of
will be restrained from them, which they have imagined to them indeed, the construction is much heavier
; altogether
do. Go to, let us go down, and there confound their and of more barbarous appearance. The edifices were almost
language, that they may not understand one another's universally composed of bricks, of which there were various
speech. So the Lord scattered them abroad from thence qualities, some dried in the sun, others baked in a kiln there ;

upon the face of all the earth : and they left off to build the was also a finer sort, the clay of which, previous to being
city ;
therefore is the name of it called Babel." To any one burned, was mixed up with chopped straw or reeds, and these
 B AB 24 BAD
BACK, the side opposite to the face, or breast. In a
lastseem to have been used for facing walls built of the
commoner sort of brick there is one peculiarity about them,
;
recess, upon a quadrangular plan, the face is that surface
however, which may not be overlooked, and this is the inden-
from which the recess is made therefore the back is the
:

tation on their surface of certain marks arranged in parallel surface which has the two adjacent planes, called the sides,
lines, termed arrow or nail-headed characters. These marks elbows, or gables. When a piece of timber is fixed in a
are supposed to represent letters, or words ; but, although level or inclined position, the upper side is called the back,

much lenrned labour has been given to the task, their signi- and the lower, the breast thus the upper side of the hand-
:

fication has not been discovered, nor, indeed, the method of rail of a stair is called the back. The same is to be under-
stood with regard to the curved ribs of ceilings, and the
deciphering them determined upon similar inscriptions
:

have been found at 1'ersepolis and Susa, also on some rocks rafters of a roof: their upper edges are always called the
near Argish, in Armenia, and sometimes, but very rarely, in backs.

Egypt. To return The bricks were cemented together with

:
BACK OF A CHIMNEY. See CHIMNEY.
hot bitumen, but were sometimes laid in clay, and at others BACK OF A HAND-RAIL, is the upper side of it. Its for-

in lime-mortar, and bonded together by straw, or reeds. The mation is shown under the articles STAIRS and HAND-
walls, as we have previously mentioned, were of great
thick- RAILING.
ness, strengthened at intervals by pilasters, or buttresses,
BACK OF A HIP-RAFTER. See Hip-Roor.
which were sometimes adorned with niches. Columns were BACK LINING OF A SASH-FRAME. See SASH-FRAME.
not made use of, the nearest approach to the idea being found BACK OF A RAFTER, is the upper side of it, in the sloping
in the large hollow piers which supported the hanging- plane of the one side of a roof. The manner of forming the
The principle of the arch docs not seem to have back is shown under RAFTER. See also ROOF, in CAR-
gardens.
been understood, although some authors have stated a con- PEXTKY.
trary opinion; no examples of its application have
been BACK-SHUTTERS, or BACK-FLAPS, are additional breadths
found, and the, fact of inconveniently large masses of sand- hinged to the front shutters, necessary in closing the aperture
stone having been made use of in places where the arch completely, when the window is required to be shut. When
would have been most applicable, as in the case of the passage the aperture is open, or when light is required, the back-
described by Mr. Rich, is, we think, a conclusive argument shutters are concealed in the boxing by the front-shutters.
that the principle was not known. Back-shutters arc generally made thinner than front-shutters,
(For further inlbrmation
on this subject we refer to the article dn ARCH.) The work- and framed with bead and butt.
ing of metals seems to have been in extensive practice, as
BACK OF A STONE, the side opposite to the face, which
Herodotus tells us that all the gates were made of brass. is generally rough.
Although externally their buildings were of this rude BACK OF A WINDOW, in joinery, is the, board, or wain-
description, Babylonians evinced some taste in the
the scoting, between the sash-frame and the floor, joining upon
interior decorations. Among other modes of ornamentation, the two elbows, and forming a part of the finish of the room
It is in general parallel to the face of
they made use of coloured bricks. These bricks were in which it is placed.

painted while in a moist state, and the colours afterwards the wall, or to the glass, or sash-frame, and, when framed, it
burnt in ; the subjects represented were usually animals, has commonly a single panel with mouldings on the framing,
standing out in relief from the general surface, and richly
in
corresponding to the doors, shutters, elbows, soflits, &c.,
painted in their natural colours. Statues likewise formed a the same apartment in which it is placed. The framing of
very usual mode of decoration the back and the skirting are generally in the same plane, or
We have now only to notice that peculiar building, the flush, and the upper edgeof "the skirting is wrought with a
Birs Nemroud, of which we have elsewhere given a descrip- bead, which conceals the joint between the lower edge of the
tion ;
it will, therefore, be
unnecessary to enter into detail rail, and the upper edge of the skirting
below it. The top
here; we would only beg of our readers to notice its peculiar edge of the upper rail is generally capped with a slip
of tim-
form, that of a pyramid, and remark, that if this tower be ber, level on the top, beaded on the front edge, and tongued
allowed to be the first erection of importance, it will very into the sash-frame. The capping bead is returned upon the
readily account for the circumstance of that form being so two elbows, and has the most prominent part of the con-
as well as that
universal in other styles of very early date. This kind of vexity flush with the framing of the elbows,
erection is found, not only in Egyptian and Indian architec- of the back. Framed backs and elbows for good houses are
ture, but also in other styles, whose connection with the generally finished at one and one-eighth
inch thick.
Babylonian is not so easily accounted for and Humboldt, in
;
BACKING OF A RAFTER, or RIB, the formation of an upper
speaking of a pyramidal mass of ancient Mexico, says, "It or outer surface, so as to range with the edges of the ribs or
is
impossible to read the descriptions which Herodotus and rafters, on either side of it. See also RANGING, or EDGING.
Diodorus Siculus have left us of the temple of Jupiter The formation of the inner edges of the ribs for lath-and-
Belus, without being struck with the resemblance of that is sometimes improperly called backing.
plaster ceiling,
Babylonian monument to the teocallis of Anahuac." It is BACKING OF A WALL, is the building which forms the
true that the pyramidal is that form which would most inner face of the wall, or, the act of building the inner face.
naturally suggest itself to men unacquainted with the con- This term is opposed to facing, which is the outside of the
trivances of art, but we venture to think, that the wall. In stone walls the backing is generally rubble, though
suggestion
we have above thrown out, is not entirely unworthy of the the facing be ashlar.
attention and consideration of the curious.
BADIGEON, a mixture of plaster and free-stone, well
Having at length arrived at the conclusion of this and ground together it is used by statuaries to fill up
article, sifted, :

we would apologize for having extended it to a length the small holes, and repair the defects in stones of which
which some may be inclined to think unreasonable ; when, their work is made. The term is also used by joiners, for a
however, the interest attaching to such ancient remains, and composition of saw-dust and strong glue, with which the
the comparatively slight attention the subject has hitherto chasms of their work are filled. Joiners likewise use foi
obtained, are considered, we feel confident of receiving the this purpose, a mixture of whiting and glue. When this is
pardon of our readers. used, the filling-in should remain till quite hard, otherwise,
BA LlfTSTE ir.
y
 BAL 25 BAL
when it is plained or smoothed off, it will shrink below the and serving as a covering to an altar. The baldachin sup-
surface. planted the ciboreum, which was of the same nature but ;

BAGNIO, a bath. The word is applied by us to houses whereas the former was a canopy, the latter was in form
which have conveniences for bathing, sweating, and other- similar to the monoptral temple described by Vitruvius.
wise cleansing the body. Bagnio, in Turkey, is a general The baldachin in St. Peter's at Rome of bronze, and
is

name for the prisons where their slaves arc kept. So called was made by Bernini. The dais, or covering, is
supported
from the baths they contain. on four large twisted columns of the Composite order, on
BAGUETTE, a small astragal moulding, sometimes carved pedestals of black marble. Above the columns are four
and enriched with pearls, ribbands, laurels. &c. When the figures of angels; at the top of the covering there is a cross,
baguette is enriched, it is called c/uiplet, and when unorna- and below the entablature the fringe of the banner-like cloth
mented, bead. of the portable baldachin has been imitated. The height is
BALBEC, or BAALBEC, a famous city of Syria, celebrated 125 feet 3 inches from the floor of the church to the summit
by the Greeks and Latins under the name of Heliopolis, the of the cross, and the whole work is in the highest degree
city of the sun, or Baal. It was surrounded with walls, elegant and graceful.
which were flanked with towers at regular intervals. The iiALECTION MOULDINGS. See SELECTION MOULD-
principal remains consist of the great temple, a smaller INGS.
one, called by Mr. Wood the most entire temple, a circular BALKS, large pieces of timber brought from abroad in
temple of a singular construction, and a Doric column stand- floats :
scantling being from five to twelve inches
their

ing alone. The longitudinal direction of the great and most square. Balks, in some parts of England, are used for the
entire temples is east and west. Before the entry to the simnner-beams of a building, also for the poles or rafters laid
gival temple are two courts and a portico, which face east- over out-houses, or barns.
wards. After passing the portico, we come to an hexagonal BALLOON, (from the French ballon,) a crowning of a
court, surrounded with columns and apartments; we thence globular form, used by way of an acroter to a pediment, pillar,
enter a quadrangular court, the area of which is also sur- or the like. That on the top of St. Peter's at Rome is of
rounded with columns: on the north or south side of this brass, about eight feet diameter, and placed at the height of
court are seven apartments, or exhedrfc five are rectangular
; sixty-seven fathoms.
on the plan, one stands in the middle, having a semicircular BALL-FLOWER, an ornament resembling a ball placed
exhedra on each side of it. These were probably lodging in a circular flower, the three petals forming a cup round it ;
rooms for the priests. At the other extremity of this court, much used as an enrichment to mouldings, and otherwise in
upon the south, are columns of a colossal magnitude, being the decorated style of Gothic architecture.
the remains of the peristyle of the temple. The shafts are BALLIUM, the space immediately within the outer walls
twenty-one feet eight inches in circumference ;
and the entire of an ancient castle.
height of the columns fiftv-eight feet. BALTUEI, bands, or girdles. This word is used by
The columns are joined with iron cramps, and without
all Vitruvius for some part of the Ionic volute. The balthci are
cement, which is nowhere used in these edifices, but the supposed to be the mouldings which encompass the bolsters
surfaces are so close that there is hardly room for the blade of the volutes.
of a knife to be inserted between them. The stones which BALUSTER, sometimes corruptly called BANISTEH, a
compose the, sloping wall are of enormous size. On the west small kind of column or pillar belonging to a BALUSTRADE,
the second course is of stones from twenty-eight to thirty- (which .ire.) The various forms of Balusters given in the
five feet long, and nine feet in height: and at the north accompanying plate, arc selected chiefly from Sir William
ingle, over this course, are three stones, which occupy one Chambers, who has appropriated some of them to the orders
hundred and seventy-five feet seven inches. The shafts of of architecture, as their names express. The two last, deno-
the columns of the great temple consist each of three pieces minated Corinthian and Doric, were designed by Mr. Nichol-
which are joined with iron pins about one foot long, and one son, and their curve is found by an algebraic equation as in
foot diameter. Most of the bases had two sockets, one cir- OVAL. Their general form is graceful, and their elegance
cular, and the other square. Greek and Roman authors are may be preserved in any proportion thus, suppose it were
;

entirely silent as to these astonishing ruins. (Ruins of Bal- wished to have a very slender baluster made from the very
bcc, !/>/
Wood and Dawkins.) stout one, here called DORIC; divide the length of the balus-
BALCONY, (from the French balcon,) an open gallery ter required into ten equal parts, and the given baluster into
projecting from the front of a building, surrounded with a the same number; draw lines on both, as ordinates place ;

rail or balustrade, of various devices, and the ordinates of the given baluster upon the respective lines
supported by can-
talivers, brackets, or columns. It is made of wood, stone, of the one required, and through the extremities draw a
sometimes of cast-iron, and sometimes also of bar-iron curve, which will complete the baluster sought for.
fashioned into crail-work, of various fanciful figures. BALUSTERS OF THE IONIC CAPITAL, the two lateral parts
Balconies are generally made on a level with the sills of contained between each front and rear volute, called by
the windows of the first floor ; sometimes every window in Vitruvius, pnloinata.
the range has a separate balcony, each of which is convex to BALUSTRADE, a range of small columns called balus
the street. When there is but one, it is generally placed in ters supportinga cornice, used as a parapet, or as a screen, to
the middle of the length of the front, or extends the whole conceal the whole or a part of the roof. It is also sometimes
length of the front. Sometimes a portico or porch is sur- used as a decoration for terminating the building. Balus
mounted with a balcony in this case the balustrade may be
;
trades are employed in parapets, on the margins of stairs,
of stone, as well as of iron, or wood. When balconies are before windows, to enclose terraces, or balconies, by way
used, the windows are generally brought down to the floor, of security, or sometimes to separate one place from
without adding any additional breadth to the aperture. See another. In the theatres and amphitheatres of the Romans,
BALUSTRADE. the pedestals of the upper orders were always continued
BALDACHIN, (from the Italian baldacchino,) a piece of through the arcades, to serve as a parapet for the spectators
architecture in the form of a canopy, supported with columns, to lean over ; the lowermost seats next to the arena in the
 BAN 26 BAP
in the theatres, built for themore commodious entertainment of their guests.
amphitheatres, and those next to the orchestra
were guarded by a parapet, or podium. The walls of ancient Lucullus, are informed by Plutarch, had several very
we
Claudius had a
buildings generally terminated
with the cornice itself, but grand banqueting-rooms, and the Emperor
often with a blocking course, or attic. In the monument of very elegant one, named Mercury but everything
;
of this
at the is finished with fmials com- kind was outdone by the lustre of the still more celebrated
Lysicrates Athens, top
posed of honeysuckles, solid behind,
and open between each banqueting house of Nero, called damns atireti, the house of
pair of fmials; each plant or
finial is bordered with a curved gold, which, by the circular motion of its ceilings and parti-
curve. imitated the revolution of- the heavenly bodies, and
head, and the bottom of each interval with an inverted tions,

Perhaps terminations of this nature might have

been em- represented the. different seasons of the year, which changed
as some coins seem at every service, and showered down and
ployed in many other Grecian buildings, flowers, essences,
to indicate; but this is the only example of the kind. The perfumes on the guests.
temples in Greece ::re mostly finished with the cornice itself; BAPTISTERY, (from Pa-rmfr, to wank,) a building, or
which was also the case with many of the Roman temples; and apartment, designed for the administration of baptism.
as there were no remains of balustrades in ancient buildings, In ancient times, baptism was performed by immersion,

their antiquity may be doubted they are, however, repre-

: and the place for the purpose was a pond or stream ; but.
sented in the works of the earliest Italian writers, who, per- about the middle of the third century, distinct or insulated
haps, may have seen them in the ruins of Roman edifices. houses were erected for the purpose. In 490, they were

When a balustrade finishes a building, and crowns an attached to the exterior sides of the church; and in the sixth
order, its height should be proportioned to the
architecture century, they were brought within the church ; but though
nor there might have been two or more churches in one city, yet,
it accompanies, making it never more than four-fifths,
less than two-thirds, of the height of the order, not in general, there was only one baptistery and when it be-;

reckoning the plinth on which it is raised; as the

balustrade came fashionable to dedicate the churches, that to which the
itself should be completely seen at a proper point of view, baptistery belonged was dedicated to St. John the Baptist.
Balustrades designed for use should always be of the height The baptismal churches in Italy were usually built near
of the parapet walls, as they answer the same purpose, being rivers and waters. In later times, the bishop of baptismal

nothing else than an ornamented parapet; this height

should churches granted licenses to other churches to erect bap-
not exceed three feet and a half, nor be less than three feet. tisteries, takingcare at the same time to maintain his own
In the balusters, the plinth of the base, the most prominent jurisdiction over the people.
part of the swell, and the abacus of their capital, are gene- The baptistery was an octagon building, covered with a
rally in the same straight line: their
distance should not cupola roof, adjacent to the church, but not forming a part
exceed half the breadth of the abacus, or plinths, nor be less of it.
than one-third of this measure. On stairs, or inclined planes, In the. interior was a hall, sufficient to contain a great
the same proportions are to be observed as on horizontal <>nrs. number of people, on the sides of which was a number
It was
formerly customary to make the mouldings of the of apartments; sometimes, instead of these apartments, rooms
balusters follow the inclination of the plane; but this is dif- were added on the outside, in the manner of cloisters: in the
ficult to execute, and. \\hen done, not verv pleasant to the middle of the hall was an octagon bath, which, strictly speak-
eye; though in ornamental iron work, where it is confined ing, was the baptistery, and from which the whole building
to a general surface passing
perpendicularly by the ends of derived its appellation.
the steps, it has a very handsome appearance. The breadth The most celebrated baptisteries are those of Rome, Flo-
of pedestals, when placed over an order, is regulated by the rence, and Pisa; the most ancient is that of S. Giovanni in
top of the shaft, the die being always equal thereto. When Fontc at Rome, said to have been erected by Constantino the
balustrades are placed upon the entablature of an order, over Great. The plan of this building is octangular the roof is ;

the intercolumns, or interpilasters, and the base and cornice supported by eight large polygonal pillars of porphyry under
of the balustrade continued, so as to break out and form the cupola; in the centre of the floor is the bath, lined with
pedestals over the columns, or pilasters, the breadth of the marble, with three steps for descending into it its depth is :

die of the pedestals should be equal to the breadth of the top about thirty-seven inches and a half. The baptistery an-
of the shafts ; and when there is no order, the breadth of nexed to the splendid church of St. Sophia, at Constantinople,
the die never more than its height, and very seldom nar- resembled the convocation-room of a cathedral and was ;

rower the dies of the pilasters may be flanked with half

: called illuminatory. In the middle, was the bath, and around
dies, particularly when the range of balusters is long. it were outer rooms for all concerned in the immersion.
BAND, a narrow flat surface, having its face in a vertical The Baptistery of Florence stands opposite to the principal
plane, as the band of the Doric architrave, and the dentil entrance of the cathedral. It is octangular in form, with a

band, which is the square out of which the dentils are. cut. diameter of about one hundred feet. In the interior is a
The word facia, or plat band, is generally applied to broad gallerv, supported by sixteen large granite
columns ; the
members, as the facia of an architrave ; and band, to narrow vaulting is decorated with mosaics, and on the pavement
is a

ones wider than fillets. Band is also the cincture around large circle of copper, with numerical figures, and the signs
the shaft of a rusticated column. of the zodiac on it. The external fayades are built of black
BANDED COLUMN, is that which is encircled with bands, or and white marble, and the three great bronze doors are cele-
annular rustics. brated for the beauty of their bas-reliefs, and for the marble
BANDELET, or BAND, any flat
moulding, or fillet. See and bronze figures above them.
BAND. The Baptistery of Pisa is circular; its diameter is 116
BANKER, the stono-bench on which masons cut and feet ; the walls are eight feet high, and the building is raised
square their work. on three steps, and surmounted by a dome in the shape of
BANQUETING-ROOM, an apartment
for entertainment, a pear. This dome, which is covered with lead, is intersected
used among the Romans ages of the empire. In
in the latter
by long lines of very prominent fretwork, terminating in
ancient times they supped in the atrium of their houses, but another dome, above which is a statue of St. John. The
in after-times,
magnificent saloons, or banqucting-rooms, were proportions of the interior are admirable; eight granite
- ~*^ V
 BAR 27 BAR
columns, placed between four piers, decorated with pilasters, wooden framing, covered with weather boarding; but which-
are arranged round the basement story; these support a soever of these materials is used, holes should be left in the
second order of piers, similarly arranged, on which rests the walls at intervals, or the doors and windows should have
dome. In the middle of the baptistery, is a large octagonal proper air-flights, so as to admit the ingress and egress of
basin of marble raised on three steps. See FONT. air freely. The gable-ends are best formed of brick or stone,
BAR, a piece of wood, or iron, for fastening any kind of on account of their solidity ; the covering may either be
closure, as a door, or shutter. It is used as an additional thatch or tiles. In the walls of the front and rear of the

fastening to a door, attached to the side, and movable to building should be two large folding doors, for the con-
and fro upon the surface, so as to be inserted, or venience of carrying in and out a cart or waggon load of
drawn out of the jamb, head, or sill, at pleasure; and is corn in sheaves, or any other bulky produce: these doors
most commonly placed on the vertical edge of the door. should be of the same breadth with the threshing-floor, to
Doors and shutters have sometimes bars so long as to be givemore light to ti.e threshers, and admit more air for win-
equal to the whole breadth of the aperture, or something nowing the grair Over the threshing-floor, and a little
.

more ; and frequently made to turn upon a centre on the side above the reac> jf the flail-poles, beams are often laid across,
of the door or shutter. in order to Lrm a kind of upper-floor, upon which the
BARS FOR THE SHUTTERS OF WINDOWS, are frequently thresher the straw or haulm
maj throw and on the out-side,
;

made with one or more joints, according to the number of over the great doors, it is convenient to have a large pent-
shutters in the breadth of the window, and are fastened by house made, projecting sufficiently, so as to cover a load of
means of bolts and fore-locks. corn, or hay, in case a sudden storm should come on before it
BARS OF A BOARDED DOOR, are pieces placed on the back. can be housed, and also to shelter the poultry in the farm-yard
to which the boards are fastened ;
bars of this nature are from bad weather, or too great heat. The hay-barns should
more commonly called ledges. usually be constructed of wood, and not too close they
:

BARS OF A SASH, are those slight pieces of wood or metal are sometimes formed in such a manner, a~: to lie capable of
which divide the aisli-light into two or more compartments, being moved to dill'erent places by wheels or rollers. In
so as to reduce the large opening into smaller ones of con- grazing-farms, which do not aflbrd a supply of straw for
venient dimensions, suitable to the size of the panes of thatching, the stacks with movable roofs, erected on strong
glass. upright posts of wood, or what is sometimes termed Dutch
Those bars which stand in the intersection of two vertical barns, may be useful, as they may be raised or lowered at
planes, are called angle-bars. See ANGLE-BARS. pleasure by screws and levers, so as to accommodate them-
BAR-! RON. See IRON. selves to the quantity of hay, cither in proportion to the
crop
BAR-POSTS, are those which are fastened into the ground, or its consumption, while, at the same time, they are
cheaper,
forming the sides of a field gate, and are mortised so as to more airy, and less troublesome than close barns, in case of
admit of horizontal pieces, called bars, which maybe inserted heating. The under-pinning of barns is best of stone or
easily or taken out at pleasure. brick, which may be built to the height of about two feet above
BARBACAN, or BARBICAN, in ancient fortifications, was ground the sides should be boarded, and the roof covered with
;

an advanced work, which frequently covered the draw-bridge straw or reeds but those of the stables on its sides, with slate
;

at the entrance of a castle. The term is likewise applied or glazed tile because, as they must be more flat, the water
;

to the aperture in walls, called embrasures. See EMBRA- which runs from the roof of the barn would injure most
SURES. other coverings. At each end of the barn, and over the back-
BARBACAN, in architecture, is a long narrow canal, or door, small doors, four feet high, should be fixed at the
opening, left in the walls for water to come in and go out height of twelve feet from the ground the two former fur
:

by, when edifices are placed so as to be liable to be overflown ; putting in corn at the ends, and the latter for filling the
or to drain off the water from a terrace or the like. middle of the barn after the bays are full. All the bays
BARGE-BOARDS, two boards attached to the gable should have a floor of clay or marl, and the threshing-floor
ends of a roof, fixed near the extremity of the barge-course, should be laid with hard bricks, which will be suitable for all
and following the inclination of the roof, used for the purpose sorts of grain, except wheat or rye for threshing these, it will
:

of protecting the under or stuccoed side of the barge-course be advisable to have planks of oak or red deal well fitted
from the weather. They are found most usually in old together, and numbered, to bo laid down occasionally, and
English houses, and being carved in most rich and elaborate confined by a frame at their ends.
patterns, add great beauty and picturesque effect to the Barns should be placed upon a declivity, as by this means
buildings. They have been of late applied in many instances, they are rendered more durable, less subject to vermin, and
where their utility seems to have been entirely misunder- the grain can be kept more sweet and dry than on level
stood, and where, instead of protecting, they only serve as a ground this situation also affords a commodious range of
:

dead weight to the building. The word is probably derived stalls for cattle.
from an old Saxon term signifying to shade or cover. The invention of the threshing machine has, in a great
BARGE-COUPLES, two beams mortised and tenoned to- measure, altered the construction of barns, as, where thev are
gether, for strengthening the building. The term is not made use of, they should be contrived chiefly with a vie'w to
much used. the distribution of straw ; the machines being built in the
BARGE-COURSE, that part of the tiling which projects centre, with the grain-stacks adjoining them, in such a man
over the gable of a building, and is made up below with ner, that they may be supplied without the assistance of carts
mortar. or horses. The barns, in these cases, need not to be so
BARN, a covered building, for laying up and preserving large, but they should have granaries provided in them,
all sorts of grain, hay, straw, &c. The situation of a barn which may perhaps be most conveniently placed over the
should be dry and rather elevated, and on the north or north- floors.
east side of a farm-yard ; but neither contiguous to the house, BARREL DRAIN, one constructed in the form of a hol-
nor to any offices connected with it. Barns may be con- low cylinder. See DRAIN.
structed of either stone, brick, or timber, which last may be BARROW, or TUMULUS, a hillock or mound of earth,
 B AS 28 B AS
the projection of the cornice being two-thirds of its height,
anciently raised over the body of a distinguished person.
Barrows are considered as the most ancient sepulchral monu- so as to be less prominent than that which finishes the
ments in the worlii. building. The height of the cornice may be about one-
BAS-RELIEF. See BASSO RELIEVO. eighteenth part of the height of the basement, and that of
the base, about twice as much, divided into six parts, of which
BASALT, a hard dark-coloured rock, of igneous origin,
formed of columnar or stratified parts, very useful in building, the lower five-sixths form the plinths, and the upper sixth
the mouldings.
paving, &c. Basalt, when calcined and pulverized, is an ex-
cellent substitute for puzzolana, in the composition of mortar :
BASIL, among carpenters and joiners, the iron side of
the angle of a tool, ground so as to bring the end of the tool
by undergoing these operations, it acquires the property of
to a cutting edge. If the angle be very thin, the tool will
hardening under water.
cut more freely, but is in danger of breaking into notches,
BASE, in architecture, is the lowermost part of a body,
of parts, taken in its if not duly tempered to remedy this, it is sometimes found
consisting of one, or an assemblage
:

altitude, being separated from its

upper part, which is a naked necessary to grind it thicker.
or plain surface. BASILICA, (from f3aai2.evg, king, and oitcog, house, signi-
BASE OF A ROOM, is the lower projecting part, consisting fying royal house,) a building originally used as a court of
of two portions, the lower of which is a plain board adjoining justice. Among the Romans, it was a large hall adjoining
the floor, called the plinth, and the upper consists of one or the forum, where the magistrates judged the people under
more mouldings, which, taken collectively, arc called the cover, which distinguished it from the fora, where they held
base-mouldings. The plinth in the best work is tongued their sittings in the open air. Basilicas were in plan
into a groove in the floor, by which means, the diminution parallelogrammic, divided lengthwise into three or more
of breadth in the shrinking never shows any aperture, or aisles, the centre one of which was called the testudo, and

cavity, between its under edge and the floor; and the upper those, at the sides porticos. The testudo was covered by a
edge of the plinth is rebated upon the base. Bedrooms, roof supported on two rows of columns, situate on either
lobbies, passages, and staircases, are often finished without sidebetween and the adjoining porticos. These porticos
it

the dado and surbase, as also sometimes vestibules and hulls. were divided by two galleries, one above the other,
vertically
Rooms which have pavement floors, have their bases, in which ran round three sides of the building, and were cov-
general, consisting of stone plinttis, and wooden base-mould- ered by a lean-to roof, meeting the above-named columns
ings, which arc not so liable to be broken as stone below their capitals, so as to leave an open space between
mouldings. the roofs of the porticos and the testudo, for the admission
BASEMENT, the lowest story of a building, on which of light. At that end of the testudo where the gallery was
an order is
placed, consisting of a base, die, and cornice. discontinued, stood a raised platform, on which was placed
The ehoragic monument of Lysicrates is a beautiful example the tribunal for the magistrate. The above is as clearly as
of an antique basement. In modern buildings, the height can be discovered, a correct description of the ancient
of the basement will vary according to the character of the basilica, and agrees in all its principal features with a build-
edifice :it is
proper, however, to make the basement no ing which has been discovered in the ruins of Pompeii.
higher than the order of the next story, for this would be The proportions of these edifices are given by Vitruvius
making the base of more importance in the composition than as follows: "The breadth," he says, "is not to be Jess
the body to be supported. If the cellar story is the base- than a third, nor more than the half of the length, unless
ment, and if the height does not exceed five or six feet at the nature of the place opposes the proportion, and obliges
the most, it may be plain, or with rustics, or formed into a the symmetry to be different ; but if the basilica has too
continued pedestal ;
but if the basement is on the ground much length, clialcidicce (supposed to be apartments
story, the usual manner of decorating it is with rustics, sup- on the sides of the tribunal, separated from the body by
ported on a base and surmounted with a crowning string a partition) are taken off the ends, as in the basilica of Julia
course : the base may bo cither a plain or moulded
Aquiliana. The columns of the basilica are made- as high
plinth; and the cornice may either have a plat-band or as the portieus is broad ; which again is equal to the third part
mouldings under it, or may form a cornice of small of the space in the middle. The upper columns are less than
projection. The rustics are cither of a rectangular or the lower, as above written. The pluleum (a kind of podium
triangular section, supposing one of the sides of these or continued pedestal) which is between the upper columns,
sections to be a line extending across the front of the
joints. should also be made a fourth part less than the same columns,
The joints of the rustics may be from one-eighth to a tenth that those who walk on the floor above, may not be seen by
part of their height ; the depth of the triangular joints may the negotiators below. The epistylium, zophurus, and coronas
be half their breadth ;
that is, making the two planes by below, are proportioned to the columns, as in my third
which they are formed a right angle and the depth of the
; book.
rectangular from one-fourth to one-third of their breadth. "Nor will basilicas such as that at the colony of Julia of
The ancients always marked both directions of the joints Fanum, which designed and executed, have
I less dignity
of the rustics, whereas the moderns and beauty, the proportions and symmetry of which are as
employ not only the
ancient manner, but sometimes make them with horizontal follows The middle testudo, between the columns, is one
:

joints alone ; the latter, however, represent rather a boarded hundred and twenty feet long, and sixty feet broad. The
surface than that of a stone wall, whieh must have two direc-
portieus around the testudo, between the walls
and columns,
tions of joints. The
is twenty feet broad. height of the continued columns,
The height of the string course should not exceed the including their capitals, is fifty feet, and
the thickness five,
height of a rustic with its joints ; nor the plinth, or having behind them parastaUe (attached pilasters) twenty
zocholo, be less than the height of the string course. feet high, two feet and a half broad, and one foot and a half
When the basement is perforated with arcades, the imposts thick, which sustain the beams that bear the floors
of the
of the arches may be a plat-band, which
may be equal to portieus. Above these are other parastatfe, eighteen feet
the height of a rustic, exclusive of the joint. When the high,two feet broad, and a foot thick, which also receive
string course is a cornice, the base may be moulded, beams sustaining the canthers of the portions, which are laid
 BAS BAS
below the roof of the testudo the remaining space that is
:
length, on that side which is next the forum, including
left between the beams which lie over the parastatae, and the same columns, eight; on the other side there are but six
those over the columns, is left open in the inter-columns, columns, including those of the angles; because the middle
in order to give light. The columns in the breadth of the two on this side are omitted, that they may not obstruct the
testudo, including those, of the angles to the right and view of the pronaos of the temple of Augustus." When
left, are four ;
and in the length, on that side which is next Vitruvius speaks of the length and breadth of the basilica,
the forum, including the same angle columns, eight. On the it is reasonable to suppose, that these were the dimensions

other side, there are but six columns, including those of the within the walls but whether ancient edifices of this
;

angles, but the middle two on this side are omitted, that description had walls, or were supported upon columns,
is

they may not obstruct the view of the pronaos of the Temple a desideratum which cannot be ascertained, but in the disco-
of Augustus, which is situated in the middle of the side-wall veries of ancient edifices, which are perhaps, as yet, embo-
of the basilica, looking toward the centre of the forum and somed in the earth and it is to be regretted, that, though
;

Temple of Jupiter. The tribunal, in this building, is formed some buildings of a similar description have been discovered,
in the figure of a hemicycle the extent of this hemicycle,
:
they are by no means decided, neither in their proportion nor
in front, is fortv-six feet, and the recess of the curvature construction. Fragments of the plan of Rome, taken under
inward, fifteen feet, so that those who attend the magistrate Severus, which still exists, show a part of the basilica
obstruct not the negotiants in the basilica. /Emiliana, exhibiting two rows of columns on each side,
"
Upon thecolumns, the compacted beams, made from three without an exterior wall, which renders it doubtful whether
timbers of two feet, are disposed and these are returned
; they ever were enclosed or not perhaps the warmth of the
;

from the third columns, which are in the interior part, to climate of Italy did not require it.
the ante that project from the pronaos, and on the right and 'It is to Constantino, that the first Christian churches,
left touch the hemicycle. known by the name of basilicas, are to be referred. This
"
Upon the beams, perpendicularly to the capitals, the pike prince signalized his zeal by the erection of monuments,
(a kind of blocking for supporting the plates) are placed, which announced the triumph of the religion which he had
throe feet high, and four feet broad, on every side. Over embraced. He gave his own palace on the Cuelian mount, to
these, other beams, well wrought from two timbers of two construct on its site a church, which is recogiii/ed for the
feet,are placed ;upon which the trans! rare and capareols most ancient Christian basilica. A modern building has
being fixed coincident with the zopln>rus, ant;c, and so masked and disfigured the ancient, that only the situation
walls of the pronaos, sustain the ciilmen the whole length and plan of this monument can be discovered.
of the basilica, and another transversely from the middle, "Soon after, he erected the basilica of St. Peter, of the
over the pronaos of the temple so that it causes a double
: Vatican. This magnificent edifice was constructed about
disposition of the fastigium, and gives a handsome appear- the year 324, upon the site of the circus of Nero, and the
ance to the roof on the outside, and to the lofty testudo temples of Apollo and Mars, which were destroyed for that
within. The omission of the ornaments of the epistylium, purpose. It was divided
internally into five aisles from east
and of the upper columns and plutei, diminishes the labour to west, which terminated at the end in another aisle from
of the work, and saves great part of the expense. The. north to south, in the centre of which was a large niche or
columns likewise being carried in one continued height up to tribunal giving the whole the form of a cross. The larger
the beams of the testudo, increase the magnificence and aisle was enclosed by forty-eight columns of precious marble,
dignity of the work." and the lateral aisles had likewise forty-eight columns of
In the foregoing description, the proportion which Vitru- smaller dimensions two columns were placed on each wing
;

vius assigns to basilicas in general, does not agree with that of the terminating aisle. The whole was covered with a flat
which he executed at the colony of Julia of .Fanuin, which ceiling, composed of immense beams, which were cased with
appears to be of a different construction from the common gilt metal and Corinthian brass, taken from the temples of
form; as, in the former, the ranges of columns which form Romulus and Jupiter Capitolinus. A hundred smaller
the porticos, appear to have been disposed hi two columns ornamented the shrines and chapels. The walls were
heights,
with a gallery between ; whereas, in the latter, the columns covered with paintings of religious subjects, and the tribunal
were disposed in one range in the height, with attached was enriched with elaborate mosaics. An incredible number
pilasters behind, in two rows, one above, the other, and the of lamps illuminated this temple ; in the greater solemnities
galleries between the pilasters nearly against the middle of 2,400 were reckoned, of which one enormous candelabrum
the columns, resting upon the lower range. Nor are the contained 1,3(50. The tombs of pontiffs, kings, cardinals, arid
proportions the same : for in the former, the breadth is
princes, were reared against the, walls, or insulated in the
specified not to be less than a third part of the length, nor ample porticos.
more than half, " unless the nature of the place opposes the "
This superb temple was respected by Alaric and Totila,
proportion ;" the breadth of the latter is, however, more than and remained uninjured in the various fortunes of Rome
the half, for the length of the nave is one hundred and
during the lapse of twelve centuries ; but crumbling with age,
twenty feet, and the breadth sixty feet; now, adding forty it was at last
pulled down by Julius II., and upon its site
feet to each, the breadth of the two has arisen the famous basilica, the pride of modern Rome.
opposite porticos, will
make the whole length of the building one hundred and "The third great basilica built by Constantino, that of
sixty feet, and the breadth of the same one hundred feet, St. Paul, on the road to Ostia, still exists. The interior
which is more than the half of one hundred and sixty. In of this building resembles precisely that of St. Peter, which
the general construction, no columns are mentioned at the has just been described. Of the forty columns enclosing the
ends, unless the chaloidae (which are introduced in order to great aisle, twenty-four are supposed to have been taken from
proportionate the building) are comparted by columns, but the mausoleum of Adrian ; they are Corinthian, about three
in the basilica constructed
by Vitruvius, porticos are clearly feet diameter, fluted their whole length, and cabled to one-
understood in the breadth, as well as in the length ; for he third : the columns are of blue-and-white marble, and anti-
" The
says, columns in the breadth of the testudo, including quity presents nothing in this kind more precious for the
those of the angles to the right and left, are four ; and in the materials and workmanship. But these beautiful remains
 BAS 30 BAS
seem only be placed there to the disgrace of the rest of
to tives, or spandrel, which connect the square plan of the
the construction, which is of the age of Constantino and centre with the circle of the dome.
"
Theodosius, and which most strikingly exemplifies the rapid The general effect of the interior is grand ; but whatever
decline of the arts. praises the hold invention of this immense dome may merit,
" it must be confessed, that there are times in which
The churches we have hitherto described, bear a very princes,
complete resemblance to the antique basilica in plan and pro- however great and liberal, can only produce imperfect monu-

portion. The only remarkable dillerencc is, that the superior ments, of which this edifice is a striking example. All the
details of its architecture are defective and barbarous.
galleries are suppressed, in the place of which a wall is
"
raised upon the columns of the great aisle, which is pierced However, from the communication established between
with windows, and supports the roof. Greece and Italy, at the revival of letters, this basilica, the
"The church of St. Agnes out of the walls, though not last, as well as the most magnificent of the lower
empire,
one of the seven churches of Rome which retain the title, is was that which influenced most the form and architecture of
however a perfect imitation of tho antique basilica. This the new temples. The Venetians, in the tenth century,
resemblance is so complete, that without the testimony of copied with success the best points in the disposition of
writers, who inform us that it was built by Constantino, at St. Sophia, in the church of St. Mark. This is the first
the request of Constantia, his sister or daughter, and without in Italy which was constructed with a dome
supported on
the details of its architecture, which forbid us to date it pendentives and it is also this which first gave the idea,
;

higher, it might be taken rather for an ancient tribunal of which has been imitated in St. Peter's, of the Vatican, of
justice, than a modern church. It forms an oblong internally, accompanying the great dome of a church with smaller and
three sides of which arc surrounded with columns forming lower domes, to give it a pyramidal etl'ect.
the porticos; the fourth side opposite the entrance is recessed "From this time to the. erection of the. basilica of St.
in a semicircle ;
this is the tribunal. The first order of Peter's, we find tho churches approach, more or less, to the
columns carries a second, forming an upper gallery, above form of the ancient basilica or the new construction. The
which begins the ceiling of the edifice. The shortening of church of Santa Maria del Fiore, of Florence, from the
the columns recommended by Vitruvius, is observed in the magnitude of its dome, and the skill which Brunelleschi
upper order. displayed in its construction, acquired a celebrity which made
"
We have hitherto observed in the Christian basilicas, the system of domes prevail and this system was finally
;

but small variations from the antique construction they were: established in the noble basilica of the Vatican, which has
still
simple quadrilateral halls, divided into three or five become the type and example of later ones. The form of
aisles, tho numerous columns of which supported the flat ceil- the antique basilica was entirely lost, and the name, which
ing; but the cross-form, the emblem of Christianity, which has been retained, is the only remain of their ancient
began to be adopted in these buildings, operated the most resemblance.
essential changes in their shape. The intersection of the "In the pontificate of Julius II., the beginning of the
crossing aisles produced a centre, which it was natural to sixteenth centurv, the basilica of St. Peter's was begun from
enlarge and make principal in the composition and tho;
the designs of Bramante. This great man formed the idea
invention of domes, supported on pendentives, enabled the of suspending, in the centre of the building, a circular
architects to give size and dignity to the centre, without temple, as large as the Pantheon, or, as he expressed it, to
interrupting the vista of the aisles. The church of St. raise the Pantheon on the temple of peace and, in fact, we
;

Sophia, at Constantinople, was the first example of this find great resemblance in size and disposition between these
form. two edifices and the project of Bramante. lie was succeeded
"The seat of the. Uoman empire being transferred to Con- in his office by San Gallo, who almost entirely lost sight of
stantinople, it is natural to suppose that the disposition of the the original plan but Michael Angelo, to whom at his death
;

ancient St. Peter's of Home, esteemed at that time the most the undertaking was committed, concentered the discordant
magnificent church in the world, was imitated in that which parts. Michael Angelo died 1564, while he was engaged in
Constantino erected for his new capital, under the name of erecting the dome but he left plans and models, which were
;

St. Sophia. This last did not exist long Constantius, the
:
strictly adhered to by his successors, Vignola, J. del Porte,
son of Constantino, raised a new one, which and Fontann. who terminated the dome. The building was
experienced
many disasters. Destroyed in part, and rebuilt under the carried on under many succeeding pontiffs and at last, by
;

reign of A read ins, it was burnt under TTonorius, and re- lengthening the longitudinal nave, it acquired the form of
established by Theodosius the
younger; but a furious sedition the Latin cross ; in that particular, approaching to the original
having arisen under Justinian, it was reduced to ashes. This design of Bramnnte.
"
emperor having appeased the tumult, and wishing to immor- The general form of this edifice, externally, is an oblong,
talize hisname by the edifice he was about to erect, assem- with circular projections in three of the sides ; the plan of
bledf rom various parts tho most famous architects. Anthe- the interior consists of a Latin cross, the intersection of the
mius of Trullcs, and Isidore of Miletus, were arms of which is enlarged and formed into an octagon ; the
chosen; and
as they had the boldness to
attempt a novel construction, they head of the long aisles, and the ends of the cross-aisles, are
experienced many difficulties and disasters; but at last they terminated in hernicycles, and the great naves are accompa-
had the glory of finishing their nied with lateral aisles, and with several enclosed chapels.
design.
"The plan of this basilica
is a
square of about two The octagon centre supports a circular wall, enriched with
hundred and The interior forms a Greek cross,
fifty feet. and pierced with windows, above which rises the
pilasters
that is, a cross with equal arms the aisles are terminated
; magnificent dome.
at two ends by semicircles, and at the other two " Thus
by square we have traced the progress of the basilica
recesses, in which are placed two ranges of tribunals. The from the quadrilateral hall of the ancients, with its single
and the centre, where they intersect, forms
aisles are vaulted, roof and flat ceiling, supported on ranges of columns, to
a long square, upon which is raised the dome, of about one the cross-shaped plan, central dome, and vaulted aisles,
hundred and ten feet diameter. The dome, therefore, is
supported on massy piers, of the modern cathedral. It
supported upon the four arches of the naves and the penden- only remains to treat of the
 BAS 31 BAS
" Modern BASILICA. We
give this name, with Palladio, These terms are of modern date, and probably invented in
to the civil edificeswhich are found in many Italian cities, the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The Greeks denominated
and the destination of which is entirely similar to the antique relievo, or low-relief, by the term anaylyptu (Pliny, lib. 33,
basilica. c. 11,) and alto-relievo was distinguished by the word
"In imitation of the ancients, (says this celebrated archi- toreuiiceu, or rounded, (Pliny, lib. 34, c. 8,) although this
tect,) the cities of Italy construct public halls, which may
term was occasionally applied to any kind of relief. As
rightly be called basilicas, as they form part (if the habitation architecture highly indebted to sculpture for some of its
is

of the supreme magistrate, and in them the judges administer most elegant decorations, it will be proper to give some
justice. The basilicas of our time (he continues) differ in account in this place of the basso-relievos of the ancients.
this from the ancient that those were level with the ground, In point of antiquity, the Egyptian stands first a know- :

while ours are raised upon arches, in which are shops for ledge of their sculpture will be, best obtained from the writ-
various arts, and the merchandise of the city. There the ings of those who have actually visited and surveyed their
prisons are also placed, and other buildings belonging to the ruined edifices; in conformity with this, the following
public business. dillcrcnce is, that the modern
Another description from Denon will, perhaps, be acceptable: -"The
basilicas have the
porticos on the outside, while in the hieroglyphics, which are executed in three different manners,
ancient they were only in the interior. Of these halls, there are also of three species, and may take their date from as
is a
very noble one at Padua ; and another at Brescia, many periods. From the examination of the different
remarkable for its size and ornaments. edifices which have fallen under my eye, I imagine that the
"But the most celebrated is that of Vicenza; the exterior most ancient of these characters are only simple outlines, cut
part of which was built by Palladio, and the whole so much in without relief, and very deep; the. next in point of age,
altered that it may pass for his work. The body of the and which produce the least effect, arc simply in a very
building is of much greater antiquity, though the date of it shallow relief; and the third, which seem to belong to a more
isunknown. improved age, and arc executed at Tentyra more perfectly
"Time and various accidents had reduced this edifice to than in any other part of Egypt, are in relief below the level
such a state of decay, that it was necessary to think seriously of the outline. By the side of the figures which compose
of preventing its total ruin for this purpose, the most
: these tabular pieces of sculpture, there are some hieroglyphics
eminent architects were consulted, and the design of Palladio which appear to be only the explanation of the subjects at
was approved. lie removed the ancient loggias, and substi- large, and in which the forms arc more simplified, so as to
tuted new porticos, of a very beautiful invention. These give a more rapid inscription, or a kind of short-hand, if wo
form two galleries in height, the lower order of which is may apply the term to sculpture.
"
ornamented with Doric engaged columns, at verv wide A fourth kind of hieroglyphics appears to bo devoted
intervals, to answer to the internal pillars of the old building; simply to ornament: we have improperly termed it,
I know
the space between each column is occupied by an arch, rest- not why, the arabesque. was adopted by the Greeks,
It

ing on two small columns of the same order, and a pilaster and, in the age of Augustus, was introduced among the
at each side against tlie large columns, which leaves a space Romans; and in the fifteenth century, during the restoration
between and the small columns, of two diameters. The
it of the arts, it was transmitted by them to us, as a fantastic
upper portico of Ionic columns, is disposed in the same man- decoration, the peculiar taste of which formed all its merit.
ner, and a balustrade is placed in the archways. The enta- Among the Egyptians, who employed these ornaments with
blature of the large orders is profiled over each column. equal taste, every object had a meaning or moral, and at the
'This edifice is about one hundred and fifty feet long, and same time formed the decoration of the friezes, cornices, and
sixty feet broad; the hall is raised above the ground twenty- surbasements of their architecture. I have discovered at
six feet; it is formed by vaults supported on pillars, and the Tentyra the representations of the peristyles of temples in
whole is covered with a wooden dome." Jiffi.t G'i/clopu ilin. :

caryatides, which are executed in painting at the baths of

BASKET, a kind of vase hi the form of a basket, filled Titus, and have been copied by Raphael, and which we con-
with flowers, or fruits, or both, used for terminating a stantly ape in our rooms, without suspecting that the
decoration. Egyptians have given us the first models of them." Again,
BASSE-COUR, a court separated from the principal in describing the temple of Latopolis, Denon says, "The
one and destined for the stables, coach-horses, and livery- hieroglyphics in relief, with which it is covered within and
servants. In a country place, it denotes the yard where without, are executed with great care; they contain, among
the cattle, fowls, &c., are kept: it is called by the French other subjects, a zodiac, and large figures of men with croco-
menayerie. diles' heads: the capitals, though all different, have a very

BASSO-RELIEVO, fine effect; and as an additional proof that the Egyptians

(Italian; Bas-relief, French,) in
sculpture, the representation of figures projecting from a
is borrowed nothing from other people, we may remark, that
back ground, so as to give relief. It is a general term, com- they have taken all the ornaments, of which those capitals
prehending three distinct species of sculpture. Low relief, are composed, from the productions of their own country,
sometimes also called basso-relievo, is that in which no part such as the lotus, the palm-tree, the vine, the rush, &c., &c."
of the sculpture is detached from the .back ground high- : The most ancient and most simple kind of basso-relievos,
relief, or alto-relievo, is that in which the grosser parts are used by the Egyptians, were cut by recessing the grounds as
only attached, while the smaller parts are free mean-relief, : much as the projection of the figures, so that the surround-
or mezzo-relievo, is a term which some use for a kind of ing surfaces, by forming a kind of border, both threw a shade
sculpture between the two. Mezzo-relievo is distinguished upon the figures and defended them from injury, which they
from alto by having no part entirely disconnected from the were liable to, as the granite out of which they were cut was
plane surface, and from basso-relievo in having the parts of a very brittle nature ; by this means much labour was
most remote from the back ground, most relieved, whereas saved in the execution.
the latter has such parts least relieved. In the former the The Egyptians also employed basso-relievo without any
jutline is less, in the latter more apparent than the forms surrounding border, all the figures being raised from the
within it. same naked, such as in the palace of Karnac, and thoso
 BAS 32 BAT
described in the Bird's Well, of which there is a specimen in figures placed in an imperfectly lighted situation, they
would
the hall of the British Museum. The material is soft cal- be almost unintelligible, from the shadows which they would
careous stone, in very low relief. The outlines of Egyptian throw upon each other. On the other hand, the flatness of
basso-relievo, while obviated the projection of shadows
sculpture are ungraceful, and the execution shows a want
of it

the knowledge of anatomy it may be remarked as somewhat

: beyond its own surface, ensured the distinctness of the out-
and gave to the figures an appearance of rotundity.
singular, that quadrupeds are more accurately represented lines,
in their sculpture than human figures. Mezzo-relievo is only adapted for near inspection. The
The basso-relievos found in the excavations of the Indian temples of Theseus and Phigaleia, as well as that of Minerva,
temples bear a strong resemblance to those of the Egyptians,
were remarkable for the beauty of their sculptures.
but are inferior in point of proportion; the heads are too The basso-relievos of the Romans were, perhaps, at first,
large. Whether the Indian or Egyptian sculpture is the most confined to their tombs. They never attained a just
ancient is not known; but if simplicity is be our
to knowledge, or taste, of the art of sculpture. Their best
criterion, we would say the latter. See DanitlFt Ant, works were executed by Grecian artists, and are chiefly to
The Persians employed basso-relievos in their architec- be found in the triumphal arches, which are richly charged
tural decorations, as seen in the palace of Persepulis,
may bo with basso-relievos. The art attained its greatest perfection
and in the roval tombs. The
figures are arranged in hori- in the reign of Augustus, and was greatly on the decline in
zontal and vertical lines, and resemble the later hieroglyphics the time of Constantino. In more modern times, the Italians
of Egypt, though the dress is very different those of the : and Florentines are the only people who arrived at any
Egyptians being particularly distinguished by the hair arti- degree of excellence in sculptures of this kind; and even
ficially curled, the hood, the mitre, the close tunic, and apron they departed from the original purity of the Greeks, by
of papyrus; (he Hindoos, by the necklaces, bracelets, and attempting to express in their works the effect of perspective.
anklets; the Persians, by long hoards, and hair ending in We are indebted to Flaxman for the introduction of a purer
small curls, caps, and full tunics, with regular folds and large taste into this country his style may be considered as a
;

sleeves; the M'jdes, by close tunics. The drapery of the nearer approach to the simplicity of the ancients, than that
Persian figures is more natural than that of the Egyptians; of either the Italians or the Florentines.
but it cannot be inferred from this, that the figures themselves BASTION, or BATOON. See TORUS.
are of better sculpture, as instances may be shown to the BAT, a part of a brick.
contrary, in the obelisk of Sesostris, in the palace of Karnac, BATH, a house with accommodation for bathing. The
and in the Theban tombs, where the execution is not only ancient baths at Rome were very spacious and magnificent
more perfect, but the positions of the human figures more structures, and contained hot and cold baths, gymnasia,
varied. See Deiwti's Er/ypt, and Le JJniyii'.i Trucels. ambulatories, and even libraries. The most remarkable are
The Grecians excelled all contemporary nations in the art those of Agrippa, Titus, Diocletian, and Caracalla.
of sculpture, as well as in architecture and geometry the ;
The practice of bathing having been more generally adopted
numerous remains of their edifices show the perfection which in this country within the last few years, has caused various

they had attained in exquisite workmanship, beautiful pro- structures to be erected for the purpose. These, however,
portion, and easy and graceful attitudes. They profess to are but of small dimensions, and have little pretensions to
have had their first rudiments from Egypt, and this is com- architectural embellishment.
pletely verified in their first productions, which were similar BATTEX. a scantling of stuff, from two to six inches
to those of the Egyptians; however, the art did not
long broad, and from five-eighths to two inches thick. Battens
remain stationary; from daily observation, and a strict adhe- are employed in the boarding of floors, and also upon walls,
rence to nature, they advanced rapidly in the science, and at in order to secure the laths on which the plaster is laid.

last,by a knowledge of anatomy, it was brought to such BATTEN-DOOR. See DOOK.

a degree of perfection, that their remaining sculptures have BATTEN-FLOOR. See BOARIIED-FLOORS.
become the very standard of excellence, a criterion which BATTEXING, the act of fixing battens to walls, in order
the moderns have never surpassed, and but seldom to secure the laths over which the plaster is laid ; or, the
equalled.
Who can behold the sculpture in the pediments and friezes battens in the state of being fixed for that purpose. The
of the Parthenon, and other remains of Athenian grandeur, battens employed are generally about two inches broad, and
without astonishment ? three-fourths of an inch thick; they may, however, be of
The pediments of this temple were adorned with entire various thicknesses, according to the distances the several
and separate statues, although from their situation, and the fixed points in their length are from each other. Their
deep shadows cast by them on the tympanum, they must distance in the clear is from eleven inches to one foot.
have had the appearance of figures in The Previous to the fixing of battens, either equidistant bond-
high relief.
figures in the metopes were in alto, whilst those in the cella timbers should be built in the wall, or the wall should be
were in basso-relievo. This arrangement leads us to notice with its
plugged eqnidistantly, and the plugs cut off flush
the great judgment which the Greeks exercised in the selec- surface. In London, plugs are generally placed at the dis-
tion of the different kinds of tance of one foot or fourteen inches from centre to centre in
sculpture, according to the
nature of the situation they were intended to
occupy. We the length of the batten. Battens upon exterior walls,
find that,
they almost invariably placed separate statues, and quarters in partition walls, the ceiling and bridging joists
sculptures in high relief, on the exterior of their buildings, or floor, also the common joists
of a naked for supporting the
in such
places as had the advantage of the open light ; while, boarding of a floor, are fixed at the same distance, viz.
from
on the contrary, they reserved those in basso-relievo for eleven to twelve inches in the clear. When battens are fixed
interiors, where the light was not freely admitted ; and this against flues, iron holdfasts are necessarily employed
instead
they did evidently for this reason, viz. that in all situations, of bond-timbers or plugs. When battens are attached to
and under all circumstances, their sculptures a wall, they are generally fixed in vertical lines ; and when
might be distinct
and intelligible. It needs no argument to fixed to the surface of a brick or stone vault, the intrados
prove that
figures
in high relief are more
readily discernible, when the light is of which may be generated by a plane revolving about an
permitted to play equally on "all sides of them. Were such axis, they ought to be placed in planes tending to Ihe axis;
 BAT 33 BEA
as, in this position, they have only to be fixed in straight but were employed in the finish of subordinate parts they :

lines, in cases where the intrados is straight towards the are to be found in the decorations of the transoms of windows,
axis such cases occur when the vault is a portion of a cone
: as in those of King Henry the Seventh's chapel, at West-
or cylinder. When the intrados is curved towards the axis, minster. In this, and in every other case, they are propor-
the battens will bend very readily. Great care should be tioned to the architecture they accompany. The battlements
taken to regulate the faces of the battens, so as to be as employed in the florid style, were perforated in a most
nearly equidistant as possible from the intended surface of beautiful manner, with openings variously formed in sym-
the plaster. Though battens are employed in floors, neither metrical figures such are the latticed battlements, and those
:

the aet of laying them, nor the floor formed of them after- formed of The battlements used in this style
polyfoils, &e.
wards, is called battening ; they are more commonly willed of building, have not always their parts at right angles to
boarding. Every piece of masonry or brick-work, which is each other, but frequently the standing parts, or those which
not sufficiently dry, should be battened for lath and plaster ; form the sides of the openings, are raised in the manner of
particularly that which is executed in a wet season. When a pediment.
the windows are boarded, and the walls of a room not suffi- BAULK, a piece of timber, from four to ten inches
ciently thick to contain the shutters, the surface of the square.
plastering is brought out so as to give the architrave a BAULK-ROOFING, is when the framing is constructed of
proper projection, and quarteringa are used for supporting baulk-timber.
the lath and plaster, instead of battens. The like practice BAY, the open space in a window included between
is observed, when the breast of a
chimney projects into the the mullions, otherwise called a day or light. Also the
room, in order to cover the recesses, and make the whole quadrangular space between the principal ribs of a groined
side flush, or in the same surface with the breast. roof, across which the diagonal ribs are extended ; or the
BATTEK, the declension of a wall from the perpen- spaces between the principal divisions of a timber roof.
dicular: if a plummet be freely suspended from any part of The term is also applied to that part of a building situated
a wall by a plumb-rule, the line coinciding with the draught, between two buttresses.
and the bottom part of the rule only touching the wall, then BAY OF A BARN, that part situate between the threshing
the wall is said to batter. This property applies both to floor and the end of the building, used for depositing the

straight and circular walls. A wall may be made to batter refuse hay or the corn previous to threshing.
in any degree, by using a battering-rule, instead of a plumb- BAY OF JOISTS, the joisting between two binding joists,
rule that is, a rule which has the plummet draught oblique
;
or between two girders, when there are no binding joists.
to the edge of the rule which is to be applied to the wall. BAY WINDOW, a projecting window of a polygonal plan,
This obliquity is best calculated by the rule of proportion, viz. and from the ground or the basement of the building.
rising
if the whole height of the building batters at a given distance, See Bow AND ORIEL WINDOWS.
what will a given length of rule batter ? This distance being BAZAIl, or BAZAAR, among the Turks and Persians, an
found, the top of the rule must bo so much broader than the exchange, where the finest stuffs and wares are sold. Some
bottom, that is, reckoning from the draught to the edge applied are open like market-places, others are covered with lofty
ceilings, with pierced domes to give light.
to the wall, for the direction of the other edge is of no conse- In these, jewellers,

quence. this principle,

Upon even a body with a curved goldsmiths, and other dealers in the richest wares, have their
vertical section may be built ; but in this ease the rule will shops.
not shift if the
; building stands on a circular plan, it can only BEAD, in joinery, a moulding of a circular section, stu&k
be applied at the same altitude all round ; and to carry the on the edge of a piece of stuff, by a plane of the same name.
building to the summit, a new rule must be made at convenient Beads are of two kinds, one of which is flush with the sur-
portions of each successive altitude. face, and the other raised the former is called a quirk-bead,
:

BATTLED-EMBATTLED, is when the top of a wall and the latter a cock-bead.

has a double row of battlements, formed of a conjunction of BEAD AND BUTT WORK, in joinery, a piece of framing
straight lines at right angles to each other, both embrasures having the panels and stuck or run
flush with the framing,
and rising parts being double the lower part of each
; upon the two edges, which have the grain of the wood in
embrasure less than the upper, and consequently the lower their direction.
part of each riser broader than the upper. BKAD and QUIRK, is when a bead is stuck on the edge of
BATTLEMENTS, indentations on the top of a wall, a piece of stuff, flush with the surface, with one quirk only,
parapet, or other building. They were first used in ancient or without being returned on the other surface.
fortifications, and were afterwards applied to churches and BEAD and DOUBLE QUIRK. See RETURN BEAD.
other buildings, as mere ornaments. Their outline is generally BEAD and FLUSH WORK, in joinery, a piece of framed
a conjunction of straight lines at right angles to each other ; work, having a bead run upon every edge of the framing
each indentation having two interior right angles, and each which adjoins to each edge of the included panel.
raised part two exterior right angles. Sometimes the hori- BEAD, BUTT, and SQUARE WORK, a piece of framing,
zontal section of the rising part is a rectangle, while the having bead and butt upon one side, and square on the other.
bottom of the battlement, and top of the projecting part, Bead, butt, and square work is chiefly used in doors.
slope downward, so as to form an obtuse angle with the face BEAD, FLUSH, and SQUARE, a piece of framing, having
of the wall ; occasionally, however, the plans of the upright bead and flush on one side, and nothing but square work on
sides of the battlements form the same obtuse angle as the bot- the other ; chiefly used in doors.
tom and top of the rising part. At other times both vertical BEAK, a little pendent fillet, left on the edge of the
and horizontal sections are right angles, ornamented equally larmier, which forms a canal behind, for preventing the
all round with mouldings, or with a small square prefecture : water from running down the lower bed of the cornice.
when the vertical sides of the embrasures are perpendicular Sometimes the beak is formed by a channel or groove, re-
to the face, the sloping cope generally terminates with a cessed on the soffit of the larmier upwards. In the Ionic
torus or large astragal. In process of time battlements were temple on the Ilyssus, at Athens, the canal occupies the
not ((intined to crown the principal walls of the building ; whole breadth of the soffit, and so deeply recessed, that the
5
 BEA 34 BED
lower bed of the cornice is
wrought almost out of the height supports and two bearings here the bearers are the two most
:

of the recess. distant walls and the partition.

BEAK-HEAD MOULDING, a moulding used very commonly BEARING, at the ends of a piece of timber, in building is
in Norman architecture, consisting of ornaments of a the distance which the ends of that piece are inserted in the
on a simple walls or piers ; as joists are inserted at least nine inches in
peculiar character, placed at regular intervals
moulding. The ornaments may be described as grotesque walls, and the lintel or lintels of an aperture, nine inches at
least into each pier.
heads, some apparently of animals, and some approaching
the human form, but all invariably terminating in a pointed BEARING WALL, or PARTITION, in a building, is a wall
mouth, or beak as it were, whence their name. Although which rests upon the solid, and which supports some part of
such ornaments were very frequent, they were of very the building, as another wall or partition, either
transversely,
various designs, two similar ones being seldom found in the or in the same direction. When the supporting wall, and the
same moulding. wall supported, are both in the same direction, the wall sup-
BEAKINO JOINT, in carpentry, is when the heading joints ported is said to have a solid bearing ; but if a wall, or parti-
of the boards of a floor fall in the same straight line. This tion, isnot supported below throughout its length, it is said
word is not used in London. to have a false bearing, or as many false bearings as there are
BEAM, when used in a building, is a piece of timber, or intervals below the wall or partition.
sometimes of metal, for sustaining a weight, or counteracting BEATER, an implement in plastering, used by the
two equal and opposite forces, either drawing or compressing it labourers, for tempering or incorporating the lime, sand, and
to the direction of its length when it is employed as a lintel, hair together ; which make the
:
composition called lime and
it supports a weight ; when as a tie-beam, it is drawn or hair, used in first and second coatings, and sometimes, in
extended ; and when as a collar-beam, it is compressed. The ordinary rooms, even for finishing coats.
word beam is most frequently subjoined to another word, BED-CHAMBERS, or BED-ROOMS, are those in which
used adjectivcly, or in apposition, which shows the use, situa- beds are placed ; when very small, they are called bed-
tion, or form of the beam as tie-beam, collar-beam, dragon-
: closets.

beam, straining-beam, camber-beam, hammer-beam, binding- BEDS OF A STONE, the two surfaces which generally inter-
beam, girding-beam, truss-beam, summer-beam, &c. Some sect the face of thework in horizontal lines, or in lines nearly
of these are also used simply, as, collar, instead of collar- so the higher surface is called the
:
upper-bed, and the lower
beam lintel, instead of lintel-beam ; girder, instead of gird-
;
the under-bed. In the general run of
walling, they are the
ing-beam ; summer, instead of summer-beam. Lintels and two surfaces which are placed level in the building. In the
girders are almost constantly used alone, and brcssummers parapets of bridges they intersect the facing, most fre-
and joists are never used in composition. What is here called quently in lines parallel to the road-way, but are level in the
in old writers, termed wind-beam, strut-beam, In every species of
collar-beam, is, thickness. vaulting, where all the sec-
or strutting-beam. tions of the intrados of a vault are similar
figures, or parallel
A beam is either lengthened by building it in thicknesses, straight lines, the beds are those surfaces which intersect the
or by lapping or splicing the ends upon each other, and intrados in horizontal lines. Of this class are the heads
bolting them through. See BUILDING OF BEAMS and of circular domes, which have spherical or
spheroidal intra-
SCARFING. For the manner of strengthening beams, see dosscs ; vaults with conic intradosses, and vertical axes ;
TRUSS-BEAMS. and vaults with cylindrical intradosses and horizontal
BEAM-COMPASS, an instrument, consisting of wood or axes, &c.
metal, with sliding sockets, carrying steel or pencil points, BEDS OF A STONE, in cylindrical vaulting, are those two
used for describing large circles, beyond the reach of common surfaces which intersect the intrados of the vault, in lines
compasses. parallel to the axis of the cylinder.
BEAM-FILLING, the building of masonry, or brick-work, BEDS OF A STONE, in conic vaulting with a horizontal axis,
from the level of the under edges of the beams, to that of are those two surfaces which, if
produced, would intersect the
their upper
edges. Beam-filling occurs either between axis of the cone. The beds of stones, in spherical vaulting,
or floor-beams, or in
joists, filling up the triangular space are, or should be, parts of the surfaces of so many cones,
between the top of the wall-plate of the roof, and the lower
ending in a common vertex, as there are courses of stone.
edges of the rafters, or even to the under surface of the If the vault be a
hemisphere, the under beds of all the stones
boarding or lath, for slates, tiles, or thatching. This opera- in the lowest course or
planes, and the upper beds, form part
tion is necessary in garret-rooms, where the walls form sides of the surface of avery obtuse-angled cone. Inevery course of
of apartments; where the tie-beams are
placed above the stones, the conic surface formed by the lower beds is that
bottom of the rafters, and where the sides of the of a cone, with a more obtuse angle than the surface formed
apartments
are not to be battened and lathed for
plaster, in order to by the upper beds of the same course hence the cones of
;

straight the walls. Even in all other cases it is

preferable, every successive joint upwards, have their vertical angles
for the sake of comfort, to beam-fill the
spaces. continually less, so as to end at last with the axis itself. In
BEARER, a prop, or anything that supports a body vaulting with a conic intrados and vertical axis, the joints
in any place; as a
wall, post, strut, &c. In guttering, form the surfaces of so many distinct cones, which have
bearers arc short pieces of timber for the board-
supporting their vertex in the axis, and which have
equal vertical angles,
ing. and their surfaces equidistant. In cylindrical, or conic vault-
BEARING OF A PIECE OF TIMBER, the
unsupported distance ing, with a horizontal axis, the beds of the stones are in
between the two points or props from which it is
or the distance between two
suspended ; planes tending to the axis.
props where there is no inter- In arching, the beds are called
summerings ; but more pro-
vening support.
A perly, radiations, or radiated joints.
piece of timber, having any number of supports, one BED OF A SLATE, the lower side placed in contiguity with
being placed at each extreme, will have as many bearings, the boarding or the rafters.
wanting one, as there are supports thus, a piece of timber
:
BED MOULDING, that portion of a cornice which is situated
extended in length over two rooms as joists, will have three
immediately below the corona.
 BEN 35 BER
BEETLE, a large mallet for driving piles, and cleaving BEN DA. See FASCIA.
wood. BENDING, the act of the incurvation of a body from a
SELECTION MOULDINGS, in joinery, are those which straight to a crooked form. A
piece of timber, such as
surround the panels, and project without the surface of the a plank, may be very conveniently bent, by placing it within a
framing in doors, or other panelled framing. Belection long hollow prismatic trunk, opened only at one end for its
insertion ; the end through which it is introduced is then
mouldings are never stuck on the framing, which is frequently
the case with those which are within or below the surface. shut close, and the one extremity of a steam-pipe having been
inserted in a hole in one of the sides or ends of the trunk,
They are used in the best work of grand finishings.
BELFRY, that part of a steeple wherein the bells are all the crevices are shut, and the steam is admitted.

hung. This is sometimes called, by writers of the middle When the plank has remained for a certain time, it may be
age, campanile. Bells are generally suspended by means of taken out, and should be immediately bent round the convex
frame-work, which is supported on stone corbels sometimes
;
surface of an inflexible body, made on purpose ; when it has
however, the framing is made to bear on a recess formed in been properly fixed to the body, it is to remain till it is quite
the wall, which is the better method, as the vibration caused cold, or properly stiff, and it will retain its form after this,
:

it may be taken off and dressed, and lastly fixed in its

by ringing has less power to disturb the masonry. Bells for
the same reason should be hung as low as practicable. intended situation. The practice of ship-building proves
BELFRV, is more particularly applied to the timber-work, that plank- wood, of almost any thickness, may be brought
to any degree of curvature, by the effect of heat, which
by which the bells are supported.
BELL, of the Corinthian and Composite capitals, is the seems to mollify the cementing matter, so as to permit the
vase or tambour concealed beneath the acanthus leaves, or fibres to slide overone another. This may be effected either
other ornament: its horizontal section is everywhere a circle ; by boiling or heating ; but by heating, it is very difficult to
the bottom part rises vertically from the top of the shaft, and introduce a uniform temperature throughout the parts of the
proceeds upwards in a straight line to a considerable distance ; body to be bent. For thick planks a sand-stove, similar to
from thence it changes into a concavity, which terminates the sand bath used in chemical operations, is
employed ;
but
with the fillet, in the manner of the scape or apophyge. for thin planks, a vapour-stove.
BELL-COT, BELL-GABLE, or BELL-TURRET. A
small BERNINI, GIOVANNI LORENZO, born 1598, died
open turret situate on the apex of the gable of small Gothic 1680. His father, Pietro Bernini, a Florentine, was a painter
churches, generally at the east or west end of the nave, for and sculptor of more than common talents. Giovanni's first
the purpose of sustaining one or two bells. It is sometimes work in architecture was the great central altar of St. Peter's,
of an hexagonal or multangular plan, covered with a pyra- remarkable for its twisted columns ; its novelty, singularity,
midal roof, or spire, of which kind there is a beautiful specimen and the difficulty of its execution surprised, and had many
at Corston Church, Wiltshire ; it most generally, however, imitators. By desire of the pope, he adorned with niches
consists of a continuation of a certain width of the gable the four great piers which support the cupola of St. Peter's.
wall to a considerable height above the apex, the part above He was employed in the construction of the palace Barberini,
which is perforated with one or more arched apertures in particularly in that of the stairs, the great hall, and the
which the bells are hung ; above this again the roof is finished principal front. The front has on the lower floor a Doric,
in the form of a gable, and the whole is surmounted understood but the application of so many cor-
by a finial very well ;

or cross. Examples of such gables frequently occur; we may nices, and the great arched windows, do not add to the
instance an elegant one at Skelton, near York. Plain timber beauty of the structure. The front of the Propaganda Fide is
bell-cots of square plan and low pyramidal roof, are very also the work of Bernini that building threatened ruin,
:

common in Essex. to prevent which he erected a battering basement, which

Bell-gables at the eastern extremity of the nave were increased at the same time both the beauty and strength of
generally appropriated to the sanctus or sacringe bells, which the structure. Urban VIII. wishing to complete the front
was rung when the priest pronounced the Ter-sanctus, as of St. Peter's, which, according to the design of Maderno,
also at the elevation of the host. required, at its extremities, two steeples, gave the commission
BELL-ROOF, that of which the vertical section perpendi- to Bernini. He designed and executed the fine fountain of
cular to the wall, or to its springing line, is a curve of con- the Piazza Navona. For Prince Ludovisi, ho begun a great
trary flexure ; it being concave at the bottom, and convex at palace, which in its principal front presented five faces; this
the top. Abell-roof is of that kind of ogee-roofs, called the edifice was afterwards converted into a great law-court,
sima recta roof. called Curia Innocenziana, one of the finest palaces in
BELT, in masonry, a course of stones projecting from the Rome. Alexander VII. gave him many works to execute,
naked, either moulded, plain, fluted, or enriched with pateras among which is the piazza before St. Peter's. By order of
at regular intervals, which again may be either plain or fluted. this pope, he planned many buildings, among which is
BELVEDERE, or LOOK-OUT, is a turret, or some part of remarkable, the palace of Santi Apostoli. The very elegant
an edifice raised above the roof, for the purpose of affording church, of an elliptic figure, of the Novitiate of the Jesuits,
a view of surrounding scenery. This term is also applied to is likewise his. Louis XIV. and Colbert his minister, both
single edifices or temples, sometimes erected in gardens and admirers of the fine arts, ordered Bernini to make drawings
pleasure-grounds, used for the above purpose, as well as to for the palace of the Louvre, for which building the first

beautify the landscape. Belvederes are very common in Italy architects were stimulated ; these drawings pleased so much,
and France, and some of them are very magnificent the : that the monarch sent him his portrait set in gems, and
most celebrated is that*built by Bramante in the Vatican. wrote very engaging letters to the pope, and to Bernini him-
BENCH, the table on which joinery for the use of build- self, that he might go to France to execute them. In conse-
ing is prepared. See JOINERY. quence of which, though an old man, he left Rome, and went
BENCH-HOOK, a movable pin, passing through a mortise to Paris, where he was received as if the only man worthy
in the top of the bench, for
preventing the stuff wrought by to work for Louis XIV. When Beniini had seen the front of
the plane from sliding. the Louvre, by Perault, he said publicly, that his coming to
BEND. See BENDING. France was useless, where there were architects of the first
 BIT 36 BLO

class. This does more honour to Bernini, than all his

trait BITS are of various kinds, depending on their use :
abilities as an In fact, with regard to archfteeturc,
architect. Shell BITS are used for boring wood, and have an interior
the core.
which he was sent principally for to France, he did nothing. cylindric concavity for containing
lie made the king's bust, and during the eight months he Centre BITS, are those which run upon a centre in the
staid in France, he was paid at the rate of five pounds a day ;
middle of the breadth ; one extremity is formed into a cutting
and received at last a gift of 50,000 crowns, and an annual edge, which cuts the wood across the grain around the cir-
for his son, whom he took cumference, and the radius on the other side of the centre
pension of 2000, and a pension
with him, of 500. When he returned to France, in gratitude contains a cutting edge, the whole length of this radius, and
projects forward from the face
of the bit, so as to take out
to his majesty, he made an equestrian statue, which was
Clement IX. he embellished the core, which in the act of-boring forms a spiral.
placed in Versailles. Under Pope
the bridge of St. Angelo with an elegant iron balustrade. The use of the centre-bit, is to form a large cylindric hole
or excavation, having the upper point of the axis of the
BEVEL, the oblique angle which the two surfaces of a The centre of
body make with one another ; the name
also of an instrument cylinder given on the surface of the wood.
for taking oblique angles. That which is most commonly the bit is fixed into this point, then placing the axis of the
has the stoek mortised to receive the blade, which is stoek and bit in the intended direction, the head being placed
used,
fixed to the stock by a pin, and made to form any angle by against the breast, turn it swiftly round by the handle, and
that means: this is particularly useful when one or a few the core will be discharged by rising upwards. Centre bits
for the want of space, are of different diameters.
angles are to be taken. In some places,
this bevel cannot be applied to accommodate this circum-
: Countersinks, are bits for widening the upper part of a
stance, the blade is made to shift in the stock ; so that
either hole, in wood or iron, to take in the head of a screw or pin,
The blade so as not to appear above the surface of the wood. Counter-
part from the pin may be of any given length.
is made to pass through the pin by a longitudinal mortise, sinks have from two to twelve cutters around the surface of
and fixed fast to the. stock by means of a screw, after setting a cone, which contains a vertical angle of ninety degrees.
itto the angle When many things are to be wrought to the Countersinks for iron have two cutting edges, and those for
same angle, an immovable bevel should be used, particularly wood and brass, the greatest number.
when the blade, or stock, or both, are incurvated when the : Rimers, are bits for widening holes, and for this purpose
interior angle is used, tliis bevel is called a joint-hook. In are of a pyramidal structure, having their vertical angle
working the intradosses, and radiating beds of stone arches, about 3^ degrees. In the use of rimers, the hole must be
a joint-hook should be employed ; one of the sides is incur- first pierced by means of a drill or punch. The operation
vated to the arch, and the other straight side is a part of the of a rimer is rather scraping than boring. Rimers for boring
radius produced the workman must here observe, that this
: brass, have their horizontal sections of a semicircular figure,
hook will apply, whatever be the thickness of the stones. and those for iron, polygonal.
BILLET MOULDING, a moulding peculiar to Norman Taper Shell BITS, are conical within and without, with
architecture, consisting of small cylinders placed lengthwise their horizontal sections crescent-formed. The use of shell-
at regular distances in a concave semicircular moulding. The bits is to widen holes in wood.
entire moulding consisted generally of two rows or tiers; the Besides the above bits, some stocks are provided with
cylinders in each tier ranged in such a manner that one a screwdriver, for sinking small screws into wood with
cylinder should not come immediately above or below another, greater rapidity that could be done by hand.
but they were placed alternately so that a space was always BITUMEN, a tenacious matter, used in early Eastern
opposed to a cylinder, and vice versa. A
square billet, called structures, instead of mortar. The walls of Babylon, we are
also corbel-bole, is likewise found. This differs from the above, informed, were cemented with this matter. See ASPHALTUM.
inasmuch as the billets are cubes instead of cylinders, and BLANK DOOR, is that which is either shut to prevent
there is no
arc placed on a flat band, or on the naked walling, their passage, or placed in the back of a recess, where
usual office being to support a blocking course. entrance, so as to appear like a real door.
BINDING JOISTS, those beams in a floor, which support BLANK WINDOW, is that which is made to appear like
transversely the bridgings above, and the ceiling joists below. a real window ; but is only formed in the recess of a wall.
See BRIDGING FLOORS. When it necessary to introduce blank windows, in order
is
When binding joists are placed parallel to the chimney- to preserve the symmetry, it is much better to build the
side of a room, the extreme one on this side ought never to apertures as the other real windows, provided that flues or
be placed close to the breast, but at a distance equal to the funnels does not interfere, and instead of representing the
breadth of the slab, in order to allow for the throwing of the sashes with paint, real sashes should be introduced : the
brick trimmer for the support of the hearth.
panes of glass may be painted on the back.
BINDING-RAFTERS, the same as PURLINS. BLINDS, screens forming an appendage to a window, for
BIHD'S-MOUTII, an interior angle cut on the end of a the purpose either of excluding light, or of preventing persons
piece of timber, in order to rest firmly upon an exterior outside from seeing into the interior of an apartment. Blinds
angle of another piece. are made of various materials, and of forms too numerous
BIT, a boring instrument, so constructed as to be inserted and too well known need description in this work.
to
or taken out of a handle, called a stock,
by means of a spring. BLOCKING-COURSE, or simply BLOCKING, in masonry,
The general form of the handle is divided into five parts, all a course of stones laid on the top of the cornice, crowning
in the same plane, the middle and two extreme the walls. The blocking-courses were used by the ancients
parts being
parallel. The two extreme parts are in the same straight to terminate the walls of a building, as well as attics. The
line, one of them has a brass end, with a socket for contain- pilastrade of the arch of the Goldsmiths, at Rome,
is sur-

ing the bit, which when fixed falls into the same straight rounded with a blocking-course, the height of which is
line with the other end of the stock ; the farther end has
nearly equal to the breadth of the pilasters. The height
a knob so attached as to remain stationary ; while all the of that on the Colosseum is nearly once and a half of the
other parts of the apparatus may be turned round taken
by means pilasters, or nearly equal to the cornice and frieze
of the projecting part of the handle.
together: the same may be said of the amphitheatre at
 BOA 37 BOA
Verona. The blocking-course of the temple of Jupiter, at With reference to quality, battens are divided into three
Spalatro, is in height something less that the upper diameter classes ;
the best kind is that free from knots, shakes, sap-
of the column. wood, or cross-grained stuflf, and well matched, that is,
BLOCKINGS, in joinery, are small pieces of timber fitted selected with the greatest care ; the second best is that
in, and glued orfixed to the interior angle of two boards, or in which only small but sound knots are permitted, and
other pieces, in order to give additional strength to the joint. free from shakes and sapwood ; the most common kind
is that which is left after
In gluing up columns, the staves are all successively glued, taking away the best and second-
and strengthened with blockings ; also the risers and treads best.
of stairs, and all other joinings that require more additional With regard to the joints of flooring-boards, they are
strength than what their own joints will give. Blockings either quite square, plowed and tongued, rebated, or doweled :
are always concealed from the sight. in fixing them they are nailed either upon one or both edges.
BLONDEL, JOHN FRANCIS, died 1773, at Metz. lie They are always necessarily nailed on both edges when the
constructed the royal abbey of St. Louis, with a square and joints are plain or square, without dowels. When they are
street, leading directly opposite to the cathedral ; he erected doweled, they may be nailed on one or both edges ; but in
also the town-house, with a building opposite, and farther the best doweled work, the outer edge only is nailed, by
on barracks, with magazines over them. The fine front of driving the brad obliquely through that edge, without pierc-
the parliament-house, and the sumptuous palace of the ing the surface of the boards, so that the surface of the floor,
bishop, are also his works. lie showed no less ability at when cleaned off, appears without blemish. In laying boarded
Strasburg, where, in 1768, he took the plan of that city, and floors, the boards are sometimes laid after one another ; or
built there barracks for infantry and cavalry, a hall or otherwise, one is first laid, then another, leaving an interval
amphitheatre, with three tiers of boxes, a royal square, a something less than the breadth of three, four, or five boards
senate-house, a market, and various stone bridges. This in contact ; so that if the first and sixth boards are laid, there
celebrated architect, besides other works executed at Paris will be an interval something less than the breadth of four
and elsewhere, furnished the plates of the last edition of boards. Now place the four intermediate boards in contact
D'Avilen on French architecture, in three volumes, with six with each other, and the two outer edges in contact with
hundred plates of the principal edifices in France. These the edges of the first and sixth boards already laid. The space
three volumes were to have been followed by five others. left, as above mentioned, being somewhat less than the width
He established an architectural school at Paris, in 1744. of four boards, will not allow this number to lie flat, but will
In the middle of all this work, he became a writer for the cause them to assume the form of an arch, having the under
French Encyclopedia; but his great work, of universal parts of the edges in close contact, while the upper parts will
is the Course
utility, of Architecture, the result, as he says, remain open. In order, therefore, to bring them to a level
of forty years' experience and researches. The work is and the joints close, two or more workmen must jump upon
divided into three parts ;
the first regards beauty or decora- the ridges till they have brought the under sides of the
tion, and is comprised in two volumes in octavo, with the boards close to the joists, when they are fixed in their places
volume of figures ; the second treats of convenience or dis- with brads. In this last method the boards are said to be
tribution, and contains the like number of volumes; the folded. This mode is only adopted when the boards are not
third part, on the solidity of building, the author did not live
sufficiently seasoned, or suspected to be so. In order to
to complete. make close work, it is obvious that the two edges, forming
BOARD, a piece of timber, of an oblong or trapezoidal each of the three joists of the second and third, third and
section,and of any length. All timbers less than two inches fourth, fourth and fifth boards, must form angles with the
and a half in thickness, and more than four inches broad, faces, each less than a right angle. The eleventh board is
may be called boards. fixed as the sixth, and the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth,
When boards are of a trapezoidal section, that is, thinner are inserted as the second, third, fourth, and fifth ; and so on
on one edge than the other, they are called feather-edyed till the
completion. The headings are either square, splayed,
boards. Boards broader than nine inches, are called planks. or plowed and tongued. When it is necessary to have a
Fir boards are called deals; these are generally imported heading in the length of the floor, it should always be upon
intoEngland ready sawed, because they are prepared cheaper a joist, and one heading should never meet another. When
abroad, by means of saw-mills. Fir boards, one inch and a floors are doweled, it is more necessary to place dowels over
quarter thick, are called whole-deal; and those full half an the middle of the inter-joist than over the joists, in order to
inch thick, are called slit-deal.
prevent the edge of the one board from passing that of the
BOARDED FLOORS, are those covered with boards. other. When the boards are only bradded upon one edge,
The operation of boarding floors may commence as soon as the brads are most frequently concealed, by driving flooring-
the windows ara in, and the plaster dry. The preparations brads slantingly through the outer edge of every successive
of the boards for this purpose are as follow. They should board without piercing the upper surface.
be planed on their best face, and set out to season till the In adzing away the under-sides of the boards opposite to
natural sap has been quite expelled. See SEASONING OF the joists in order to equalize their thickness, {he greatest
WOOD. They may next be planed smooth, shot and squared care should be taken to chip them straight, and exactly down
upon one edge ; the opposite edges are brought to a breadth, to the rebates, as the soundness of the floor depends on this.
by drawing a line on the face parallel to the other edge with Boards employed in flooring houses are from an inch to an
a flooring guage ; they are then guaged to a thickness with inch and a half thick. The best floors are those that are laid
a common guage, and rebated down on the back to the lines with the best battens.
drawn by the guage. The next thing to be done is to try BOARDINGJOISTS, are those joists in naked flooring
the joists, whether they be level or not ; if
they are found to which the boards are fixed.
to be depressed in the middle, they must be furred up ; and See LUFFER-BOARDS, and LEVER-
BOARDING, Luffer.
if found to be
protuberant, must be reduced by the adze : BOARDS.
the former is more generally the case. The boards employed BOARDING FOR PUGGING OR DEAFENING. See SOUND-
in flooring are either battens, or deals of BOARDINO.
greater breadth.
 BOL 38 BON
BOARDING FOR SLATING, are boards nailed to the rafters whole length, so that by a turn of the knob-handle in the centre
for fixing the slates. They are in general about three- of the door, the bolts shut up and down at the same time ;
sides are and by turning the Contrary way the bolts are relieved, and
quarters or seven-eighths of an inch 'thick, the
most commonly rough, the edges either rough, shot, plowed both doors open at once, without further trouble ; these are
and tongued, or rebated, and sometimes sprung, that is, mostly used when it is necessary to lay two rooms into one.
beveled, so as to prevent the rain from running through
As these bolts are expensive, there are others nearly on the
the joists. Boarding for sktes may be made so as to
take same principle, denominated spring-latch bolts, about thirteen
the lateral from the by disposing the inches long, with a stout plate two of these are required to
:
away pressure walls,
boards in the form of a truss. Upon the lower edge of a pair of doors, one at the top, and the other at the bottom :
the boarding must be fixed the eaves-lath or board, and also each bolt is shut by a spring, against which the right hand
against all walls that are either at right angles to,
or forming presses, and being shut, both 'are secured.
an acute angle with the ridge, or a right or obtuse angle BOLT OF A LOCK, the iron part by which it is fastened into
with the wall-plate. The eaves-lath at the bottom is for the jamb, in the act of turning it by the key. Of these there
under row of slates which form are two kinds one, which, in the closing of the door, shuts
raising the lower ends of the
:

the cave. Those placed against walls in the positions now of itself, and is called a spring-bolt; the other, which is shut
mentioned are for raising the slates, in order to make the by the key, is called a dormant-bolt.

water run off from the wall, as otherwise it would make its BOLTS, are also large iron cylindrical pins, with round
way below the lead and down the joint, between the end of knobs at one end of a greater diameter, and a slit at the
the slates and the wall. Boarding for slates should be yellow other end, through which a pin or fore-lock passes, for mak-
deal without sap, which, as well as weather-boarding, is ing fast the bar of a door, window-shutter, or the like. These
measured by the superficial foot, and valued in the bill by are particularly called round-bolls, or window-bolts.
the square of one hundred superficial feet. BOLTS OK IRON, in carpentry, are those square or cylin-
BOARDING FOR LEADEN PLATFORMS AND GUTTERS, is sel- drical pins which pass through two or more pieces of timber,
dom less than one and one eighth, or one and one-quarter with a broad knob at one end, and a nut screwed to the
inch thick, most frequently with rough joints only. other, for securing them together. Bolts of this description
BOARDING FOR LINING WALLS, is commonly about five- must always be proportioned to the size and stress of the
eighths or three-quarters of an inch thick, plowed and tongued timbers so connected.
together. BOMON, in Grecian antiquity, an altar to a god.
BOARDING FOR OUTSIDE WALLS. See WEATHER-BOARDING. BONANNO, an architect who nourished about 1 174. He
BOARDS, Listed, are those reduced in their breadth by built the famous tower at Pisa, in conjunction with Guillaume,

taking awaythe sap-wood. a German. Felebien.

BOARDS, Lever, arc those placed in the opening of an aper- BONARROTTI, BUONAROTI, or B-ONAROTA, MICHAEL
ture made to turn on centres at the ends, in one movement, ANGELO, a celebrated painter, sculptor, and architect, born
so as to admit or exclude the air at pleasure. at Chiusi, in Tuscany, in the year 1474. His talents were so
BOARDS FOR THE VALLEYS OF A ROOF. See VALLEY- early developed, that he is figuratively said to have been born
BOARDS. a painter ; and his parents, observing the turn of his genius,
BOASTER, or BOASTING-TOOL, in masonry. See MASONIC put him under the tuition of Dominico Ghirlandaio, whom he
TOOLS. soon surpassed ; for at the age of sixteen he executed some
BOASTING, in stone-cutting, is pairing the stone with a pieces rivaling even those of antiquity. Under the auspices
broad chiseland mallet, but not in uniform lines. of that great patron of the arts, Lorenzo di Medicis, he estab-
BOASTING, in carving, is the rough cutting round the orna- lished an academy for painting and sculpture at Florence ;
ments, so as to reduce them to their contours or outlines, which on account of the troubles of the house of Medici, he
before the incisions are made for forming the raflels or afterwards removed to Bologna. At the age of twenty-nine,
minute parts. he was employed by Pope Julius II. to construct a grand
BODY OF A NICHE, is that part of the recess
which has mausoleum ; but before it was finished, he returned to Flo-
its superficies vertical. lower part is cylindrical, and
If the rence in disgust, on account of some pecuniary matters. From
the upper part spherical, the lower part is the body, and the Florence he would have gone to Constantinople, whither he
upper part is called the head. See NICHE. had been invited by the grand signer, to build a bridge from
BODY OF A ROOM where there are recesses in the ends or
: that city to Pera, had he not been prevailed upon to return
sides, the principal part, from which the recesses are made, to Rome by Soderini, the gonfalonier, or holy standard-
is called the body. bearer. This officer recommended him to his brother, Cardinal
BODY RANGE OF A GROIN. When two openings inter- Soderini, who introduced him to the pope, at Bologna. Here
sect each other, the widest is called the body range. See he met with an envious competitor, in the person of Lazzari
GROIN. Bramante d'Urbino, who had been employed by the pope,
BOFFRAND, GERMAIN, an architect born at Nantes, in and was unwilling to share his honours and profits with
1667, and died at Paris, aged eighty-seven. He built seve- another. He endeavoured to excite a spirit of discontent in
ral grand edifices, and executed a number of
bridges, canals, Bonarrotti, by insinuating that the pope was too much offended
&c. He also wrote on the principles of architecture. at his former conduct, to permit him to resume the building
jyArgenville Du
Fresnoy. of the mausoleum ;
and to the pope he represented, that as
BOLSTERS. See BALUSTERS OF THE IONIC CAPITAL. Bonarrotti was a painter, he might be more advantageously
BOLT, in joinery, an iron fastening for a door, moved by employed in painting the arch of the Sextine chapel, at Rome,
the hand, and catching in a staple or notch to receive it. than in any other work. It should seem from this, that
BOLTS are of various kinds plate, spring, and flush bolts,
:
Bonarrotti had not yet displayed those talents as a painter,
are for fastening doors and windows. with which he afterwards fascinated the world ; for it is cer-
There are also round bolts of various sizes, for large doors tain that Bramante, considering him as a dangerous rival,
and gates, and some curious brass bolts for folding-doors, meant nothing less than his complete disgrace. Bonarrotti,
which have plates set on the edge of the door, extending the however, though contrary to his inclination, painted the arch,
 BON 80 BON
BO much to the pope's satisfaction, that he was taken into give a due proportion to the width of the portico, the columns
greater favour than ever. are niched into the wall, an expedient never productive of
Pope Leo X. ordered him to make a design for the front of beautiful effect. About this time, he also finished the Far-
the church of St. Laurence, at Florence, for which also seve- nesian Palace, which had been begun by Sangallo. He
ral other architects had given a drawing, but Bonarrotti's likewise designed and executed the gate, called Porta Pia,
being preferred, he was sent to Florence to superintend the the architecture of which is not very regular ; of many other
gates designed by him, it is uncertain whether any
of them
building ; the vestry of which is reckoned among his best
productions. In this city he also built the Medicean Library, were ever constructed, but they are all of the same irregular
the niches and staircase of which are of very curious con- taste. The great central hall of the Dioclesian baths was
struction. converted into a church from a design of his ; as were the
On the death of Sangallo, in 1546, the pope, Paul III., chapel of the Strozzi family at Florence, and the college
of
appointed Bonarrotti architect of St. Peter's, at Rome, an the Sapienza. except the part where the church is situated ;
appointment which he at first declined ; but being vested it is upon tne whole a very fine edifice.

with unlimited powers for carrying on the work, he not only Old age having at length rendered this great architect
accepted it, but even refused any remuneration for his incapable of personal exertions, Nanni Bigio was secretly
labours. Sangallo had left a model for finishing the build- commissioned by the pope to superintend the building of St.
ing, which had cost 41 84 Roman crowns, and occupied some Peter's, but with strict orders to adhere minutely to the plans
years in making ; according to which the edifice itself could and model of Bonarrotti, who died in 1564, in his 90th year,
not have been completed in fifty years and upwards. The before the dome was completed. His body was transported
first use Bonarrotti made of his extensive commission was to to Florence by order of Comes de Medicis, where it received
set this model aside ; and in fifteen days he produced another, the most splendid funeral honours, and a superb mausoleum
for the small cost of twenty-five crowns, by which he pro- was erected to his memory, at the expense of the grand duke.
posed to raise that venerable pile with far greater facility and BOND, in building, in a general sense, is the manner of
expedition, and with more majestic grandeur, than the plans making two or more bodies fast together.
of any of his predecessors could have given it. The four BOND, in masonry, or brickwork, is the disposition of stones
great piers, by which the cupola was to be supported, had or bricks in building. It is a principle in every kind of bond
been erected by Bramante, but they were so very weak, that to prevent vertical joints falling upon one another. When a
succeeding architects had found it necessary to strengthen course of masonry has any number of stones placed at regular
them. Bonarrotti thinking them still insufficient for the intervals in the length of that course, and the lengths of the
purpose, he enlarged them to their present gigantic size, and stone placed in the thickness of the wall, and when there are
contrived to leave voids, like wells, in them, probably for the two or more intermediate stones in the same course, with
purpose of keeping them dry. Similar vacuities he left their lengths placed horizontally on the facing or surface,
in the principal walls, through which he carried a
winding between each two of the former stones this kind of bond is
:

staircase, so wide, and upon so gentle an ascent, that he was called header and stretcher. The stones which have their
enabled to convey materials to the height of the level of the length placed in the thickness of the wall are called headers,
arches on beasts of burden. The great cornice over the and those which have their longest horizontal dimensions
arches differs from the common cornice, in having less pro- placed in the exterior, or front, are called stretchers.
jection and fewer members and the imposts of the pilasters
;
Where masonry consists of rubble-work, and where the
have a greater projection. In each of the two curved extre- stones are not disposed in courses, the jambs of apertures,
mities of the transept, it had been intended by former archi- should there be any, are generally built with ashlar ; every
tects to place eight tabernacles, or altars ;
but Bonarrotti second stone in the height of each jam is inserted so as to
reduced their number to three, and threw an arch over them, pass through the whole thickness of the wall ; and the hori-
subdivided into a few well-proportioned compartments ; and zontal dimension on the facing of every intermediate stone is
to prevent any alteration in his
design by future architects, much greater than that of those which are inserted the whole
he built the whole so solid that it could not conveniently thickness. The stones that are inserted the whole thickness
be changed. He lived, however, to see the building carried of the wall are called heading jambs, and the intermediate
to the height of the tambour on which the
cupola was to be stones which have their length placed horizontally in the face,
laid, when, on account of his age, his friends urged him to are called stretching jambs.
frame a model of the dome, lest what he had BOND, Heart, in masonry, is, when two stones which
already done
should be spoiled by the incapacity or whim of a
succeeding appear in the front and rear of a wall meet in the centre of
architect. With this request he complied, and formed one it, and when a third
stone is placed over the joint, in order
of clay, which he afterwards caused to be made of more to bind the facing and backing together, where otherwise it
durable materials, by Giovanni Farnese. This model was would be expensive to insert stones the whole thickness of
universally approved, and finally executed in the pontificate the wall.
of Sextus V. While Bonarrotti was engaged in the build- BOND-STONES, are those used in uncoursed rubble walling,
ing of St. Peter's, the officers called conservators, in the that have their longest horizontal dimensions placed in the
time of Paul III., resolved to reduce the Capitol to a useful thickness of the work : these should be placed at regular
and convenient shape, which purpose they applied to
for intervals, both altitudinally and horizontally, so that every
Bonarrotti. He accordingly began the Senators' Palace, in stone of one row may fall between every two of each adjacent
the centre, ascended from without by a double row. Bond-stones that are inserted the whole thickness of
flight of steps,
landing on a level introduced between the two flights. The masonry are called perpends or perpend-itones. Bond-stones
wiug, denominated the Conservatorium, is entirely from his only differ from headers in this, that bond-stones are used
design. The ground-floor consists of an external and an to bind rubble and brickwork, and headers are laid in regular
internal portico, supported by
sixty-eight columns of the courses, with an equal number of headers between every two
Ionic order, surmounted with that
elegant capital, the inven- stretchers.
tion of which is attributed to himself. There is, however, BOND, English, is, when every two courses of bricks with
a great blemish in this
part of the building ; for, in order to the length of the bricks inserted in the thickness of the wall,
 BON 40 BOR
has one course between them, with their lengths placed chain-bond. The whole of the plate and chain-bond should
the courses in which be continued on one side of each internal wall, where the
horizontally in the front of the wall :

the length of the bricks is placed in the thickness of the wall, funnels or flues permit, as well as on the inside of the external
are called heading-courses; and those which have the length walls, and properly notched and fastened at the angles. Bond-
of the bricks placed horizontally in the face of the work, are timbers will, in most cases, prevent a building from cracking,
called stretching-courses. where the foundation is infirm they are easily executed in
:

BOND, Flemish, in
brickwork, is one header
that which has brickwork, or in coursed stone-work ; but in rubble-stone it is
between every two stretchers, and one stretcher between every difficult, as the work must be leveled at every height in

two headers throughout the same course. which they are disposed ; for which reason plugging is pre-
This is considered the neatest and most beautiful but is ;
ferable in such work. Plugging has one very material
attended with inconvenience in the execution, and in
great advantage over bond-timbers, that in case of fire, the walls
most cases does not unite the parts of a wall with the same are less liable to tumble or warp, for they are not reduced in
of firmness as the English bond. their thickness ; but this must be the case where bond-timbers
degree
Those who are desirous to enter into an examination of the are employed, as they form a part of the thickness of the walls
themselves. Bond-timbers should be avoided in damp situa-
comparative merits of these two species of Bond, will be
gratified in the perusal
of Mr. G. Saunders' Tract on Brick- tions, such as basements of houses, as they are liable to rot
bond ; it is sufficient in this place to observe generally, that and thus render the buildings insecure.
whatever advantages are gained by tke Flemish Bond in tying Within the last few years, a practice has arisen of intro-
a wall together in its thickness, are lost in the longitudinal ducing iron-hoop in place of bond-timber. Several strips or
bond ;
and vice To remove this inconvenience, in
versa. lengths of hoop are laid on at every four or five courses
thick walls, some
builders place the bricks in the core at of bricks, and worked in as bond-timbers are sometimes
an angle of forty-five degrees, called herring-bone, parallel to they are placed at intervals of three or four feet in the height
each other throughout the length of every course, but reversed of walls. It is pretended that great advantages, as regards
in the alternate courses so that the bricks cross each other
; danger from fire, result from this practice, but we are
at right angles. But even here, though the bricks in the strongly inclined to the opinion that whatever good may
core have sufficient bond, the sides are very imperfectly tied arise from the incombustible nature of the material, is more
to the core, on account of the triangular interstices formed by than counterbalanced by the absence of the same strength
the oblique direction of the internal bricks against the flat as that given by timber-bond.
edges of those on the outside. BONDS, are all the timbers disposed in the walls of a house,
With respect to English bond, it may be remarked, that as such as bond-timbers, lintels, and wall-plates. See FIR, in BOND.
the longitudinal extent of a brick nine inches, and its
is BONING, in carpentry and masonry, is the act of making
breadth four and a half; it is usual to prevent two vertical a plane surface by the direction of the eye. It is by boning

joints from running over each other at the end of the with two straight edges that joiners try up their work,
first stretcher from the corner, after placing the return whether it be in or out of winding, that is, whether the
corner stretcher, which becomes a header in the face that surface be twisted or a plane. Many country masons and
the stretcher is in below, and occupies half the length of this bricklayers level the tops of their walls
without an instru
stretcher to place a quarter brick on the side, so that the two ment, by boning them with the contour of the surface of the
together extend six inches and three-quarters, leaving a lap sea, where it is notapparently terminated with land on the
of -two inches and a half for the next header. The bat thus other side. This mode comes so near the truth, even though
introduced is called a closer. A
similar effect might be the building be raised a considerable distance above the sur-
obtained by introducing a three-quarter bat at the corner of face of the water, that the difference cannot be perceived
the stretching course, and then the corner header being laid upon the common levels.
over it, a lap of two inches and a half will be left at the end BONOMI, JOSEPH, an architect, born in Italy, and died
of the stretchers below, for the next header, which being in 1808. He was an associate of the Royal Academy in
laid, the joint below the stretchers will coincide with its London. He built several mansions and villas, and was
middle. esteemed an artist of superior ability.
BOND-TIMBERS, are those horizontal pieces, built in stone BOOTH, a temporary wooden building.
or brick walls, for strengthening the building, and securing BORDERS, are three pieces of wood which are generally
the battening, lath, and plaster also the horizontal mould-
: mitered together round the slab of a chimney, flush with
ings, or finishings of wood. the surface of the floor.
Bond-timbers disposed in tires, at altitudes corresponding BORING, the act of perforating a solid. For the purpose
to those of the horizontal mouldings, in the of boring wood, joiners use a centre-bit, nose-bit, shell-bit,
finishing of apart-
ments, as behind skirtings, bases, and surbases, are called and auger-bit, each kind of which is of many sizes. See BIT.
common-bond ; the scantling of which is generally four inches BORROMINI, FRANCISCO, born in 1599, in Bissone,
broad in the thickness of the wall, and two inches and a half diocese of Como. His father was an architect, and much
thick in the altitude of the wall, so as to be the Casa, or family of Visconti. Francisco
equal in thick- employed by
ness to a course of bricks. Bond-timbers
placed in or near the was sent, at an earlyage, to Milan, to study sculpture; and,
middle of the story, of eight inches wide in the thickness of at seventeen years of age, he went to Rome to be instructed
the wall, and five inches and a half
deep (or about the length in architecture, by his relation, Carlo Maderno, who also
and thickness of two bricks) in the altitude of the wall, are had him instructed in geometry. Maderno set him to take
called chain-timbers, or chain-bond. In brick
buildings, when fair copiesof his and made him execute the che-
drawings,
the lintels of a range of windows are either side of the small doors of St. Peter's, which,
considerably below the rubim on
ceiling, the lintels may be continued through the walls as with the drapery and festoons over the arches, are the only
bond-timbers in this case the thickness of the bond-timbers
:
works of Borromini's chisel. He delighted in painting, and
should be regulated by the necessary thickness of the lintels. some of his pictures are very good, among which is one of
When bond-timbers are also the wall-plates of floors or the fathers della Chiesa Nuova, in Rome. On Maderno's
roofs, their scantling is generally the same as that of the death, Borromini was made architect of St. Peter's
and
 BOX 41 BOX
remained a little while under the direction of Bernini but
;
essential feature in the construction, as they tended by then

becoming first emulous of him, then envious, and finally his weight to retain the voussoirs in their respective positions,
enemy, he endeavoured to get more commissions for work, and to confine the arches, so as to counteract any tendency
and in fact was employed in a vast number of buildings, to upward motion ; they formed, in fact, the key-stones of
where, trying to surpass Bernini in novelties, he laid aside the vault, binding the whole work firmly together. Bosses
the common rules, and bewildered his imagination and talents are used in other situations as ornaments to mouldings, &e.
in a labyrinth of extravagances. At the bottom of the Boss, among bricklayers, a wooden vessel in which the
court of the Sapienza, he built a church with a concave labourers put the mortar to be used in tiling. It has an iron

front, on a polygonal plan, with its sides alternately concave hook, with which it is hung on the laths or on a ladder.
and convex ; the exterior of the cupola, which is surrounded BOSSAGE, the projection of stones laid rough in a build-
above by a balustrade, has a similar figure ; the convex part ing, to be afterwards carved into mouldings or ornaments.
being formed into steps, interrupted by buttresses. But the Bossages are also projecting rustic quoins in a building, with
lantern is still more whimsical, having its vase in a zig-zag indentures or channels at the joints. The channels are some-
form, on which is erected a spiral staircase, sustaining a times square, sometimes chamfered, or beveled, and some-
crown of metal with a ball and cross at top. ITo.wever, the times circular.
greatest delirium of Borromini, is the style of the church of BOULANGER, NICHOLAS ANTHONY, an architect, born
Ban C'arlino allc Quattro Fontane. So many right, concave, at Paris, 1722, and died in 1759, aged thirty -seven. He
nd convex lines, so many columns upon columns of different became so eminent in architecture and mathematics, though
proportions, with windows, niches, and sculptures, in so entirely of his own study, that he was made engineer to the
small a front, cannot but excite pity for the derangement baron of Thiers, and afterwards appointed superintendent of
of the mind by which they were projected. The oratory of the highways and bridges, lie was author of some articles
the fathers della Chiesa Nuova, has likewise its front com- in the
Encyclopedia, and several other works.
posed of orbiculated and right lines ; where everything is BOULDER WALLS, are those built of round flints, or
deranged and out of order :
undulating corona;, which, pebbles, laid in strong mortar, used where the sea has a beach
instead of helping the discharge of the water, retain it; cast up, or where there are plenty of flints.
delicate mouldings under great weights ; mouldings of a BOUND MASONRY. See STONE WALLS.
strange and new form ; breaks only in the architrave of the BOUNDARY COLUMN. See COLUMN.
entablature ; prominences, contortions, and every kind of BOW, a part of some buildings projecting forward from
absurdity. There appears, nevertheless, in this building the face of the wall, and raised from a plan generally on the
a something harmonious and handsome, but better adapted arc of a circle, so as to form the segment of a cylinder. It

(as Bernini said) to a country-house or villa, than to the is sometimes, however, raised from a plan consisting of three
second edifice of a city.The flat arch of the oratory is sides, two external obtuse angles, formed by each two conti-
rather wonderful, being of amuch larger size than that of guous sides, and two internal obtuse angles, formed by the
Santa Martina, made by Cortona. Though it supports above wall and the sides which adjoin thereto. A bow. raised from
itthe weight of the great library, the wall of one of its larger a polygonal plan, with three, four, or five vertical sides or a
;

sides is not flanked with counterforts, but stands insulated,

prism so disposed, is termed a canted or polygonal liow. In
fronting the street. The habitation of these fathers of the some buildings the bow is carried to the whole height, in
oratory, is one of the best buildings of Borromini, yet it is others, only to one or two stories.
not without its whimsicalities, in the porticos and loggias of Bow, among draughtsmen, denotes a beam of wood or
the cloisters, supported by a single Composite pilaster the
:
brass, with three long screws that direct n lath of wood
tower of the clock is likewise mixtilinear. The best work or steel to an arch, used in drawing flat arches, or in pro-
of Borromini, is the front of St. Agnes, in the Piazza Navona. jections of the sphere.
The king of Spain, wishing to modernize arid enlarge his BOW-WINDOW, a window projecting from the general
palace at Home, Borromini was commissioned to do it; for face of a building on a curvilinear plan, and rising from the
which purpose he made a drawing, and though it was never ground or basement. See BAY and OKIEL WINDOWS.
executed, it gave such satisfaction, that the monarch honoured BOX, in its most general acceptation, denotes a case for
the author with the cross of St. James, and made him a holding anything.
present of 1000 dollars. Pope Urban VIII. likewise created Box OF A Biu-SAW, two thin iron plates fixed to a handle.
aim knight of Christ, gave him 3000 dollars, and settled an In one of the iron plates is an opening to receive a wedge,
annual pension on him. Part of the palace Barberini ; the by which it is fixed to the saw.
whole of the monastery and church of the Madonna de' Sette Box FOR MITKKINO. See MiTRE-Box.
Dolori, at the foot of San Pietro Montorio ; and the palace Box OF A THEATRE, one of the compartments of a gallery.
of Rufina, at Frescati, were built by this architect ; he also BOXINGS OF A WINDOW, are the two cases, one on each
modernized the palace Falconnier, and embellished that of side of the window, into which each of the adjacent shutters
Spada. Besides these, he executed many other works, and sent is fo'.ded, when light is require in the room. The leaves
to various countries designs of buildings, which produced him which appear in the front of each boxing, are denominated
fame and riches. Borromini was one of the first men of his front shutters ; and those in the back, are called back flaps.
age for the elevation of his genius, aud one of the last for In order to estimate the breadth of flaps, and the depth of
the ridiculous use he made of it. The frenzy which he had boxing-room; suppose each boxing to be filled with the
displayed in scientific pursuits, extended, as he advanced in shutters which are to cover half the breadth of the opening :

years, to moral objects ; and he at length died, a lunatic, by add the thicknesses of all the folds together, with as many
his own hands, in 1667. one-sixteenths of an inch as there are breadths, and the sum
BOSS, a projecting ornament placed on the intersections is the
depth of the boxing. Thus, suppose a window to be
of groins, usually carved in the form of a leaf or other orna- four feet wide, placed in a brick wall eighteen inches thick,
mental foliage, or, in the later periods of Gothic architec- let the sash-frame be six inches thick, and placed four inches
ture, richly sculptured with armorial bearings. Bosses were and a half from the face of the wall, or the breadth of a
employed in vaulting, not for mere ornament, but formed an brick ; this will reduce the wall to seven inches aud a hal.
6
 BRA 42 BRA
thick to this add the necessary thickness for lath and plaster,
;
a horizontal piece, and a strut ; but when the shelves are
about two inches, gives nine inches and a half for the breadth small, the brackets are solid pieces of boards, most com-
of the shutter nine inches and a half will be contained in
: monly with an ogee figure on their outer side.
twenty-four inches, or the half of four feet, twice, with a
BRACKETS in Gothic architecture are usually of very ele-
remainder ; therefore there must be three leaves or folds in gant design, and are mostly sculptured to represent angels,
a shutter, viz., a front leaf, and two back flaps. The front heads, foliage, and many other beautiful devices. They are
leaf should be necessarily the whole breadth of the boxing, used to support statues under niches, pillars which have
or nine inches and a half; and the two back flaps between their basis on a height above the ground, and for various

them, the remainder between nine inches and a half and other purposes.

twenty-four inches, that is, fourteen inches and a

half. The BRACKETS FOR STAIRS, are sometimes used under the ends
back flap should always be the least, in order that the shutters of wooden steps, next to the well-hole, by way of ornament,
for they have only the appearance of support.
may go freely into the boxing ; the middle one, therefore, may
be eight inches, and the back one six inches and a half, for BRACKETING, a disposition of small pieces of board,
+
9^+8 6^=24 ; but if the flaps are rebated into one another, equidistantly placed in the angles formed by the ceiling and
which is most commonly the case, whatever be the breadth the walls of an apartment, with their planes at right angles
of the rebate and the number of them, then so much more to the common intersection, so as to be partly upon the ceil-

ought to be added to the whole breadth. In the present ing and partly upon the walls ; their faces or hedges being so
example, the three folds will require two rebates ; let each arranged, as to touch any level line that is everywhere equally
rebate be a quarter of an inch, then, instead of reckoning distant from the wall or walls which may form the perimeter

twenty-four, it must be twenty-four inches and a half, and

as or circumference of the apartment. The level line equi-
no alteration can be made on the front flap, it must be added distant from, or parallel to the walls, will either be a straight
to one of the back flaps ; the three flaps may therefore stand line or curve, according as the walls are carried upwards

thus, 9-f-8+6J=24J. Besides this allowance in breadth, from a straight or circular plan.
there is another for the rebate at the meeting in the middle Bracketing is necessary in supporting the lath and plaster
of the window of the two back flaps; if this rebate be a of cornices and coves. The edges of the brackets to which
quarter of an inch also, it may be added to the shutters on the lath is fixed, are so formed as to be as nearly equidistant
either side of the window, or it may be divided in any pro- from the surface of the intended cornice or cove as possible,
portion between ; let it be equally divided, then the breadth and may be placed about an inch within the said surface.
of the flaps may stand thus, 9+8+6f =24f. To find Their common distance from middle to middle may be about
the thickness, suppose the front flap to be one inch and a a foot or fourteen inches. Small cornices require no brackets ;
half, the two back flaps each one inch and a quarter, then but in large cornices, and particularly in coves, they are
1+ + =
3 3
1^ -f- 1 i T 7T 4 j g-, for the depth of the boxing-room. If indispensably necessary, to save the plaster. In apartments
there is a back lining, that must be taken also into the account. formed by walls with plain surfaces, besides the brackets
When shutters are in many folds, they are troublesome to which are arranged at right angles to the line of concourse
shut, and this must always be the case in thin walls, or with of the ceilings and the walls, there are other brackets placed,
wide windows. To remedy this, the architraves are either one in each angle, in a vertical plane, bisecting the angle
made to project considerably before the plaster, or the lath formed by each two adjacent sides of the room, at the mitre
and plaster are brought to a considerable distance from the of the cornice, denominated angle-brackets.
rough wall. Let Fig. 1 be the plan of the end of the room, the internal
BOYLE, RICHARD, Earl of Burlington. Never was pro- side being ABCDEFGH,and let there be a break, c D E F,
tection and great wealth more generously and more judi- as the breast of a chimney. Let Fig. 2 be part of the plan
ciously diffused than by this great person, who had every enlarged, showing an internal angle at c, and an external
quality of a genius and an artist, except envy. He spent angle at D let N o p Q represent the face of the rough wall,
:

great sums in contributing to public works, and was known and B c D E the finish of the plaster ; then the space between
to choose, that the expense should fall upon himself, rather N o and B c, o P, and c D, p Q and D E will be the space for
than that his country should be deprived of some beautiful the battening, lath, and plaster. Let Fig. 3 be a section of
edifices. His enthusiasm for the works of Inigo Jones was the cornice, intended to be run by the plasterer, and let the
so active, that he repaired the church of Co vent- Garden, shadowed part be the form of the common brackets let i K, :

production of that great master. With the Fig. 2, be the projections or seats of the common
because it was the i K, &c.,

same zeal for pure architecture, he assisted Kent in publish- brackets, each equal to A B, Fig. 3, and let L o and M p be
ing the designs for Whitehall, and gave a beautiful edition of the seats of the angle-brackets ; L o being that of the internal
the Public Baths, from the drawings of Palladio, whose bracket, and M P that of the external bracket. Besides the
papers he procured with great cost. Besides the works on his projection beyond the finishing surface of the plaster, there
own estate at Lonsborough, in Yorkshire, he new-fronted must be added the thickness of the battening, lath, and
his house in Piccadilly, built As the lath terminates upon the angle-brackets,
by his father, and added the plaster.
grand colonnade within the court. The other works designed and as they require to be ranked in the same surface with
by Lord Burlington, were the dormitory of Westminster the edges of the common brackets, they are here made
school the Assembly-Room at York ; Lord
; Harrington's at double, or in two thicknesses. Let it now be required to find
Petersham ; the Duke of Richmond's house at Whitehall ;
the form of the brackets, either for mouldings, as Fig. 3, or
and General Wade's in Cork street. for a cove make A B, Figs. 4 and 5, equal to the projection
:

BRACE. See TRUSS, and ANGLE-BRACES. of the common bracket; draw B b perpendicular and equal to
BRACKET, a small support fixed against a wall to sustain A B, and join A b : place or draw the form of the bracket
anything. Brackets are composed out of various materials with the ceiling edge of it upon A B : take any number of
wood, stone, metal, &c., and may be made susceptible of any points, G, H, i, K, &c., in the ranging edge of the bracket,
at
ornamentation. the concourse of every two lines, or_in the curve, and draw
BRACKET FOR SHELVES. When the shelves are broad, G A, c, i D, K E, &c., perpendicular to A B : produce H c, D,
H i

the brackets are small trusses, consisting of a vertical

piece, K E, &c., to meet A 6 in c, d, e, &c., draw A ff, c fi, d i,e k, &c.,
 PLATE . I

Fit/. 2.

Enu'h, RT>*
 BRA 43 BRA
perpendicular to A b, and make A g, c h, d i, e k, &c., each reviving, and was not completely purged from barbarous
equal to A o, c H, D i, E K, &c., and join the points g, h, i, k, &c. intermixtures. In such an age the genius of Bramaute
if the ranging edge of the common bracket is made of straight could not but shine, and he retained his lustre as being
lines ; or draw a curve if the common bracket is a cove : without an equal in invention, as well as in execution, till,
then will A g, h, i, k, &c. to b, be the form of the angular towards the decline of his life, the superior powers of Michael
bracket, whether for the external or internal angle, and Angelo Bonarrotti bore away the palm of science, and the
g, h, i, k, &c., the ranging edge ; the parts G a and g h are voice of public applause. See BONARROTTI.
supposed to be within the finished surface of the plaster. When Julius II. obtained the papal chair, he appointed
Fig. 6 shows the bracket for an acute angle, and Fig. 7 for Bramante superintendent of his buildings, and employed him
an obtuse angle ; but except the quantity of the angle, the to execute his grand project of uniting the Belvedere to the
method of finding the forms is exactly the same as in Figs. 4 palace of the Vatican, by means of a magnificent court. In
and 5. The common bracket of Figs. 4, 5, and 7, is laid his turn, Bramante engaged the pope in the favourite design
down upon the ceiling line ; but that of Fig. 6 is laid down of pulling downthe church of St. Peter's, and erecting a new
upon the base line. In the common brackets of Figs. 5 and 6, basilica, after the model of the Pantheon, on a scale that
the projections and heights are equal ; but in Fig. 7, the should astonish the world. With this view, he made many
height B c is greater than the projection A B :the shadowed drawings, and used great diligence to produce one having
parts of Figs. 6 and 7 represent the thickness of the batten- two steeples with the front between them, as may be scon on
ing, lath, and plaster. Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11, show the ranging the medals struck by Corodasso, in honour of Bramante and
both for external and internal angles. See RANGING. his patrons Julius II. and Leo X. The plan was that of a
BRACKETING, for lath and plaster, is variously named Latin cross, and was well constructed, though of an un-
according to the figure of the ceiling which it sustains as :
equalled magnitude. Three naves were formed by means of
groin-bracketing, spandrel-bracketing, &c. In all cases the colonnades ; the principal nave of very fair proportions, and
brackets are so disposed, that their edges will be parallel to the whole productive of the finest effect. The cupola had
the surface of the plaster when finished the distance between
: the same dimensions with that of the Pantheon the external
;

the edges of the brackets and the surface of the plaster, is, steps were also similar. Indeed, the plan of the whole
in general, about three-fourths or seven-eighths of an inch, basilica bore a strong resemblance to the Pantheon, having
which includes the space for battening, lath, and plaster. See eight piers, between each two of which were two columns,
COVE, DOME, GROIN, PENDENTIVE, SPANDREL, SPHERICAL, forming three openings, or passages. This design being
and SPHEROIDAL BRACKETING. approved of by the pope, part of the old church was pulled
BRADS, in joinery, are slender nails without spreading down, and the foundation of the new structure laid, in the
heads, except a projection from one of their narrow sides. The year 1506. The building was carried on with great celerity
intention is to drive them within the surface of the wood, by as high as the entablature, the arches over the four great
means of a hammer and punch, and fill the cavity to the sur- piers were turned, and the principal chapel, opposite the
face with putty, and thus conceal them entirely. There are door, was erected, when death put an end to his labours, in
several kinds of them, as joiners' brads, flooring brads, &C. 1514, in his 70th year. The continuation of this work was
BRAMANTE, LAZZARI, D'URBINO, a celebrated archi- given to Michael Angelo Bonarrotti, who also did not live
tect, born at Castel Durante, (or according to some accounts, to see it completed. Bramante's successors made so many
at Femagnano,) in the province of Urbino, about the year alterations upon his original design, that scarcely anything
1444. The family of which he was a branch, was poor, besides the four great arches over the tribune can bo said to
though respectable, by whom he was designed for a painter : be his. His remains were interred in St. Peter's, and the
his early years were spent in the
study of this art, but his solemnity was honoured by the presence of the papal court,
taste and talents for architecture outran every other con- and all the professors of the fine arts in Rome and its neigh-
sideration, till at length he devoted himself altogether to it. bourhood.
He travelled first in Lombardy, and having made some Besides the works above described, Bramante constructed
observations on the cathedral of Milan, he went to Rome, a whimsical staircase, with the three orders of architecture,
where he executed some paintings for the church of St. John in the Vatican. The elegant circular temple in the cloister
de Lateran, which are now lost. His great care was to of San Pietro Monterio, though esteemed as one of his best
examine and measure all the precious remains of antiquity, performances, has many defects ; for instance, the doorway
both within and out of Rome he measured all that he could
: cuts into two pilasters ; the balustrade is a continued series
of the Villa Adriana, at Tivoli ; and in pursuit of similar of balusters without pedestals ; and the ornament at the top
objects, went even so far as Naples. of the cupola is clumsy and heavy. Out of the walls of Todi,
This devotedness to his favourite science attracted the Bramante built an insulated temple, encrusted on the exterior
notice of many patrons of the fine arts, and among the rest, with white stone ; the plan is that of a Greek cross, with a fine
of Cardinal Oliviero Carafla, who employed him to rebuild cupola in the centre ; and the whole has an air of being the
the convent della Puce, at Naples, which established his model of St. Peter's. In finishing the chapel within the basilica,
reputation. The work itself is not of the most exquisite he revived the use of the ancient stuccos. He made many
character, but it procured him the title of architect to his designs of palaces and temples, both within and without the
holiness Pope Alexander VI., there being at that time no walls of Rome, and began the palace, which was afterwards
artists of superior talents in the papal dominions. The foun- finished by Raffaello, with columns of brick covered with
plaster, then a new invention but this edifice was destroyed
tain of Trastevere, and another fountain, which
formerly ;

stood in the square before St. Peter's, were of his workman- to make room for the colonnade of St. Peter's ; and the palace
ship. He also had a considerable share in building the which he began for the Duchess Eleonora Gonzaga, wife of
palace della Cancellaria, the church of St. Lorenzo Damaso, Francis Duke of Urban, was never completed, owing to the
and the palace of San Giacomo Scosciacavalli ; all these, as deaths of both duke and duchess.
well as the convent della Puce, above noticed, are built in BRANCHES, are the diagonal ribs of a Gothic vault,
travertine, on the outside ; but their meagre style is a striking rising upwards from the tops of the pillars to the apex, and
evidence that in the days of Bramante architecture was
only seeming to support the ceiling or vault.
 BEE 44 BE1

BRANDRITH, or BRANDRETTE, a fence round the mouth BREAK-JOINT, in masonry or brick-work, is when two
of a well. stones are placed contiguous to each other, with a third
brass stone laid across the joint, so as to cover a part or the whole
BRASSES, sepulchral engravings on large or small
of the surface of both stones, in order to bind the work
plates, let into slabs in the pavement of our ancient churches,
with the
portiaying the effigies uf illustrious personages, together.
accompaniments of buildings, &c. The greater part of
the BREAST OF A CHIMNEY. See CHIMNEY.
The various colours for the dresses, BREAST OF A WINDOW, the masonry or brick-work which
effigies are as large as life.
forms the back of the recess and the parapet, for leaning upon,
armours, and coats of arms, in many instances, were laid on
in enamel, the attitudes well drawn, and the lines both of under the window-sill.
dresses and architecture made out with precision and truth BREAST WALL, a retaining wall at the foot of a slope.
of imitation. BRESSUMMER, or BREAST SUMMER, in building, ft
the greatest extension of a lintel-beam in the exterior walls, supported by wooden or
BREADTH, body at right
iron posts, or by brick or stone pillars, for sustaining the
angles to the length.
BREAK, a projecting part of the front of a building, superincumbent part of the wall. I?ressurnmers are used in
carried up through one or more stories in a vertical surface. the construction of shops, where it it necessary to have the
In its general acceptation, it implies only a part, which window as large as possible, and consequently the pillars as
stands forward in a plane parallel to the other parts of the small as possible, in order to give light, and show articles for
front behind the break or a cylinilrie wall concentric with a sale to advantage.
;

receding one, and in this it

comprehends not only the parallel Where breast-summers are used for this purpose, the
projecting face, but the two flank parts which join the superincumbent mass should be strengthened bv an arch of
parallel walls. The break therefore forms, with the receding discharge or otherwise, for, if not so, they will be found of
part or parts, two external and two internal angles. The great injury to the building through the shrinkage of the
term is, however, not restricted to this disposition of the timber. Where this precaution is not attended to, it almost
planes, or cylindric faces of the building, it mav also imply a invariably occurs that the brick-work above is fractured in its
bow, whether cylindric or canted. No break can be formed settlement, and in some cases to a very considerable extent.
unless it have at least one internal angle, or, if the building Cast-iron beams are occasionally used for breast-summers,
adjoin nn both sides, there will be at least two internal angles, but although they have an advantage in not being liable to
Small breaks, or those projecting only a few inches, never rot, and are naturally incombustible, yet they are by no means
add to the effect of the building. eligible for the purpose. Cast-iron should never be subjected
A building may have either one, two, or several breaks in to cross strain, as, although it may bear a certain weight
a front. When the disposition of the rooms naturally falls with safety, the least addition or disturbance will cause it
into the same plane on the inside, of the front wall, no break to break. In cases of fire, cast-iron is much less secure than
should be admitted, because, in this case, it can only project wood, for it soon becomes red-hot, and in this state, upon the
a few inches. Breaks only fritter away the parts of a small slightest contact with water, will snap asunder whereas tim-
;

building, and destroy the beauty and elegance which arises bers, if of sufficient scantling, are seldom entirely consumed,
from the simplicity of its figure hut in large buildings they
; usually ohlv charred on their exposed surfaces.
give the utmost splenionr to the design, provided they have Bressummers were a necessary part in the construction of
bold projections, and appear as distinct parts of the building, old timber buildings, where it was requisite to have them
so that if the other not only for binding the building together, but for the sup-
connecting parts be supposed to be taken
away, they would be so many insulated buildings, insisting port of every floor, and also of the roof. They were likewise
each upon a simple rectangular plan. The greatest effect placed at the bottom of the building as a foundation to the
would, therefore, be produced by giving each part or break whole structure, and called gills. See SUMMER.
its separate roof, termination, or covering. For this reason, BRICK, an artificial kind of stone, composed in general
breaks should either be left lower, or carried higher than the of earth and sand, or coal cinders, or ashes, well mixed toge-
ther, and tempered with water, then dried in the sun, and
7nain body, or the connecting
part or parts of the building.
When a break is carried higher than the connecting part or finally burned to a proper degree of hardness
in a kiln, or in

parts, it must have an entire roof, or uniform termination all a heap or stack, denominated a clamp.
round its four walls. The antiquity of bricks seems to be coeval with the first
In the ancient architecture of edifices after the Deluge; the tower and city of Babel being
Greece, the walls insisted
upon simple rectangular plans, and therefore had no internal built of them ; as also most of the early structures of Egypt.
angles, and consequently no breaks. The Romans indulged The Greeks chiefly used three kinds of bricks: the first
in sort was called &i6upov, bricks of two palms ; the second
buildings consisting of greater variety of parts than the
Greeks, and formed many of their principal edifices with Terpadonov, of four palms ; the third Uevratiopov, of five
breaks.
palms. Besides these, they also had bricks of just half the
When the upper part of a front wall is intended to be one above dimensions, used for making their work more solid,
continued plane, with a break or breaks in the lower and for giving an agreeable diversity to its appearance.
part or
story, the superior continued wall may either be supported The Romans began to build with brick towards the decline
upon a row of columns arched above the intervals in long of the republic according to Pliny, those most in use were
:

apartments, or with one arch, when the front horizontal a foot and a half long, and a foot broad ; which agrees with
dimension is small, and finished as above. the dimensions of several Roman bricks found in England,
Breaks in cylindric walls destroy the viz. seventeen inches in length, by eleven in breadth, of our
harmony arising from
the continuity of the
figure, and should thoreforo be rejected measure. Sir Henry Walton speaks of some bricks at
in every round edifice.
Venice, of which stately columns were built they were
:

BREAK-IN, among carpenters, is to cut or break a hole in first formed in a circular mould, and cut, prior to their being
brickwork with the ripping chisel, for the
purpose of insert- burned, into four or more sections; afterwards, in laying
ing timber, as to receive plugs, or the end of a beam, or other they were jointed so closely and exactly, that the pillars had
piece of timber. the appearance of being composed of one entire piece.
 BBI 45 BKI

For the purposes of building, bricks claim a decided The heat, as above stated, is produced by means of the breeze,
superiority over stone, not only as being lighter, and more but the quantity of this also must be regulated according to
easily worked; but also because their porous texture facili-
the nature of the clay you have to use ; if it contains a large
tates their union with the mortar, and makes them less liable quantity of sand, less breeze will be required, not only to
to attract or retain damp and moisture. prevent the silica from running, but also because silica con-
In England, the mould in which bricks are formed, is ten tains a large portion of oxygen :
should, however, the clay
inches in length, by five in breadth ; the bricks when burned contain a free proportion of lime, more breeze will be required,
are about nine inches long, four inches and a half broad, and for the reason that lime has but little oxygen in its compo-
two inches and a half thick. The degree of shrinkage, how- sition. Thus it will be seen how impracticable it is to lay

ever, various, according to the purity and temper of the

is down any general rule in this case ; the proportion of each
clay, and the intensity of the heat to which it is exposed in ingredient to be added, can only be detennined by careful
the burning. observations in individual instances.
The earth selected for brick-making should be of the Every stony particle should be carefully cleared out of the
purest kind ; though indeed bricks may be made of any kind earth, before the workman begins his operation of tempering ;
of earth that is free from stones, and even of sea-ooze ; but it should then be well trodden or beat, and frequently turned

it is not every soil that will burn red, which is a property over, with the addition of as little water as possible, till the
In this soil and ashes, or sand, are so completely incorporated
peculiar to earths containing ferruginous particles.
country, bricks are chiefly made either of stiff clay, or of a as to form a paste of a tough viscous substance. If in
this operation too much water be used, the paste will become
hazelly-yellowish-coloured fat earth, commonly called loam.
The former produces hard red bricks, incapable of rubbing almost as dry and brittle as the soil of which it is composed ;
or cutting ; the latter is mostly found near London, and gives but by a judicious management, as to the quantity of water,
a neat gray-coloured brick, which yields freely to the axe and the mode of administering it, the bricks become smooth,
and rubbing-stone, though equally durable with the harder solid, and durable.
red brick made in more distant parts. The earth, of what- For the preparation or tempering of the soil, the workman
ever quality, should be dug in the autumn, and suffered to is provided with a
long hoe, in form like a mattock, a shovel,
remain in a heap till the next spring, that it may be well and a scoop. The hoc is for pulling down the soil from the
penetrated by the air, and particularly by the winter's frosts, great heap, which is then chopped backwards with the shovel,
which by pulverizing the more tenacious particles, greatly in order to turn it as often as may be necessary, and to
assist the operations of mixing and tempering. Indeed, for incorporate the ashes, or sand, and soil, thoroughly together.
the best bricks, two or three years will not be found too long The use of the scoop is for throwing water over the portion
to submit the earth to the action of the atmosphere, in order so pulled down with the hoe, to bring it to a more ductile
to render it free in the working. In making up this heap state, and render it easier for tempering. When the mass
for the season, the soil and ashes or sand are to be laid in mixed, it is removed in barrows to the pugmill.
is sufficiently
alternate layers, or strata; each stratum containing such This mill consists principally of a strong barrel, firmly fixed
a quantity as the stiffness of the soil may admit or require. on two transverse beams, having in its centre a vertical bar,
For making such bricks as will stand the fiercest fires,
kept in position by two shoulders attached to the sides of the
Sturbridge clay and Windsor loam are esteemed the best. barrel, and working on the transverse beams at their inter-
In tempering the earth, much judgment is required as to section as on a pivot. On the top of this bar is placed
the quantity of sand to be thrown into the mass, for too a horizontal beam, by means of perpendiculars suspended
much renders the bricks heavy and brittle, and too little from which, the horse is attached. On that part of the bar
leaves them liable to shrink and crack in the burning. The which is within the barrel, is fixed several iron knives, by
Ixmdon practice of mixing sea-coal ashes, and in the country the revolution of which the masticated clay is forced through
of adding light sandy earth to the loam, not only makes it work a hole in the bottom of the barrel, when it is cut off in pieces
easy and with greater expedition, but tends also to save fuel. with a " cuck-hold," or concave shovel, and laid on one side.
With reference to the proportion which should be observed A quantity of sand is then thrown over it, and it
is kept for
in mixing the different ingredients, it is impossible to lay use under a covering of sacking or matting, to preserve it
down any fixed rules, as such proportion must entirely from the sun and air.
depend upon the particular quality of the materials employed. The moulding-table is placed under a movable shed, and
The principal of these consist of clay, marl, and loam, with is strewed with dry sand. A boy, with the cuck-hold, cuts
the admixture of sand, chalk, breeze, &c. We shall here off as much as he can carry in his arms, from the prepared
give the particular uses to which the accessories are applied, mass, and brings it to the table, where a girl receives it, and
but must leave it entirely to individual instances to determine rolls out a lump rather larger than the mould will contain.
in what manner each of them must be made use of. The The moulder receives this lump from the girl, throws it into
clay of course is the principal matter, and forms the body of his mould, previously dipped in dry sand, and with a flat
the brick, but before this can be made available for building, smooth stick, about eight inches long, kept for the purpose
it has to be
agglutinated together by means of sand vitrified in a pan of water, strikes off the overplus of the soil he then
:

by heat. Clay is composed for the most part of alumina turns the brick out of the mould upon a thin board, rather
and silica combined with a small quantity of lime, and occa- is removed by a boy,
larger than the brick, upon which it
sionally of magnesia and alkali. Usually speaking, clay and placed on a light barrow, having a lattice-work frame
requires additional sand to be used as a flux, but it happens raised about three feet above the wheel, and about eighteen
sometimes to contain sufficient in itself; when this is the inches at the handles, forming an inclined plane. On this
case, no addition of course will be required. If the silica lattice-frame the new-made bricks are laid, and sand is thrown
be in excess, it will on the contrary require the addition of over them, to prevent their sticking to each other, as well
some dry substance to hold the mass together, as otherwise as to preserve them in a certain from cracking in
degree
the silica will fuse and run when under the action of great
drying on the hacks. for drying, are each wide
The hacks
heat ; for this purpose the chalk is used : if, however, too
enough for two bricks to be placed edgeways across, with a
much be added, the bricks will become porous and friable. passage between th heads, for the admission of air, to
 BRI 46 BRI

facilitate the circulation of which, the bricks are generally motion, the soil, as prepared in the heap in the ordinary
laid in a diagonal direction. The hacks are usually carried manner, is brought in barrows, and distributed regularly
the bottom bricks at the ends are com- round the recess, with the addition of a sufficient quantity of
eight bricks high ;
water the horse then moves on, and drags the harrow, which
monly old ones. ;

forces its way into the soil, admits the water into it, and by
In showery weather, the bricks on the hacks are to be
carefully covered with wheat or rye straw, to keep them dry ; tearing and separating its particles, not only mixes the ingre-
unless sheds or roofs be erected over the hacks, as is done dients, but also affords an opportunity for stones and other
in some country places but in London this is impracticable,
; heavy substances to fall to the bottom. Fresh soil and water
from the very great extent of the grounds. continue to be added till the recess is full.
In fine weather the bricks will be dry enough for turning, On one side of the recess, and as near to it as possible,
in a few days ; in doing which they are reset more open a hollow square is prepared, about 18 inches or two feet
than at first and in six or eight days more they will be
; deep. The soil being sufficiently harrowed and purified,
and reduced to a kind of liquid paste, is ladled out of the
ready for burning.
The best bricks, that is, those made of the best materials, recess, and by means of wooden troughs conveyed into this
and well tempered, as they are harder and more ponderous, so square pit care being taken to leave the sediment behind,
;

they require half as much more earth, and longer time for which is afterwards to be cleared out and thrown on the sides
drying and burning, than the common sort, which are light,
of the recess. The fluid soil diffuses itself over the hollow
spongy, and full of cracks. The well drying of bricks before square, or pit, where it settles of an equal thickness, and
they are burned, prevents their cracking and crumbling in remains till wanted for use, the superfluous water being either
the kiln or clamp. drained away or evaporated, by exposure to the atmosphere.
In the vicinity of London, bricks are commonly burned When one of these square pits is full, another is made by its
in clamps ; farther in the country it is the custom to burn side, and so on progressively, till as much soil is prepared as
them in kilns. In building the clamps, the bricks are laid is
likely to be wanted for the season.
after the manner of arches in the kilns, with a vacancy In the country bricks are always burned in kilns, whereby
between every two bricks, for the fire to play through ; yet much waste is prevented, less fuel consumed, and the bricks
with this difference, that instead of arching, the vacuity for are more expeditiously burned. A kiln is usually thirteen
the fuel is spanned over, by making the layers project one feet long, by tenfeet six inches wide, about twelve feet in
over the other from each side, till they meet at top. The height, and will burn 20,000 bricks at a time. The walls are
flue is about the width of a brick, carried up straight on both about one foot two inches thick, and incline inward towards
sides about three feet ; it is then nearly filled with dry bavins, the top, so that the area of the upper part is not more than
or wood, on which is laid a covering of sea-coal and cinders 1 14
square feet. The bricks are set on flat arches, having
(or breeze, as they are called) ; the arch is then overspanned,
holes left between them resembling lattice-work. The bricks
and layers of breeze are strewed over the clamp, as well as being set in the kiln, and covered with pieces of broken bricks
between the rows of bricks. or tiles, some wood is put in and kindled, to dry them gra-
When the clamp is about the width of six feet, another dually ; this is continued till the bricks are pretty dry, which
is known
flue is made, in every respect similar to the first ; this is by the smoke turning from a darkish to a trans-
repeated at every distance of six feet, throughout the whole parent colour. The burning then takes place, and is effected
clamp, which when completed, is surrounded with old bricks, by putting in brushwood, furze, heath, fagots, &c., but
if there be any on the grounds, if not, with some of the before these are put in, the mouths of the kiln are stopped
driest unbaked ones, that have been reserved for the purpose. with pieces of brick, called shinlog, piled one upon another,
On the top of all, a thick layer of breeze is laid. The wood and closed over with wet brick earth. This shinlog is carried
is then kindled, which
gives fire to the coal ; and when all is just high enough to leave room sufficient to thrust in a fagot
consumed, which will be in about twenty or thirty days at a time ; the fire is then made up, and continued till the
if the weather be tolerable, the bricks are concluded to be arches assume a whitish appearance, and the flames appear
sufficiently burned. Should there be no immediate hurry through the top of the kiln ; upon which the fire is slackened,
for the bricks, the flues may be placed nine feet and the kiln cools by degrees. This process is continued, alter-
asunder,
and the fuel left to burn slowly. nately heating and slackening, till the bricks are thoroughly
If the fire in the clamp burns well, the mouths of the flues burned, which is generally in the space of forty-eight hours.
are stopped with old bricks, plastered over with clay. The The practice of steeping bricks in water after they have
outside of the whole clamp is also plastered with
clay, if the been once burned, and then burning them again, renders
weather be precarious, or if the fire burn too furiously ; and them more than doubly durable. Ooldham.
against any side particularly exposed to the rain, &c., screens Many attempts have been made to introduce machinery in
are laid, made of reeds worked into frames about six feet the practice of brickmaking, but with little success, as is evi-
high, and wide to be moved about with ease.
sufficiently dent from the old practice continuing so general in use.
This the ordinary method of
manufacturing common The most usual varieties of bricks consist of marls, stocks,
is

gray-stocks. But washed malms, or marls, are made with still and place-bricks, but there is very little difference in the
greater attention. A
circular recess is built, about four feet manufacture. Marls are prepared and tempered with the
high, and from ten to twelve feet in diameter, paved at the greatest care ; but the construction of the clamp
for burning
bottom, with a horse-wheel placed in its centre, from which them is similar to that for other bricks, though more caution
a beam extends to the outside, for the horse to turn it
required not to overheat them, and to
is see that the fire
by.
The earth is then raised to a level with the burn equally and diffusively throughout the clamp or kiln.
top of the recess,
on which a platform is laid, for the horse to walk The finest marls, called firtts, are selected as cutting bricks,
upon. This
mill is always placed as near a well oj for arches of doorways, windows, and quoins; for which
spring as possible, and
a pump is set up, to supply it with water. A
harrow, made purpose they are rubbed to their proper dimensions and form.
to fit the interior of the recess, thick-set with The next best, termed seconds, are used for principal fronts
long iron teeth,
and well loaded, is chained to the beam of the wheel, to which The cleanly pale yellow colour of marls, added to their smooth
the horse is harnessed. Previously to texture and superior durability, give them a pre-eminence
putting the machine in
 BRI 47 BRI

above other sorts of bricks. Gray-stocks are somewhat like from post to post, are disposed so as to form the brickwork
the seconds, but of an inferior quality. Place-bricks, some- between every two posts or quarters, into several compart-
times called peckings, sandal, or samel-bricks, are such as, ments in the height of the story ; each piece being inserted
from being outside in a kiln or clamp, have not been thoroughly between two courses of bricks, with its edges flush with the
burned, and are consequently soft, of a more uneven texture, faces of the wall.
and a red colour. There are also burrs, or clinker-bricks, BRICK AND STUD. See BRICK-NOGGING.
such as from being too violently acted upon by the fire, have BRICK-KILN, a building erected in the form of the frustum
vitrified in the kiln, and sometimes several are found run of a cone, for the purpose of burning bricks.
together. BRICKLAYER, a workman who builds with bricks.
Red-stocks are made in the country, and burned in kilns. His business, in London, includes walling, tiling, and paving
They owe their colour to the nature of the clay of which with bricks or tiles; some jobbing-masters also under-
they are formed, which is always used tolerably pure. The take plastering. Country bricklayers unite bricklaying,
best sort are used as cutting bricks, and are called red- plastering, and not unfrequently masonry. The bricklayer's
rubbers. In old buildings they are frequently to be seen, materials are bricks, tiles, mortar, laths, nails, and tile-pins ;
ground to a fine smooth surface, and set in putty, instead of with which he is supplied while at work by a labourer, who
mortar, as ornaments over arches, windows, doorways, &c. likewise makes the mortar.
Though many very beautiful specimens of red brickwork are Bricklayers form a very numerous body of artisans in this
to be met with, yet these bricks can seldom be judiciously used country. Agood workman can lay 1,500 bricks daily in
for the front-walls of buildings. The colour is much too walls. His wages in London are from five to six shillings
heavy, and in summer conveys an unpleasant idea of heat to a day. The immense demand for bricklayers caused by the
the mind ; to which may be added, that as in the fronts extensive works connected with railways, and the great
of most buildings of any consequence, more or less of stone- increase of building operations in the last few years, have
work is introduced, there is something harsh in the contrast enabled good workmen to command almost any amount of
between the red bricks and the cold colour of the stones ; and wages.
even where no stone is employed, there is always some wood BRICKLAYERS, in London, are, by a charter granted in
used, which being painted white, by no means lessens the 1568, a corporate company, consisting of a master, two war-
objection. Gray-stocks match so much better with the colour dens, twenty assistants, and seventy-eight on the livery.
both of stone and paint, that they have obtained a universal BRICKLAYING, BRICKWORK, the art of building
preference in London and its immediate vicinity. or erecting walls or edifices with bricks, cemented together
At Hedgerly, a village nearWindsor, red bricks, about with mortar, cement, &c. For the materials, &c., used in
one inch and a half thick, of a very firm texture, are made ; this business, see the articles BRICK, BRICKLAYER, MORTAR,
they will stand the greatest violence of fire, and are called TILES, CEMENT, &c.
Windsor bricks, and sometimes fire-bricks. The first thing to be attended to, in bricklaying, is to dig
Bricks for paving are of the same dimensions with Windsor trenches for the foundations, after which the ground must be
bricks, viz., nine inches long, four inches and a half broad, tried with an iron crow, or rammer, to see that it is sound :
and one inch and a half thick. Besides these, there are what if it appear to shake, it must be bored with a well-sinker's
are called paving-tiles, which are made of stronger clay, of tool, in order to ascertain whether the shake be local or
a red colour. The largest are about twelve inches square, general. If the soil prove generally firm, the looser parts, if
and one inch and a half thick ; the next size, though called not very deep, may be dug up till a solid bed be got at, on
ten-inch tiles, are about nine inches square, and one inch and which a pier or piers may be built, as hereafter described ;
a quarter thick. See TILES. if the
ground be not very loose, it may be made good by
Besides the foregoing varieties, the following are worth ramming into it large stones, close packed together, or dry
notice, though some of them are not much in use: 1. The brick rubbish, of a breadth at the bottom proportioned to the
ordinary Paris brick is eight inches long, four inches broad, intended insisting weight; but if the ground be very bad,
and two inches thick, French measure, which makes them it must be
piled and planked, to ensure the safety of the
rather larger than ours. 2. Buttress, or plaster bricks, made structure.
with a notch at one end, half the length of the brick ; used In building upon an inclined plane, or rising ground, the
for binding work built with great bricks. 3. Capping bricks, foundation ought to rise with the inclination of the ground,
used for the purpose which their name denotes. 4. Great in a series of level steps, which will ensure a firm bed for
bricks, used in fence walls, are twelve inches long, six inches the courses, and prevent them from sliding, as they would be
broad, and three thick. 5. Cogging bricks, for making the apt to do if built on inclined planes ; and in wet seasons the
indented works under the capping of walls built with great moisture in the foundation would induce the inclined parts
bricks. 6. Compass bricks, of a circular form, for steyning to descend towards the lowest parts, to the manifest danger
wells. 7. Concave, or hollow bricks, made flat on one side, oi fracturing the walls, and destroying the building.
like an oi'dinary brick, ajid hollowed on the other side ; used When the ground proves loose to a great depth in places
for drains and water-courses. 8. Dutch, or flemish bricks, over which it is intended to make windows, doors, or other
used in paving yards, stables, &c., also for lining soap-boilers, apertures, while the sides on which the piers must stand are
cisterns, and vaults. 9. Featlier-edged brtcks, made of the firm, it is a good practice to turn inverted arches under such
same size with the ordinary statute bricks, but thinner on one intended windows, &c. Indeed, this is a necessary precau-
edge than on the other ; they are used for pinning up brick tion in all cases where the depth of wall below the aperture
panels in timber buildings. will admit of it. For the small base of the piers will more
BRICK-NOGGING, a wall constructed with a row of posts easily penetrate the ground, than one continued base ; and
or quarters, disposed at three feet apart, and with brickwork, as the piers may be permitted to descend, in a certain degree,
so as to fill up the intervals. This kind of walling is gene- so long as they can be kept from spreading, they will carry
rally either the thickness or breadth of a brick, and the the arch with them, compressing the ground, and forcing it
woodwork flush on both sides with the faces of the bricks. to reaction against the sides of the inverted arch, which if
closely jointed, so far from yielding, will, with the abutting
!n
brick-nogging, thin pieces of timber, reaching horizontally
 BRI 48 BRI

body. Whereas, if this expedient of

The concrete used in and near London is generally composed
piers, operate as a solid
inverted arches be not adopted, the low piece of wall under of Thames ballast and fresh burned stone-litre, (ground U>
the aperture, not having a sufficient vertical dimension, will powder without slacking,) in the proportions of *rom one-fifth
its base, and to one-ninth of lime to one of the ballast. These ingredients
give way by the resistance of the ground upon
not only fracture the brickwork between the apertures, but should be well blended together dry, and as small a quantity
also the window-sills. Hence it is evident that these arches of water added as will bring them to the consistency of mor-
should be turned with the greatest exactness, and should be tar; and then, after turning over the materials with the
in height at least half their width. The parabolic curve wil^ shovel once or twice, thrown as quickly as possible into the
be found most effectual in resisting the reaction of the foundation, from a height of several feet. It sets very

ground; it being the form most adapted

to the laws of quickly, so that it is desirable that the mixture should be
uniform pressure. made at, or close to the height from which it is thrown, and
The bed of the piers ought to be of equal solidity through- then spread and brought to a level as expeditiously as pos-
out for though the bottom of the trench may be firm enough, sible. See CONCRETE.
;

et if there be any difference in substance, the settlement will Having premised thus much on foundations, we proceed
7 to the soft- to the operation of walling ; the first object in which is the
partial, the amount
b<>e thereof varying according
ness of the ground ; consequently the piers on the softer ground due preparation of the cementing material.
will settle more than those on the firmer, and occasion a ver- Mortar is most commonly used in modern brick buildings.
It is composed of lime,
tical fracture in the superstructure. gray or white, but gray or stone-lime
Should the solid parts of the trench be found under the is the better, mixed with river-sand, or road-sand, in the

intended apertures, and the softer parts where piers are to be proportion of one of gray lime to two and a half of sand, and
built, the reverse of the above practice
must be resorted to, one of white or chalk-lime to two of sand.
viz.: build piers on the firm ground, and suspend arches, not In slacking the lime, no more water should be used than is

inverted, between them ; in performing which, attention must barely sufficient to reduce it to powder ; and it should be
be paid to the insisting pier, whether it will cover the arch, covered with a layer of sand, in order to prevent the gas,
or not ; for if the middle of the pier rest over the middle of wherein is the virtue of the lime, from flying off. It is best
the summit of the arch, the narrower the pier is, the greater to slack the lime in small quantities, about a bushel at a time,
should be the curvature of the arch of its apex. When sus- in order to secure its qualities in the mortar, which would

pended arches are used, the intrados ought to be clear, that evaporate were it to remain slacked any length of time before
the arch may have its full effect. Here also, as before, the being used. See MORTAR.
ground on which the piers are erected should be of equal The mortar, when about to be used, should be beaten three
firmness, lest the building be injured by an unequal settling, or four times, and turned over with the beater, so as to
which is attended with much more mischievous consequences incorporate the lime and sand, and break the knots that pass
than where the ground, from being uniformly soft, permits through the sieve this not only renders the texture more
:

the piers to descend equally, in which case the building is uniform, but by admitting the air into the body and pores of
seldom or never damaged. the mortar, makes it much stronger. Should the mortar
When it is necessary to ram foundations, the -stone, being stand any length of time after this operation, without being
previously chopped or hammer-dressed, so as to have them as used, it must be beaten again : it should be observed, that in

little taper as possible, should be laid of a breadth propor- these beatings very little water should be used ; though in
tioned to the weight intended to be rested on them, and hot and dry weather the mortar may be kept considerably
rammed closely together with a heavy rammer. In ordinary softer than in winter.
cases, the lower bed of stones may project about a foot on In dry weather, and for firm work, the best mortar must
each side of the wall, on which another course may be laid, be used, and the bricks should be wetted, or dipped in water
so as to bring the upper bed of stones upon a general level as they are laid ; but in damp weather, the latter precaution
with that of the trench, projecting about eight inches on will be unnecessary. The wetting of the bricks causes them
either side of the wall, or receding four inches on each side to adhere to the mortar, which they will never do if laid dry,
within the lower course. Care should be taken that the and covered with sand or dust, as they may be removed with-
joints of every upper course fall as nearly as possible upon out the adhesion of a single particle of the mortar.
the middle of the stones in the course immediately beneath In laying the foundations of walls, the first courses are
it
;
a principle also to be strictly adhered to in every kind of always laid broader than the wall intended to be carried up ;
walling ; for in all the modes, various as they are, of laying these courses are called the footings, and the projections are
stones or bricks, the uniform object is to obtain the greatest called set-offs; there are generally two inches in each pro-
lap one upon the other. jection.
The directions for preparing a solid foundation, refer to In working up the wall, not more than four or five feet
the general practice amongst builders before the introduction of any part should be built at a time ; for as all walls shrink
of concrete. The now almost universal use of the latter, as
immediately after building, the part which is first brought
a certain, convenient, and ready means of obtaining a secure
up will settle before the adjacent part is brought up to it ;
foundation, has rendered it necessary to give a description of and the shrinking of the latter will consequently cause the
the mode in which this material is two parts to Unless it be to accommodate the
generally used. separate.
The ground having been examined as described in the first should be carried higher
carpenter, &c., no part of a wall
part of this article, a sufficient depth must be excavated in than one scaffold, without having its contingent parts added
the bottom of the trenches, to allow of in a to it. In carrying up any particular part, the ends should
throwing quan-
tity of concrete, varying in breadth and depth, according to be regularly sloped off, so as to receive the bond of the
the size and character of the building to be
erected, and the adjoining parts, on the right and left.
necessary width of the footings. In laying bricks, there are four kinds of BOND ; viz.,
The concrete is composed of different materials, and pro- English-bond, Flemish-bond, Herring-bond, and
Garden
portions of those materials, as the qualities of sand, lime, &c., wall-bond. The two first are principally used in modern
are most conveniently obtained in the locality of the
building. brickwork, the others only occasionally.
 Bill 49 BRI
In EnylishJtond, a row of bricks laid lengthwise on the A variety of pleasing cornices and ornaments may be
length of the wall, is crossed by a row with its breadth in formed in brickwork, by the disposition of the bricks, fre-
the said length, and so on alternately. The courses in which quently without cutting them, or if cut, chamfering only may
tlie lengths of the bricks are disposed
through the length of be used ; but a great defect is frequently to be observed in
the wall, are called stretching courses, and the bricks, these ornaments, particularly in the bilging of the arches over
stretchers: the courses in which the lengths of the bricks windows. This arises from mere carelessness in rubbing
run in the thickness of the walls, are called heading courses, the bricks too much off, on the inside ; whereas, if due care
and the bricks, headers. The other sort of bond, called were taken to rub them exact to the gauge on the inside, that
Flemish-bond, consists in placing a header and a stretcher they bear upon the front edges, their geometrical bearings
alternately in the same course. See BOND, English, &c. being united, they would all tend to one centre, and produce
When new walls are to be built into old it is usual to cut a well-proportioned and pleasing effect.
a chase, or draw a brick at every other course in the old A rod of brickwork was taken from the original standard
work, and tooth in the new work. When it is intended to of 16 feet square, and consequently the supeficial rod con-
add walls to buildings, these toothings are left. tained 272.25 square feet, or 272 square feet ; but as the
The most difficult work for a bricklayer to execute is the quarter was found troublesome in calculation, 272 superficial
groining or intersection of arches in vaults, where every brick feet was admitted as the standard for brickwork ; the result
has to be cut to a different bed. This and the arches called is the same in
practice, when it is considered that equal values
gauged arches, cither circular or straight, require the neatest will be found
by annexing the proportional price per rod to
workmanship. Some straight arches are made roughly ; that each and indeed, if the same price be appropriate to each,
;

is, the bricks are inclined each way, parallel to each other, on the difference would be so trifling as not to be worth the
the respective skewbaeks, or shoulders of the arch, until the trouble of calculating. The standard thickness of a brick
soffit-ends of the bricks touch, when the vacant space at top wall is 1| brick in length, therefore if 272 square feet be mul-
is filled with two bricks,
forming a wedge :this arch, like tiplied by 13 inches, the result is 306 cubic feet in the rod.
other straight arches, is constructed on a camber slip, or piece A rod of standard brickwork with mortar, will require
of wood slightly curved on the upper side for centering. 4,500 bricks at a medium, allowing for waste ; this number
In steining wells, a centre must be first made, consisting of will depend upon the closeness of the joints, and the size of
a boarding, of inch or inch-and-a-half stuff, lodged within with the bricks. The inortar in a rod of brickwork will require
three circular rings, upon which the bricks are laid, all 1 cwt. of chalk-lime, or one cwt. of stone-lime, and 2 loads
headers. The gaps between the bricks towards the boarding of sand with stone-lime, or 2 loads with chalk-lime.
are to be filled in with tile or pieces of brick. As the well- In walling, a foot of reduced brickwork will require 17
sinker excavates the ground, the centre with its load of bricks bricks. A foot superficial of marl facing laid in Flemish
sinks, and another, similarly charged, is laid upon it, another bond, will require 8 bricks ; and a foot superficial of gauged
upon and so on, till the well is completed the centering
that, ; arches, 10 bricks. In paving, a yard will require 82 paving-
remaining permanently fixed with the. brickwork. This is bricks, or 48 stock-bricks, or 144 Dutch clinkers laid on edge,
the method generally adopted in London, at least where the or 36 bricks laid flat.
soil is
sandy and loose where it is firm, centerings are not
;
In tiling, 100 superficial feet make a square. A
square
requisite. In the country, other methods, the
among many will require, of plain tiles, 800 at a 6- inch gauge, 700 at
following most prevails rings of timber, without the exterior
: a 7-inch gauge, or 000 at an 8-inch gauge. The distance
boarding, are used ; upon the first ring, four or five feet of of the laths will depend upon the pitch of the roof, and
bricks are laid, then a second ring, and so on. But this is may require a 6, 7, or 8-inch gauge ; thus, a kirb roof will
far inferior to the mode above described, as the sides of the
require a gauge of 7^ or 8 inches in the kirb part, and the
brick-work are apt to bilge in sinking, particularly if great upper part 6, (&, or 7 inches, the distance being less as the
care be not taken in filling and ramming the sides
uniformly, angle of elevation is less. A square of plain tiling will
so as to keep the pressure regular and equal. In steining require a bundle of laths, more or less according to the pitch,
wells, and in the construction of cesspools, a rod of brick- two bushels of lime and one of sand, and a peck of tile-pins
work will require at least 4,760 bricks. at least. The laths are sold in bundles, which generally con-
In winter, it is essential to preserve the unfinished wall, as sist of 3, 4, and 5-feet lengths ; the 3-feet are 8 score, the 4-fcct
much as possible, from the alternate effects of rain and frost, 6 score, and the 5-feet 5 score to the bundle. The nails used
than which nothing is more destructive to a building ; the in lathing, are fourpenny. They are purchased by the long
rain by penetrating into the very heart of the bricks and
hundred, viz., six score to each hundred, and charged by the
mortar, and the frost by converting the water, so lodged, into bricklayer by the short hundred, viz., five score to the
ice, expanding its bulk, and bursting or crumbling the hundred. The rates of charge by the hundred are as their
materials in which it is contained. The decay of buildings, names imply, viz., fourpenny, fourpence per hundred ; six-
commonly attributed to the effects of time, is, in reality, penny, sixpence per hundred. The number of nails required
occasioned by this operation and counter-operation of the rain to a bundle of five-feet laths are 500, and to a bundle of six-
and frost, but as, in finished edifices, they have only a verti- feet laths 600. A square of pan-tiling will require 180 tiles,
cal surface to act upon, their effects arc not
rapidly extended. laid at a 10-inch gauge, and a bundle of laths. The bundle
In an unfinished wall, there is a horizontal surface,
by which consists of 12 laths, 10 feet long.
both rain and frost find an easy access into the body of the In lime measure, 25 striked bushels, or 100 pecks, is a
work ; care must therefore be taken to exclude them, by a hundred of lime; 8 gallons, or 2,150J cubic inches, is a
sufficient covering, as soon as the frost or
stormy weather bushel of dry measure ; and 268 \ cubic inches is a gallon.
sets in, either of straw, which is most usually employed, or In sand measure, 24 heaped bushels, or 30 striked bushels,
of weather-boarding, placed in the form of a stone coping, so is a load, and 24 cubic feet
weigh a ton. In mortar measure,
as to throw off the water equally on either side but in the
: 27 cubic feet make a load, which contains half a hundred of
latter case, it is advisable to have a good lime, with a proportional quantity of sand ; 1,134 cubic
body of straw under
the wood, as no precaution can be too great, for the inches make a hod, which is 9 inches by 9, and 14 inches
security
and strength of the work. long ; 2 hods of mortar make a bushel nearly.
7
 BRI 60 BRI
A ton weight contains 23 cubic feet of sand, 17 of clay, divide the area of the wall by 272, and the quotient, if any,
or 18 of earth, or 330 bricks. will be the answer in rods, and the remainder, if any, in
A cubic foot contains 951b. of sand, 1351b. of clay, or feet but if the wall be less or more than a brick and a half
:

1241 b. of common earth, or 125 bricks. in thickness, multiply the area of the wall by the number of
To measure trenches for foundations. All kinds of exca- half bricks, that is, the number of half lengths of a brick ;
vations of earth are measured by the number of cubic yards divide the product by 3, and the wall will be reduced to the
which they contain ; therefore, to find the number of cubic standard of 1 brick thick. Divide the quotient by 272, and
yards in a trench, find the solidity of the trench in cubic feet, this quotient will give the number of rods required.
which divide by 27, the number of cubic feet in a yard, and Rule II. Divide the number of cubic feet contained in the
the quotient, if any, is the answer in cubic yards, and the wall by 306, and the quotient, if any, will show the number
remainder, if any, shows cubic feet. of rods, and the remainder, if any, the number of cubic feet.
Example. The length of a trench is 62 feet, the vertical Rule III. Multiply the number of cubic feet in the wall
depth 2 feet 6 inches, and the breadth 2 feet 9 inches. by 8 ; divide the product by 9, and the quotient will give
62 the area of the wall at the standard divide the standard :

_!* area by 272, and this quotient, if any, will show the number
124 of rods ; the remainder, if any, is the reduced feet. The rea-
-I
ft I
31
son of this rule may be thus shown : = r=
155 9x272 9x34 306
which a divisor of a rod, without any regard to the standard.
is

Example. The length of a wall is sixty-two feet, the

310
77 6 height fifteen feet, and the breadth equal to the length of
38 9
two bricks and a half: how many rods of brickwork are
contained in the wall ?
27 426 3 15 yards 21 the answer.
Operation by Rule
) ( feet, I.
27
62
156 15
135
310
62
21
In the horizontal dimensions, if the trench is wider at the 930
top than at the bottom, as is generally the case, and equal 5 number of half bricks.
at the ends, take half the sum of the two dimensions for
8 ) 4650
a mean breadth, and if the breadth of one end of the trench
exceed that of the other, so as to have two mean breadths 272 )
1550 ( 5 rods 190 feet, the answer.
1360
differing from each other, take half the sum of the two added
together, as a mean breadth for the whole. 190
Or, take a mean dimension in the middle of the length, and Operation by Rule II.
the middle of the height, and
proceed as in the above operation. 62
The footing of a wall is the projecting courses of brickwork 15
under the wall, spread out to prevent it from
sinking. 310
To measure the footing of a wall. Multiply the length 62
and the height of the course together, then multiply the
930
product by the number of half bricks in the mean breadth :
1 10 6
divide the last product
by 3, and the quotient is the answer
in reduced feet. 38 9
The number of half bricks in the mean breadth will be 775
found by adding the number of half bricks in each course 930

together, and dividing the sum by the number of courses ; 806 )

1743 9 (
5 rods 213 feet, tiie answer.
or take half the sum of the half bricks in the 1530
upper and
lowermost courses ; but if the number of courses is odd, this 213
trouble may be saved
by taking the number of half bricks
in the middle course for 'the mean breadth. Operation by Rule III.
62
Also, instead of measuring the height of the footing, it is 16
usual to allow three inches to each course in
height ; or multiply 310
the number of courses
by 3, which gives the height in inches. 62
Example. The footing of a wall is 62 feet in length, and
consists of 3 courses, the middle course of which consists 930
of 3 bricks; how many feet of reduced work are in the said 1 10 6

footing ? 88 9
62 775
9 930
46 6
7 number of half bricks in
1743 9
mean breadth.
8
8)325
108 ft. 6 in. of reduced brickwork. 9 ) 13950
To find the number of rods contained in a piece 272 1550 5 rods 190 the answer.
of brick- ) ( feet,
work. Rule I. If the wall be at the standard 1360
thickness,
190
 p. 11 1 51 BRI
In the calculation of brickwork, where there are several solidity that would fill the vacuity from the outside of the
walls of different thicknesses, it will be quite unnecessary sash-frame to the vertical plane of the extension of the back
to use the divisors 3 and 272, as will be hereafter shown. upwards; and the solidity that would fill the vacuity con-
In measuring walls within the districts to which the tained between the back and the internal
vertical plane of the
building act extends, it is customary to take the length of face of the wall ; then add these three solidities together, and
front walls within the building, and the length of party walls the sum will be the solidity that will fill the whole void ;

from the front to the rear faces of the building, in order to then add the allowances.
appropriate more easily the share of each proprietor ; but in Or thus Find the area of each of the three vacuities
country houses, which stand insulated, and which have their parallel to the face of the wall ; multiply each area by each
adjoining faces of the same workmanship, either of the two respective number of half bricks in the thickness of the wall,
pair of parallel walls may be taken the whole length of the add the three products together ; divide the sum by 3, and
external faces, and the dimensions of the other pair of parallel the quotient reduces the contents in superficial feet to the
walls should be taken perpendicularly from the interior sides standard thickness.
of the said walls, or the horizontal stretch of the interior In taking the dimensions of brickwork, inches are generally
side of either.
neglected.
In measuring for workmanship only, it is customary to
Example. Suppose the height of the outer vacuity, from
allow the length of each wall on the external side ; or, if all the sill under side of the head, to be 10 feet, the
to the
the adjoining walls are of the same workmanship, to girt the breadth 4 feet 6 inches, and the thickness half a brick the ;

whole on the outside ; and consequently, if the building be height of the middle vacuity from the sill to the under side
a rectangle, the contents will by this means exceed the real of the wooden lintels, to be 10 feet 3 inches, the breadth
quantity by four square pillars, each the height of the build- 5 feet 2 inches, and the thickness also j a brick, and the
ing, and in horizontal dimensions the thickness of each wall. inside vacuity, from the floor to the under side of the said
This is a compensation for plumbing the angles ; but this lintels, 13 feet; the mean breadth, supposing the inside to
practice is unfair with regard to materials. splay, to be 5 feet 6 inches, and the depth of the recess 1J
In measuring walls that are faced with bricks of a superior brick :
required the solidity that will fill the void.
quality, the London surveyors measure the whole as if com-
mon work, and allow so much per rod for the facing, as the Operation for the outside vacuity.
quality of the bricks and superior excellence of the work may 10
deserve. The facing may be reckoned at two thirds of a brick.
In taking the dimensions of the brickwork in the different
40
stories, the height of each part, as high as it goes of the same 5
thickness, must be taken ; and the contents of each part
45
computed separately, the offsets being always below the joists,
and consequently the wall the same thickness throughout,
from the ceiling of one floor to the ceiling of another.
All apertures and recesses from any of the faces are to be Operation for the middle vacuity.
10 3
deducted, but an allowance per foot lineal should be granted 520
upon every right angle, whether external or internal, except
that two external angles are formed by a brick in breadth, 186
51 3
and then only one of them must be accounted for. This
allowance is in consequence of plumbing the faces which 52 11 6
constitute the said angles ; but if the bricks are cut so as to
form oblique angles, this allowance should be at least double.
It is customary, in almost
every part of the country, in Operation for the inside vacuity.
measuring for workmanship, to find the contents of the walls 13
as if solid, without deducting the vacuities, so that upon this 61

principle, if the apertures be ever so large, they must, at all 65

events, be accounted as solid ; and, in this instance, the pro- 6 6 ft. in. sec.
45
prietor would be greatly overcharged by the workman. 71 6 52 11 6
Again, in apertures of small breadth, the trouble in plumb- 8 214 6
ing at the returns is equally the same at the same height as
if ever so wide ; but in case the voids are less than the 214 6 3 ) 312 6

lineal allowance, there would be a manifest loss to the master 104 10 the solid that will fill

workman. It is much to be wished that such an allowance the vacuity.

as above mentioned should be established, in order to do away
the uncertainty of computing the quantity of walling, such To a rod of brickwork. This will
calculate the price of
as to be often above, and sometimes below the real value of the of the bricks and the goodness of
depend upon quality
workmanship. the workmanship ; for in building foundations and party-
walls, which are commonly done with place-bricks, the
brick-
Gauged arches are sometimes deducted and charged sepa-
rately,and sometimes not ; but it is the same whether they layer may easily lay 1,500 bricks in a day : in garden-walls,
are deducted or not, as the extra price must be allowed in barns, and common country houses, where greater nicety is
the former case, and the whole price allowed in the latter, required in jointing, he may lay
about 1,000 per day ; and in
which is much the more troublesome of the two. Gauged gray-stock, or marl fronts, done with great care, he will
hardly exceed 500 in a day. The expense per
arches are at least five times the trouble of the best marl facing. rod will also
To measure the vacuity of a rectangular window. Find depend upon the articles of living, and consequently upon the
the solidity that would fill the outside vacuity from the face times. One example, however, will be sufficient ; the prices
of the wall to the reveal, or outside of the sash-frame ; the of materials and labour may be had from a Price Book. In the
 B Tl I 52 BRI

following statement, the work is supposed to be a well-built per foot superficial, the extra price of the rubbed and gauged
gray-stock front, the rates of charge according to the present arches 3^. per foot, and the lineal foot of angles in apertures
London prices for 1848. to be a penny per foot likewise, what will be the price of a
:

. s. d.
rod, supposing the apertures not deducted, and what will be
To 4,500 gray-stock bricks, prime cost at )
j
i n the rate if they are deducted, without making any other extra
38s. per thousand
charge whatever ; so that the profit of the master bricklayer
)

H cwt lime, at 14s. per cwt 1 10 shall be the same in either case?
2 loads sand, at 6s. per load 10
J of a day of a labourer to slack, chaff, &c. ) ,,
2 74-
The dimensions are generally taken with two five-feet rods,
the mortar, 3s. 6d. per day. .
and entered in a book, ruled perpendicularly for the purpose.
Bricklayer 5 days, 5s. 6d . . . ,
7
In brickwork it will be convenient to have three columns
Labourer 5 days, 3s. 6d 17
contiguous to each other on the left hand ; the first vertical
12 9 7i column to contain the dimensions, and to be only bounded by
Add 1 } per cent for scaffolding, &c 3 4* one vertical line on the right-hand side of the column the :
Add 15 per cent profit ou the prime cost. 1 17 6
dimensions of the same surface to be written one under the
'
14 10 6
other, putting the like denominations in vertical rows;
the number of times any work is
111 making the calculation of a wall where the bricks of repeated is put on the left
the facing arc of a superior quality to the backing, it is pro- of the upper dimension, and separated from it by a curve;
the number of half bricks are to be written in the
per to observe, that the number of bricks in the facing of adjoin-
a rod of .Flemish-bond work will vary from 1,500 to 2,000, ing right-hand column, ruled on both sides, and in a horizontal
according to the size of the bricks and closeness of the line with either dimension.
joints ; this number of bricks must be deducted from the
would answer little purpose to show the work arising
It

whole number that would constitute a rod ; and each number by squaring the dimensions. It may be proper to observe, in
of bricks must bo valued according to their respective order to avoid numerous repetitions of division, that the
qualities.
dimensions of the surfaces, in length and breadth, must be
The following example will sufficiently explain the appli- multiplied together, and the product multiplied by the num-
cation of the foregoing rules in the measurement of the front ber of times, if more than once repeated, and this last pro-
wall of a house. duct again by the number of half bricks in the thickness
Ejcionple. Suppose the front wall of a house to be four of the work but if the outline of the surface of the work be
:

stories high, and the length 20 feet the footing to consist of ; circular, or any figure whatever, the quantity of surface must
place-bricks in four courses, which are respectively, 5, 4J, 4, be found by the rules for measuring that figure, and repeated
and 3^ bricks in breadth the basement part of the wall to be
;
the number of times, and this product by the number of half
built with gray -stocks, 11 feet in height, and 3 bricks in bricks in the thickness of the work, as before. These products
thickness the parlour part of the wall to be 11 feet in height,
; may be found by beginning with any of the multipliers, and
and 2j- bricks in thickness the one-pair-of-stairs, or principal
; using any one of the remaining ones in each succeeding
floor, to be 13 feet in height and 2 bricks in thickness the ; product until their number is exhausted ; the result is to
chamber floor to be 10 feet in height and 1 J brick in thick- be placed in a third adjoining column on the right, in a
ness; the three upper stories to be of gray -stock work, faced horizontal row with either of the dimensions. The dimen-
with marls; in each of the basement and entrance stories are sions, the number of half bricks, and contents of every
to be two windows and a door, and three windows in each of two surfaces, are to be separated from each other by a hori-
the upper stories the whole of the windows, as well as the
: zontal line. The numbers in the third column are the con-
doors, to be 4 feet in width the windows in the basement to
;
tents of the work reduced to a wall, half a brick thick ; and
be 6 feet in height, and not recessed in the inside below the consequently, any number of contents of the same species of
sash-frame those in the parlour-story to be work may be added together, and reduced to the standard by
; 8^ feet in height,
recessed from the inside of the room below the sash-frame, dividing the sum by 3 ; and if rods are required, the quotient
which is to be placed two feet above the surface of the floor ;
must be divided by 272, which will save immense labour.
those in the drawing-room story to descend to the bottom, and The following
is a
specimen of the Dimension Book The :

to be in height 10 feet. The upper windows to be 6 feet linealmeasures are as in the preceding description, and are
9 inches in height, and 2^ feet above the surface of the floor,
supposed to be taken in order, as they succeed each other,
the head of the basement door to be upon a level with the
beginning with the basement part of the building, whether of
windows, and the jambs 8^ feet high. The street-door to the same kind or not, in order to prevent frequent returning
entrance, or parlour-story, to be semicircular, and the top of to the same place.
the arch upon a level with the soffits of the heads of the Where the same dimension is often repeated in different
windows the sash-frames to be all sunk within the jambs
;
parts of the building, it would be unnecessary to insert the
in 4 inch reveals likewise the under sides of the wooden
; number of times they occur in every part ; it is sufficient to
lintels above the level of the soffits of the brick make a memorandum of the number to be found in each
heads, to be
recessed 3 inches upward, and the door-frames 13 inches into
place, on the waste, and then the number of times it is
the jambs, and also 3 inches into the head all the windows
; repeated in the whole may be inserted in the Dimension
and doors to have rubbed and gauged arches the arches of : Book at last.
the windows to be 11 inches
broad, and in height equal to In.each of the different stories, the same order, if possible,
four courses of the wall. Their mean length, or horizontal is repeated, that mistakes of overlooking any of the articles
dimension, to be 4 feet ; the soffits to be the breadth of
may be prevented.
a brick, or 4 \ inches, and the length is
consequently four feet, Every other part will be sufficiently evident by inspection,
the breadth of the windows the arch of the door to be 9
:
and by attending to the general description in the example,
inches broad on the face, and as much on the soffit how :
except the semicircular head of doorway, the dimensions of
much will the whole amount to, supposing the rod of which are set down in the same manner as the others, and the
place-
bricks to be 12 15s., the rod of gray-stock work to be Now
squaring is found by the rules for measuring a circle.
14 10s., the extra facing of best marl stocks to be the multiplier for the area of a circle reduced to duodecimals
sixpence
 BBI 53 BRI
is 9 in. 5 sec. ;
the dimensions are 4 feet by 2 ;
these multi-
plied together give 8 ; this product again multiplied by 9 in.
5 sec. gives 6 ft. 3 m. 4 sec., and this repeated
by 2, the
number of half bricks on the exterior part of the aperture,
gives 12 ft. 6 m. as the seconds are always unnoticed.

Dimension Book, with tfte Contend.

26
1
 BEI 64 BRI

from the whole ; the remainder is divided by 3, which gives

the superficial contents in feet of the surface of a wall reduced

to 1 J brick in thickness ; the deductions being negative quan-
tities, no further notice is taken
of them ; the sums of the
other columns being positive, the price is affixed to each
common measure, whether a foot or a rod, &c., and the value
of each quantity is found by this common measure ; then the
quantities, with the prices of 'their
common measures and
values, are inserted in a bill ; the
whole being reduced into
a sum, gives the amount of the whole money for the wall.
Abstract.

Footing of wall
of place-bricks.
BRI 55 BBi

Wall, including Apertures.

 BR1 56 BRI

It is likewise evident, that in building quoins, while the and its projection with the addition of half a brick, will give
workmen continue at the same rate of work, the lineal quantity the solidity of the footing ; add these two solidities together,
is in the same ratio as the time, and therefore this lineal and the sum will be the solidity of the wall, from which
measure is a fair representation of the value of the work. In deduct the vacuities, and the remainder will be the quantity
where of solid work.
carrying up a wall of the same horizontal length,
there are no vacuities, the quantity of work performed by the chimney project from the surface of the
If the breast of a
same number of bricklayers is equal in equal times, but the and be parallel thereto, the best method is to take the
wall,
work requires an additional number of labourers as the height horizontal and vertical dimension of the face, multiply these

increases, to supply the materials: in this

case also, the together, and the product by the thickness taken in the thin-
of the value of nest part, taking no notice of the breast of the chimney then
quantity of surface is a fair representation ;

the work, in respect of the bricklayers, but an additional sum find the solidity of the breast itself; add these solidities
must be added as the work proceeds, and this increase would together, and the sum will give the solidity of the wall,
be the terms of an arithmetical progression ; for suppose the including the vacuities, which must be deducted for the real
materials at the foot of the scaffold, and the scaffolding erected solidity ; after taking the dimensions for the quantity of
at regular heights ; now it is evident, that whatever time the brick-work, the lineal quantity of angles should be taken, and
labourer requires to mount the first scaffold, he would require entered in the Dimension Book.
a time double, triple, quadruple, the first, &c., to mount the Nothing more is necessary to be said of the shaft, than to
second, third, fourth scaffold, &c. the sum of all these times
: take its dimension in height, and horizontally in breadth and
is the whole time. There should also be a uniform increase thickness, in order to ascertain the solidity ; and then take
of price for the use of scaffolding, as well as for an additional the lineal quantity of angles, and enter them all in the Di-
number of labourers, as the work is carried upwards. From mension Book.
the aggregate of these circumstances, it is evident, that the If a chimney is placed in the angle, with the face of the
value of the labour, with respect to the bricklayers, may be breast intersecting the two sides of the wall, the breast of
fairly estimated by the quantity
of surface, of equal thickness, the chimney must be considered as a triangular prism ; to
but an increase of price must be allowed for labourers and find the solidity, therefore, multiply the area of the base by

scaffolding.
the height of the surface of the front or breast, and the pro-
To measure and value party walls, flank walls, and par- duct is the solidity.
tition walls with flues. Find the cubical contents of the To take the dimensions from the intersections of the front
:

whole, or each part of the wall, in feet, according to its figure, of the breast into the two adjacent walls, draw two lines on
or the figures into which it may be resolved ; deduct the the floor parallel to each adjacent wall, then will the triangle
vacuities, multiply the remainder by 8, and divide the pro- on the floor, included between the front and these lines, be
duct by 9, and the work will be reduced to the standard; equal to the triangular base of the chimney. In order to
then take the lineal measure of all the quoins, whether exter- obtain the area of the triangular base, the dimensions may be
nal or internal, the proper rate being affixed to each common taken in three various ways, almost equally easy ; but as con-
measure, and it will give the value of the whole. venient a method is to take the extent of the base, which is the
In measuring walls containing chimneys, it is not cus- horizontal dimension of the breast, and multiply that by half
tomary to deduct the flues ; but this practice with regard to the perpendicular ; or, multiply the whole perpendicular by
the materials, is unjust, though perhaps, by taking the labour half the base, for the area of the surface on which the prism
and materials together, the overcharge, with respect to the stands ; but as fractions arise by the halving of odd numbers,
quantity of bricks and mortar, may, in some degree, com- it would be better in such cases to multiply the whole per-

pensate for the loss of time ; on the other hand, should the pendicular by the whole base, and half the product will give
proprietor find the materials, it is not customary to allow for the area of the prismatic base, which is that of the chimney-
the trouble of forming the flues, which is therefore a loss to breast.
the contractor, or to the workman who engages to execute Sometimes the front of the chimney-breast does not
his part by measure or task-work. intersect the walls, but is projected out from each adjacent
With regard to the allowance for the lineal measure of wall by two returning vertical planes of equal breadth, each
quoins, we regret to observe, that the practice is not general, at a right angle with the adjacent wall : in this case the
and, so far as we know, has only as yet taken place in outside triangular prism is measured as before; but as the part
and inside splays, and the angles of groins we admit that
: between the prism and the wall is frequently constructed
every innovation, not founded upon reason, ought to be with burrs, an inferior kind of brick, this part will then
resisted ; but as we are convinced of the justice of this mode, consist of two rectangular prisms, and there is nothing more
we have here ventured to introduce this as a general practice, to do than to measure them as such; then deducting the
which ought to be followed in every case, whether the quoins vacuity of the fire-place from the triangular prism,
the re-
be vertical, or horizontal, or curved ; and an appropriate price mainder will be the true solidity of this prism. In the
should be affixed to each species of quoins, whether external former case, when the plane of the breast intersects the two
or internal, right-angled or oblique, curves or
right lines, as sides of the room, a lineal allowance per foot ought to be
the trouble is greater in external than in internal
angles, made for the inside splays, and in the latter case, where the
greater in oblique than in right angles, greater in curved quoins plane of the breast does not intersect the adjacent walls,
than in straight ones, and still greater in groins, where the there will be two outside splays, and two internal right
angles are continually varying, than in curves where the angles ; in this case, there must be an allowance for outside
angles are the same throughout. splays, and the internal right angles, per foot, running
each
in both cases it
according to its rospective qualities and
If the brick-work of the footing of a wall project
equally on :

each side, and if the bricks be of the same kind as the wall would only be fair to allow for the vertical extent of the
above, take the height of the wall from the bottom of the angles of the fire-place. It is not here meant that these

footing, as high as it goes of the same thickness ; multiply allowances should be made according to the present prices,
that by the length and the thickness, and reserve this which are adapted so as to include hinderances at a hazard,
solidity ;
then multiply the length of the wall, the height of the footing, without any foundation to common reason, but that the
 BRI 57 BRI

price per rod should be reduced in an adequate degree, and Brick cornices are charged by the foot run, but as there
each kind valued by its common measure, in proportion to are many kinds, and these executed with more or less diffi-
the time it requires to perform a given portion.
culty, the price will depend on this, and also upon the value
A row of plain tiles laid edge to edge, with their broad of the materials.
surfaces parallel to the termination of a wall, so as to Garden walls are measured the same as other walls, but
project
over the wall at right angles to the vertical surface, is called if they are
interrupted with piers, the thin part may be
single plain tile creasing, and if two rows are laid one above measured as in common walling, and the piers by themselves,
the other, the one row breaking the joints of the other, then and the additional allowance for the right angles, at per foot
these two rows are called double plain tile creasing ; over run, should be granted. The coping is measured by itself,
the plain tile creasing a row of bricks are on
edge, with according to its kind.
their length in the thickness of the
wall, called a barge The common measure for tiling, is a square of 10 feet, each
course, or cope. side containing an area of 100 superficial feet. Not only the
In gables which terminate with plain tile creasing, coped price of new work is valued by this measure, but also strip-
with brick, in order to form the sloping bed for the tile ping and re-tiling of old roofs; but if any quantity of new
creasing, the bricks must be cut, which is a considerable tilesare used, they are charged separately, and the superficial
trouble ; the sloping of the bricks thus, is called cut splay.
quantity of old tiles that would fill the places of the new, are
Plain tile creasing and cut splay are charged by the foot run,
computed, and deducted from the old. In plain tiling, as the
and sometimes the latter by the foot superficial. rafters are generally made
three-quarters of the breadth of
A brick wall made in panels between quarters, is called the building, the surface of the roof is exactly equal to the
brick-nogging. This kind of work is generally measured area, and a half more, of the length and breadth of the build-
by the yard square, with the quarters and Hogging pieces ing, or the space contained between the sides of the covering
included in the measure; but the apertures should be deducted, and ends. This being kept in view, will save much trouble
and the lineal measure of the angles allowed. in calculation.

Pointing is the filling up of the joints of the bricks on the Paving is laid either with bricks or tiles, and is measured
face, after the wall is built, with mortar, so as to be regular. by the yard square. The price per yard will depend on
Pointing is of two kinds. In either, the mortar in the joints whether the bricks are laid flat or on edge, or whether laid
is well raked out, and filled
again with blue mortar: in the with bricks or or of what size tiles, or whether any of
tiles,
one kind, the courses are simply marked with the these be laid in sand or in mortar.
edge of a
trowel; in this state it is called fat joint pointing. If, in The mensuration of groins and vaults will be shown under
addition to flat joint pointing, plaster be inserted in the their respective heads.
joint
with a regular projection, and That this work may be generally useful, we shall here
neatly pared to a parallel
breadth, this state is called luck pointing, or tuck-joint point-
subjoin the customs of several other parts of tho United
ing, formerly tuck and pad. Kingdom, as well as the foregoing, which are calculated for
Pointing is measured by the foot superficial, including in London and its neighbourhood, or work done in the country
the price, mortar, labour, and scaffolding.
by London masters.
Rubbed and ganged work is set either in putty or mortar, In most counties, brick walls are measured by the yard,
and is measured either by the foot run, or by the foot super- without reducing the thickness of the work to the standard,
ficial,according to the construction. and fixing a price per yard according to the thickness.
The circular parts of drains may be either reduced to the In Cumberland, walls are mostly measured by the yard,
standard, or to the cubic foot, and the number of rods taken and rated according to the thickness of the work they have
:

if required. The mean dimension of the arch will be found also a standard thickness of 18 inches, and their rod or rood
by taking the half sum of the exterior and interior circum- is 49
square yards these are also used by masons in the
;

ferences ; but perhaps it might be proper to make the

price country, but neither the standard nor the rod are frequently
of the common measure, whether it be a foot, or a used ; apertures are always included for workmanship. In
yard, or a
rod, greater, as the diameter is less but as the reciprocal ratio
; measuring the breasts of chimneys, they take the horizontal
would increase the price in small diameters too much, perhaps girt from wall to wall, to this they add the number of withs,
prices at certain diameters would be a sufficient regulation. or divisions between the flues, reckoning each with 3 inches,
Circular walls are measured in the same for the whole breadth ; the height of the story, or as high as
way, by finding
a mean girt, which is to be multiplied by the height and the work goes on uniformly, is the other dimension of the
thickness ; but all work should be valued in proportion to face, and the thickness is reckoned 9-inch work. In mea-
the time required to perform a given portion of it, but in
suring a chimney -shaft, they girt it all round, then add the
equal portions of straight and curved walls of the same kind number of withs for the breadth, as before, and if there is
of workmanship, the curved portion will require a
greater only one row of flues, they reckon the thickness a 9-inch
price than the straight portion. wall.
In measuring canted bows, the sides are measured as In Scotland, the brickwork of outside walls is generally
continued straight walls; but the angles on the exterior side measured by the rood of 36 square feet, and this measure is
of the building, whether they are external or internal, are almost, if not quite, general. In Glasgow, the standard
allowed for in addition, and paid for under the denomination thickness is 14 inches, or 1 brick, the same as London ; and
of run of bir<fs-mouth ; all angles within the walls of less thickness are generally measured by the yard,
building, if
oblique, from whatever cause they are formed, whether by and the rate of price is according to the thickness of the
straight or circular bows, or the splays of windows, are work. Chimney shafts, or stalks as they are there called,
allowed for, under the denomination of run of cut splay. are girt about for their horizontal dimension, and the altitude
These allowances are certainly what ought in justice to be, of the shaft, together with half its thickness, is the other
and this is fulfilling, in part, what has been so much insisted dimension of the face ; and the thickness is reckoned a brick
upon but allowances should extend to right angles also
; : and a half. In measuring the breasts of chimneys, they take
if the bricks be made to the the breadth of the face, and one return for the length, and
splay, then the charge need not
be greater than when the angles are right. the other dimension of the face is the height as far as the
 BBI 58 BEI

work goes of a uniform quality and thickness the thick- ;

mation on each of these several branches of this important
ness is what the breast really projects. Vacuities for doors subject; and some account will be given of the theory under
and windows are not deducted from outside work. STONE BRIDGE.
In Ireland, the common measure is a perch of 21 square The origin of bridges, there can be no doubt, takes its date
feet, being 21 feet long, and 1 foot high ; the standard thick- very far back in the annals of the human race, though we
ness 9 inches only. The custom there, as also in most
is have no documents by which to trace their progressive
country places in Great Britain, was to include the openings. improvement, from the trunk of a tree, rudely thrown by
A 4-inch wall is reckoned two-thirds of a 9-inch wall and ;
accident or choice over a stream, to the convenient and stu-
a 3-inch wall, half a 9-inch wall. In the centering of sewer pendous edifices of more modern times.
vaulting, half the arch is allowed;
and in groin vaulting, the It isprobable that the first bridges were composed of
whole arches are done at so much per piece, according to lintelsof wood or stone, stretching from bank to bank ; or
their kind splayed jambs, cant quoins, &c., by the running
;
if the breadth of the river or
valley to be passed were con-
foot. siderable, resting on piers or posts fixed in the bed of the
For further information on measuring, the reader is referred river. In a strong current, the frequent piers or posts
"
to a valuable little work, called The Student's Guide to the required for the support of lintels, would, by contracting the
Practice of Measuring and Valuing Artificers' Works," pub- water-way, increase it to a torrent, obstructive of navigation,
lished by Weak, London. and ruinous to the piers themselves. In constructing bridges
Materials in bricklaying are charged as follows : therefore over rapid rivers, it would be found essential to
Fine bricks, red rubbers, best marl stocks for cutters, their stability, that the openings between the supporters
second best, pickings, common bricks, place bricks, paving should be as wide as possible, and every facility given to the
bricks, kiln-burnt bricks, and Dutch clinkers, by the thou- free passage of the water ; and as this could be effected only
sand. by the use of stone arches or wood trusses, there can be no
Eed rubbers, kiln-burnt bricks, and fire-bricks, are also doubt that these inventions were perfected before bridges of
soldby the hundred. importance had become common.
Foot-tiles and ten-inch tiles, either by the hundred or There are still remaining bridges of great antiquity built
thousand. by the Romans, but we are not acquainted with the earliest
Sunk foot-tiles, and ten-inch tiles, with five holes, by the history of so useful a contrivance. It is by many supposed

piece. that the Greeks very soon adopted the use of arches, but at
Pantiles, plain tiles, and nine-inch tiles, by the thousand. any rate they do not appear to have applied them to other
Oven-tiles, Welch oven-tiles, Welch fire-lumps, fire-bricks, purposes than for covering apertures in their buildings. See
and chimney-pots, are sold by the piece. ARCH, ARCHITECTURE. Nor had they a bridge over the
Sand, clay, and loam, by the load lime sometimes by the
:
Cephisus, which crossed the high-road between Athens and
hundredweight. Eleusis, till the Emperor Adrian erected one. In the Old
Dutch terras, Parker's Roman cement, and lime, by the Testament there no mention of a bridge, and perhaps the
is
bushel. bridge of Semiramis, at Babylon, may be considered the
Pantile laths, oak laths, double and single, for slating, are oldest on record.
sold by the bundle or load. The Chinese lay claim to a high antiquity for their skill
Hair and mortar by the load. by means of arches.
in bridge-building Several of these
Mortar, lime, and hair fine stuff, Parker's cement, and structures are of great magnitude, built of stone, and turned
blue pointing mortar, are sold by the hod. Hair is some- en arches in the usual manner ; others are constructed with
times sold by the bushel. stones from five to ten feet in length, so cut as each to form
Hip hooks and T nails by the piece. the segment of an arc, which consequently has no key-stone ;
In the former edition of this work was inserted a number ribs of wood being fitted to the convexity of the arch, and
of tables, showing the prices and quantities of materials ; but bolted through the stones by iron bars, fastened in the solid
as there are now published several useful price-books, in parts of the bridge.
which this kind of information is given, it has been con- The suspension-bridges of South America are of a very
sidered better to refer to them than occupy so large a portion extraordinary character, and from the lightness of their mate-
of our limited space as the tables would necessarily occupy. rials, their oscillation, and the great height at which they are
BRIDGE, a structure of wood, stone, brick, iron, or other sometimes suspended, present to the startled traveller objects
material, raised over a river, pond, lake, or any intervening at once alarming and picturesque, and well calculated to try
space, for the purpose of affording a convenient mode of the strongest nerve. See SUSPENSION-BRIDGE.
passage for men or animals. The extreme supports of a The Roman bridges are described by Bergier,as possessing
bridge are called the hutments, or abutments. See ABUTMENT. requisites met with in a modern bridge they
all the consisted
;

If composed of more than one of piers, arches, butments, carriage-ways, and raised ban-
opening, the intermediate sup-
porters are called piers : the protecting walls or fences on quettes or footpaths separated from the road by a railing,
each side are called parapets. and sometimes furnished with a cover to shelter passengers
When the bridge is intended for both foof>passengers and from the weather. Their solidity and proportion prove they
carriages, the sides are generally raised, and sometimes paved must have been constructed on sound principles.
with flag-stones, and are called banquettes, or The superintendence and care of bridges was always an
foot-paths ;
the middle part, being reserved for
carriages, is the road, or important object with the Romans ; it was at first committed
carriage-way. to the priests, thence obtained the name of ponliftces ;
who
In tnis place we propose to give a to the censors and curators of roads ;
was given
slight historical sketch afterwards it
of the rise, progress, and present state of and at last the emperors took it into their own hands. In the
bridge-building,
exemplified in descriptions of the most celebrated edifices of middle ages, the building of bridges was esteemed to be an
the kind in various parts of the world. Under the respective act of religion ; and about the close of the twelfth century,
heads of STONE BRIDGE, TIMBER BRIDGE, IRON St. Benezet founded a regular order of hospitallers, under the
BRIDGE,
SUSPENSION BRIDGE, &c., will be found the required infor- denomination of pontiftces, or bridge-builders, whose pro-
 BRI 59 BRI

vince it was to erect bridges, appoint ferries, and entertain tra- on the other ; it is formed of squared stones in two ranks ;
vellers in hospitals built on the banks of rivers. the rest of the fabric is of rubble-work. The span of the
Of the bridges of antiquity, that built by Trajan across the arch is 181 feet; its greatest height, from the level of the
Danube, near the town of Warhel, in Hungary, is allowed water to its intrados, C8 feet 8 inches ; and the breadth
to have been the most magnificent. It was destroyed by of the bridge, 13 feet.
Adrian, but some of the piers may still be seen. The bridge of Avignon was begun in the year 1176, and
The remains of a bridge bearing as strong marks of ruined finished in 1188, probably under the direction of St. Benezet

magnificence as any of antiquity, are to be met with at the and the fraternity of hospitallers, over whom he presided ; it
bottom of a hill, on which the town of Narni is seated, on consisted of 18 arches, and was about 1,000 yards in length.
the road between Loretto and Rome. This bridge was built The road-way was so narrow, that two carriages could not
by Augustus, to join two mountains, between which flows the pass each other in any part ; this had caused it to be deserted
river Nera, and to enable the inhabitants of Narni to pass on by all but foot-passengers long before its destruction, which
a level from one mountain to the other. It was of an extra- happened in 1699, by one of those violent inundations com-
ordinary height, and its whole length, 850 palms (637^ feet). mon to the Rhone. Many of the ruinous-decayed arches still
Itconsisted of four large .unequal arches. remain.
The next considerable Roman work of this kind is the The city of Venice has nearly 500 handsome bridges of
Pont du Garde, about three leagues from Nismes ; which one arch, and various sizes, over the canals, &c. ; most of them
serves the double purpose of a bridge over the Gardon, and arc of white stone, similar to that with which the streets are
an aqueduct for supplying the people of Nismes with water. paved, without any balusters or fence on either side. Of these
The bridge, which consists of six arches, is about 465 feet in the principal is the Rialto, esteemed, when erected, a master-
length, and supports a second series of 1 1 arches, which arc piece of art. It was begun in 1588, and finished in 1591,
continued beyond the extremities of the bridge, and form a after a design of Michael Angelo, and consists of one bold
flat arch, nearly 100 feet wide, and only 23 in height from
junction with the slope of the mountains on either side ; it is
about 780 feet long. Over these is a third series of 35 arches, the level of the water. Its breadth, which is 43 feet, is
much smaller than those below, 850 feet in length, support- divided into three narrow streets, by two rows of shops the:

ing a canal on a level with the two mountains, along which middle street is the widest, and in the centre there is an
the water is conveyed to Nismes by a continued aqueduct. arched aperture, by which the three streets communicate
This extraordinary edifice is built with very large stones, with each other. At each end of the bridge is an ascent of
held together by iron cramps without cement. The whole 5(5 steps, and the prospect from its summit is both lively and

height is 190 feet above the lower river. magnificent. The foundation extends 90 feet, and rests upon
The bridge of St. Esprit, near Lyons, is of Roman origin, 12,000 elm piles; the whole exterior of the bridge, as well
and has long been deemed one of the finest and boldest of the as of the shops, is of marble. The building cost the Republic
ancient bridges of France. Its whole length is upwards of 250,000 ducats.
800 yards ; it is very crooked, bends in several places, and The most stupendous and magnificent work ever executed
makes many unequal angles, particularly in those parts where in the department we are now
speaking of, is the aqueduct
the river has the strongest current. The arches run from bridge of Alcantara, near the city of Lisbon. It was begun
15 to 20 fathoms in width. The feet or bottoms of the piers in the reign of John V. king of Portugal, in the year 1713,

consist, in their lower parts, of several courses of footings and was finished on the sixth of August, 1732, under the
jutting out like steps and are each protected by two pedes-
; superintendence of Brigadier Mansel de Maya. The aque-
tals, projecting from them. Between the large arches are duct commences at a spring near Ribeira de Caranque, about
smaller apertures, like windows, reaching nearly to the tops three leagues and a half from Lisbon, to which city the
of the pedestals, about the middle of the pier. This mode of water is conveyed for the supply of the inhabitants. The
construction was adopted with a view to break gradually aqueduct passes subterraneously through the hills, receiving
the mighty force of the Rhone the several courses of steps,
: in its course the waters of several springs, and stretches

jutting out from the piers, oppose and break the stream by across many valleys on the tops of magnificent ranges of
portions, and prevent it from operating with its whole force arches, of which that crossing the vale of Alcantara is the
upon the fabric at once ; and when the flood rises so high as principal. When the water emerges from its subterraneous
to cover the steps and pedestals, the small arches, or windows, passage, it is received in two channels on the tops of these
allow the water to pass freely, which otherwise would have arches, each about 12 inches deep ;
it
generally flows at
choked in the upper part of the great arches, and endangered about the depth of seven inches, yielding an abundant supply
by their being forced up. for the city and its environs. The interior height of this
The city of Valenza de Alcantara, in Spain, is celebrated building is 13 feet, and between the streams is a paved walk
for its ancient bridge over the Tajo, or Tagus, about 25 miles or foot-path. The subterraneous passages are continued of
from Madrid, built in the time of the Emperor Trajan; and, the same height and width throughout the whole extent
as appears from an inscription over one of its arches, by the of the works, and are lighted and ventilated by openings to
people of Lusitania, who were assessed to defray the expense. the surface of the hills through which they pass. Over each
It is 200 feet above the water, and though consisting of only of these openings are turrets or square towers, with strong
six arches, is 670 feet in length, and 28 in breadth. At the latticed windows, to prevent mischievous persons from
entrance of the bridge is a small chapel dug in the rock by throwing stones, &c., into the aqueduct. These turrets are
the pagans, who dedicated it to Trajan ; but when the Chris- 16 in number, each 16 feet square, and rising 23 feet six
tians obtained possession, they consecrated it to St. Julian. inches above the roof of the aqueduct the number of win-
;

Near the old town of Brioude, in the Lower Auvergne, or dows is 79, each three feet seven inches long, by 13 inches
department of the Upper Loire, is a stupendous stone bridge, wide, railed with iron and latticed with bars. Beneath every
of one arch, the largest with which we are acquainted. It is second turret is an arched doorway into the aqueduct. The
attributed to the Romans, and stretches over the whole stream water-channel under the grand arch is about 24 feet in width,
of the Allier. The extremities of the arch rest on a natural and seven feet in depth but this channel is dry, except in
;

rock, which occasions the spring on one side to be lower than very rainy seasons. There is, indeed, a small stream eon-
 BR1 CO BRI

stantly" running through the vale of Alcantara, but

it is builder though it may be allowed to claim the qualities of
;

boldness of design and singularity of construction, as power-

conveyed by a very narrow channel under the pavement
It is formed by three semi-
beneath the grand arch, and then continues its course through fully as any bridge in Europe.
the valley in a stream between two and three feet wide, till arches, whose bases stand in the circumference of a circle,
it falls into the Tagus, about two miles below. This remark- equidistant from each other, and uniting at the top. This
able structure consists of 35 arches, of various dimensions. curious triune formation has led many persons to imagine,
The eighth is the grand arch, which is 108 feet five inches that the architect intended thereby to suggest an idea of the
in the span, and 227 feet in height the other arches vary
: Holy Trinity : nor is this improbable, considering the age
from 21 feet ten inches, to 72 feet in width. The total in which it was built. The ascent on either side of the
The expense semi-arches is by steps paved with small stones, and so steep
length of the piers and arches is 2,464 feet.
of erecting this work, and keeping it in repair, has hitherto that foot-passengers only can go over the bridge. Horsemen
been defrayed bj the trifling rate of one rey on every pound and carriages frequently go under it, as the river is in that
of meat sold in the markets of Lisbon. place but shallow. Although this structure has been built
In France, besides the Roman structures already noticed, for so many centuries, the arches are still sound and free
there are bridges of more recent date, remarkable both
man v from fissures, and the building in general exhibits very
for their size and the boldness of their construction :
among triflingmarks of decay.
these may be mentioned the bridge of Neuilly, built between The bridge of Burton-upon-Trent is 1,545 feet in length.
the years 1708 and 1780, by M. Perronet. It crosses the It consists of 34 arches, all of free-stone, and is strong and

Seine, on a line with the grand avenue of the Champs Elysees, lofty. It was erected in the 12th century, by Bernard,

in the front of the Tuilleries ; it is level on the top, and abbot of Burton.
consists of five equal arches, 120 feet French (128 feet English) Near Old Aberdeen is a celebrated Gothic bridge, over
in the span, with a rise of 30 French feet (32 feet English). the riverDon.
The piers are 14 feet thick, and the bridge itself 48 feet The centre arch of the bridge at York is 82 feet wide,
broad. The arches, which are elliptic, are composed of 1 1 and 27 feet high.
arcs of circles, of different diameters the upper portion
: At Winston, Yorkshire, is a bridge of a single arch, 108
of the arch was formed with a circle of 160 feet radius, feet nine inches in width, built of rubble stone, for the small
which, by its settlement during the building and after remo- cost of 500. It was designed by Sir Thomas Robinson,
ving the centres, became flattened to an arc of a circle of and built by John Johnson, a common mason, of Walsingham,
259 feet radius, differing so little from a platband, that the in the year 1762.
rise of the curve in a length of 33 feet, amounts to no more At Kelso, is an elegant stone bridge over the Tweed,
than six inches nine lines. built by Mr. Rennie. It is quite level at the top, having
At Mantes is a bridge of three arches, likewise over the five elliptical arches, each of 72 feet span ; every pier has
Seine. was begun in 1757, by M. Ilupeau, and finished
It a circular projection, on which stand two Doric pilasters,
ny M. Perroet. The centre arch is 120 feet French (128 supporting a simple block cornice. This bridge cost about
feet English) in the span the side arches are each 12 feet
; 13,000 exclusive of the new roads at each end, which cost
less. The piers are 25-^ feet wide, and the abutments 29 about 3,000 more.
feet thick. Mr. Rennie also constructed the aqueduct bridge over the
In the year 1771, M. Regemortes constructed a flat bridge river Lune, at Lancaster, which is considered as one of the
over the river Allicr, at Moulins, consisting of 13 semi-ellip- most magnificent works of the kind extant. At the place
tical arches, of 64 feet span each, and 24 feefc high. where it is built, the water is deep and the bottom bad the :

Over the river Oi.se, on the great road from Paris into foundations are therefore laid 20 feet below the surface of
Flanders, is the bridge of St. Maxenee, 41 feet wide, built the water, on a flooring of timber resting on piles. The
by M. Perronet. The arches, three in number, each describe arches are five in number, of 70 feet span each, and rise
the segment of a circle, whose radius is 118 feet,
leaving a about 39 feet above the surface of the water. It has a hand
water-way of 77 feet. The piers are singularly constructed ; some cornice, and every part is finished in the best manner
each being composed of four cylindrical pillars, nine feet in The total height from the surfae-e of the river, to that of the
diameter, leaving between them three spaces or intercolum- canal, is 57 feet ; and the canal admits barges of 60 tons
niations, which are arched over ; those on the outsides are burden to navigate upon it. The foundation alone of this
closed with a thin walling, and the middle one is left
open. building cost 15,000, and the superstructure more than
The last foreign bridge we shall notice, is that of Orleans, double that sum, although the stone was obtained from a
over the Loire, built by M. Hupeau, between the years 1750 quarry less than a mile and a half from the spot.
and 1760. It comprises nine oval arches, described from The bridge over the Pease, or Peaths, between Dunbar
three centres, which spring at 12 inches above low water. and Berwick-upon-Tweed, is rather an uncommon structure.
The middle arch is 106 feet in span, with a rise of 30 feet; It crosses a deep ravine, and consists of four semicircular
the extreme arches at either end, are each 98 feet The arch on the east side of the ravine is 54 feet
wide, and arches.
26 feet high; the intermediate arches increase gradually in wide ; the second 55 feet ; the third 52 feet ; and the fourth,
dimensions as they approach the centre. The four middle or western arch, 48 feet. From the bottom of the ravine to
piers are 19 feet wide; the others, 18 feet each; and the the surface of the road, the height is 124 feet. It was designed
abutments 23^ feet thick; making the whole length of the and built by the late Mr. D. Henderson, of Edinburgh.
bridge 1,100 feet. The bridges of Edinburgh are built, not over water, but
We come now to speak of bridges in our own
country, over dry land. They are distinguished by the name of
beginning with those of the greatest antiquity. The Gothic North Bridge and South Bridge, and afford an easy com-
triangular bridge at Croyland, Lincolnshire, is supposed to munication between the New Town and the royalty and
be the most ancient structure remaining entire in the suburbs on either side of it. The North Bridge, which forms
king-
dom. It was erected about the year 860, but for what the main communication between the Old and New Towns,
pur-
pose, not altogether impossible to determine
it is difficult, if was projected in the year 1763 ; but the contract for build-
;
it is, however, obvious that utility was not the motive of the ing was not signed till the 21st of August, 1765. The
 BRI 61 BRI

architect was Mr. William Mylne, who agreed with the elegance of design, and neatness of execution, surpasses any
town-council of Edinburgh to finish the work for 10,140, thing of the kind throughout the Principality. The description
and to uphold it for ten years. It was also to be finished and history of the progress of this bridge, we shall borrow
before Martinmas, 1769 ; but on the 8th of August that from Mr. Malkin's Tour in South Wales : " It consisted of
year, when the work was nearly completed, the vaults and three arches, elegantly light in their construction. The hewn
side walls on the south fell down. This misfortune was stones were excellently well dressed and closely jointed. It
occasioned by the foundation having been laid upon the was admired by all who saw it. But this river runs through
rubbish of the houses which had long before been built on a very deep vale, that is more than usually woody, and
the north side of the High-street ; and which had been crowded about with mountains. It is also to be considered,
thrown out into the hollow to the northward ; of this rub- that many other rivers, of no mean capacity, as the Crue, the
bish there was a depth of no less than eight feet between the Bargoed Taff, and the Cunno, besides almost numberless
foundation of the bridge and the solid earth. Besides this brooks, that run through long, deep, and well-wooded vales
deficiency in the foundation, an immense load of earth, which or glens, fall into the Taff, in its progress. The descents
had been laid over the vaults and arches, in order to raise into these vales from the mountains being in general very
the bridge to a proper level, had, no doubt, contributed to steep, the waters, in long and heavy rains, collect into these
produce the catastrophe above-mentioned. The bridge was rivers with great rapidity and force, raising floods, that in
repaired by pulling down some parts of the side walls, and their descriptionwould appear absolutely incredible to the
afterwards rebuilding them ; strengthening them in others inhabitants of open and flat countries, where the rivers are
with chain bars ; removing the quantity of earth laid upon neither so precipitate in their courses, nor have hills on each
the vaults, and supplying its place with hollow arches, &c. side to swell them with their torrents. Such a flood unfor-
The whole was supported at the south end by very strong tunately occurred soon after the completion of this under-
buttresses and counterforts on each side ; but on the north it taking, which tore up the largest trees by the roots, and
has only a single support. The whole length of the bridge, carried them down the river to the bridge, where the arches
from High-street, in the Old Town, to Princes-street, in the were not sufficiently wide to admit of their passage here:

New Town, is 1,125 feet; the total length of the piers and therefore they were detained. Brush-wood, weeds, hay,
arches, is 310 feet. The width of the three great arches, is straw, and whatever lay in the way of the flood, came down,
72 feet each ; of the piers, 13^ feet ; and of the small arches, and collected about the branches of the trees, that stuck fast
each 20 feet. The height of the great arches, from the base in the arches, and choked the free current of the water. In
to the top of the parapet, is 68 feet ; the breadth of the consequence of this obstruction, a thick and strong dam was
bridge, within the wall over the arches, is 40 feet ; and the formed, and the aggregate of so many collected streams
breadth at each end, 50 feet. The South Bridge is in a line being unable to get any farther, the waters rose to a pro-
with the North'Bridge, so as to make but one street, crossing digious height, and by the force of their pressure carried the
the High-street almost at right angles. It consists of twenty-
bridge entirely away !Edwards had given security for the
two arches of different sizes ; but only one of them is visible, stability of his bridge during the space of seven years ; it
viz. the large one over the Cow-gate ; and even this is small had stood only about two years and a half; of course he was
in comparison with those of the North Bridge, being no more obliged to erect another, and he proceeded on his duty with
than 30 feet wide, and 31 feet high. On the south, it ter- all possible speed. The second bridge was of one arch, for
minates at the University on one hand, and the Royal In- the purpose of admitting freely under it whatever incum-
firmary on the other. brances the floods might bring down. The span or chord of
The aqueduct bridge at Glasgow, over the river Kelvin, this arch was 140 feet ; its altitude 35 feet ; the segment
which conducts the great canal from the Forth to the Clyde, of a circle, whose diameter was 170 feet. The arch was
is the work of that
great engineer, Mr. Smeaton. Its length finished, but the parapets were not yet erected, when such
between the abutments, or land-piers, is 245 feet ; the arches, was the pressure of the unavoidably ponderous work over the
which are four in number, are each 50 feet in span, rising haunches, that it sprang in the middle, and the key-stones
15 feet 3 inches, from 151- feet above the footing of the piers ; were forced out This was a severe blow to a man, who
!

the three piers are each fifteen feet thick, and 54 feet high, ex- had hitherto met with nothing but misfortune in an enterprise
clusive of the footing. The extrados is a straight surface for which was to establish or ruin him in his profession. William
the canal. This bridge is constructed upon true mechanical Edwards, however, possessed a courage which did not easily
principles, and the parapet is recessed opposite to the arches forsake him ; he engaged in it a third time, and by means of
in order to resist the pressure of the water in the canal. The
cylindrical holes through the haunches, so reduced their
land-piers are also ingeniously contrived to be concave out- weight, that there was no longer any danger to be appre-
wardly, so as to spread out at the base. hended. The second bridge fell in 1751 ; the third, which
The bridge at Perth was erected between the years 176G has stood ever since, was completed in 1755." The breadth
and 1771, according to a plan by Smeaton, under the of this bridge is about 1 1 feet in the widest part ; but in
patronage of the late Earl of Kinnoul. It consists of ten order to strengthen it horizontally, it is contracted towards
arches, one of which is a land arch. The clear water-way is the centre by seven off-sets, so that the road-way is there
589f feet ; the extent of all the arches, 730f feet ; and the one foot nine inches narrower than at the extremities. It
wing-walls 176 feet: so that the total length of the bridge is consists of a single arch, 140 feet in width, forming the seg-
906^ feet. The expense of building amounted to 26,446 ment of a circle of 175 feet ; its height is 35 feet. This
12s. 3d., and was defrayed by public subscription. Blenheim arch is between 40 and 50 feet wider than that of the cele-
bridge consists of three arches, the chief of which is 101^ brated Rialto, at Venice, and its additional altitude only in
feet in the span.
proportion. In each haunch are three cylindrical openings
But the most extraordinary bridge in Great Britain, is that running quite through, from side to side, like circular win-
over the near Llantrissent, in Glamorganshire, called
Taflf, dows: the diameter of the lowest is nine feet ; of the middle
by the Welch Pont-y-ty-Pridd. It is the work of William one, six feet ; and of the uppermost, three feet.
Edwards, an uneducated mason of the country, who engaged, Besides the bridges already mentioned, there are other
in 1746, to erect a new neat and elegant structures in various parts of Great
bridge at this place, which for
 BRI 62 BRI

Britain and Ireland. In the latter kingdom, we cannot At Wittengen, in Switzerland, is a very curious bridge,
refrain from noticing the bridge over the Liffey, above the contrivance of Ulrick Grubenhamm, an uneducated car-
penter of Tuffen, in the canton of Appenzel, celebrated
in the year for
Dublin, called Sarah, or Island Bridge, built
several works of the same nature. It consists of two wooden
1792, by Mr. Alexander Stevens, a mason
of Edinburgh.
of a single elliptical arch, 106 feet wide, rising arches parallel to each other, with the roadway hanging
It consists
feet wider than the between them. The span is 230 feet, and rises only five
only 22 feet and is consequently six
:

Rialto, at Venice, and one foot less in altitude. The city of feet. The arches approach the catenarian shape, and are
built of seven oourses of solid oak logs, in lengths of 12 or
Dublin has likewise five other bridges over the Liffey,
of which the two following are particularly worth notice : 14 feet, and 16 inches and upwards in thickness. By
Arran, or Queen's Bridge, originally erected
in the year picking these logs of a natural shape suited to the intended
was rebuilt of curve, the wood is nowhere trimmed across the The
1684, but being destroyed by a flood in 1763, grain.
hewn stone, and finished in 1768. It is built in a handsome logs being laid one upon the other, with their abutting joints
style, and consists of three arches, with paved ban- carefully alternated, have the appearance of a wooden wall :
light
on each side of the carriage-way, instead of being pinned together, they are surrounded with
quettes for foot-passengers,
guarded with stone balusters. The other is Essex Bridge, straps of iron, at every distance of five feet, and fastened by
first built in
1081, taken down in 1753, and rebuilt after the bolts and keys. The abutments are the natural rock. The
model of Westminster Bridge. It has five arches, the roadway intersects these arches at about the middle of their
buttresses between which support semicircular niches, pro- height, and
is
supported by cross joists, resting on a long
jecting from the parapet ;
between these niches are balus- horizontal beam, connected with the arches on either side by
trades, which are continued to the ends
of the bridge. The uprights bolted into them. Three of the spaces between
is constructed of hewn these uprights have struts or braces, giving the upper work
foot-ways are flagged, and the whole
a sort of trussing in that part. The whole is covered with a
stone, in very fine taste.
We come now to those magnificent exam pies of bridge archi- roof, projecting over the arches on each side of the roadway,
to defend the timbers from the injuries of the weather. This
tecture, equalling any that the Romans have left,
and surpass-
ing all others in the world the bridges of London. Each of bridge is of more than sufficient strength to bear any load
these noble structures may be considered almost perfect in its that can be laid upon it, though the attempt to truss the ends

kind, and as affording a specimen of the application

in its gran- demonstrates that the builder was ignorant of true architec-
dest form, of the peculiar material of which it is constructed. tural principles.
Four of these fine bridges are built of stone namely, In 1754, Grubenhamm erected another bridge, upon a plan
London Bridge, Blackfriars Bridge, Waterloo Bridge, and nearly similar to the foregoing, at Schaffhausen, where the
Westminster Bridge. They will be fully described under river (the Rhine) is nearly 390 feet wide. The current is
STONE BRIDGE. Southwark Bridge, built of iron, under very rapid at this spot, and had destroyed several stone
IRON BRIDGE. And the beautiful new bridge lately com- bridges, when Grubenhamm offered to throw a wooden
pleted at Hungerford, by Brunei, the celebrated engineer, bridge across, of a single span ; but the magistrates were
under SUSPENSION BRIDGE. alarmed at the proposition, on account of the breadth of the
Among Bridges of Wood, (for the principles and methods river, and would scarcely listen to it: at last they consented
of constructing which, see TIMBER BRIDGE,) the first that that he should build a bridge, provided he would divide it
attracts our notice is the bridge of Coesar across the Rhine. into two spans, and use the middle pier of the late stone
It consisted of a double row of piles, leaning to the course of bridge as a support at their junction. Grubenhamm complied
the stream, and joined together at the distance of two feet with the wish of the magistrates so far as to divide his bridge
from each other. Forty feet lower down the river, was into *wo unequal parts, the span of the one being 172 feet,
another double row of piles, leaning against the stream, and and of the other, 193, both appearing to rest upon the old
towards the former row. Between the double piles, which pier, though he contrived to leave it
doubtful whether they
were well rammed into the bed of the river, long beams, two really did so or not. This structure cost 8,000 sterling,
and
feet thick, were placed, and held fast at each end by two travellers inform us, that though it sustained the most heavily
braces. These beams being joined by transverse pieces, the laden waggons in perfect security, yet the weight of a single
It was
whole was surmounted with hurdles. To preserve this struc- foot-passenger caused it to tremble under him.
ture from injury by the force of the water, the supporters were destroved by the French, when they evacuated Schaffhausen,
guarded with piles as buttresses ; and above the bridge, other in April, 1799.
piles were placed, to stop the progress of trees or timber, Among wooden-bridges, the Schuylkill bridges at Phila-
which by accident might fall into the river, or be designedly delphia, in America, are very remarkable.
floated down by an enemy, to destroy the work. Wooden-bridges, unsupported by posts or pillars, and
sus-
The bridge over the Cismone, a river falling from the tained only by butments at the ends, have obtained the deno-
mountains which separate Italy from Germany, is described mination of Pendent or Hanging Bridges, by some also called
three
by Palladio as an interesting object to the builder and architect. Philosophical Bridges, of which Palladio has described
The river where this bridge is erected is 100 feet wide ; and modes of erecting ; such is the bridge over the Cismone,
because the current is very rapid, and great quantities of already described. Doctor Wallis has likewise given the
timber are floated down it by the mountaineers, the design of a timber bridge, 70 feet long, without any pillars,
bridge
was constructed of a single span. The width is divided which may be useful where supports cannot be conveniently
into six equal parts, and at the' end of each
part, except at erected ; and Doctor Plott assures us, that formerly there was
the banks, which are strengthened with pilasters of a large bridge over the castle ditch at Tutbury, in Stafford-
stone, are
placed the beams that form the breadth of the bridge. On shire, made of shoit timbers, none of them above a yard
in
these, leaving a little space at their ends, other beams are length, yet not supported from beneath, either by pillars
or
placed lengthwise, constituting the sides. The king-posts arches. The Spaniards use bridges of this kind for crossing
are disposed on either side, over both beams, connected with the torrents of Peru, over which it would be difficult, not to
say impossible, to throw more solid structures, either of wood
the projecting ends of those forming the breadth,
by means
of iron bolts and pins. or stone. Some of these hanging-bridges are sufficiently strong
 BRI 63 BRI

and broad for loaded mules to pass along them with safety. passenger, who is certainly not quite at his ease till he has
la China, these flying bridges are constructed of an almost landed from this swinging, unsteady footing. At another
incredible magnitude ; the Philosophical Transactions contain place, a bridge for foot-passengers is formed by two parallel
the figure of one, consisting of a single arch, 400 cubits long, chains, round which creepers are loosely twisted, from which
and 500 in height. planks are suspended, the end of one plank resting upon the
A great change in modern bridge-building has been effected other without being confined.
by the introduction of iron, and the use of chain or suspen- In the rude suspension bridge of South America, with
sion-bridges. The invention of Iron Bridges is said to be its ropes of twisted bark, and its
platform of cross pieces of
exclusively English, but Duhalde gives the merit of it to the wood interwoven in them, or the platform attached imme-
Chinese ; be that as it may, there is no country where there diately to the sustaining ropes, the form assumed, the cate-
has been so extensive an application of the discovery, or in narian curve, is the same as in the more perfect structures of
which has been erected so many fine bridges of iron as in modern times and ope traces easily the transition from the
Great Britain. The first was sot up at Colebrook Dale, simple but effective contrivance of the untutored Indian, to
Shropshire, in the year 1797, and was speedily succeeded by the master-pieces of the genius of a Telford. See SUSPEN-
numerous others in all parts of the United Kingdom ; for a SION BRIDGE.
description of which we must refer to IRON BRIDGE. Bridges of Boats are made of boats, either of copper, tin,
Draw Bridges are of wood or iron, sometimes of both, with or wood, fastened across the stream by means of anchors or
stone abutments. They are placed over navigable canals and stakes, and laid over with planks. The earliest instance
rivers, or used in fortified places for the purpose of shutting upon record of this kind of bridge, was that laid by Darius
out the enemy, and are of varied construction. Some are Hystaspes over the Ister, or Danube, in his Scythian expedi-
fastened at one end by hinges, so that the other end may be tion, 508 years before the Christian era. The same monarch
raised or lowered at pleasure. The most common method of also crossed the Thracian Bosphorus with 700,000 men
by
doing this is by a kind of balance, called plyers, in which case means of a bridge of boats ; the strait being five stadia, or
the bridge when drawn up stands erect, to preclude a passage 1,008 yards in width. Modern armies carry with them tin
across a moat, &c. Others are so constructed as to be drawn or copper boats, called pontoons, to be ready on any emer-
back, or thrust forward, as occasion may require. On small gency several of them, placed side by side, across the river,
:

canals, &c., draw-bridges consist of one leaf only ; but on till

they reach the opposite shore, with planks laid upon
larger navigations, wet-docks, &c., they are of two pieces, them, form a plane for the soldiers to march on. At Beaucaire,
meeting in the middle, and forming an arch, which are raised Rouen, and Seville, are very fine stationary bridges of boats,
or lowered by means of balance frames, movable on the tops which rise and fall with the tide : that at Rouen is nearly
of uprights suited in height to the magnitude of the 300 yards long, and paved with stone, so that laden carriages
bridge ;
such as that at Bristol, over the Frome. Such bridges, how- and horses, as well as foot-passengers, go over it in safety.
ever, having been found inconvenient from their tackling In the absence of pontoons, military bridges have been made
catching the yards and rigging of vessels passing through them, of blown bladders, hollow casks, sheaves of rushes, &c.,
a kind of bridge, diverse from all the preceding, has been in- covered over with planks.
vented, called a Swivel Bridge : these, on small rivers, are only When bridges of this kind do not extend over the whole
of one frame, or leaf, and turn on a centre, or series of balls breadth of the river, but are contrived to float from one side
or rollers ; but when made on a wider scale, they consist of to the other, they are termed Flying or Floating Bridges.
two parts, one on each side of the channel, and meeting in A bridge of this description is generally composed of several
the centre. The most complete of this kind are those con- boats connected with each other by a flooring of planks, and
structed at the West-India and London Docks ; the latter surrounded by a railing. This stage or raft is furnished
spans 40 feet, and is 15 feet wide'in the road- way. It con- with one or more masts, according to its dimensions, to
sists of cast-iron ribs, about 1 inch thick, turning on a num- which is fastened a strong cable, supported at proper dis-
ber of concentric rollers, which move between two circular tances by boats, and extending to an anchor, in the middle of
casHron rings, very nicely turned: each leaf has a flap, which the water, where it is made secure. The bridge thus becomes
lets down by a screw, and abuts
upon the stone-work on movable, like a pendulum, from one side of the river to the
either side, forming the whole bridge, when shut, into an arch other, with the assistance only of a rudder. Such bridges
capable of bearing any weight that can possibly pass over it. were formerly sometimes constructed of two stories, for the
The whole apparatus weighs 85 tons ; but it moves with so more expeditious passage of a great number of men.
much ease, that it can be opened and shut in less than three Another kind of flying bridge is formed of two platforms,
minutes. laid one upon the other, and by means of cords and pullies
Suspension Bridges have only lately been introduced into the uppermost is made to run out beyond the lower platform,
this country, though known to the Chinese from a very early till its farther extremity rests against the place it was

period. The iron-chain bridge of Yunnan is supposed to have designed to reach. In the Histoire de VAcad&mie Royale des
been erected about A. D. 65, in the reign of the emperor Sciences, for the year 1713, page 104, is a description of a
Mingus, and is described as very similar in principle to the floating bridge, which lays itself on the opposite side of a river.
Hammersmith Suspension Bridge near London. In Kircher's Under this head we have now to describe one of the most
China Illustrata, it is stated, that the chord-line is of the useful and ingenious constructions of modern science and
length of 200 cubits. In the Asiatic Researches, Turner engineering skill the steam Floating Bridge invented by
gives a very interesting account of the singular bridges Mr. J. M. Rendel, the eminent civil engineer. The first
erected by the natives of Bootan. These bridges are of bridge on this principle was erected by Mr. Rendel across
varied construction, but admirably adapted to the circum- the estuary of the Dart at Dartmouth, about the year 1832,
stances for which they are intended. Over the widest river and a similar one was established about two years after,
in Bootan, there is an iron
bridge, consisting of a number of across the Hamoaze, between Torpoint and Devonport.
iron chains, which support a matted
platform ; and two chains A very full description of the latter, accompanied by
are stretched above, parallel to the sides, to elaborate drawings, has been furnished to the Institution of
support a matted
border, which is absolutely necessary for the safety of the Civil Engineers by Mr. Rendel himself, and from the first
 BEI 64 BEU
volume of the "Transactions" of the Institution, we have parallel pieces. In framed roofing, the common rafters
extracted the following brief sketch. bridge over the purlins likewise in framed flooring, the
;

The medium width of the river at the site of the bridge upper joists, to which the boarding is fixed, bridge over
the beams or binding joists, and are therefore called bridging
may be taken at about 2,350 feet, the strength of the current
after heavy land floods is very great, and the site so much joists.

exposed, that it is not uncommon for the ships lying

in the BRIDGE STONE, a stone laid from the pavement to the
vicinity of the bridge to drag their moorings.
The bridge entrance-door of a house, over a sunk area, not supported by
is a large flat-bottomed vessel, of a width nearly equal to its an arch.
length. The vessel is divided in the direction of its length BRIDGED GUTTERS, those made with boards, sup-
into three parts the middle one being appropriated to the ported below with bearers, and covered above with lead.
machinery each of the side divisions to carriages, &c. BRIDGING FLOORS, those in which bridging joists
These side divisions or decks are raised about 2 feet above are used. See NAKED FLOORING.
the line of flotation, and by means of movable platforms, an BRIDGING JOISTS, those which are sustained by transverse
easy communication is afforded with the shore on embarking beams below, called binding-joists ; also those on which the
or landing. The bridge is guided by two chains, which pass- boarding for walking upon is nailed or fixed. See NAKED
ing through it over cast-iron wheels, are laid across the river FLOORING.
and fastened to the opposite shores, forming as it were a road BRIDGINGS, or BRIDGING PIECES. See STRAINING
along which the vessel travels backwards and forwards. PIECES, and STRUTTING PIECES.
The moving power employed is two small steam-engines BRING UP, a term used by workmen for carrying up
turning a shaft, on each end of which is a large iron wheel the walls to a certain height they say, " bring up that part ;"
:

whereon the guide-chains rest. The peripheries of these but the term carry up is more frequently used.
wheels are cast with sockets fitted to the links of the chains, BROACH, an old English term for a spire, still in use
so that when the bridge is put in motion by the steam- in the north of England. The term is specifically applied
engines, it is moved in the reverse direction of, and with the to spires which spring directly from the eaves of the tower
same velocity as the wheels. The ends of the chains have or other substructure, without the intervention of a parapet.
balance-weights attached to them, which rise or fall as the This kind of spire is confined more especially to the earlier
tension of the chains becomes more or less. styles of Gothic architecture ; in the later ones, the parapet
A
similar bridge has been established at Portsmouth, and is seldom dispensed with.
plies between that place and Gosport. BROAD-STONE, the same as FREE-STONE.
Under this article we may also mention Portable Bridges, BRONZE ;
a compound of copper and other metals,
which are easily taken to pieces, and as readily put together especially zinc. It is used for cannon, medals, &c.

again. M. Couplet speaks of a bridge of this kind, 200 feet BRONZE also denotes any piece of sculpture made of bronze
long, carried by 40 men. metal, as statues, busts, &c., whether in imitation of the
Writers on architecture have bestowed considerable atten- antique, or representing a modern prototype. The method
tion on the subject of bridge-building, which is justly esteemed of casting bronzes is described under CASTING.
as one of the most noble and striking specimens of human BROWN, a dusky colour inclining to redness. Of this
art. The earliest of these is Alberti, a native of Florence, there are various shades, distinguished by different appella-
who flourished about the middle of the 15th century; he tions, as Spanish brown, sad brown, tawny brown, London
has given several judicious which, with little
precepts, brown, and clove brown. Spanish brown is a dark dull red,
alteration, were afterwards laid down byFalladio, Serlio, of a horseflesh colour, of great use to painters, being generally
and Scamozzi. The best of these rules are likewise given used in house-painting, for priming the timber work, or first
by Goldman and Baukhurst, as well as by Hawkesmoor, in coating. The best is that of a deep colour, and free from
his History of London Bridf/e. M. Gautier has written a stones. It is the best and brightest when burnt in the fire till

largo volume on bridges, ancient and modern. M. Belidor it is red-hot. The various browns used in drawing are
has treated on this subject, in his Architecture Hydraulique ; BISTRE, COLOGNE EARTH, and UMBER.
as has M. Parent, in his Essais et Eecherches Mathematiques, BRUNELLESCHI, PHILIP, the son of a notary, born at
vol. iii. De la Hire, too, has touched on it, in his Traite Florence in 1377, was at first designed for the bar ; but
de Mechanique. Perronet has given the result of his expe- not liking that profession, he was apprenticed to a goldsmith.
rience in a magnificent work, which has
acquired him great His genius, however, turned him to the study of sculpture,
geometry, and architecture. The first model by
credit in France. Bosset has given an excellent treatise on which he
bridge-building, in the Memoires de V Academic. Regemortes formed his taste in architecture was the church of St. John,
published, in 1771, an account of the bridge built by him at Florence, a building of good style, and much inclining to
over the Allier, at Moulins. In 1760, Mr. Eiou the antique; he afterwards went to Rome, to study the
published
a work entitled, Short monuments there, the best of which he measured
Principles for the Architecture of ancient
Bridges ; and Mr. Semple has given some excellent prac- and took drawings from ;
and he is said to have first distin-
tical remarks in his Treatise on
Building in Water, published guished the three ancient orders.
in 1776. Other writers on the construction and principles When the Florentines first thought of raising a dome upon
of arches and bridges, are the church of St. Mary del Fiore, they invited all the prin-
Muller, Labelye, Atwood,
Emerson, and Dr. Hutton. cipal architects of Europe to a consultation,
at which Bru-
When a bridge is constructed of stone, and arched over, nelleschi proposed a double cupola, with a space between the
it requires, in the act of building, to be supported upon inner and outer vaults, sufficient to admit of staircases and
a deemed so preposterous,
mould, called a centre ; the construction of which is shown passages to the top. This idea was
under the article CENTRE. that he was actually turned out of the assembly, for having
BRIDGE BOARD See NOTCH BOARD. so many
presumed to insult the good sense and judgment of
BRIDGE OVER when there are any number of
:
who had never heard of such a thing,
parallel experienced artists,
timbers, and another piece fixed transversely over them, and held it to be impracticable. Undaunted by this treat-
then the transverse piece is said to bridge over the other ment, Brunelleschi persisted in maintaining the practicability
 BUI 65 BUI

of his scheme, and demonstrated it by drawings and models: choice of masters for the execution of the respective depart-
but the clamour excited by his brother artists ran so high ments. The architect should then proceed to make out a
for a time, that he was looked upon as a downright madman ! specification, and contract for each individual branch con-
At length, however, the violence of prejudice began to sub- cerned in the business, and put them into the hands of
side, and when it was seen that the rest of the architects respectable tradesmen ; if the estimates appear to be reason-
produced nothing eligible for the purpose, the deputies, who able, the contracts should be signed. There are many kinds
had the management of the building, sent for Brunelleschi, 'ofwork for which, however, from novelty in execution, it
listened candidly to what he had to propose, examined his would be impossible to anticipate a price but if the work
:

drawings and models, and finally set him to work, under consist of similar repetitions or parts, the value of one part
certain restrictions they also appointed him an assistant,
:
being known, by taking an account of the time, that of the
but his complete ignorance soon manifested itself, and he was others will follow, and then the estimated expense of the
dismissed. Brunelleschi being thus left at liberty, the whole may be ascertained. There are many proprietors
citizens saw with admiration a magnificent cupola arise over whose ideas are never fixed, and no sooner is work done than
their church, which Michael Augelo himself pronounced to it is undone: in such a case, the work should be done by

be a masterpiece of science. This cupola is octangular, measure and value, affixing a regular price to every corres-
154 cubits (Flemish) in height, on which rises a lantern of ponding article; and an account should betoken of the work
thirty -eight cubits, surmounted with a ball of four cubits, pulled down. In whatever way the work be valued, there
and a cross of eight cubits; making a total of 202 cubits, should be a person employed, stationary in the building,
a height never before attempted on such a plan. Brunelleschi called a clerk of llie works, whose business it is to give direc-
died before the lantern was quite finished, but he left a tions for fixing, and to superintend all parts of the execution ;

model, and recommended on his death-bed, that it should to keep the workmen's time, to give in weekly reports, and
be loaded with the heaviest marble. The portico that was to examine the work, should it happen to be prepared out of
to have surrounded the tambour still remains unfinished. the building.
The peculiarity of this celebrated cupola is, that it has no The drawings necessary in the construction of an edifice
counterforts. are, plans of the several stories, elevations of the facades, a
Brunelleschi built the abbey for the regular canons at transverse and a longitudinal section at least, horizontal and
Fiesole, under the direction and patronage of Cosmo de vertical sections of all the difficult parts, and a detail of all
Medicis ;
it is a convenient cheerful edifice, and the orna- the mouldings and ornaments at large. These ought to be
ments are in a chaste style. He also constructed several committed to the care of the clerk of the works. It is not

military works. A great part of the church of St. Laurence, very easy for an architect to furnish all the detail before a
ut Florence, was built by Brunelleschi, but he died before building is to be estimated ; but if time would permit this to
it was
completed, and his successors committed so many be done, the contractors would be able to undertake the work
blunders in finishing it, that the original design is very at the lowest rate, and this would in a great measure super-
much mutilated. The palace of Pitti, at Florence, was sede the necessity of the addition, which is too generally
likewise begun from his designs; and so completely did the found necessary to cover the uncertainty of estimating largo
tide of public favour turn in his behalf, that his fellow- works.
citizens elected him to the office of magistrate. But it was With regard it must be obvious,
to building in general,
after his death that his talents were most appreciated, and that to the judgment, and science of the architect
taste,
his merit fully acknowledged as the reviver of pure archi- must be left the selection of the character and style of the
tecture. He died in 1444, aged 67, honoured and esteemed by building to be erected no certain rules can be given to fonr
;

all who knew him, and was buried in St.

Mary's cathedral. the general contour of an edifice, but the middle part ought
BUCCULA, in antiquity, denotes the umbo, or prominent to have some commanding feature, and the general outline of

part of a shield. the whole should approach to a pyramidal form. Large edi
BUDGET, a kind of pocket used by bricklayers, for hold- fices are susceptible of great splendour, by an agreeable

ing nails when they lath for tiling. variety of parts but the beauty of a small building consists
;

BUFFET, a cabinet or cupboard for plate, glasses, or in the simplicity and symmetry of its surfaces.
china-ware. In former times, these were frequently made The regularly repeated columns, entablatures, and other
very ornamental, in the form of niches, and left open in the ornaments which may adorn a circular building, create the
fn>nt in order to show the furniture. The buffet is now most pleasing feelings, and in a straight building also, the
rarely seen, except in old-fashioned houses ; in modern uniformity and succession of parts are usually delightful
to
establishments it has been superseded by the sideboard. the observer, hence the gratifying sensation arising from long
BUILDER, a person who contracts to build, or rear up ranges of colonnades, as in the Grecian temples and the
aisles
edifices. of churches but the preceding observation, with respect to
:

BUILDING, in general, is a mass formed by the junction the entablature, does not apply in a straight building.. The
of materials. When a building is stationary, and erected for entablatures may either be broken or continued, according to
dwelling in, or for some
useful purpose or ornament, it is the use of the columns the outline of the building being
;

called an build, should make

Those who intend to stillpreserved in either case for when the repetitions are
:
edifice.
choice of an architect who is known to be a man of ability fac-similes of each other, the eye will judge of the figure of
and of tried experience and integrity. The proprietor should the building the same, whether the entablature be continued
then explain as clearly as possible his ideas and intentions or interrupted, which is not the case in rotund edifices.
respecting the proposed building, to enable the architect to When columns are placed so remote from each other, as not
furnish the requisite plans and estimates. These should be to be capable of supporting an entablature, or not sufficiently
carefully examined and gone into, so that the proprietor near to excite the idea, the entablatures may be broken, as
be perfectly satisfied that his wishes are understood, and the in the triumphal arches at Rome, where the columns are
cost of carrying them into effect brought within the extent introduced to support the ornaments of triumph. In the
of his means or inclinations. The whole management ought peribolus of the Grecian temples, the
broken entablatures
then to be committed to the architect, with full liberty in the are not only beautiful, but the repetition of the order itself
 BUI 66 BUI

is useful in reinforcing the strength of the enclosure, and inconveniences, as they admit of cold air, damps, rain, and
thus performing the office of buttresses to the walls. Much snow, and thereby waste the heat generated in the house.
of the agreeable sensation in viewing our venerable antique- They ought therefore never to be admitted, except for stairs
modern churches, arises from the uniform succession of the and halls ; but when this admission is necessary, their aper-
buttresses and their ornaments. tures should be of sufficient dimensions, not to hinder the
For farther particulars, with regard to the exterior of a . passage of the sun's rays.
we must refer the reader to the term BREAK. The plans of buildings may be of various forms ; the circle
building,
With regard to situation, a building should be placed in is the most
capacious of all figures, under the same perimeter,
a salubrious and mild atmosphere, free from noxious exha- and a building erected upon a circular plan, is also the most
lations, within the reach of the rays of
the sun, so as to strong, durable, and beautiful of all others; but its compart-
make it cheerful, and to have a plentiful supply of water and ments are not convenient in dwelling-houses, on account of a
of life it should be waste of room occasioned by the disposition of angular furni-
coal, as likewise of all other necessaries
:

surrounded with an agreeable variety of woods and walks, ture ; so that the loss in this respect more than counter-
and ought to have an easy access to the highway. The situ- balances the quantity of area gained by the property of its
ation should be commanding, but not so high as to expose the figure. Circular buildings are also the most expensive, and,
on account of the impossibility of dividing them into compart-
building to the fury of heavy winds.
With regard to the plan of a building, the disposition of ments without distortion, they are unfit for the purpose of
the apartments mu-4 lie agreeable to the intention of the private edifices on this account they were employed by the
:

ancients only in their temples and amphitheatres, which had

design, and in general the rooms ought
to be all entered by
one common passage ;
for farther particulars on this head, no need of compartition. In modern mansions, entire cylin-
see APARTMENT, CHIMNEY, PASSAGE, ROOF, ROOM, and dric or polygonal buildings are seldom or never used, except
STAIRCASE. in parts which form single apartments upon a floor, as in
The modern method of placing a bedchamber and dress- towers or bows. Though very beautiful forms of edifices
ing-room together, each with its separate door to the com- may be reared upon rectilineal plans, a judicious arrange-
mon passage, and likewise with a door common to each other, ment of apartments formed both of plane and curved sur-
is
very convenient. The mode of uniting, when necessary, faces will make a most agreeable variety.
two or more rooms by means of folding-doors, is a very Of all buildings upon plans of equilateral and equi-angular
great improvement, particularly in small houses. The hall, polygons, the triangle contains the least area, and on account
or entrance, should at least have one chimney, and if con- of the acuteness of its angles, rectangular furniture cannot be
nected with the staircase or a lofty saloon, the heat will be disposed on its area without very considerable waste the ;

of essential service in warming the whole house. Double employment of this figure, therefore, occasions not only a loss
doors are useful in preserving a uniform temperature. of surface from property, but a loss also in placing of
its

Besides double external doors, for the exclusion of cold furniture : it

may, however, be observed, in buildings erected
winds, double windows should boused for winter apartments. upon equilateral and equi-angular polygons, the greater the
The proper distribution of rooms must be regulated by the number of sides the plan has, the less loss of area will be
course of the sun, in order to avoid the extremes of the sum- sustained on account of the property of the figure but those ;

mer's heat and winter's cold. Bedchambers are properly with obtuse angles will still have the same objections on
situated towards the east, in order to regulate the time of account of the furniture. Various figures may be adopted
rising. Every house ought to have two sitting-rooms, to occasionally, for the sake of variety, when
the loss of room is
accommodate the extreme seasons of the year ; that for the not an object but for general use, the rectangular disposition
;

summer ought to be disposed in the north, and that for of an edifice is the most convenient, as it will compart ad
the winter in the south. Drawing-rooms and (lining-parlours infinitum into rectangular figures, which is the best form of
are best situated in the west, as they are generally used in furniture for general use.
the afternoon, that the declining sun
may throw an agree- The accessories of a building are ornaments borrowed
able shade upon objects these matters, however,
; frequently from sculpture and painting but wherever they are intro-
;

depend upon other circumstances of convenience. duced, they ought to be in character, and to indicate in some
The drawing-rooms should be so disposed, as to be easily measure its destination. Figures representing animals are
converted into one room, by throwing open the folding- of a higher class than those of foliage or vegetables the :

doors. In country mansions, the kitchen should be as near former were generally employed by the Greeks, particularly
the dining-room as convenient, but so
disposed with regard in the principal parts of their edifices, though sometimes the
to the passage of communication, as to
prevent the effluvia small parts were covered with foliage, in which the honey-
from escaping to other principal parts of the house. The suckle was most predominant. The Romans, whose taste
offices connected with the kitchen should be was inferior to that of the Greeks, indulged in both. It is
generally placed
towards the north ; but in town-houses this cannot to the remains of the edifices of these two nations, that the
always be
done, and therefore regard must be had to circumstances. architect must have recourse for the embellishments of the
The larder, however, must always be placed
beyond the fabric.
influence of the heat of the kitchen. Galleries for paintings, Of all the ornaments applicable to buildings, columns are
and museums, that require a the most splendid and dignified, and no invention has yet
steady light, should have
a northern aspect. been able to supplant the three Grecian orders, though a
Windows ought to be made vertically one above the Pilasters are
other, lapse of more than two thousand years has past.
and not too near the angles of the the work,
building; and in large not only very beautiful, but when wrought in with
edifices, where the walls are thick, their jambs ought to be
they reinforce the strength of the walls, and consequently
splayed or beveled, for a more full distribution of light. the whole fabric; but they have neither the dignity nor the
Lofty windows, descending to the floor, or nearly so, with a graceful appearance of columns.
projecting balcony in front of the building, defended by a The materials used in the construction of edifices are of
railing of cast-iron, are both healthy and agreeable. Sky- various kinds, as timber, earth, mortar, chalk, stone, marble,
lights, in cold climates like ours, are productive of many iron, &c. ; every place adopts, in the general construction
of its
 BUS 67 BUT
buildings, those materials which are its own native produc- BUT-HINGES, those employed in hanging closures, as
tions, or those of other places which can be procured by an doors, shutters, casements, &c., placed on the edges with the
easy carriage. knuckle projecting on the side on which the closure is to
The chief writers on building, whose works have been open, and the other edges stopping against a small piece of
transmitted to our hands, are Vitruvius, Albert!, Serlio, wood lefton the thickness of the closure, so as to keep the
Scammozzi, Vignola, Palladio, Baldus, Barbarus, Blonde), arris entire. It is
customary to sink the thickness of the
Catanei, Demoniosius, Friard, Goldman, Perrault, Rivius, hinges flush with the surface of the edge of the closure, and
Gulielmus, Langley, Ware, and some living authors. See the tail part one-half into the jamb. There are several kinds
ARCHITECTURE and HOUSE. of but-hinges, such as, stop hut-hinges, which only permit the
BUILDING, in masonry, is the art of joining stones together, closure to open to a right angle, or perhaps little more, with-
with or without cement, so as to form the whole or part of out breaking the hinge ; rising but-hinges, which turn upon
an edifice. Building also signifies the mass of body formed a screw, employed in doors, and cause the door to rise in the
by the junction of stone with regular surfaces. In this sense act of opening, so as to clear a carpet in the apartment.
it is the same with Slip-off but-hinges, are those employed where a door or
masonry, or a piece of masonry. Masonry
always implies building ; but building does not always imply window-blind requires to be taken ofF occasionally.
masonry. See MASONRY. BUTMENT. See ABUTMENT and STONE BRIDGE.
BUILDING ACT, the act passed in the year 1844, BUTMENT CHEEKS, the two solid parts on each side of
known as 7 &
8 Viet. cap. 84, for regulating the construction a mortise the thickness of each of the cheeks should be
:

and the use of buildings in the metropolis and its neighbour- equal to that of the mortise, when there is no circumstance
hood, within certain limits defined by the act. which may require them to be of a different thickness.
As this act is usually appended to Price Books, &c., BUTT-END of a piece of timber, the largest end next to
we have thought it
unnecessary to occupy space by giving it the root.
here at length. BUTT-JOINT, in hand-railing, a joint at right angles to
BUILDING OF BEAMS, the joining of two, or several the curve of the rail. Sec HAND-RAILING.
pieces of timber together in one thickness, and of several BUTTERY, the store-room for provisions. Its situation
pieces in one length, by means of bolts, so as to form a beam generally north.
is

of given dimensions, which it would be impossible to obtain BUTTING-JOINT, that which is formed by the surfaces
from a single piece of timber. Beams thus built, are stronger of two pieces of wood, of which the one surface is
perpen-
than such as are scarfed, provided their joints bo judiciously dicular to the fibres, and the other in their direction, or
strapped across on the exterior sides ; and their construction making an oblique angle with them ;
as the joint which the
does not require so much waste of timber. Not only beams, struts and braces in carpentry make with the truss-posts.
but ribs for vaulted roofs, may be built so as to be stronger, BUTTON, a small piece or wood or metal, made to turn
and require less timber in their fabrication, than those which round a centre, for fastening a door, or any other kind of
are scarfed ; and if due attention be paid to their curves, closure. The centre in commonly a nail, which should be
no trussing will be necessary. The practice of building made round where it is to turn, and the head made smooth.
a compound timber, so as to form one mass, or piece, BUTTON OF A LOCK, a round head for moving the bolt.
which would perform the function of a single piece, will BUTTRESS, an erection serving to support a wall or
be found under the article RIB. Other particulars, with other building, which is either too high otherwise to main-
regard to the lengthening of beams, will be found under tain its position, or is pressed against from the other side
SCARFING. by an adventitious force.
BULKER, a term used in Lincolnshire for a beam or Buttresses are so frequent in Gothic architecture as to
rafter. become a marked and principal feature in buildings of that
BULLEN-NAILS, those with round heads and short style ; they are placed around the exterior sides of the
shanks, tinned and lacquered there are about three sizes of
:
edifice, usually one between every two windows, and one or
them, which are used in the hangings of rooms. two at each of the angles of the building. In the earlier
BULWARK, in ancient fortification, is
nearly the same erections, each angle was supported by two buttresses, dis-
with bastion in the modern. See RAMPART and TORUS. posed so as to leave their sides parallel to the planes of the
BUNDLE PILLAR, in Gothic architecture, a column walls ; but in later examples, for the sake of giving a lighter
consisting of a number of small pillars around its circum- appearance to the building, as well as for economizing
ference. materials, only one buttress was used, situate in such a
BUSCIIETTO, a distinguished Grecian architect, born manner as to receive the direct drill of the vaulting, having
of Dulichio, and employed, in 1016, by the republic
in the isle its sides parallel to the vertical diagonal plane which bisects
of Pisa, in erecting their cathedral church. This has been the angle formed by the two planes of the adjoining faces
reckoned one of the most sumptuous edifices in Italy. He of the building. The use of these projections is not so much
died at Pisa, where he had a monument erected to his to support the weight of the walls, as to resist the outward
memory, with an inscription, intimating his superior know- thrust of the roof, more especially when vaulted.
ledge of the mechanical powers. He had many disciples, There are two kinds of buttresses used in Gothic build-
and is regarded as the founder of modern architectural ings ; those that are formed of vertical planes, and attached
science in Italy. to the walls, are called pillared buttresses ; those which rise
BUST, or BUSTO, in sculpture, that portion of the human from the pillared buttresses upon the sides of the aisles, with
figure, which comprehends the head, neck, breast, and an arch-formed intrados, and sloping extrados or top, are
shoulders. The Italians also apply this term to a greater called^ytn^r buttresses, arc boutants, or arch buttresses.
portion of the human figure, as low as the hips, with or In few instances perhaps have the mediaeval architects
without the head and arms, as in the busts of many illus- shown greater constructive skill than in the erection of
trious ancient Romans. The word is probably derived from buttresses, as is more especially evidenced in their larger
the Latin bustum. These pieces of sculpture are generally structures, such as cathedrals, where by means of them the
placed upon a pedestal or console. active force of the vaulting, which would otherwise overthrow
 BYZ 68 BYZ
the walls, is borne down harmless outside the building into a vast number must have been at once erected, and such
indeed seems to have been the case, for we are told that no
the earth. By the arc-boutants the drift is carried over the
aisles to the upper part of the main buttresses, where, by less than eighteen hundred were endowed between the reigns
the gravity of the super-imposed pinnacles, the direction of of Constantino and Justinian, a period of little more than
the force is changed, so that from an horizontal thrust, it two hundred years. Few of these, however, remain many :

becomes or at least approaches to a vertical pressure, which of the oldest of them were destroyed by earthquakes and

again is carried through the mass of the buttress

to the fires, principally in the reign of Zeno ; and all that sur-

ground at its base. No material is thrown away,

all is vived that period, in the sedition of A. D. 532. This out-
into active service, what does not answer a useful break happened in the time of Justinian, who set zealously
pressed
end is removed, and nothing added merely for ornament ; to work to repair the losses which had been sustained, and
an instance of the latter has been shown in the case of the vied with his illustrious predecessor in the erection and
a superficial restoration of Christian churches.
surmounting pinnacle; which, although by
observer it might be considered as mere ornament, is in It must not be supposed that this
style of building was all
in the construction as an this time confined to its original locality; it had spread
reality of the utmost importance ;

example of the previous statement, may be produced the rapidly throughout tlie Eastern empire; where the Eastern
buttresses at Westminster Hall, from which a considerable churches extended, there also did its architecture extend, from
the walls, being of the city of the chief bishop through the whole patriarchate
portion near the ground and adjoining
no service, has been entirely cut away. under his jurisdiction. It is remarkable, however, how
Pillared buttresses are enriched with pinnacles, niches, rarely it found its way into Western Christendom ; the first
statues, and other ornaments. Flying buttresses are often instance of its appearance in that quarter, was the church
perforated, particularly in the later examples, in which the of S. Nazareo e Celso, at Ravenna, in the year A. D. 440.
perforations assume the form of polyfoils, flambeaux, and This church was erected by Galla Placidia, daughter of
other beautiful devices. A
rich specimen is to be found in Theodosius, afterwards married to Constantius Cffisar, and
Henry the Seventh's chapel at Westminster, where the mother of Valentinian ; she was regent of the Western
buttresses arc of a wonderfully light and gorgeous appear- empire for some time during the minority of her son, and
ance the main buttresses also in this instance are of a very
;
seems to have been a zealous promoter of the Christian reli-
elaborate description. gion ; the erection of many churches is attributed to her,
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE, a style of architec- amongst which are three or four in this same city of Ravenna.
ture bordering on the Romanesque, which prevailed in The next we hear of Byzantine architecture in Italy is
Greece. and its dependencies during the early ages of Chris- A. D. 547, at Ravenna again, in the church of S. Vitale,

tianity. which was erected by Julianus, the treasurer, under the

This style may be said to have commenced with the estab- direction of Justinian. The reign of this prince is remark-
lishment of the Eastern empire, when Constantino trans- able for the number of buildings of all kinds erected ; bridges,
ferred the seat of government from Rome to Byzantium, aqueducts, roads, fortresses, and a variety of works of public
from the name of which city it also derives its distinguishing utility were undertaken throughout the provinces, but the
appellation. Some writers indeed have gone so far as to number of churches erected surpassed that of all other struc-
state, that the first Christian emperor removed from the tures ; new ones were constructed, and old ones re-edified,
ancient city for the sole purpose of obtaining greater of which last a great number, as already stated, had been
freedom new religion solici-
in the establishment of his
; destroyed in the insurrection which occurred in this reign.
tous for purity, that it might remain unpolluted by
its Of allthe restorations which this emperor effected, the most
any mixture with the ancient rites, distinct from pagan- remarkable is that of S. Sophia, at Constantinople this ;

ism even in its architecture. Hope, to

are whom we church he entirely rebuilt, preserving, however, as it would
indebted for much information on the subject, states this as
appear, the original plan.
his opinion, and says that Constantino, In this same reign the Ostrogoths were driven out of Italy
having evaded the
restraints which his new creed was subject to at Rome
by his by Narses, one of Justinian's generals, and the Western
removal to Byzantium, set himself diligently to work to empire again brought under the rule of one sovereign, which
establish it on a firm basis: one great circumstance led to a further introduction westward of
object which pre-
sented itself to his notice, was the erection of appropriate Byzantine architecture. Its progress, however, seems to
places of worship, which were much needed, the number of have been more limited than might have been expected, for,
Christians exceeding that of pagans, and there no with the exception of some of the principal cities where the
being
previous edifices either of a civil or religious character, viceroys held their court, we see but few instances of its
which could be conveniently adapted to the purpose. Archi.
adoption. We have already alluded to Ravenna, which was
tects, therefore, were left entirely to their own resources, the seat of the principal exarchate, and have now only to
unless indeed they were willing to refer to the cases of Ancona and Venice, in the former of
copy that class of edifices
adopted in the old metropolis ; but this does not seem to have which is found the church of S. Ciriaco, and in the latter
been their object, they desired rather to form an that of S. Mark, though the existence of this style in the
entirely
new style of building ; there were besides no existing edifices latter city is perhaps attributable rather to the mercantile
of any note, whose materials might
tempt their removal to intercourse of the Venetians with the East, than to the
the new structures, and so, to a certain
extent, determine authority of the emperor over the western shores of the
their construction, as had been the case at Rome. Under Adriatic. We have now quoted all the principal examples
such circumstances originated the peculiar
style of architec- of this style that have been discovered in the West, at least
ture which has been since denominated on the one side the Alps ; we make this reservation, for
Byzantine.
We have before noticed that the Christians had
already Hope, quoting Fleury, says that the style crossed the Alps,
outnumbered their heathen adversaries in this
city, and as and is to be seen in the old city of Atlas, on the Mediterra-
their religion was daily acquiring more and more
proselytes, nean, in the church of S. Cesarius, an erection of the sixth
the want of churches must have been
daily more appa- century ; he further states that it eventually reached as far
rent; it would be- reasonable to suppose, therefore, that north as Paris. Be this as it may, however, putting all the
 BYZ 69 BYZ

examples together, it is certain that they number much so marked

as readily to distinguish it from its
predecessors.
lower than would naturally be expected a fact not easily to
;
After period we see little more of Byzantine architecture
this
be accounted for, were it not for one circumstance, the beyond the locality where it first originated ; in the East it
rivalry that existed between the eastern and western seems to have held out until the invasion of the Ottomans.
churches. As early as the second century, a serious division The distinguishing characteristic of Byzantine architecture
arose between them respecting the time of celebrating Easter, is the dome, a feature which
distinguishes it at once from
which proceeded to such an extent, that Victor, bishop of all
preceding styles, and no less surely, though perhaps less
Rome, separated opponents from his communion. The
his readily, from its successors ; in the one case by its mere
Roman church, owing to its connection with the metropolis presence, in the other by its peculiar form. The adaptation
of the empire, as well as from other causes, had obtained an of the sphere throughout the building, may be said to be the
early distinction, which, in process of time, became invidious mark of the style, for it is used not only in the case of the
from the pertinacity with which it was claimed, and the principal dome, but in a modified form as the covering of
encroachments which it gave rise to under individual the building in every part where it can possibly be applied,
bishops. When, however, Constantino removed his court to as instanced in the conchs over the apsides or extremities of
Byzantium, the see of Constantinople rose suddenly to dig- the aisles. Wemight perhaps speak more generally, and
nity and power, and showed itself a formidable
rival to that lay down the circle as the standard figure of construction,
of Rome, and a serious hindrance to its usurpations thus ;
for it appears every where, in plan, in section, and in eleva-
"
originated a determined jealousy between the two churches, tion, or, as Hope says, Arches rising over arches, and
which was manifested by the constant differences which cupolas over cupolas, we may say, that all which in the
occurred between them, of which tiiere were no less than temples of Athens had been straight, and angular, and square,
four in little more than a century and a half, one of twenty- in the churches of
Constantinople became curved and rounded,
five years' duration, and which led eventually to the final concave within and convex without." The plan of the build-
It is to this rivalry we ings was generally that of a cross inscribed in a square, hav-
separation in the eleventh century.
attribute the paucity of examples in this style of architecture ing each of the arms of an equal length, and not greatly
to be met with in the Western empire ; an opinion confirmed prolonged. At the angles of the square formed at the inter-
by Mr. Gaily " Knight, who, alluding to the subject of our section of the cross were situate four piers, supporting as
article, says, This plan became a favourite in the East, and many arches, whose spandrils converged so as to unite in
was adhered to in those parts with the greater tenacity, in the form of a circle towards their summit, which again sup-
consequence of the schism which subsequently took place ported the crowning dome. The four arms of the cross
between the pope of Koine and the patriarch of Constan- terminated in apsides of semicircular plan, and were likewise
tinople. There was to be a difference in every thing. The covered with semi-cupolas, closing over the arches which
Greeks insisted upon the square form of their own inven- supported the central dome. The principal entrance was
tions;
whilst all the nations which continued to acknowledge preceded by a porch, and this again by an atrium or open
the supremacy of the pope, continued to employ the long quadrangle, which is seldom omitted in the Eastern churches.
form, which was persevered in at Rome." A
reviewer of The church of S. Sophia is said to have had four distinct
the work from which this extract is made, remarks, " Mr. nartheces besides the atrium. The domes in this style are
Knight's observations with regard to the antagonism of the generally flat or depressed, of a vertical section less than
eastern and the western churches, are entirely correct. a semicircle, that of S. Sophia is noted as having been
Except when favoured by peculiar political relations, it is remarkably low ; the materials of their construction were
remarkable how little influence was exerted in Italy by always of a light description, frequently hollow jars of a
Byzantine art. Ravenna and Venice are almost the only somewhat cylindrical form, fitting one in the other, and made
localities where we may trace any decided imitation of the of earthenware or some light substance. The thrust of the
type of Constantinople." dome was most usually resisted by pendentives or brackets
There is one passage in this extract .which we would de- springing from the angles of walls, which were square, and
sire to qualify, for although Byzantine architecture, as a carried up to support the base of the dome ; but this method
style, does not seem to have been employed to any extent in was not universally adopted, for in the Church of S. Vitale
the West, still it cannot be said that it possessed no influence at Ravenna, the dome is supported by a series of small
in that quarter. That many of its features were imitated in arches ; in this case, however, the plan of the walls is not
succeeding styles cannot be doubted ; its principal charac- square, but octagon.
teristics are evident in most of the Lombardic churches, and The minor points of distinction are to be found in the
in the other styles which prevailed in Western Christendom. details, of which the following are the most remarkable.
The Greek church was seldom copied entire; but its different The heads of apertures are for the most part of a semicircular
parts were adopted in buildings otherwise of a different cha- form, sometimes however of a larger, sometimes of a lesser
racter ;
for instance, in cases the Greek dome appears
some segment; not unfrequently at a late period, stilted arches
iu conjunction with the Latin cross ; in others, the Greek are used, that is, semicircular arches having ^he lower
plan alone is imitated ; in others again, both appear toge- extremities continued downwards perpendicularly ; this
ther ; so that were it not for some peculiarity of arrange- method seems to have been adopted for the sake of preserving
ment or detail, it would be difficult to decide to which style the same level when arches of different spans were employed.
the building might belong. This kind of influence was ex- Besides these forms, pointed arches are occasionally met
erted not only in Italy, but throughout the whole of Western with, also apertures having triangular or pedimental heads.
Europe. Another peculiarity is the frequent employment of a series
In x. D. 586, the Lombards made their of successive arches. The only remaining distinction which
appearance in
Italy,and from that time dates the downfall of the previous we shall notice has reference to the capitals of the columns,
styles of art, and the introduction of that mode which is which are square, tapering blocks of the form of truncated
entitled, after their designation, Lombardic; not that this pyramids having the apex downwards ; they are little better
may be strictly said to be a new style, but rather a modifi- than plain blocks, their only ornamentation consisting of
cation of those already existing ;
still its characteristics are foliation in low relief, or a sort of basket-work which is
 BYZ 70 BYZ

peculiar to this style of architecture. Nothing further need church erected by Constantine at Antioch, which was of
be said respecting its characteristics, the dome of itself is the latter class, and that erected by his mother Helena,
almost a sufficient feature to stamp the character of the type. in Syria, of the circular form. The churches of S. Marcellin
The origin of this mode of building is variously attributed and S. Constance at Rome, as well as that of S. Vitale at
by various writers ; some will have it that it is but a modi- Ravenna, afford further examples of the historian's descrip-
fication of the Basilican style, with the addition of the dome, tion. The plans in both cases, whether circular or octagonal,
which necessitated the shortening of the oblong of the terminated of a square form, and upon the plans thus pro-
Basilica but this, which is considered as merely an addition,
;
duced were erected the facades ; the most ancient of which
is the principal feature both in construction and design. It are simple parallelepipeds, terminated at their summit by
is true, the plan of the Basilica was an oblong, and that of a cornice of stone or marble, and sometimes of bricks, so
the Byzantine buildings a square, but surely it does not fol- placed as to form salient and re-entering angles. Pediments
low that the latter should have been borrowed from the showing the slope of the roof do not appear in the fafades,
former ; as a matter of fact it may be so, but there is no for the use of timber had already been discarded by the

prima facie evidence in favour of such an opinion, from the Greeks in the formation of their roofs, which were now
mere similarity of plan. Others attribute its origin to the either flat or spherical. One or more gates gave admittance
built by Constantine, into the church, and these were generally adorned with deep
baptisteries, or to the sepulchral chapels
such as that of S. Costanza, the burial-place of Constantia, mouldings ; the lintels were relieved by an arch of discharge.
his daughter, or the Holy Sepulchre ut Jerusalem, and it We have said that all the churches of this period were sur-
must be confessed that these offer a greater resemblance mounted by domes; these were pierced at their lower
to the Greek churches than do the Basilicas others again
:
extremity by a multitude of apertures which ligHted the
are of opinion that this was entirely a new style without interior of the cupola. According to Eusebius and S. Paul
any previous model, owing its origin to the skill and concep- of Seleucia, the domes were covered with lead and occasionally
tion of the Byzantine architects. The question remains, gilded, but all those which are still to be found in Greece
how are these differences to be settled ? Not, we presume, are covered with tiles of terra cotta. The lateral fa9ades
by following any one opinion to the exclusion of the others, differ little from the principal one ; they are each of them
but by granting a moderate credit to all. We believe that provided with an entrance. The apsides, generally three
they allspeak truly, but that no one of them speaks the in number, symbolizing the three Persons of the
Holy
whole truth ;
it is
probable that Byzantine architecture owes Trinity, were of a simple plan, which was more frequently
its origin to each and all of the above sources, to one per- circular than polygonal : their sides were pierced with one

haps more than another, but not to one to the exclusion of or more apertures or windows. In the interior of the church
another. We
would say that it owed its existence not a the nave was always preceded by a porch or vestibule. A
little to the two first causes, but more especially to the last, gallery for the female portion of the congregation was carried
for as Mr. Knight, in describing the church of S. Vitale, along the nave as far as the sanctuary, and was lighted by
"
says, The chief architectural novelty in this building, is windows situated over the principal facade, and sometimes
the dome. No vaulting of any kind had ever been hitherto by others in the side fafades. The principal difference
employed in the roofs of churches, much less that most skil- between the styles of the two empires, is shown in the length
fuland admired of all vaulting, the cupola, or dome ; a mode of the nave, which in the Greek churches is much shorter
of covering buildings perfectly well understood by the than in the basilicas of the west. In the centre of the church
Romans, but discontinued as art declined, and, for the first were four piers supporting thedome, which was erected on
time, reproduced by the Greek architects of Constantinople, a square plan, the angles being filled up by very ingenious
in the instance of S. Sophia." contrivances technically termed pendentives. The extremi-
With the insufficient materials we have to work upon, it ties of the nave were covered by two hemispherical cupolas.
would be futileto attempt a detailed classification of the Such are the principal features of the edifices which were
examples belonging to this style. It is to be regretted that erected from the time of Constantine to the middle of the
our knowledge on the subject is so scanty, but we trust sixth century.
that some of our travellers will take an interest in those Anenumeration of the peculiarities of the second period
hitherto neglected remains of Christian art. That there is will help to give us an idea of the progress made by Justinian
a scarcity of examples, we can hardly suppose; we believe in the Christian architecture of this era.
that Asia Minor would afford ample materials for a proper The first edifice which presents itself to our notice is the
investigation. The only writer we know of who has essayed smaller church of S. Sophia at Constantinople, converted
an arrangement of known examples, and their division into into a mosque after the invasion of the Ottomans. The plan
classes, is M. Couchaud in his book on the Eglises Byzan- of the exterior is that of a square surrounding an octagon,
tines en Grece. It is true he seems to include some the form of that of S. Vitale at Ravenna. In the interior
examples
under this style which other authors do not suppose to the galleries for females were carried round the first story,
belong to it, but he has given considerable attention to the and the nave coyered, as in the preceding period, with a
subject, and his opinions cannot but be worth consideration. dome. From this let us pass on to the larger church of the
He commences by dividing the buildings into three classes, same name, a building erected by Justinian to replace one
to each of which he assigns a particular period. The first which had not long previously been destroyed by fire. In
period is comprised between the fourth and sixth centuries, plan this is similar to the smaller church, with the exception
the second between the sixth and eleventh, and the third be- that the octagon is slightly prolonged. The interior gal-
tween the eleventh and the invasion by the Ottomans. We leries are similar to those already described, but the dome
cannot do better than follow his own description as closely ismore rich and beautiful than in all previous examples, and
as possible.
pierced with a larger number of apertures. The effect pro-
Few
of the churches of the first period, says he, are duced by this building was great, as is evidenced by the
now extant; but we learn from the historian Eusebius influence which it obtained throughout the Eastern empire.
that they were in plan either round or octagon, and were At a later time, the form of the interior was repeated in the
surmounted by a dome. Of this description was the exterior ; this combination, which was first applied to the nave
AR.CHITBCTTJJRE PLATE
 BYZ 71 BYZ
and transepts, at last became so general, that externally you four arms of which are of equal length ; the central part is
could scarcely discover a straight line towards the summit a square, the sides of which are each about 115 feet long.
" At each angle of the square a massive pier of travertine
of the building. The churches of the Almighty," and of
the monastery at Constantinople, whrch still preserve the roof stone has been carried to the height of 86 feet from the
of this period, offer remarkable examples of this combination pavement, and four semicircular arches stretch across the
of vaulting ; and the method, which was employed in a great intervals over the sides of the square, and rest upon the piers.
number of instances, is still to be seen in most of the isles of The interior angles between the four piers in the central
the Archipelago. In this period the domes were increased in square are filled up, from the springing points of the four
number, and at last were carried even over the porch ; the arches, in a concave form, to a horizontal plane passing
side facades follow the same form as the principal one, and through their vertices, which are at 143 feet above the pave-
the rear end of the edifice terminates in a polygonal apsis, ment ; so that, at the level of the vertices, the interior edge
pierced with windows of two or three compartments. In of the part filled up becomes a circle, the diameter of which
the interior decoration mosaics took the place of the marble is
equal to the side of the central square. Upon this circle,
slabs previously employed, which were retained only in the as a base,*is raised the principal dome, the form of which is
surbasements. The nave was simplified square piers were
;
that of a segment of a sphere, which is said to be equal in
substituted for columns, which gradually disappeared, and the height to one-sixth of the diameter of the base. On both
pendentives were modified and somewhat varied. The vaults the eastern and western sides of the square, in the centre of
were divided by horizontal rings, and decorated with paint- the church,is a semicircular recess, the diameter of which

ings; the centre of the cupola being occupied by a colossal is

nearly equal to the side of the square ; it is carried up to
head of Christ, surrounded by angels. The domes belonging the same height as the piers, and terminates in a half-dome,
to the latter portion of this period differed from the preceding, or quadrant of a sphere, its base resting upon the hemi-
inasmuch as the windows encroached upon the spherical part, cylindrical wall of the recess, and its vertical side coinciding
whereas before they had been confined to the base. This with the arch raised between the piers on the face of the
second period, as may readily be seen, added greatly to the building ; the flat side of each recess and dome being open
embellishment of Byzantine architecture, and eventually con- towards the interior of the church. These quadrantal
siderably modified its character. domes were intended to resist the lateral thrust of the
In the third period, the systems of Italy and Greece were arches raised on the northern and southern sides of the
united the division indeed owes its origin, in a great mea-
; church, but they were found insufficient, for the arches
sure, to the Roman basilica, as is manifested by the gable pushed away the half-dome on the eastern side twice, and it
ends of the wall showing the inclination of the roof. Athens could only be made to stand by constructing the great dome
furnishes a number of examples, in which the influence of of pumice stone and very light bricks obtained from Rhodes,
Western type is particularly noticeable. The galleries for by filling up the arches with others of smaller dimensions,
females were now dispensed with, and a portion of the area of and by carrying an enormous arch-buttress from a massive
the church set apart for their service in the transepts. The wall beyond the building to the foot of the dome.
influence of this new mode, however, was more "
especially At the extremities of the semicircular recesses, in a line
shown in the profusion and richness of the ornaments em- running east and west through the centre of the church, are
ployed in the details of the buildings. smaller recesses, the plan of one of which terminates in
Paintings in fresco took the place of mosaics, and were a semicircle, and of the other in a right line ; these recesses
multiplied to such an extent, that at last the very marble are built to the height of the springing of the four principal
which previously adorned the surbasement, was imitated by arches, and are crowned by quadrantal domes, which, as well
this means. as the recesses, are open towards the interior. In each of the
Semicircular vaults covered the whole length of the two principal hemicylindrical recesses between the great
church ; the windows were closed up with slabs of stone or
piers, and the other recesses just mentioned,
are formed two
marble, pierced with small circular apertures to admit other cylindrical recesses, open towards the interior, and
light ; and the doors began to be of more elaborate work- covered by quadrantal domes. All the recesses and domes
manship ;
the interior arrangement remained the same as are perforated by rows of small windows to obtain light.
"
before. This last period, which has been said to end with On both the northern and southern sides of the square,
the invasion of the Turks, may be considered as in the interior of the church, is a grand vestibule forming
continuing
for some time
longer, during which the arts remained sta- a square on the plan ; the roof of each consists of three
tionary in Greeoe, up to the period of the last war of inde- hemicylindrical vaults extending from north to south, and
pendence. of another vault of the same kind crossing the former at
It nowonly remains to give some description of a few of right angles through the middle, and forming, by
their inter-
the churches which have been alluded to in a previous part sections, three groined arches ; these vaults are supported
of this article we cannot do better than commence with
:
by massive pillars, which have bases, but no plinths; the
that of S. Sophia, which forms a fair
type of the whole upper part of their capitals resemble the volutes of the Ionic
style. The following extract is taken from the Encyclopedia order, but the lower part seems to be a barbarous imitation
Metropolitana : of the Corinthian base. Above these vestibules are galleries
"The cathedral of S. Sophia, at Constantinople, which exactly similar to them, and, probably, appropriated
to
had been built by Constantine, having been twice women during the performance of divine service. The
destroyed
by fire, was rebuilt finally by Justinian, about A. D. 532. whole church is surrounded by cloisters, and enclosed by
His architect, Anthemius, gave the design, and the four walls, forming one great rectangle on the plan. The
emperor
every day superintended the wotk, which was completed in exterior does not correspond with the internal grandeur
about six years from the time of laying the foundation ; the of the edifice, being surrounded by clumsy buttresses. The
magnificence of the edifice so well satisfied the emperor, that entrance is by a portico as long as the church, and about
he is said to have feet wide ; this is ornamented with pilasters, and com-
glorified himself with the reflection that in 36
it he had exceeded Solomon himself.
municates with the interior by five doorways of marble,
"
The plan of the interior is that of a Greek cross, the Contiguous to this
sculptured with figures in bas-relief.
 BYZ 72 BYZ

vestibule, and parallel to it, is another, which has nine ence, and made it
necessary to provide another in
peaceable
times.
doorways of bronze.
" After "Thecathedral was originally dedicated to S. Lawrence,
twenty years, the Eastern dome was thrown
down by an earthquake, but it was immediately restored and retained that name till so late as the fourteenth century,
by the persevering industry of Justinian and it now ;
but finally the local favourite obtained the ascendant. The
remains, after a lapse of thirteen centuries, a stately monu- body of S. Ciriaco was originally imported from the East by
ment to his fame." the empress Galla Placidia in the fifth century, and by her
The next description, that of S. Vitale, Ravenna, is given deposited in the cathedral which then existed at Ancona.
"
by Mr. Gwilt, in his Encyclopaedia of Architecture. S. Ciriaco is on a large scale. The plan exactly repre-
" The exterior walls are formed in a sents the Greek cross, and was probably supplied by a Greek
regular octagon,
whose diameter is 128 feet. Within this octagon is another architect. The centre of the building is surmounted by the
concentric one, 54 feet in diameter, from the eight piers Eastern cupola. The building appears to have been erected
whereof 55 feet in height a hemispherical vault is without any deviation from the original design, and for the
gathered over, and over this is a timber
conical roof. The most part remains as it was at first constructed. The prin-
peculiarity exhibited in the
construction of the cupola is, cipal porch, which projects boldly, and is enriched with
that the spandrils are filled in with earthen vases, and that numerous mouldings, must have been a subsequent addition,
round the exterior of its base, semicircular-headed windows as the courses of the stones of which it is composed, do not
are introduced, each of which is subdivided into two aper- correspond with those of the church. In the interior, pillars
tures of similar forms. Between every two piers hemi- supporting round arches, divide the nave from the aisles.
cyliudrical recesses are formed, each covered by a semi- The capitals of these pillars imitate the Corinthian, and
dome, whose vertex is 48 feet from the pavement, and each exhibit no admixture of the Lombard imagery, which, at
of them contains two windows, subdivided into three spaces the time when the cathedral was built, prevailed in the north
by two columns of the Corinthian order, supporting semi- of Italy. The cupola is supported by piers and arches.
circular-headed arches. Between the piers and the external The arches under the dome are pointed, but are evidently
walls are two corridors, which surround the whole building, alterations. These pointed arches may have been introduced
in two stories, one above the other, each covered by hemi- by the celebrated architect, Margaritone, who flourished in
cylindrical vaulting. The upper corridor, above the vault, is the second half of the thirteenth century. Margaritone was
covered with a sloping or lean-to roof." very much employed at Ancona, and to him the entire con-
"
Mr. Hope adds the following particulars S. Vitale,": struction of S. Ciriaco is attributed erroneously by Vasari.
says he, "built under Justinian in 534, announces itself at Margaritone may have added the porch."
"
first
sight as a work of Greek architects, and a kindred pro- The plan of S. Mark's, like that of S. Sophia, is a
duction with S. Sophia, and the others of Constantinople. Greek cross, with the addition of spacious porticos. The
Its form, round without, though octagonal within ; its two centre of the building is covered with a dome, and over
tiers of arcades supported on pillars ; its the centre of each of the arms of the cross, rises a smaller
larger arcades or
apsides, containing lesser arches or pillars ;
its square capi- cupola. All the remaining parts of the building are covered
partly of basket-work, and its coating of Mosaic, at once
tals, with vaults, in constructing which, the Greeks had become
complete the resemblance and establish the relationship." expert, and which are much to be preferred to the wooden
The next descriptions, of S. Ciriaco, at Ancona, and roofs of the old basilicas. Colonnades and round arches
S. Mark's, Venice, are taken from Mr. Gaily Knight's beau-
separate the nave from the aisles in each of the four com-
tiful work on the Ecclesiastical Architecture of
"
Italy. partments, and support galleries above. The capitals of the
Ancona was one of the towns of Italy which remained pillars imitate the Corinthian, and are free from the ima-
longest in the hands of the emperors of the East. Muratori gery which at that time abounded in the other churches of
informs us, that in the year 1174 Ancona was governed by Italy. It is
computed, that in the decoration of the build-
an officer appointed by the Emperor Comncnus, and he adds, without and within, above five hundred are
ing, pillars
that the Emperor Frederick saw with impatience that rem-
employed.
nant of Oriental power in the heart of the Western " The
Empire. pillars are all of marble, and were chiefly brought
These circumstances will sufficiently account for the plan from Greece and other parts of the Levant. Whilst S.
and style of S. Ciriaco, which, constructed under the domi- Mark's was building, every vessel that cleared out of Venice
nation of the Greeks, is Greek in all its parts. for the East, was obliged to bring back pillars and mar-
"
No certain record of the date of this building has been bles for the work in which the republic took so general
preserved, but from an inscription still extant, it appears an interest."
that the bodies of SS. Ciriaco, " The external
Marcellino, and Liberio, were appearance of S. Mark's is no less Byzan-
deposited in the crypt of this church in the year 1097. tine than its interior, but less resembles S. Sophia from
Almost invariably, when the bodies of saints were trans- the increased numbers and elevation of its cupolas. Suc-
lated, a new church was prepared for their reception, and the ceeding generations endeavour to outstrip their predecessors,
translation usually took
place when the building was suffi- and in the interval which had elapsed between the construc-
ciently advanced for the performance of divine service, but tion of S. Sophia and that of S. Mark's, the Greek archi-
before the work was entirely
completed. further find, We tects had multiplied the feature which had obtained so much
that Bernard, Bishop of
Ancona, consecrated a high-altar admiration, and had sought to give it additional importance,
in 1128, and that in 1189,
Bishop Beraldus added a chapel, and surmounted the hemisphere of the dome with a second
and encrusted the walls of the interior of the church with
cupola of wood covered with lead. This change was imparted
marble. From all these circumstances, it
may be inferred, to the Venetian copy.
that this cathedral was " Another
begun about the middle of the Byzantine feature is conspicuous in the exterior
eleventh century, and completed in the course of the of the building in the tiers of round arches by which the
twelfth. It is
highly probable that the Saracens, who flank walls are relieved. With a singular contrast to
landed at Ancona in 983, and committed extensive devas- the habits of their forefathers, who inflexibly adhered
tations, maltreated the cathedral, which was then in exist- to the horizontal, the Greeks of the lower Empire turned
 ATRCHITECTTURK PLATE I.

ED R AL Or S THEODORE ATHENS

>T./vK C F S SOPHIA. C ON S TAUT IK OFT_.E

 BJK TAILS . PILATE -Jb

hhh'KhMH

I "7

'"
7/>'. Cyma&um .
 CAA 73 CAI

every line into a curve, and introduced a semi-arch wherever The last description which we shall give is that of S.
they could, even in the shape of windows, which were often Theodore, at Athens ; it is extracted from M. Couchaud.
what in modern phraseology would be termed fan-lights. "Of all the churches which Athens possesses, S. Theodore
The front is on the same principle a second tier of semi-
: is certainly the most complete, since it has three
apsides, a
circular arches rises over the portico, which consists of no dome and belfry but the fresco painting in the interior has
;

less than five semicircular entrances decorated with numer- decayed. The altar-screen, the furniture, and the pulpit, have
ous pillars; the summit is crowned with spiral and pyra- been replaced. It is constructed of a porous stone, separated
midal forms, partaking more of the character of the pointed by courses of brick the only peculiarity which it offers is
;

style than of the round. Altogether, the exterior of S. a frieze in terra cotta. running along the front facade, and the
Murk's is a strange mixture, but it is venerable and pictu- two side facades, which are pierced with doors of singular
resque." proportion, and having a horse-slioe-headed arch."

c.
CAA CAI
CAABA, a part of the temple of Mecca, to which the nade, covered with cupolas. From each angle of this piazza
Mahometans principally address themselves in prayer. It rises a minaret, with a double gallery, ailorned with a gilded
consists of a stone edifice, nearly square, and is said, by the spire and crescent, as are the cupolas which cover the piazza.
followers of Mahomet, to have been first built by Abraham Between the pillars of both enclosures, hang a great number
and his son Ishmnel. of lamps, which are constantly kept lighted by night.
The word is Arabic, caaba, and caabali ; a name which CABLE, a moulding of a convex circular section, rising
some have given to this building, on account of its height, from the back or concave surface of a flute, so that its most
which exceeded that, of the other buildings in Mecca ; but prominent part may be in the same surface as the fillet, on
others, with more appearance of propriety, derive the name each side of the flute ; the surface of the flute being that of
from its quadrangular form. a concave cylinder, while that of the cable is the surface
This edifice is so ancient, that its original use, and the of a convex cylinder, with the axes of the cylinders parallel
name of its builder, are lost in a cloud of idle traditions; it to each other. A
cable represents a rope or stall' laid in the
is not
improbable, however, that it was built by some of the flute ;
it is flute, and placed at the
always shorter than the
immediate descendants of Ishmael. Hut, whatever was lower end of it.
the original destination of the building, it does not seem to Cable mouldings of a somewhat different cliarar-ti'r are
have been a temple, as the door was not placed in the middle made use of in Norman architecture; they ri-prc-cnt cables
of the structure; and for many ages there was no worship or twisted ropes, laid in mouldings of a concave circular
performed in it, though the pagan Arabs went in procession section, and having one half or greater portion of their
bodies
round it. It is most probable, however, that the Caaba was exposed, and projecting from their beds.
primarily designed for religious purposes ; and it is certain, CABLED FLUTES, such flutes as are filled with cables.
that it was held in the highest veneration long before the CABLING, the filling of flutes with cables, or the cables
birth of Mahomet. Having undergone several reparations, themselves so disposed. Cabling the flutes of columns was
it was, a few years after his birth, rebuilt, on the old foun- not in very frequent use in the works of antiquity. The
dation, by the tribe of Koreish, who had acquired possession flutes of the columns of the arch of Constantino are tilled
of it, either by fraud or force. It was afterwards repaired with cables to about one-third of the height of the shafts.
by Abdall.h Eben Zobeir, the calif of Mecca; and again Most of the columns in the ruins of Balbec, Palmyra, and
rebuilt by Yussof, surnamed Al Hejaj, in the seventy-fourth Dioclesian's palace at Spalatra, have neither flutes nor cables.
in modern times,
year of the Hegira, with some alterations, in the form in Cabling has sometimes been practised
which it now remains. without fluting, as in the church of Sapienza, at Home.
The length of the Caaba is twenty-four cubits, from north See FLUTES.
to south ; its breadth, from east to west, twenty -three cubits ; CAGE, in carpentry, an outer work of timber, enclosing
the door, which is on the east side, is raised four cubits from other works within it; as, the cage of a stair, is the wooden
the ground, and the floor is on a level with the threshold wall that encloses it.

of the door. The Caaba has a double roof, supported by water-building, a large chest
in strong of
CAISSON,
three octangular pillars of aloes-wood. The outside of the timber, made water-tight, and used in large
and rapid rivers
building is covered with rich black damask, adorned with for building the pier of a bridge. The bottom consists of
an embroidered band of gold, which is changed every year, a grating of timber, so contrived as to be detached from the
and which is provided by the Turkish emperors. At some sides when The
necessary. under the intended
ground
distance, the Caaba is surrounded, but not entirely, with pier is first and the caisson being launched and
levelled,
a circular enclosure of pillars, joined at the bottom by a low floated to a proper position, is sunk, and the pier built as
balustrade, and towards the top by bars of silver. Without so ; then the sides
high as the level of the water, or nearly
this enclosure, on the south, north, and west sides of the are detached, and the bottom remains as a foundation for
Caaba, are three buildings, which are the oratories, or places the pier.
where three of the orthodox sects assemble to perform their The most considerable work that has come to our know
devotions ; and towards the south-east stands the edifice ledge,
Westminster Bridge ;
where caissons have been used, is

which covers the well Zemzem, the treasury, and the cupola of this, therefore, a particular account may be acceptable.
of Al Abbas. All these buildings are enclosed, at a con- Each of the caissons contained 150 loads of fir timber, and
siderable distance, by a magnificent piazza, or square colon- more than a man-of-war of 40 guns their size was
tonnage ;

10
 CAI Y4 CAM
nearly 80 feet from point to point, and 30 feet in breadth ; der by mixing itwith water ; it also effervesces with acids.
the sides, 10 feet in height, were formed of timbers, laid It isfrequently to be met with in a friable or compact state,
horizontally over each other, pinned with oak trunnels, and
in the form of chalk. See LIMESTONE and GYPSUM.
framed together at all corners, except the salient angles, CALENDAR1O, PHILIP, a celebrated architect and
where they were secured by proper iron work, which being sculptor, who flourished at Venice about the year 1354, and
unscrewed, would permit the sides of the caisson, had it been constructed those beautiful porticoes round the Palace of
found necessary, to divide into two parts. These sides were St. Mark, which established his fame.

planked across the timbers, inside and outside, with 3-inch CALIBRE, or CALIBER, the greatest extent or diameter
planks, in a vertical position. The thickness of the sides of a round body.
was 18 inches at the bottom and 15 inches at the top ; and in CALIBRE COMPASSES, or CALLIPERS, a pair of compasses
order to strengthen them the more, every angle, except the with bent legs, for taking the thickness of a convex or con-
two points, had three oaken knee-timbers, properly bolted cave body in various parts.
and secured. These sides, when finished, were fastened to CALIDUCTS, (from color, heat, and ducere, to lead,)
the bottom, or grating, by twenty-eight pieces of timber pipes or canals disposed along the walls of houses and apart-
on the outside, and eighteen within, called strap,', about ments, used by the ancients for conveying heat to the remote
8 inches broad and 3 inches thick, reaching and lapping over parts of the house, from one common furnace.
the tops of the sides ; the lower parts of these, straps were CALLIMACIIUS, a celebrated architect of antiquity,
dovetailed to the outer kirb of the grating, and kept to their inventor of the Corinthian order.
places by iron wedges. The purpose of these straps and CALOTTE, a concavity in form of a cup or niche, lathed
wedges was, that when the pier was built up sufficiently high and plastered, to diminish the height of a chapel, cabinet, or
above low-water mark, to render the caisson no longer alcove, which would otherwise be too elevated for the
necessary for the masons to work in, the wedges being breadth.
drawn up, gave liberty to clear the straps from the mortises, CAMAROSIS, (from Kafiapouv, to arch over,) an elevation
in consequence of which the sides rose by their own buoyancy, terminated with an arched or vaulted head.
leaving the grating under the foundation of the pier. CAMBER, an arch on the top of an aperture, or on the
The pressure of the water upon the sides of the caisson top of a beam ; hence camber windows.
was resisted by means of a ground timber, or ribbon, 14 CAMBER BEAMS, those which are cut with an obtuse
inches wide, and 7 inches thick, pinned upon the upper row angle on the upper edge, forming a declivity each way from
of timbers of the grating; and the top of the sides was the middle of their length ; they are used in truncated roofs,
secured by a sufficient number of beams laid across, which where, after being covered with boards, the boards are again
also served to support a floor on which the labourers stood, covered with lead, in order to discharge the rain-water
to hoist the stones out of the lighters, and to lower them towards each edge of the flat, or platform.
into the caisson. Cambered beams are employed in a multitude of situations
The was also provided with a sluice to admit the
caisson where great strength is required. All beams which are so
water. The method of working was as follows: a pit being situate as to be subject to cross-strain should be cambered.
dug and levelled in the proper situation for the pier, of the Instances of cross-strain occur in bressummers, which are
same shape as the 'caisson, and about 5 feet wider all round ;
loaded with a wall, and of course are most affected by the
the caisson was brought to its position, a few of the lower gravity of its materials where the bearing is greatest, which
courses of the pier built in it, and sunk once or twice, to will be in their mid-length. A weight applied in this man-
prove the level of the foundation ; then, being finally fixed, ner will have the effect of pressing the centre below the
the masons worked in the usual method of tide-work. About level of the ends of the beam, and thus fracturing the super-
two hours before low-water, the sluice of the caisson, kept incumbent wall ; and besides this, will tend to snap and tear
open till then, lest the water, flowing to the height of many asunder the timber ; and although, on account of its great
more feet on the outside than on the inside, should float the scantling, such an event rarely, if ever, occurs, yet it
strains
caisson and all the stone-work out of its true place, was shut the beam in the direction of its length, a test which timber
down, and the water pumped low enough, without waiting should not be subjected to. Moreover, in all cases where
for the low ebb of the tide, for the masons to set and
cramp beams of any great length are employed, the gravity of the
the stone-work of the succeeding courses. Then when the timber itself will weigh them down midway, even where
tide had risen to a considerable height, the sluice was opened they are subjected to no additional weight, as in the case
again, and the water admitted ; and as the caisson was pur- of the tie-beams of a truss. In all these instances the diffi-
posely built but 16 feet high, to save useless expense, the culty may be obviated by cambering the timber upwards.
high tides flowed some feet above the sides, but without any This method not only ensures that the beam shall be level
damage or inconvenience to the works. In this manner the after settlement, but entirely alters the nature and operation
work proceeded till the pier rose to the surface of the caisson ; of the force ; for whereas previously the beams were strained
when the sides were floated away, to serve at another pier. or extended, this tension, by the employment of a camber, is
(Labelye's Description of Westminster Bridge.) changed into a pressure, so that the tendency instead of
being to tear the particles asunder, and thus weaken
CAISSON, signifies also the sunken panel in a vaulted or break
ceiling, or in the soffit of a cornice. the timber, is rather to press them more closely together, and
CALATHUS, the work-basket of Minerva also a hand- : render the beam firmer and more compact.
basket, made of light wood or rushes, used by the women Further, all timber is liable to shrinkage by the evapora-
for gathering flowers, after the example of Minerva. The tion of the moisture which is always present in a greater or
figure of the calathus, as represented in ancient monuments, less degree, and thereby becomes of smaller dimensions than
is narrow at the bottom, and widens when first inserted in a building. This defect may be recti-
upwards in its horizontal
dimensions. Also a cup Used in sacrifices. fied as far as the length is concerned, by cambering to such
CALCAREOUS CEMENTS. See CEMENTS. a degree, that when the wood is completely dry, it may fall
CALCAREOUS EARTH, a sort of earth which becomes into a horizontal position, or nearly so. The extent to which
friable by burning, and is afterwards reduced to a fine pow- the beam should be bent is a matter of nice calculation, and
 CAN 75 CAP
the regulation of it must be left to experience. In trusses the Palace of Dioclesian, at Spaltilra, in Dalmatia. Thn
camber of the tie-beam should not be too great, as if so, it mouldings of our first Saxon buildings were originally very
will tend to thrust out and derange the principals. When simple, consisting only of surfaces perpendicular and parallel
bressummers occur one above another, the higher ones should to the naked of the walls though afterwards they were
;

be cambered to u greater extent than those below, the camber formed not only of squares, but of cants also. These simple
increasing in direct proportion to the number of bressummers forms continued in use for some time after the Conquest ;

beneath it. and even when a great variety of curved forms came to be
CAMERATED, arched. introduced, they were never entirely laid aside we find them ;

GAMES, small slender rods of cast lead, about

in glazing,
frequently employed in the windows of castellated buildings,
12 or 14 inches long, to be drawn through a vice, in order to and other parts.
make turned lead ; each such bar is called a came. CANTED COLUMN, a column of which the horizontal sec-
CAMP CEILING, a ceiling formed by one or more tions are polygons, consisting of straight sides instead of
planes, with inclinations rising at an internal obtuse angle concave sides or flutes. Canted columns are not frequently
from the sides of the apartment, and most frequently enclos- to be met with in the works of the ancients, yet examples
ing a level plane in the middle, in the manner of a coved maybe seen the columns of the portic-o of Philip, king of
in

ceiling. This kind of ceiling is chiefly used in garrets, Macedon, and of the temple of Cora. The cants of columns
where otherwise there would be a want of head-room. are difficult to execute with truth, so as to preserve the
CAMPANA, the body of the Corinthian capital, otherwise arrises in the proper contour of the column, and in a vertical
called the vase or hell, from its figure. plane passing through its axis ; and when done, they want
CAMPANILE, (from campana, a bell,) a bell-tower, the beautifulcontrast of light and shade, which is o con-
in use among the Italians. It was sometimes a dis- the (lutings of the Grecian Doric.
in
chiefly spicuous
tinct and separate building of itself; but more commonly CANTING, the cutting away a part of an angular body
adjoining to the church, so as to make a part of the fabric, at one of its angles, so that the section may be a parallelo-
usually at the west end. Several of these towers are remark- gram, the edges of which are parallel from the intersection
able for being considerably out of the perpendicular, of of the adjoining planes.
which those of Pisa and Bologna are the most celebrated. CANTALIVERS, those blocks which are placed at regu-
Campaniles were erected to a great height ; that of Cre- lar distances, projecting at right angles from the surface of
mona, the highest in Italy, is 31)5 feet high ; that of Flo- the wall, and supporting the upper members of a cornice,
rence, built by Giotto, U07 feet, of a square plan, the sides the eaves of a house, or balcony they answer the same pur-
:

of which are 45 feet in length. The leaning tower of Pisa pose as modillions, mutules, blocks, or brackets, although
is 150 feet in height, and 13 feet out of the perpendicular.
they are applied to more trivial purposes modillions, mu- ;

CANAL OF THE IONIC VOLUTE, the spiral channel or tules, &c., being employed in regular architecture. Canta-
sinking on the face, which begins at the eye, in a point, and livers are frequently made of timber, or east iron, and pro-

expands in width until the whole number of revolutions are ject to a great distance. Those used in the cornice of St.
completed. In the volutes of the Ionic order of the temples Paul's, Covent Garden, are of timber, and project one-fourth
of Minerva Polias and Erectheus, at Athens, are several of the height of the column.
canals, which begin and end in the manner above described. CANT1IARUS, among ecclesiastical writers, a fountain
CANAL is also used for a FLUTE, or cistern in the middle of the atrium, before the ancient
CANAL OF THE LARMIER, the channel recessed upwards on churches, wherein people washed their hands and faces be-
the soffit, for preventing the rain-water from reaching the fore they entered.
bed or lower part of the cornice. See BEAK. CANTHARUS OF A FOUNTAIN, with the Romans, the part,
CANARD1ERE, or GUERITE, a small turret, sometimes or apparatus, out of which the water issued; it was of
of wood, and sometimes of stone ; used as a sentry-box on various fanciful forms, sometimes resembling a shell, at
the salient angles of works, as places of shelter for sentinels. others, an animal vomiting the water from its mouth, and
They were formerly constructed on castles, and used for sometimes the stream issued through the eyes.
CANTHERS, or CANTERII, ancient the
firing, or discharging anything unseen in unmolested security.
in carpentry,
CANCELLI, latticed windows, or those made with cross- common rafters of a roof, or those placed in vertical planes
bars of wood or iron. Also balusters or rails, especially at right angles to the ridge or eaves of the building.
those which separate the chancel from the body of the CANTING STAIRS.
See STAIRS.
church. CANTONED a building whose angles are
BUILDING,
CANOPY, a magnificent covering suspended over an adorned with columns, pilasters, rustic quoins, or anything
altar,throne, tribunal, pulpit, chair, or the like. See BAL- that projects beyond the naked of the wall.
DACHIN. It also denotes the projecting head of Gothic CANTONED COLUMNS. See COLUMNS.
niches or tabernacles. CAP, the mouldings which form the head of a pier or
CANT, a term used by carpenters, signifying to turn pilaster.
a piece of timber, which is brought in the wrong way for CAP, in joinery, the uppermost part of an assemblage of
their work. Also, the external angle made by any two principal or
subordinate parts. Ihe term is applied to the
of a column, the cornice of a door, the capping or
planes of a solid or building. capital
uppermost member of the surbase of
CANT MOULDING, a bevelled surface, or one that is a room, the hand-rail
neither perpendicular to the horizon nor to the vertical sur- of a stair, when supported by an iron strap, <fcc.
face of the body or building. These mouldings are of very CAPACITY, in geometry, the solid content of a
body.
remote antiquity, and have an effect similar to the Grecian CAPITAL, (capitello, Italian from the Latin, caput, the
;

A or ornaments above tho

echinus. cant moulding, instead of the echinus, is applied head) the assemblage of mouldings
shaft of a column, on which the entablature rests in other
to the capital of the columns of the portico of Philip, king of ;

are variously com-

Macedon, and in manyother situations, both of Grecian and words, the head of the column. Capitals
Roman edifices, as is exhibited in Stewart's Ruins of Athens, posed, some with simple mouldings, others with mouldings,
in the Ionian Antiquities, and in Adams's Ruins of the foliage, and volutes.
 CAP 76 CAP
The capitals used in the architecture of the Greeks, with foliations in low relief, or with a sort of basket-work,
though with numberless minute variations of ornaments and which is a distinguishing feature of the style to which it
proportions, arrange themselves into three general classes, belongs. A nearer approacli to their original is shown at a
and offer the most obvious distinctions between the orders. later period, in the style whose introduction is attributed to
In all the orders, the capital is divided from the shaft by the Lombards ; in this, which is merely a modification of the
some small member, as an astragal and fillet, or by one or debased Roman, some of the capitals bear a great resemblance
three channels, which are always accounted a part of the to the Corinthian, although far inferior to the>r
original in
shaft ; so much of the column, therefore, as appears above simplicity and elegance there are, however, other examples
;

this member, belongs to the capital. of a far different description, both in form and ornamenta-
The Doric capital consists of a neck, which is a continua- tion;
some ornamented with designs in low relief, others
tion of the shaft, with its fluting, several fillets, varying from again of a grotesque character. If we include the Norman
three to five in number, a bold projecting ovolo, and a massy in this style, to which it
certainly bears a close affinity, we
abacus, of a square form, which covers the whole. shall have a great variety of forms, to be noted indeed rather
The Ionic capital consists of an ovolo above the astragal for their variety and massive appearance, than for
beauty of
of the shaft a band, or festoon, upon the ovolo, on the front
;
outline or decoration.
and rear of the capital, with volutes on the right and left, But of those found in buildings in the modes
all capitals,

suspended from the ends of each band, or festoon ; and, commonly comprised under the term Gothic, hold a lofty
lastly, u thinmoulded abacus crowns the whole. pre-eminence, both for variety and tastefulness. What can
The Corinthian capital, which is more richly ornamented, be more chaste and elegant than the ornamentation of the
consists of a vase, two rows of leaves attached to the vase, early English? or what more graceful and natural than
volutes, caulicoli, which spring between each two of the the foliage of the decorated capital ? As to variety, it was the
upper row of loaves, and. lastly, an abacus, which is not only governing principle of decoration, there seldom being found
moulded on all the four edges, but formed into a concavity many repetitions of one form in the same building. Nature
from the two extremities of each of the said edges. was their model, by her alone were their designs limited, so
I'rom this description of Grecian capitals, it will be seen long at least as their skill was sufficient to imitate her
that though the parts are generally so very unlike as to be productions.
incapable of comparison, .yet they in variety maintain a CAPITAL, Angular. See ANGULAR CAPITAL.
general resemblance. CAPITAL OF A BALUSTER, one similar to those of the Tuscan
The variations to be found in different ancient examples or Doric orders.
of the same order, will be described under their respective CAPITAL OF A LANTERN, the covering by which it is
heads. terminated, either in a bell-shape, the form of a cupola, that
With regard to the Tuscan capital, there are no authenti- of a spire, or in any regular figure whatever.
cated remains of the order of which it is a part ; and the CAPITAL OF A TRIGLYPH, the projecting band which
precepts of Vitruvius on this head are so obscure, that surmounts the plain vertical area, or face, and which is dis-
modern compilers of systems of architecture have, of course, posed in a plane parallel to the said face. The capital of the
varied exceedingly in their designs ; so that the order which triglyph of the Grecian Doric projects but a very small
passes under this name, must be regarded rather as a modern distance, a'td is not returned on the flanks, except at the
than an ancient invention. It is made to differ from the angular triglyphs, and this only upon each face of the build-
modern Doric by an air of poverty and rudeness, and by the ing; but in the Roman Doric, the capital of the triglyph
suppression of the triglyphs, mutules, and other members. projects more than that of the Grecian, and is returned
The Composite appears never to have been admitted as a with the same projection on the flanks as in the face.
separate order by the ancients. CAPITOL, a celebrated rock, or hill, at Rome, whereon
From the remains of Egyptian antiquities, we find that stood many ancient edifices, with the house of Romulus, &c.
their architects had no certain rules; and it is rather singu- Among the many celebrated edifices that formerly occupied
lar, that though the buildings themselves were constructed this hill, the principal was the Asylum, erected by Romulus
with the greatest simplicity, their capitals are of infinite in order to people his new city. The house of Romulus
variety ;many of them possessing richness of decoration, was composed of rushes, &c. ; and every year the
canes,
although devoid of the simple elegance which is the charac- priests superstitiously repaired it with similar materials.
teristic of the Grecian orders. The ornaments are, in general, Here was the Tabularium, or Archive, where were deposited
accurate imitations of the natural productions of the country, the laws and consulta of the senate, and every other public
such as the lotus, the reed, or the palm. act, written on tables of bronze. Vespasian repaired the
The temples of the ancient inhabitants of Ilindostan, Capitol, and had three thousand new tables made, the former
works of dateless antiquity, present many capitals of extra- having been defaced when the library and other buildings
ordinary form and composition. In some, we find repre- were destroyed by lightning. It is supposed to have stood
sented the figures of elephants and horses, apparently where the arches and Doric columns are now seen, behind
crouching under the weight of the ceiling. Capitals, very the Senators' Palace, towards the Campo Vaccino. Here
similar in idea, are also found in the ruins of Persepolis, was the Curia Calabra. Here also stood the house of Manlius,
composed of horses and camels. the defender of the rock, destroyed on account of the treachery
As Eoman art degenerated with the decline of the empire, of master. The temple of Juno Moneta was built on its
its
the capitals from the ancient edifices were used indiscrimi- site.The number of temples on this hill was very consider-
nately in the new structures and this led,
;
in later times, to able some make them amount to sixty.
: But the great
the employment of a variety of capitals in the same edifice. quantity of statues in marble, metal, silver, and gold, erected
The first we find in the form of this
alteration mem her of the to heroes who had deserved well of the republic, causing
column, the erection of that style of architecture known
is in
great confusion, Augustus removed great part of them to
as Byzantine, in which the capitals are in the shape of a the Campus Martius.
truncated pyramid of four sides, placed in an inverted posi- All these noble edifices, once the ornament of the mistress
tion, having the apex downwards ; the surface is ornamented of the world, have fallen a victim to the ravages of time,
 CAR 77 CAR
and the more destructive plunder of invading barbarians.
still CARCASS ROOFING, that which supports the covering by
At was only accessible from the south; but after
first this hill a grated frame of timber- work, consisting of three tiers of
the Campus Martius was inhabited, another road was opened timber, parallel to each other, and to the sloping surface
towards the north. The first among the moderns who pro- of the covering. The most general disposition of the tim-
moted the decoration of the Campidoglio was Pope Paul III. bers is the following the first tier and support is a row of
:

who, after adesign of Bonarrotti,constructed the spacious steps. timbers, inclined to the pitch of the roof, supported at various
CAPREOLS, in Roman carpentry, the struts or braces points by other timbers, which, with the inclined timbers,
of a trussed roof. form as many vertical frames, perpendicular to the sides of
CARACOL, is used sometimes to denote a staircase in the the building as there are inclined timbers: each frame is
form of a helix, or spiral. called a truss : the inclined timbers in the upper part of the
CARAVANSERA, in the East, a large building, or inn, truss are called principal rafters : the principal rafters support
for the reception of travellers, and the lodging of caravans. a set of horizontal timbers transversely, and parallel to each
It is usually a large square of buildings, with a court in the other, called purlins : the
purlins support the third and last
middle, surrounded with galleries and arches, under which tier of timbers of the frame, transversely or parallel to the
runs a kind of banquette, or elevation, some feet high, where principal rafters : the timbers of the last tier are called
travellers rest themselves, and make their lodging as well as bridging, or common rafters. The upper surfaces of the
they can ; their baggage, and the beasts that carry them, principals, those of the purlins, and those of the common
being fastened to the foot of the banquette. Over the gate rafters, are sometimes framed flush with each other, or in
there are frequently small chambers, which the caravan- the same inclined plane, in order to save room, or to conceal
seraskier, or director, lets out at a very dear rate, to such as more of the roof: in this way the purlins must be tenoned,
wish to be retired. and the principals mortised to receive them ; the small rafters
CARCASE, the work of a house before it is either lathed and purlins are also tenoned and mortised together. But the
or plastered, or the floors laid. best and strongest mode of carcase framing is, to make the
CARCASE, or NAKED FLOORING, that which supports the purlins bridge over the principals, and the common rafters
boarding above, for walking upon, and the ceiling below, by over the purlins. The principals rest upon a horizontal piece
a grated frame of timber, consisting of three tiers of beams, of timber, on the wall head, called the raising, or wall-plate:
called joists ; the middle tier being transverse to the other when the purlins bridge over the principals, and the small
two. The beams of the middle tier, called binding-joists, rafters over the purlins, the small rafters rest at the bottom
support the other two tiers : the beams forming the upper upon a piece of timber called a pole-plate. The manner of
tier, called bridgings, or bridging-joists, support the boarding, joining the timbers in carcase roofing and flooring may be
and are frequently notched upon the binding-joists the : seen in the article CARPENTRY; other particulars relative to
lowest row of beams, called ceiling-joists, are either framed roofing, may be seen under ROOFING, TRUSS, and BOARDING.
into the binding-joists, with pulley or chase mortises, flush Sometimes the covering is only supported by purlins rest-
with the under edges of the said joists, or are notched and ing upon the principal rafters ; in this case, the length of the
nailed to them below. When the floor is very much extended boards is disposed parallel to the principal rafters; but this
in both dimensions, another set of large beams, called girders,
position does not give so great strength to the roof as that
the whole depth of the three tiers, are introduced, for short- which is horizontal.
ening the bearings of the binding-joists, which are mortised CARDINAL SCAPI, in Roman joinery, the stiles of doors.
and tenoned into the girder on both sides of it. The under CARINA, in Roman antiquity, a building in the form of
edges of the binding-joists should be so framed, as to be below a ship.
the under side of the intermediate girder, about half an inch, CARNEDDE, in British antiquity, heaps of stones sup- ;

to prevent the ceiling from cracking; and the girder must posed to be druidical remains for confirming and comme-
be furred, to range with the under edge of the ceiling-joists. morating covenants.
The general scantlings of these timbers are as follow, viz., CAROLITIC COLUMN. See COLUMN.
girders, 12 by 13 inches; binding-joists, 10 by 4; bridging- CARPENTER (from the French charpentier ; formed
joists, 5 by 2 and ceiling-joists, 3 by 2j. The distance
;
from charpente, timber or, probably, from the Latin, ear-
;

which these timbers are commonly placed in the clear is as pentariwt, a maker of carpenta, or carriages),
an artificer,
follows the binding-joists from 4 to 6 feet, which is also
: whose business it is to cut, form, and join timber, for the
various parts neccs
that of the ceiling-joists; and the bridgings 11 or 12 inches purpose of strengthening and supporting
apart. As the girders go the whole length of the room, they sary in the construction of buildings.
have no fixed bearing ;
when they extend to 20 feet and CARPENTER'S RULE, is generally used in taking dimen-
upwards, they should be trussed. When the breadth of a sions, and in casting up the contents
of timber and artificers*
room extends to 30 feet and upwards, the girders should work.
be framed like the truss of a partition, with an upper and . It two equal pieces of box, each one foot in
consists of
lower beam, and with posts, braces, and struts: for this connected together by a folding joint in :one of these
length,
purpose, a sufficient depth for the floor should be allowed, equal pieces there is a slider,
and four lines marked at the
from two to three feet Girders should never be placed over right hand, A, B, c, D; two
of these lines, B, c, are upon the
openings, unless they be supported by strong arches. When slider, and the other two, A, D, upon
the rule. Three of
a lintel led opening comes under the place where the end of these lines, viz., A, B, c, are called double lines, because they
in the length; these
the girder should be, the end of the girder must be changed proceed from one to ten twice over
to the nearest solid bearing, which will throw its direction three lines are all exactly alike, both in numbers and division.
into an oblique position. The wall-hold for girders in brick They are numbered from the left hand towards the right,
buildings, may be from 9 to 12 inches, and for binding-joists, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 0, 7, 8, 9, 1,
which stands in the middle ; the
6 inches. In stone buildings, for girders, from one foot to numbers then go on again to 10, which stands at the right-
two feet, according to the thickness of the wall, and for hand end of the rule. These numbers have no determinate
binding-joists, 9 inches. In thick walls there may be two value of their own, but depend upon the value you set on
rows of wall-plates. the unit at the left hand of this part of the rule ; thus if you
 CAB 78 CAR
call it 1, the 1 in the middle will be 10, the other figures upon, will mark the inches, and show how far it deviates
falls
which follow will be 20, 30, &c., and the 10 at the right- from the square in 12 inches.
hand end will be 100. If the first, or left-hand unit be CARPENTER'S WORK, in the mensuration of artificers' work,
called 10, the middle 1 will be 100, and the following figures includes the taking of the dimensions of every description of
will be 200, 300, 400, &c., and the 10 at the right-hand end timber necessary in the construction of buildings, finding their
will be 1000; and thus, whatever be the value of the first contents, and valuing the same.
unit, the second unit in the middle is always ten times The works done by the carpenter, in the general construc-
greater and whatever is the value of the first and second
;
tion of buildings, are the preparation of piles, sleepers, and
unit, the following numbers to the right denote so many planking, or other large timbers in the foundations, center-
\imes that value as the number expresses. ings to vaults, wall-plates, lintels, and bond-timbers, naked
The fourth line, D, called the girt line, is a single line, flooring, partitioning, roofing, battening to walls, ribbed ceil-

proceeding from 4 to 40. Upon it are marked a at w ings to form vaulting for lath and plaster, &c. These are
17 15, and A G at 18 95, the wine and ale guage points, to
-
not necessarily used in the construction of every edifice piling
:

make it serve the purpose of a guaging-rule. and planking, or other timbers used in the foundation, are
The use of the double lines, A and B, is for working the only incidental, depending upon the insufficiency of the
rule of proportion, and finding the areas of plain figures. ground to be built upon ; the remaining articles may be
And the use of the girt line D, and the other double line c, is all used in the most substantial and elegantly constructed
for measuring of timber. On the other part of this side of houses.
the rule, there is a table of the value of a load, or 50 cubic Large and plain articles, where a uniform quantity of
feet, of timber, at all prices, from sixpence to twenty-four materials and workmanship is expended, are generally mea-
pence, or two shillings, per foot. sured by the square of 100 superficial feet.
On the other side of the rule are several plane scales, Piles may be made at per piece, and driven by the foot
divided into 12th parts, marked inch, A, ^, &c., signifying
, run, according to their diameter, and the quality of the
that the inch, -f- inch, &c., are each divided into 12 parts. ground.
These scales are useful for planning dimensions that are Sleepers and planking are measured and valued bj taking
taken in feet and inches. The edge of the rule is divided the superficial contents in yards or squares.
into inches, and each of these inches into eight parts, repre- Plain centering is measured by the square ; but as the
senting half inches, quarter inches, and half quarters. ribs and boarding are two different qualities of work, they
In thw description, the rule is supposed to be folded ; let ought to be measured and valued separately ; one dimension
it new be opened, and pull out the slider, you will find the of the boarding is taken by girting it round the arch, the
bdck of divided like the edge of the rule, so that altogether
it other is the length of the vault.
it will measure one yard, or three feet, in
length. The Centering for groins should be measured and valued as
slide is very useful in taking inside dimensions for any common centering, but in addition thereto, the angles should
length not less than one foot, nor greater than three feet. be paid for by the foot run, over and above ; that is, the ribs
Some rules have other scales and tables upon them ; as a and boarding ought to be measured and valued separately,
table of board measure, one of timber measure, a line for according to the exact superficial contents of each, and the
showing what length for any breadth will make a foot square, angles by the lineal foot for workmanship in fitting the ribs
also a line showing what length for any thickness will make and boards, and for the waste of wood occasioned by the
a solid foot. The former line serves to complete the table operation. Wall-plates, lintels, and bond-timbers, are mea-
of board measure, and the latter the table of timber sured by the cubic foot, under the denomination of Jtr-in-
measure. bond.
The thickness of the rule is generally about a quarter of Naked flooring may either be measured and valued by the
an inch ;
this face is divided into inches and tenths, and num- square, or by the cubic foot, according to the description of
bered, \vhen the rule is opened, from the right-hand towards the work, and the quantity of timber employed. In forming
the left, 10, 20, 30, &c., to 100, which falls upon the joint. an idea of its value, it is proper to observe, that in equal
The other half is numbered in the same manner, and the cubic quantities of small and large timbers, the small timbers
same way. The scales serve for taking dimensions in feet, will have a greater superficies than the large ones, and there-

tenths, and hundredths of a foot, when the contents are found fore the saving will not be in a ratio with the solid contents;
by decimals. consequently the value of the workmanship will not follow the
CARPENTER'S SQUARE, a square, of which both stock and cubic quantity or said ratio. The difficulty of handling tim-
blade consist of an iron plate, of one piece; it is in size bers of the same length increases with the weight or solidity,
and construction as follows one leg is 18 inches in length,
: as the greater quantity requires greater power to handle it,

numbered on the outer edge, from the exterior angle, with and consequently a greater expenditure of time: and though
the bottom of the figures adjacent to the interior edge the : the time may not be exactly in a ratio with the solid quantity,
other edge is 12 inches long, and numbered from the extre- there will be no great difference, as the respective sections will
mity towards the angle ; the figures are read from the not vary considerably in their dimensions ; and as the value of
internal angle, as on the other side ; each of the
legs is about the sawing upon a cubic foot is comparatively small to that of
an inch broad. This implement is not only used as a square, the work done by the carpenter, the whole value of labour
but also as a level and measuring rule. Its application as a and materials may be ascertained with sufficient accuracy
square, in taking measures, is so easy as not to require ex- where the work is uniformly of one description.
ample ; but its use in taking angles may be thus illustrated : In naked flooring, where girders are introduced, they
suppose it were required to take the angle which the heel of interrupt the unifoimity of the work by mortises
and tenons.
a rafter makes with the back ; apply the end of the short In this respect, the price ascertained by the cubic quantity
leg of the square to the point of the heel and back, with the of the girders, would not be sufficient at tb same rate per
foot, as the other parts, not only on account
edge of the square level across the plate ; extend a chalk line of the great dif-
from the ridge of the roof to the said heel-point, and the ference of size, but as it is cut full of mortises to receive
division on the perpendicular leg of the square which the line the tenons of the binding-joists, it occasions a si.ll greater
 CAR 79 CAR
disparity in the quantity of workmanship. A
correct method, mities of the tenons. Principal timbers, as binding-joists
therefore, of valuing labour and materials, would be to and girders, least nine inches into the wall, or one-third
go at
measure and value the whole by the cubic quantity, and of its thickness, if more than 27 inches.
allow an additional rate upon every solid foot of girders ; or In taking the dimensions of bond-timbers and
wall-plates,
if the binding-joists were not inserted in the girders at the the several laps must be added to the lengths. When there
usual distances, a fixed price for every mortise and tenon, in isa necessity for cutting out parallel pieces from the sides
proportion to their size, which would keep a ratio with the of truss-posts, as in king or queen posts, if the pieces cut out
area of the end of the girder. exceed 2 feet in length, and 2^- inches in thickness, they
As the binding-joists are sometimes pulley or chase mor- should be deemed pieces fit for use ; but their lengths should
tised, to receive the ceiling-joists, and sometimes notched to not be reckoned so long by six inches, as the saw can hardly
receive the bridging-joists over them, they ought to be classed be entered with le'ss waste.
by themselves, at a superior price per foot cube, or at an The boarding of the roof is measured by the square,
additional price for the workmanship, above that of common according to the thickness and quantity of the boards, and
joisting: this should always be allowed according to the the manner of jointing them. In measuring for labour and
description of workmanship, whether the ceiling-joists be put materials, the most accurate method is, first, to find the cubical
in their pulley mortises and tenons, or the bridgings notched contents, the price of the cubic foot, including the prime cost,
or adzed down. carting, sawing, waste, and the master's profit ; then add the
Partitions may be measured by the cubic foot, but the sills, price of labour, properly measured, in the same manner as for
top pieces, and door heads, should be measured by themselves, the journeyman. Labour and materials are variable, and
according to the solid quantity, at an additional rate, because have no relation whatever to each other ; consequently they
both the uniform solidity, and the uniform quantity of work- cannot be reduced to single tables. The value of the cubic
manship, are interrupted by them. In trussed partitions, the foot may be calculated by having the prime cost of the load,
braces should be rated by the foot cube, at a superior price or 50 cubic feet for example, let it be required to find the
:

to that of the quartering, for the trouble of fitting the ends price of a cubic foot, when the price of the load is 10.
of the uprights upon their upper and lower sides, and for
a. d
forming the abutments at the ends.
In roofing, all the timbers should be measured by the cubic
foot, classed as the difficulty of execution, or as the waste
50 feet
Cartage
Sawing
cube fir, prime cost 10
050 10
occasioned, may require. Common rafters may be rated the 7 cube feet waste 1 8
same as joisting or quartering purlins at a superior price,
;
12 3
for the trouble of fitting or notching down the common 20 per cent profit on the above 2 8 7
rafters ; the notching of the purlins themselves, upon these

principles, should be valued at per piece or notch. The Master's price per load 14 11 7

various parts of trusses should be arranged separately ; the

joggles should be paid for at per piece, including the tenons Then as 50 cubic feet are to one cubic foot, so is
at the ends of the struts ; the mortising tic-beams and prin- 14. lls. 7d. the price of 50 cubic feet, to the pi-ice of one
cipals, and making the tenons of the truss-posts,
should like- cubic foot. Thus,
wise go together ; and the mortising and tenoning at the ends
. s. d.
of tie-beams and principals, in another class ; strapping
50 : 1 :: 14 11 7
should be paid for according to the number of bolts. In all
20
these matters, regard must be had to the size and description
of the work ;
common or bridging rafter-feet at per piece. 291
Battening to walls is best measured by the square, accord- 12
ing to the dimensions and distances in the clear of the bat-
tening.
5,0) 349,9
Ribbed ceilings should be measured according to the cubic

quantity, making proper allowance for the great waste of

-a

stuff; the price of labour will be regulated by the descrip-

tion of the work, and also by the cubic quantity of timber. 5 9
Trimmers should be measured separately, at such a price
as to include not only the mortises and tenons of the joisting
inserted into them, but the tenons at their extremities, and So that the price of the cubic foot wants only the fiftieth
This is the rate of the mas-
part of a penny to be
the mortises of the trimming-joists, which are to receive 5s. lOd.

them. In this way, it would be unnecessary to take any ter's price for the fir, exclusive of labour.
account of the tenons at the ends of the bridging-joists, or of The foregoing are the methods by which the various parts
the mortises in the trimming-joists to receive the ends of the of workmanship should be analyzed, in order to discover a
trimmer. legitimate ratio of prices ;
but we regret to add, that no par-
It would be endless to enumerate the various methods of ticular account of time has been kept, in which the execution

measuring each particular species of carpenter's work ; the of certain uniform portions of work have been done, and by
leading articles only are here observed. which alone we are enabled to grve accurate calculations. The
As soon as the shell of a building is finished, that is, pre- method of lumping work by the square, is not to be depended
vious to the floors being laid, or the ceilings lathed and on, in the general admeasurement
of buildings, as the surface
is not always of a uniform description of workmanship ;
plastered, all the timbers should be measured, that no doubt
is at the hips, in
may exist as to the actual scantlings of the timbers, or of the thus, in hipped roofs, the greatest trouble
cutting and fitting the jack-rafters,
which are fixed at equal
description of the workmanship.
In taking the dimensions, it must be observed, that all distances thereon, and therefore such a price may be fixed
as will not only
pieces which have tenons, must be measured to the extre upon the cubic quantity of hips and vallies,
 CAR 80 CAR
Continuation of Table IV. Continuation of Table V.
pay for theworkmanship in themselves, but also for the
trouble of cutting and fitting the jack-rafters. Fixed Fixed
both per square. per tquare.
It isimpossible to fix a proper rate, including Single framed floor-case and with Framed
principals,
materials and workmanship, as the one may be stationary, tail
bays 2 130 beams, king-posts, queen-
.

while the other is variable. With respect to materials, the For every extra-cased bay posts, and common raft-

value of any quantity may be easily ascertained, whatever be add per square 484 era, three stories 549
Framed floors, with girders, The same, four stories 4 84
the price per load ; but the far greater difficulty lies in fixing
.

binding, and ceiling-joists 3.581 run.

that the per ft.
proper rates of workmanship ; however, admitting Ground joists bedded 775
Hips and valleys 145
time of executing every species of work were known, there Ground-joists bedded and and ridge rolls fixed on
would be no uniform quan- framed to chimneys 968 Hip,
difficulty in establishing certain iron 048
the real value at any time ; the fol- Ground-joists pinned down on Bedded plates to common
tities, which would give
plates, and framed to
chim- 008
of workmanship,
lowing is a specimen of the several rates neys
span roofing
1 065 Bedded .
to common plates
by which the prices may be regulated at any time, admitting per ft. run. span roofing, as above ... .028
them to be right for the present. Each rate consists gener- Girders reversed and bolted . 097 Diagonal and dragon pieces .065
ally of three places of decimals
on the right side of the Truss girder-braces 4 inches Angular ties and struts 032
on the left side. This table by 4 194 Rafter-feet and caves-board .032
point, and sometimes an integer
shows also the customary methods of measuring. If any of the above works
be done in oak, add one- TABLE VI.
To findthe price of the common measure of any kind of third.
GUTTERING.
workmanship, at any time. Multiply the wages of the per ft, super.
workman by the rate ; then, whatever denomination the One or 1J inch deal, and
TABLE V. bearers, including 6-inch
wages is per day, the integers of the product, if any, will be side layer board 057
of the same denomination, and the decimals will be parts of ROOFS. The same in kirb roofs 073
the same. Common Shed Roofing.
The centering of 2.033 per Fixed
Example. cylindric vaults is
TABLE VII.
60 per square.
square ;
now let the wages per day be 5 shillings, or One 968 FURRINGS OE BATTENINGS.
pence; then 2.033x5 =
10.165 shillings per square, and by
story high
Two stories 1 033 .
per square.
multiplying the decimal parts by 12, we obtain
the pence. Three stories 1.113 If the stuff be J inch by 1| 872 .

Thus But if the stuff is to be cut

.165 Single Span Roofing. out, add 146 per square.
.

One story high 1 . 066 Battenings with quarters, 3

12
Two stories high 1.113 inches by 2 92
Three stories high 1.210 Battening to quarters, 3
1.980 penny, or very near two pence; If the above have purlins, inches by 2, to window

so that the value of a square of centering is nearly 10s. 2d. add per square .194; or piers 1.356
if the
purlins
be framed If the battens be fixed to
then
Again, suppose the wages to be 5s. 6d. per day, diagonally, add double, plugs, add 29 per square.
.

388 When any of the above are

shillings, or 11s. 2d, nearly: and
thus or
2.033x5|=11.181 08 circular on the plan, add
for any other example. Hips and valleys
. In common
kirb roofing, half as much more.
TABLE add extra per square when
TABLE I. IIL
one side is kirbed . . 1 94 .

CENTERING. QUARTER PARTITIONS. When three sides 357 TABLE VIIL

Fixed Fixed When four sides 516
framed BRACKETING, INCLUDING
per square. per square. Girt roofing, with
For cylindric plain vaults ... 2.033 Common four inch 1 033 .
collar . PLUGGING.
principals, beams,
per ft. super. Five inch 1.113 and 2 . 32 Fixed
purlins
For groins 067 Six inch 1 307 .
Framed with principals, per ft. super.
For gauged brickwork 078 Six inch circular plan 1 888 To straight corrfices 089
.
beams, king -posts, pur-
For brick trimmers bridge- Trussed frame with king- lins, and common rafters. 3 .484 To coved straight
cornices. . . . 065
wise 041 1 . 743 If the principals and rafters If circular on the plan, add
post
For coach-head trimmers. .057. . Trussed, both king and queen are framed flush, and the one half more.
2.226 housed in, add To groins in passages less
per ft. run. posts purlins
For apertures 02 . 887 per square to the than 4 feet wide 162
above. To the same, above 4 feet.. . .121
TABLE IV.
KAKED FLOORING.
CARPENTRY, the art of employing timbers in the con-
TABLE IL Fixed
struction of buildings.
per square.
MISCELLANIES.
Ceiling floor, framed, with The important and useful art to which the general name
Fixed tie -
beams, binding, and of carpentry is given, is so intimately connected with the
per ft. run. 1 355
ceiling-joists .
comforts and requirements of man, in every stage of civilized
Fir-in-bond and wood bricks 008 Ceiling floor with tie-beams
.

and society, that no apology can

be necessary for the length to
Fir-in-templets, lintels, and ceiling-joists only. . . . 1 . 066
turning pieces. 025 Ceiling-joists only
. 646 which our observations on it must necessarily extend. In a
Planing fir from the saw, per Single framed floor, trimmed work especially devoted to architecture, it of course must
017 to chimney and well holes,
occupy a prominent place ; for carpentry may be considered
foot super
fir to 2 inches less than 9 inches deep.. 1 355
Rebating up of so great importance, that no man may pretend to be an
. .

byj 025 The same, above 9 inches. . . 1 . 646

The same, if trimmed to architect who is not well acquainted with its principles and
Rebating from 2 inches by J
to 3 inches by 1J 041 party walls, add extra per its Carpentry may be divided into two grand
practice.
Single beading up to J inch . 008 square 888 branches Carpentry and Joinery. The first includes the
Single quirk beading from f Single framed floor, with one kinds of work, or that which is essential
inch to 1J 012 1 936 larger and rougher
girder .

to the construction and stability of an edifice and, generally, :

Return beads to be paid for Strutting to be paid for ex-

at a double rate. tra. all the work wherein timber is valued by the cubical foot.
 CAR 81 :AR

Joinery, (called by the French menuiserie, from menu, small, they were gilt, as in the basilica of St. Peter, erected by
and lioix, wood, or small wood employed in that Constantine; sometimes they were encrusted with bronze.
art) includes
all the interior finishings and ornamental work, and is
gene- Though circumstances require certain dispositions of tim-
rally valued by (he superficial foot. bers in a building, the timbers will still admit of infinite
Carpentry properly divided into three branches,
itself is decoration, without injury ; and sometimes so much as at
and mechanical.
viz., descriptive, constructive, firstview to conceal the principal use. In the middle
ages,
Descriptive carpentry shows the lines or methods for carpentry partook of the style of building called Gothic ; the
forming every species of work in piano, by the rules of geo- roofs were pitched
very high, but were frequently defective,
"
metry. To this branch of he art, sometimes called finding,"
l on account of the want of tie-beams, which were" omitted in
the celebrated Monze gave the name of descriptive geometry. order to obtain more lofty ceilings; neight
being one of the
Constructive carpentry shows the practice of reducing the predominant features of this species of architecture.
wood into forms, and joining the parts, according to the
Carpentry has been cultivated by the modern Italians.
intention or design of the architect, and thereby
forming a Serlio, in his first book, exhibits a construction for naked
complete whole. flooring, with timbers shorter than cither of the dimensions
Mechanical carpentry shows the relative strength of tim- of the area to be covered in the fourth book he shows some
;

and the strains to which they may bo subjected very curious and strong methods of framing doors, according
bers, by their
arrangement and disposition. to the
principles of trussed work ;
and in the seventh book,
In this article, few preliminary observations on
after a he. has some
very good forms for the trusses of roofs. The
what may be termed the " HISTORY" of carpentry, it is wooden bridges of Palladio are most excellent examples.
intended to give such definitions as may conduce to a com- Among the French, the construction of wooden domes has
prehension of the. theory and practice of the art, and then to been improved by Philibcrt Delorme, and Moulineau; and
show the progressive improvements made by the several the centerings of arches and bridges by Perronet.
English writers in carpentry the various rules for forming
: In
England, the very curious construction of naked floor-
the timbers, and Ibr the individual operations, being shown ing, exhibited in the works of Serlio, has been demonstrated
under their respective heads. See particularly CONSTRUCTIVE, and improved by Dr. \Vallis, and carried into execution, in
DESCRIPTIVE, and MECHANICAL CARPENTRY. the heat re of Oxford, by Sir
I
Christopher \Vren, who also
JIi*t >!/. '1 his art is of such
general and important use, that designed the wood trussing of the dome of St. Paul's, and
there can be no doubt of its being of the highest antiquity. contrived a very curious scaffolding, which supported itself
Little of its history, however, has been transmitted to us without anything below it, for the purpose of building and
from the ancients. Pliny and Vitruvius are almost the only painting the interior dome. The art of carpentry has been
authors whose writings on the subject have reached modern much cultivated of late years in England, so that it has now
times ; but as their observations arc merely confined to the begun to assume a scientific form. In accuracy and celerity
choice and felling of timber, they arc of no use as to the of execution our workmen are unequalled.
constructive part, and only demonstrate that such an art Of late years the improvements in the manufacture of
existed. iron, both cast and wronyltt, have caused the introduction of
The practice of carpentry in its rudest form must of that material into buildings in every variety of form as
necessity have commenced in the very earliest ages for in girders, beams, &e. The floors, and sometimes even the
the first attempts at the construction of the primitive build- roofs of those intended to be secured from fire, have been
ings of those days, carpentry must have been brought into constructed of iron ;
and iron hooping is now used instead
exercise. It is
probable that the necessity of introducing of bond-timbers in walls. The use of this material, how-
the pediment roof, occasioned the first use of timber frames, ever, as a substitute for wood, does not change the principle,
and consequently the art of carpentry in building. The as both materials are affected by the same gravitating laws.
invention of the pediment roof is justly attributed to the The operations to which timber is subjected, from the
Greeks as the olde t buildings of this description are to be
;
time of its arrival in the carpenter's yard, in its natural
found in their country they also appear to have used tim-
; state, to the period of its final employment in a building,
ber for other purposes, as in the framing of floors, and the may be classed under two general heads as, those which
;

construction of rustic buildings. relate to individual pieces, and those that relate to their
In warm countries, connection with others.
furnishing stone or marble, it is pro-
bable that the use of timber was not very frequent, and that I'nder the first head is the pit-saw, by which whole pieces
it was confined to movable articles, where
lightness was an of timber are divided, and reduced into scantlings. This
essential quality ; we must, therefore, not look to these cli- term (from the French, enchantillon) means the dimensions
mates for any traces of the art. in breadth and thickness, without respect to the length.
The next great people, in succession of time, to the Greeks, Planing is the operation of reducing the
wood to a smooth
were the Romans, who seem to have employed timber for surface, by means of an instrument called a plane, which
all, or nearly all, the purposes that the moderns are ac- consists of a chisel fixed in a frame, serving at once ns a
quainted with. They not only constructed their roofs, but handle and a regulator to the edge, which cuts the wood in
whole buildings, of timber in Vitruvius we have a descrip-
: thin shavings as the plane is moved to and fro by the work-
tion of their manner of
constructing the. archil raves of Tuscan man. The operations of the plane, besides that of reducing
temples, and of the foundation of arched ceilings and floors, timber to a uniform surface, are those of grooving, rebating,
in timber work. The Romans also used wooden cornices. and moulding the latter not being necessary in carpentry,
:

The theatres and amphitheatres at Rome, and in different we shall only describe the former two: Grooving is the
so as to take
parts of Italy, were at first constructed of timber; as we read reducing a piece of timber below the surface,
of the wooden theatre of Pompey, and the amphitheatre a and leave a channel consisting of two
away prism, thereby
built of the same material, by Augustus, to exhibit the shows surfaces of equal breadths, and another surface, of equal
surface from
on account of the victory at Actium. The roofs of the breadth, joining the other two, parallel to the
Roman buildings were not always concealed ; the timbers which the recess is made, generally forming two individual
were sometimes exposed, and in magnificent buildings right angles.
11
 CAR CAR
Rebating is the reducing of a piece of timber, by taking by William Pain, printed in 1778; The Carpenters Pocket
away a prism at the angle, so as to leave only two sides, Directory, by the same author, printed in 1780; The Golilen
each of a parallel breadth, forming an internal angle, gone- Rule, by the same, printed in 1781 ; The British Palladio,
rally a right angle so that in grooving and rebating, the
:
by the same, printed 1788 The Practical Builder, by the
;

groove or rebate is always less than the original depth of same author; The House Carpenter, by the same
Practical
the stuff or piece out of which it is formed. Thy latter author, printed in 1791. The following are productions of
operation is particularly used in door-cases and the frames the Author of the present Work The Carpenter's New
:

of casement-windows the rebate forming a kind of ledge

; Guide, m
1792; The Carpenter's and Joiner's Assistant,
for the door or casement to stop against. printed in 1792. Likewise, the various articles on carpentrv ,
The implements which the carpenter has occasion to in Rees' Cyclopaedia ; A Treatise on Carpentry, in the
employ in the several operations, will be seen under the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, and a treatise on the same subject,
head TOOLS. in hisMechanical Exercises. A
long article on Carpentry,
Theprincipal operations, after the pieces are formed, ina Supplement to the Encyclopaedia Brilannica, was written
two pieces of timber may
consist in the joining of timbers: by Professor Robison, of Edinburgh; and an article on
be joined so as to form either one, two, or four angles, Carpentry, in A
Course of Lectures on Natural Pliilosopliy
oblique or right. A notched joint is formed by cutting out and Mechanical Arts, by Thomas Young, M. D., late
the
of the thickness of each piece, a part in the form of a Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution
parallelepiped ;
so that when the two pieces are joined, the of Great Britain.
substance left at the reduced thickness of the one piece, fills We shall here give extracts from these authors, in order
the excavation of the other, as far as it goes into its depth. to mark the various methods and progressive improvements
If the thickness of the part left be equal to that of the part in the scientific and practical parts of
carpentry, particularly
taken away in each piece, and the thickness of the part left that part which relates to geometrical description.
of the one piece be equal to the thickness of the part left of Godfrey Richards, in his general title, at the end of the
the other pieee, the joint is then said to be halved. In translation above referred to, writes thus :

li
making one angle, the excess or excavation is formed at the Rules and instructions for framing all man-
Of Roofs.
end of each piece, and consists of two plane surfaces, one ner of roofs, whether square or bevel, either above or under
perpendicular, the other parallel to the two opposite faces, pitch, according to the best manner practised in England.
and in the plane of the. angle. In forming two right angles, "Also to find the length of the hips and sleepers, with
one piece must, of course, project on both sides of the other, the back or hip mould, never yet published by any architect,
and the other only on one side ; the excavation or recess modern or antique a curiosity worth the regard, even of
;

made in that which projects on both sides, consists of three the most curious workman ; exactly demonstrated in the
plane surfaces, one being parallel, and the other two at right following rules and designs, by that ingenious architect,
angles to the faces the excavation or recess made in that
;
Mr. William Pope, of London.
which projects on one side, consists of two plane surfaces, "Having raised the walls to their designed height, and
in the like positions. In forming four right angles, the made the vaults, laid the joists, brought up the stairs, and
notch of each piece consists of three sides, two of which are performed all those things spoken of before we are now to ;

at right angles, and the other parallel to the faces. One raise the roof, which embracing every part of the building,
piece of timber may also be joined to another, so as to form and with its weight equally pressing upon the walls, is a
only one or two adjacent angles, by notching one piece on band to all the work ; and besides defends the inhabitants
three sides at the ends, and so forming a projecting prism, from rain, from snow, from the burning sun, and from the
called a tenon, the sides of which are respectively parallel moisture of the night adds no small help to the building,
;

to the sides of the piece, and by excavating the end of the casting off from the walls the rain water, which although
other piece, to receive the tenon, which is made to fit exactly. for a while it seems to do but little hurt, yet in process of
The two pieces thus formed at one or more angles to each time is the cause of much damage. The first men (as saith
other, may, if found necessary, be fixed by means of wooden Vitruvius) built their houses with flat roofs, but finding that
pins, or nails, spikes, screws, bolts, straps, or other rnetal thereby they were not defended from the weather, they
fastenings. (constrained by necessity) began to make them ridged (that
The two celebrated Italian authors, Serlio and Palladio, is to say) raised in the middle. These roofs are to be raised
have given designs in carpentry. The British authors who to a higher or lower pitch, according to the country in which
have written on this useful art, are Godfrey Richards, at they are wherefore in Germany, by reason of the great
;

the end of his Translation of the First Book of Andrew quantity of snow that falls there, they raise their roofs to a
Palladia, third edition printed 167(i; Moxou's Mechanical verv great pitch, and cover them with shingles, which are
Exercises, second edition printed 1693 ; Halfpenny's Art of small pieces of wood, or of thin slate or tiles ; for if they
Sound Bnildiifj, printed 1725; The Carpenter's Companion, slioidd raise them otherwise, they would be ruined by reason
by Smith, printed 1733; Ancient Masonry, by Batty Lang- of the weight of the snow. But we, who dwell in a more
ley, printed 1733 ; Tiie British Carpenter, by Francis Price, temperate country, ought to choose such a pitch as may secure
printed 1735; Tlie Gentleman's and Builder's Repository, the building, and be ofa handsome form therefore we divide :

by Edward Hoppus, printed 1738 The Builder's Complete

;
the breadth of the roof into four equal parts, and take three,
Assistant, by Batty Langley, printed in 1738; The Builder's which makes the most agreeable pitch for our country, and
and Workman I by Batty Langley, printed in
Treasury, is the foundation for the raising of any manner of roof,
1741 The Builder's Jeicel, by the same author; The Lon-
; whether square or bevel ; as appears in the following designs
don Art of Building, by William Salmon, the third edition, and descriptions."
printed in 1748; The British Architect, by Abraham Swan, "
second edition printed in 1750 ; Designs in Carpentry, by
The manner of framing a floor, with the names of each
the same author, printed in 1759 several pieces of carpentry,
member. (See CARPENTRY, Plate 1. Figure 1.
;

in AComplete Body of Architecture, written by Isaac Ware, "1. The thickness of the wall, and lintel or wall-plate;
published in 1768 The Carpenter's and Joiner's Repository, and if it be in timber-work, then a bressummer.
((' AM FJK IVi'M. Y ,

I'L.ITK I

A T
 CAR 83 CAR
" 2. The summer. "
Figure 4. Of the Italian or
hip roof.
"3. Girders framed into the summer. " A A
" 4. The breadth of the roof, being 20 feet.
Spaces between the joists. "AB The length of the
"5. Joists. sleepers or hips, being 18 feet,
" 6. Trimmers for the which is proportionable to the breadth of the house.
" chimney way. "ED The height of the roof perpendicular.
7. Trimmers for the staircase, or well-hole
well- for the
stairs.
ase, "CD The length of the hip, and the angle which it
maketh upon the diagonal line, which is showed
2." the Design.
by tho
Fiyiire Of piicked line o, from F to c.
" A A The breadth of the house, cantalivers, corniees, "1, 2. The wall and lintels.
and eaves. "'!.
Dragon-beam for the hip to stand on.
"AD The
length of" the raftings and fun-ings, which ought
*
'4. Beam on summer, wherein the dragon-beams are
to be three-fourths of the breadth of tin- house, A A. framed.
"The principal rafters to be cut with a knee (as in the '-.">.
King-piece, or crown-post.
Design) that they may the better support themselves and the '(i. IS; ruts or braces from the crown-post to the hip-
burthen over them, upon the upright of the rafter.
wall, and also "
secure that part from the dripping in of the rain, which 7. Hips, as they make the angle equal to the breadth of
otherwise would happen if the rafters were made straight the IK .use.

and furred. "8. llip>, as they make the angle in the diagonal lines
'
The beams
to the roof, or girder to the
garret floor,
from corner to Corner.
ought to project without the work, a* far as the furring or '!). The additional
length which the hips make upon
shredding, which isthe projeeture of the cornice. the diagonal lines, more than the breadth of the house."
'This manner of framing the roof will be useful from 20 "
Of flat roofs (r.uu'KNTiiv. P/a/c II. Fig. 1.) Within
to 30 feet, or thereabouts. a camber-beam and rafters joggled in, who-e lieth
" weight
1. Ground plate. not chiefly the middle, and may be so made, that, without
in
"2. Girder, or binding interduce, or bressummer.
" hanging up the beam, the principals mav discharge the
3. Beam
to the roof, or girder to the garret floor.
weight; and how drips mav be made to walk on.
"
Principal post, and upright brick wall.
4. '
1. Camber-beam.
"
5. Braces. "2.
" Principals joggled into the camber-beam.
(5. Quarters. "3. The place where the principals are joggled in.
"7. Interduees. "4. Puncheons, or braces.
"
8.
Prick-post, or window-post. "5. Drips to walk on, and may be made wilh the less
"
!'. Jaumcs, or door-posts. current, that the roofmay be made the more pitch, for the
"
JO. King-piece, or joggle-piece. strengthening thereof: and may be made higher or lower,
"II. Struts.
according to the building and discretion of the architect.
'
12. Collar-beam, strut-beam, wind-beam, or top-beam.
'
(5. Battlement."'
"13. Door-head.
" Figure 2. "A flat roof with a crown-post, or king-
14. Principal rafters. 'l!
" piece.
IT).
Fun-ings, or shreddings.
"
1(5. Knds of the lintels and pieces. Figure, 3.-" Of /lie hiproof. Instructions to find the length
" ami back of the hip, no as it may answer the si/le and tlit
Bedding, moulding of the cornice over the windows,
17.
and space between. end of the perpendicular line of the gahle end, the tico
"
18. Knees of the principal rafters, which are to be of one skirts, the side of the roof in piano, or lying in Inli/mtiit
with the hip and gahle end, llie diagonal and perpendicular
piece.
linen being laid dmrn proportional to any breadth or
"19. Purline mortises."
" length, by which the most ingenioun Mat/ nerve himself, and
Figure 3. Design of the gahle end, or roof. Let the whole an ordinary capacity (already acquainted with the use of
Iciigth of the gable end, or roof, A A, be 20 divide the feet, the ruler and compass) mm/ plainly demonstrate all the
same, into four equal parts; take thereof three for the
length parts of a roof, u'/tether syiutre or bevel, above pitch or
of the principal rafter, A n, and vnder /iitrh, In/ lines of proportion, as may appear in the
placing that perpendicular
from the point c, to the point n, beget the length of the Design fallowing :

sleeper A D, which will be 18 feet. And the length of "Suppose the roof 20 feet broad, and in length 30, 40. or
the dormer's principal rafter, from A to E, when laid to its 50 feet, more or less. Let A n c D be the sides and ends of
pitch upon the back of the principals, will reach to the level the said roof, one end to be hipped, the other a gable end ;
line F B, or top of the and this is a draw the lines A B c D the breadth and length of the roof;
principal rafter ; general
rule for all breadths.
'
then draw the gable end ABE,
whose sides or principal
1. Summer, or beam. rafters being three-fourths of the breadth of the house, then
"2. King-piece, crown-post, or joggle-piece. draw the perpendicular line E F, the height of the gable end,
"
3. Braces, or struts. which line is of general use to level the ridge of all roofs;
"4. Principal rafters. and if the other end be hipped, as in the Design, D c o, then
"
5. The sleeper. it serves to find the length of the hip, and the back of the

"6. Purline of the dormer. hip, so that

it
may answer both sides and ends of the roof;
"7. Principal rafter of the dormer. alwavs observing, that the middle of the breadth of the house
" 8.
Single rafter of the dormer, standing on the sleeper is as'i n; then draw the line K N through the centre I,
i.

and purline. which will make right angles to the line F n o, both in r.

"0. Point of the sleeper. bevel and square houses. Then extend the line A B, on both
"10, 11. The thickness of the wall and lintels, or wall- sides to o, being the length of A K, or E B, the length of the
plates." rafters, or three-fourths of the breadth
of the house
principal
 CAR 84 CAR
So will o N and o K make the length of the ridge i F ;
and K D touch the line T D at the nearest distance, and carrv thit
and c N, the two skirts. distance on the diagonal line to the point w then draw the'
;
" To find of the hip. Draw the diagonal line
the length pricked lines M w Q, which will make the back of that
D i and i c, over which the hip is to hang when in its due hip fit for that bevel corner.
" And
place; then take the perpendicular line E F, and place it from this rule serves for all bevel roofs, whether over or
the point to p P. perpendicular to the diagonal or base lines
i under pitch."
D and so is i p and i p, the pitch of the hip, equal "
i nt i i c, ; Figure 5. Of a roof bevel at both ends, and broader at
to the gable end, E F: and when erected, will hang perpen- one end than the other.
"
dicular to the point i then take p D, the hypothenuse of the
;
A n c D. The length and breadth of the house.
"
triangle D and c p, the i r.
hypothenuse
of the triangle c i p, E F a. The length of the rafters, or pitch between
placing them from D to o, and c to o gives the length of the the widest and narrowest ends, about the middle of tin-
hip DOC, and when laid to their pitch, will all meet perpen- house, to stand over the pricked line T T. for the foot F
dicular to the point i. to stand, on the one T, the foot o to stand on the
" To
find the hack of the h!/>, so that it may answer loth other T.
" n
sides and ends of wltethcr square or bevel.
tlie
Lay
roof, n. The point of the two hip ends, when brought to
the ruler from the point L to the point 11, and from the point II their due
place, will be perpendicular to p p, and will
to M, and mark where it cuts the diagonal lines D i and i c at meet the sides i K, I. M, over the points p p.
"
Q Q; then set one foot of the compasses on the point Q, and o. o. o, o. The points of the perpendiculars, and length
extend the other foot to the hip lines D p and c p, at the of the hips, from A n c n.
nearest distance; with that, mark the point R upon the same "
Q, Q, Q, Q. The backs of the hips, or hip-mould to each
diagonal lines; then draw the pricked lines L R n and n R M, corner.
which make the back of the hip for the two corners of that "
R, R, i:, R. The points to find out Q, the point for each
roof. back.
"
This rule serves for all roofs, whether over or under "ss, s s. The lines representing half the breadth of the
pitch." house, parallel to each end.
"
roofs bevel at one end, and square at the
I:
Figure 4. Of T T. Representing the middle of the house.
etui square, and the bevel end hipped. "
other ; the r/n/>/c Notwithstanding the bevel ends, you may place your
"
Suppose the breadth of the roof to be 20 feet, the lenglh beams for your principal rafters to stand on a square, or so
more on one side than on the other, as in the Design. A n c D. near a square as may be, or between both, as from the ends
then draw the gable end, A E B, whose sides, from A to E. and of the pricked lines i K, L M, bringing the outside of (hem
from E to n, are three-fourths of the breadth of the house, or straight under p P, which will be more handsmne for tin-
the length of the principal rafters; then draw the perpendi- house in the inside, although it bevels outward."
cular, K F, the height of the roof from the floor; and. if The foregoing descriptions and diagrams contain all that
kneed, then from the top of the knee, as in the design of a is said on carpentry by Godfrey Richards; we shall now
kneed rafter, before-going. add a few observations.
The sides of the roof, which make the ridge a n i K,
'
to In the explanation of Figure I, Plate I.. CARPENTRY, we
be drawn as described in the foregoing design. have the names of the several timbers which constitute a
11
Divide the breadth of the roof in two equal parts, as floor, and the manner in which they are disposed. In this
F L then take the distance L N, which is the half breadth
Q, explanation, and the plan which accompanies it, we find
of the house, and make it parallel to c Q D, as M L M, and L girders, summers, and bressummers. The summer inns
will be the point whose perpendiculars, o T, will meet the parallel to the front of the building another piece of limber
;

principals, ratters, and hips." is

placed in the front, parallel to, and in the same level with
'
To find the lenijth of each hip, distinct one from the the summer; if the front timber terminate the apertures at
other. Of tlie
longest liips. Draw the diagonal line L c, and their height, and the wall be of brick, this timber is called
take the height of the gable end, E F, and place it perpendi- a lintel ; but if the lower side of the timber do not termi-
cular to L c, at o ; so have you the height of the roof per- nate the windows, it is called a wall-plate. If the front wall

pendicular from o L, equal to E F, the gable end ; and the is constructed of timber- work, then the level
piece of timber
line o c will be the length of the hip-rafter, which will be in the floor, and in the front of the house, is called a bres-

equal to c n, the skirt for that side of the hip. and c p the summer, which in modern carpentry, when employed in the
side of that hip end. same office, still retains that name; and hence the term
To find t/te back of the longest hip, c o. Lay the ruler
'
bressummer signifies a summer in the breast or front of the
from the point M to Q, and mark where it cuts the diagonal building. The use of the summer was to support the ends
line at R; then set the foot of the compasses at the point R, of the adjacent girders; and the bressummer was not only
and extend the other foot till it touch the line c o at the to support the end of the one girder, but to tie the front
nearest distance; then make it touch the diagonal line at s, together. In the present construction of houses, summers
then draw the lines M s Q, which is the hack of the hip for are not employed. In old carpentry, the girders supporting
that corner of the roof. the joistjng were sustained at their ends by the summers and
" To
find the shortest hip. Draw the diagonal L D, and bressummers, lintels, or wall-plates. In modern carpentry,
take E F, the perpendicular of the gable end, as before, and the girders are sustained by opposite walls, upon plates or
place it from L to T, perpendicular to L D; then draw the lintels, and are still used over every extensive bearing to
line T D, which is the length of the hip for that corner, support the joisting.
and is equal to the skirt, D i, and the side of that hip, D p, In modem timber-buildings, and partitions, the same
which, when erected, will meet with the other principals, names are still used for the same things, as in old carpentry,
perpendicular to the point L. wherever the things themselves are employed, except in a
" To
find the back of the hip. Lay the ruler from the few instances, viz., the interdiices are now called interties ;
point Q to the point M, and mark where it cuts the diagonal the middle beam of the roof went by several names, as
line L D, at v extend the compasses from the point v, to
:
collar-beam, strut-beam, wind-beam, or top-beam ; but of
 I) M C
'
II If

zzz: :
 CAR CAR
those names, only that of collar-beam is retained.
At pres- these parallels are continued out to the line c
ent we have no kneed-rafters, then-fore neither furring B, they will
nor divide it into the same number of
equal parts as A c is- and
shredding* are necessary as in Figure 2 the prick-posts are
; if from each of the divisions of this last line
now called jamb-posts, window, or parallels to A c
dour-pott* ; the vertical are drawn, they will divide the line A B into the same num-
timber hanging from the vertical
angle of the roof, and sup- ber of equal parts as A c, or c B, is divided into. This being
porting the principals, wont under the names
formerly of done, continue A c to i, so that A I be equal to sf, anil COIN
king-piece, eronm-post, or jiggle-post ;'but now it retains only thine D n to K. so that K B be likewise
the name of king-post. The nomenclature equal to E f, or A i,
employed in and draw the line i K. Moreover, at the points c and n raise
London and its vicinity is here alluded to. the perpendiculars c x and n o to c n, each of the same
The timbers in the internal ungies, at the length
meeting of the as F. f. or A i, or n K, and draw the line x o.
Lastly, from
two inclined sides of a roof, were called
formerly sl.-epern, the division- of A n, draw parallels to A i (that is, continue the
but nowthey are termed valley-pieces, or valley-rafters, see
parallels drawn from the divisions of the line c it to the line
Fly are 3 in which may be seen also a method of
K) and from the divisions of c n parallels to c x.
;
finding I
Then set
the length of the hip. without
making any plan of the roof. off the
heights or lengths of each of the parallels in the
I'Ltte II. Figures 3. 4. 5. show the manner of
finding the semicircle A E c. upon the
correspondent parallels to \ and i

lengths and backs of the hips, as at present. The discovery c x. and whereat they terminate; and if a lath
stick in nails
of this principle is generously ascribed to Mr. of Lon- be bent round them, so as to touch them all. and a
Pope, pencil
don, by the author now quoted. be niovc.l round the edge of it. the arches A u B and c M B
Thus much f,u- (he work published by Godfrey Richards. will be luiiinl which was required to be done.
;
The carpentry published in Moxon's Mec/ttinical Exer- '
Xott*. The pricked lines in this, and all other examples
cises, contains nothing more than the names and of this kind, show that one parallel line has a relation with
applications
of timbers, which are the same as those described
by Godfrey the other. For example: the lines f K. '/ n. / M. arc all
Richards.
equal to one another ; so that if the three arch. - A n n. A K c,
InThe Art of Sound Building, Mr. Halfpenny shows the and r M n. were raised
perpendicularly upon the lines A n,
methods of tracing the angle-brackets of coves, regular and A and c i>, and a line drawn from n to M. and another from
c.
irregular groins, the common ribs in each return
being of one M to K then would the line M u be parallel to. and directly
;

common height. over the pri'-kod line ///. In like manner, the line K M would
The following specimens will show what has been done be parallel to, and directly over the prieked line /'/.
by I'ndei"
this author, shows how to find the ar.-h for the
lie likewise stand he same of the other parallels and pricked lines in this
I

aperture i.f a window, of a given width and height so as the

figure, and any others of the like nature."
1

angles may be. in vertical

planes, according to legitimate u
Figure *}. ffuving one rr////r <i<i'rn for nn unequal-
principles; but he does not, In any instance, show the method sided groin, to form the other, no that the intersection thereof
of beveling the edge of the angle-ribs, so as to
range with shall produce the angle, or mitre-arch. t hm<i/ perpendi-
ribs fixed in the returns. to i/rmr the cnrt'i'
cularly oi'i'r it.i fia.ie ; anil, inoreorer.
Plufe III. Fiyure 1. '' To ftml /he angle or mitrf-tirucket thereof. Draw the lines A n and n n. and i> c and r A. ea;-h
of a cove. First, draw the base A it of the, regular bracket. equal to one another, to represent the walls from whence the
ami from A draw A n, perpendicular and and arches spring, and on the line A n describe the given arch
equal to it.

draw the line n u, and continue the line n A to c, so that A c A F n. This being done, divide the line A n into any number
be also equal to A n then extending your
;
compasses from of equal parts, from whence raise perpendiculars to A u to
A to B, and setting one
foot in A, with the other describe the touch the arch A F n, and draw the diagonal lines A i> and c.
arch, or quarter of a circle c n, and from the point n draw n F, Then take the line E F, and set it perpendicular to the lines
perpendicular to n B, and equal to D A. or A c, and another A c, A i). c D, c n, B i), from A to o, from A to i. from c to P,
as u E from B, likewise equal to D A, and draw the line F from c to s, from c to i., from D to K. from i> to T. from n to v,
u,
which will be parallel to n This being done, divide A n
n. and from n to M, and from n to z, and draw the straight lilies
into a number of equal parts, not exceeding two inches and o p, i K, s T, L M, and v /.. Now divide the base lines B u, D c,
a half, and through the divisions of them draw lines c A, A u. and it c, each into the same number of equal parts as
parallel
to A c, to touch the arch c n, which continue, out to the A B is divided into, and from the points of division draw
line n B, and this line will be divided likewise into the same L M, and I K.
parallel lines to touch the lines o p, s T, v /,
number of equal parts as A B is. Lastly, from the divisions Then take the lengths of the perpendiculars to A B, drawn to
of the line D B, draw lines parallel to D F, and in each of them, touch the given arch A K B. and set them off in the correspon-
from D B. lay off its respective parallel (from A B to the arch dent parallels drawn from the points of division of the several
B c) and at the points whereat they end, stick small nails, or bases upwards, and the arches n // D, D c c, c q A, A // D, and
pins, and take a thin lath, and bend it round the nails, or pins, c n n, will be described as in the foregoing examples (Figures
observing that it touches them all, and with a pencil, or any- 2 and 3) whose heights x ;/, w v, r '/, g h, and g n, are each
thing else proper to make a mark, describe the arch F n round equal to E F, a-s likewise all the other correspondent heights,
the edges of the lath and this is the arch for the angle or
; from the bases to the curves that arc formed.
mitre bracket." " The arch line
Figure 4. of a large ceiling, or vault,
Figure 3. "If the lesser arch of an irregular groin be supposed to be semicircular, being given : how to form the
a given semicircle, it is required to form a curve of a lesser arch, that shall intersect the side thereof, to
larger one (not.
a semicircle!) KO that the intersection give way for doors or windows, so that their intersection shall
of those two arches shall
beget, or make the arch-line of the angle to hang perpen- produce the groin, to hang perpendicularly over its
base ; at
dicular over its base ; as also to draw that arch-line the of aLw to form the curve-line thereof. First, draw the lines
angle. draw the lines A B and c D, to represent the
First, A B D, D c, and c A, to represent the walls from whence the
B,
walls from whence the arches spring, and draw the line c B, arches spring, and describe the two given semicircular arches
and on the line A c describe the semicircle A E c, and divide A o B, c L D, and in the line B D set off the span of the inter-
A c into any number of equal parts, from whence draw paral- secting arch from v to t. This being done, set off the height
lel lines to c D, to touch or come to the arch A E
you design to raise the lesser arch f z t from g
in the line A. B,
c, and if
 CAR 86 CAli

perpendicularly to touch the arch in h, and from v to r, and perpendicular A F. Then take E i, in No. 1, and set it from
t to it, and draw the line r in the point z, and A to B, No. 2, and F i from A to c. This being done, take the
it, which halve

draw the line z y, parallel to v r, or t it. Then strain a line, semi-diameter B E, orE c, No. 1. and set it from A to D, No. 2.
or lay a straight rule from h through g, towards x ; as also Also, take A B, or c D, and set it from B to E, and draw the
from z through y, towards .r, and these two lines will cut one line E c, which set in the line E H, from F to g. Again, take
another at x, from whence to the points v and /, draw the the width of the flat surface of the arch A B, or c D, and set
lines x v and x t. Now set off;/ h perpendicular to x t from it in the line E u, from K to 7, and divide the remainder from

x to w, and from t to s, and draw the line s w, and divide g B 7 to g, into seven equal parts. Also, divide the arch B K, into
into any number of equal parts at pleasure from the divisions seven equal parts. Then take K 1, in the line E u, between
of which, draw perpendiculars to </ n, to touch the arch A o B your compasses, and setting one foot in 1, with the other
between the points n and h. and divide v y and y t, the halves strike the arch 1 at pleasure then take K 2. and strike the arch
:

of the base v t, each into the. same number of equal parts as 2 also take K 8. K-4, K 5, and K 0. severally, and strike the
:

g B, is divided into as likewise the base x t, and from th.;

: arches 3, 4, 5. and 0. When this is done, open your com-
points of division draw paru!K>l lines to touch the lines u r passes, and divide from A to g. keeping the points of them on
and s This being done, take the lengths of the lines that
'. those arches, till you have gotten seven equal distance* from
were drawn from the points of division of g B, perpendicu- A to g ; at the points of which, if nails be stuck in, and a thin
larly to touch the part \\ li of the. arch A o B, and set them off rule be bent round them from A to g along the edge, thereof
in the correspondent parallels from // v to z r, and from y t to the arch A g may be drawn. And in like manner may the
z u; as likewise from x t to ID s. Then, if at the extent of arch D g be drawn."
each line, as you set it oft' in the parallels, you stick in nails, This description is so far intelligible, that we perfectly
as in the foregoing examples, and bend a thin rule about them, understand his geometrical process; but it is so void of truth,
you will describe the sought arches v z I and w t, whereof v that no geometrical reasoning can be applied, unless it were
z t is the true intersecting arch, and w t the curve line of the to prove the contrary of his assertion the arch which would :

groin that is correspondent thereto. be required to stand perpendicularly over such a plan upon
" After the z and k p m a semicircular centre, would not be in the same plane, which
very same manner the arches k
are drawn." is the case with the one he has found, and asserted to be
In his explanations of the diagrams, he is tolerably intelli- right.
gent ; but he has departed from truth and reason in the two of niches for plastering, he
In the construction of the ribs

following problems: is
extremely obscure, and takes only the
most common and
" The
arch of a round tower, or any other circular build- easy cases such as might occur to every one. even to those
;

ing, beinf/ given, wherein a semicircular window is to stand, who are not much in the habit of thinking, as the reader will
how to Jind a centre, so that the mason or bricklayer shall observe in the following quotations :

twin their arches thereon without crippling them. (See Figure 7. How to form a semicircular niche with ribs,
':

Plate III. Figure 5.) as is usual when it is to be plastered. First, describe the
First, draw the arch A F K, from the centre E, to represent semicircular plate A c 11, as also the semicircular front rib
'

the arch line of the wall, and set the width of the window A D u, equal to it, and fix the plate A c B level in the place
from D to c, which halve at u, and draw the line L M, which where it is to continue, and upon it set the front rib Ann
halveatx; from whence describe the semicircle L o M. This perpendicular on A B. This being done, describe the quad-
being done, divide the semi-diameter L N into any number of rantal ribs D c, i> E, D F, n G. and D u, each equal to A D or B D,

equal parts, from the division of which, draw parallel lines and place them about 8^ inches from one another, on the
so as to meet in one point,
to o N, the arch of the quadrant, which parallels continue out plate A c n, as at c, E. F, o, and H,
to divide the arch F c into the same number of parts as L N at i>, on the crown of the front rib A D B ; and thus is one
is and from the points of division in the arch F c draw per-
;
half of the work finished. And after the same manner may
pendiculars to the parallels, each equal in length to the cor- the other be done."
respondent parallel of the quadrant L o and from the points ; Figure 8." How to form an elliptical niche, with ribs
of the divisions of the line H c (made by continuing out of for plastering. First, describe Figure 8, No. 1
and 2, k n m
each of the aforesaid parallels) draw right lines to the extreme being a semi-ellipsis, representing the plates
whereon the ribs
points of the aforesaid perpendiculars, as from o to H. This stand, and being equal to A D B, or A
e B. The pricked lines
being done, if the line o H be laid off in the parallel o N, L H, L o, Lp, L q, L r, and L m, represent the base lines of the ribs
eontinued out from u to i, and the rest of these lines last e D. /D, g D, h D, i n, and B D ; so likewise do the lines s t, s u,

drawn be laid off in the respective continuations of the s v,'e w, RX, and sy; and the perpendiculars a t, b u, c v, d m,
extreme points of these lines being joined, e x, and fy, do represent the rising of the ribs e D,/D, g D,
parallels, the will
form the curve ci which, when set in its due position, in length to c D
;
will /(
D, i D, and b D, which is equal observing ;

hang perpendicular over the arch c F, having its points coin- that within those lines the different arch of each rib is to be
of a circle,
ciding with the extremities of the perpendiculars drawn from described, viz., the arch s n is a quadrant, haymg
the extremities of the perpendiculars drawn from the divisions t for its centre, and is equal to the arch of the rib
e D The :

of the arch c F." lines s u, s z, equal to z b, b u, are the semi-transverse and

The centre whereon the arch of a bow-window whose arch s b, is equal to
conjugate axes of a semi-ellipsis,
'
6.
Figure
is turned being given, how to Jind another centre that shall the arch of the rib f which may be struck either with a
D,
answer parallel to it, according to (he upper edge of the trammel, or by the intersection of lines. Moreover, the lines

surface of the arch. First, describe the arch B K c, according 8 z, 8 v , equal to vare the semi-transverse and conjugate
c, c z,
to the directions laid down in the last problem, and set the axes of a semi-ellipsis, whose arch is equal to the arch of the
width of he flat surface of the arch from B to A, and from c
l rib g D ; and so of the rest.
"
to D ; and draw the lines A D, B c, and halve them at F and E, Now, having the ribs all ready, set the front rib, A D B
from whence draw a perpendicular of a length at pleasure to A e B, as at A B, and fix the feet
perpendicular on the plate
H. Then in any convenient place (Figure (5, No. 2) draw a of the short ribs on the plate A c B, as at e,f. g, h. i, which
line at pleasure, as from A to o, and from A draw to A G the and their points
correspond with the points , o, p, q, r,
i'i..\rt: in .
 CAR 87 CAR
a, 6, c, d, to the crown of the front rib at D and thus
e, ; prepare your timber, in having it cut into proper scantlings,
may you finish your work." which shall be hereafter noted.
We now proceed to Smith's Carpenter's Companion, and "
You are to prepare for lintelings and bond-timbers ; for
though he presents nothing new in geometrical principles, lintels over doors or windows, stuff of five inches thick and
his observations are very judicious and worthy of transcrip- seven broad, and it is a slight way of building to put in
any
tion ; and his practical remarks,
though perhaps objectionable of less scantling ; as for door-cases their manner of making,
in a i'ew instances, are more to the
purpose of a general and scantlings of stufT, it is needless to speak of; it is the
connected detail of what should be done in the constructive best way to have them put in when the foundations are
part of carpentry, and more systematic, than those of most brought up high enough for them. Bond-timbers should
other writers ; though the examples and designs which he be dovetailed at the angles of the building and cross walls.
shows are not generally the best. He begins his introduc- And here note, that it is a durable, though expensive way,
tion thus :
to have all fir timber, which is laid in the walls of the build-
"Theusefulness of carpenter's work in building, and the
ing, to be pitched with pitch and grease mixed together the ;

little notice taken of it by authors who have treated of

quantity of grease, one pound to four pounds of pitch. All
architecture, and the few there be that rightly understand it, these things are the care of the carpenter.
prompted me to write the following treatise. "
Bond-timbers should be four or five inches thick for
"
Carpenter's work is one of the most valuable branches cross walls, and in the angles of a building, six or seven
of architecture ; it was contemporary with the first ages of inches, and proportionally broad ; six or eight feet long in
the world ; and with the knowledge of this art, Noah closely each wall ; and it would not be amiss to place them six or
and firmly connected those timbers in the ark, which were eight feet distant all the height of the building, in every
so nicely wrought, that they not only kept the water from
angle and cross wall; these, if a building be on an infirm
penetrating into it, but were proof against the tempest and foundation, cause the whole to settle together, and prevent
the rolling billows, when, in its womb, it carried all the the cracks and fractures which happen, it this be neglected.
"
tenants of the earth and air. We come now to the floors, in which these things are
"Those naval preparations, through all ages of the world, to be observed the magnitude of the room, the manner of
as well as those stupendous temples and edifices, erected in framing, and the scantlings of the timber. For the first,
all countries, demonstrate the perfection of this art. The you are to observe to lay the girders always the shortest
innumerable floating buildings, which roll from one country way, and not to have a joist at any time exceeding twelve
to another, through tempestuous storms, tossed from the feet in length.
mountain's height to the depths of the ocean, without injuring " The first common method of framing where
floors, is
the vessel, evidently show the vast use and judgment of the joists are framed flush with the top of the girder."
carpenter's work. to come against chimneys and
(^Tlie trimming-joists supposed
" But
as that branch of it which relates to templar or stairs, are always thicker t/ian common joist*, being weakened
" The
domul uses, is the subject of this work, I shall only treat of l>ij mortis/in/.) scantling of joists, when a floor is framed
its usefulness in them ; and may venture to affirm that in this manner, ought to be as folio wet h :

carpenter's work is the chief tie and connection of a building,

supplying the ligaments which bind the walls together. Cominou Juists.
The bond-timbers, which strengthen and tie the angles
'

of a building, and prevent its separating, is the work of the

carpenter. Lintellng over doors and windows, with other
dischargements of weight, it is his care to perform.
" Bond
timbers in cross walls, when settlements happen,
if they are well applied,
prevent the cracking of the walls,
for they keep the whole together, and every part scttlfth

alike, which wJuld fill the buildings with gaps and chasms
if neglected.
'
Next for the floors ; the rightly framing them, by trussing
the girders, by placing them on joists, so that they come
near no funnels of chimneys ; the manner of tenanting,
tusking, framing of timbers for chimneys, stairs, &c. 1
say,
allthese it is the business of the carpenter to see carefully
performed.
"
Partitions of timber, their manner of trussing to prevent
cracking, settlements, &c., and the discharge of weight of
girders, beams, or cross walls, is carpenter's work ; as is,
likewise, the framing of timber bridges.
" Roof's of various
sorts, for common houses, large edifices,
or churches, their manner of framing, the height of their
pitch, their strength, usefulness, &c., with the various manner
ofperforming all these works, is the subject of this treatise,
which I have rendered intelligible to every capacity, by
designs of several sorts, and have described them in such
a manner, as will render the work useful to carpenters;
particularly to those who are unacquainted with the
manner
of performing these operations of framing.
"The first thing which the carpenter must consider, for
the carrying on a building, is the plan, in which you are to
 CAR 88 CAR
may be placed 12 or 14 inches distant, their scantling 3 and
4, or 3^ and 5, their bearing being only from binding-joist
to joist, which is 3 feet, or 3 feet six inches, and these are
laid even with the top of the girder, to receive the boarding,
We come now to speak of girders ;
and first, for their
scantling, take these proportions :

ft. long.
 '('A R I' I
1
', >'T R.Y.

i. fiy.2.

Fiy. S.

J
 CAK 89 CAR
" N.B. The purlins are those pieces into which the small angle-tie and dragon. piece are fixed above the plates, which
rafters are tenanted,and they arc tenanted into the principal position not only allows a much firmer hold one to another,
rafter. Length of purlins is generally from six to eleven feet, but also a much better support for the hip-rafter to stand
not exceeding that length. upon.
" Small rafters their scantlings two inches and a half, and
:
Figure 4, represents four different methods, shown bv him,
four inches; three inches, and four inches and a half; and for naked flooring. " The first method of framing is that
three inches and a half, and live inches to the marked A, where the joists are framed flu-.li with the top of
; according
magnitude of the roof and length of the rafters. Small the girder; the two cross joists, marked o and A, are called
rafters should not exceed seven feet in length in a purlined trimming-joists ; that marked a is supposed to come against
roof; if it happen that the length of the principal be above a chimney that marked b is the stairs."
;
Here he shows
fifteen feet, it is best to put in two tier of
purlins in the that the joists a and 6, should be thicker than the common
length of the .rafter." joists, because of the mortising ; but with equal reason he
In respect to the construction of roofs for coves, he has the should have allowed the joists c, d, e, into which the joists a
" The use
following observations : of coving a room of con- and b are framed, to have also been stronger; for one mortise
siderable height, is, first, the making of it much lighter tlian in the middle of a beam will weaken the beam as much as if
it would otherwise be, if level in the
ceiling; the rays of it had been cut full of mortises. He gives no name to the
light in a cove are reflected back again into the room, which joists c, d, e, which should have been named, in order to trans-
would be otherwise lost and confused in a roof with a flat fer the idea from one to another, without circumlocution, or

ceiling. having recourse to description. His next manner of framing

"
Likewise, all rooms with circular roofs or ceilings are floors is that shown at n. "The six joists marked b are the
more commodious and useful for entertainment, for music, binding-joists framed flush with the under side of the girder,
&e. The angles of incidence are always equal to those of and about three or four inches below the top of the girder, to
reflection ; so the undulation of sounds flying on any cove or receive the bridgings, which are those marked m
in the floor,

spherical part of a building, reverberate on the audience and ;

and which lie across the binding-joists,'' at c. In the other
if
spherical, no part of the sphere can receive the vibration, compartment, D, are shown the ceiling-joists, n, the bridgings
but it will return in the same direction from whence the being supposed to be removed for the purpose of showing
undulation first began. The reflecting rays of light, and the them.
reverberation of sounds, proceed from the same cause, and (5, 7, 8,
Fipiire* 5, he says, show the manner of tenoning
from incidents naturally afl'ecting the eve and the ear." binding-joists, the tenons being generally made double.
the,

It may be proper here to state, that

though the reflection Figures 9. 10, 11, 12, he observes, are common tenoning,
of sound is analagous to that of the rays of light, the laws which seems to imply a less sufficient method than the former.
and modifications by which sound is propagated to the ear, These last tour examples, with the single tenons on the end
are less perfectly understood : it
may, however, be observed, of each, are much to be preferred to the double ones on the
that in vaulted apartments, it is necessary to reduce the pitch ends of Figures 5, t>, 7, 8, which are not only difficult to
if the voice, and to speak slowly and distinctly. The best execute, but are calculated to weaken the mortised piece,
wrkers recommend the ceilings of theatres to be arched, as which is to receive them, bv the slanting shoulders of the
has been practised in some of the most distinguished edifices tenons ; his observation is the very reverse of what is now
" the
of this kind in Europe. asserted, as he observes, in page 17 of his work,
This author likewise gives the method of finding the strongest way being double tenanting and tusking, as is shown
length of hips, both with and without a plan, as shown by in the binding-joists."

Godfrey Richards, at the end of his Translation of the First fit/tires 13, 14, If), and 1C, are exhibited in the third plate
Book of J'u/ladio. of his work, but he does not describe them we suppose them
;

The work of Mr. Smith contain*, in all, thirty-three plates to show the method of lengthening beams. The two methods,
of carpentry, arranged in the same order as he has treated Figures 15 and 1C, are extravagant ideas, being not only
the subject. Of these, twenty are plates of roofs, some of but weak as a tie, and incapable of making
difficult to execute,
which are tolerably good examples, and at the end are five a sufficient resistance to a longitudinal strain.
plates of timber bridges. His methods of joining-work are Figures 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, are various
shown in the following descriptions and their corresponding methods which he shows for trussing girders. He observes,
diagrams. that the trussing pieces or cores are let half into each flitch,
Plate IV. shows his method of cocking beams down upon and the scantlings of these pieces to be about 4J or 5 inches
the wall-plates ; Figure 1, by two dovetails, and Figure 2, by wide, and 4 inches thick. Figure 18, he says, "is another
which the girder through, and driving
a
three dovetails. Dovetailing is a very bad method at the way, is by cutting
when
best ; for, when the taper is small, the shrinking of the wedge against the ends of the trusses, as the wedge d ;
timber allows the beam to be drawn out of the socket in these are thus prepared, bolt them together with iron bolts
proportion to the quantity to which it is reduced in its and keys, or, much rather, a screw at the end of the bolt."
breadth. The fewer the number of dovetails in the breadth, This method, though not the best, is certainly a tolerable
the weaker will the end of the beam be, or otherwise they approximation to what may be called good. He does not
must hvae less taper; and if the number of dovetails are mention how the pieces are to be tightened in Figure 17.
a, a,

increased, the parts of them formed on the end of the beam He observes, that " some in trussing girders, make use of
other trusses," as in Figures 20 and 21. These hardly de-
will be apt to split off. But, in modern Carpentry, the
beam can never be drawn from the wall-plate, as the abutting serve comment, being the weakest forms that can be con-
parts are in a plane perpendicular to the length of the
ceived. The trussed girders, represented by Figures 24 and
beams. 25, he claims as his invention, with
one inverted arch, which
Figure 3, shows his method of framing wall-plates at the he proposes to be of iron. Nothing could be more unmean-
angles, with the diagonal and dragon pieces, where all
the ing than these examples.
timbers appear to be let in flush with each other. This The observation which he makes in respect to Figure 24,

mode is much inferior to the present practice, where both the is void of principle, and contrary to mechanical strength ;
12
 CAR 90 CAR
"
his words The upper arched one I take to be of great
are, making the tenon or the mortise one-fourth of the breadth of
strength, though the trusses are inverted ; for the pressure the whole, and keeping the mortise and tenon in the
being upon an arch whose hutment is good, 1 think a great middle.
weight can no way occasion the bending of the girder." Figure 13. No. 1 and 2, another mode for the same
pur-
We come now to the British
Carpenter. Though Air. pose, not much in request at the present time.
Price's order of treating his work is not so regular as the Figure 14. No. 1 and 2, the manner of joining the binding-
method adopted by Smith, his descriptions and observations joists and girders
in floors, the same as used in the
present
are very correct ; and, with the exception of a few references, time, with a tusk or sloping shoulder, and the double resist-
there is hardly anything wrong. ance or hutment.
"
This author begins with the scarfing of beams, as repre- Figure 15. No. 1 is called a bridging-floor, as being
sented in Plate V. of our Work, Figures 1, 2, 8, 4, 5, 6. He framed with a binding or strong joist in every three or four
says that the methods shown by the diagrams 3, 4, 5, 6, are feet distance, and flush to the bottom of the
girder, so that
the strongest; perhaps in consequence of their being tabled when the house is covered in, you pin down your bridgings
into one another; and that represented by Figure 6, bisthis thereon, and flush with the top of your girder and this is the ;

property, that the pieces may be put together without any best way of carcase-flooring." The section of this floor taken
waste at the ends ; he observe*, that it is not his intention to transversely across the binding-joists is shown at No. 2,
limit the lengths of these scarfings, but only to show the man- Figure 15. Mr. Price observes, that the best way to lay
"
ner of tabling the pieces together he might also have said,
:
girders, is not to lay them over doors or windows, nor too

that though nothing determinate with regard to the lengths near chimneys; and, at the same time, to have the boards lie
of scarfings could be done, the greater the extent of the all oneway ;" and hence the oblique position of the girder, as

joint in the direction of the fibres of the beam, the more will here represented, is occasioned
by the fireplace.
it be
disposed to resist separation, though there will be a Figure 16. No. 1, a carcase-floor with single joists, or
greater waste of timber. Those represented by Price are without bridging-joists. These are framed flush with the
" and have
much superior to those in Smith's work. top of the girder, every third or fourth joist the
He then describes the method of trussing girders of greater depth of the girder, and those between more shallow." No. 2
extent than 24 feet, as we have shown in Figures 7 and 8 ;
shows the ends of the joists, and the ceiling-joists framed
and proposes that the pieces which are to constitute the core into the deep joists. No. 3, the sides of the deep joists, with
be made of good dry straight-grained English oak, 4 inches the pulley-mortises, in order to receive the ceiling-joists.
by 3. or by(5 4, a^ the strength may require, and let half into Mr. Price then proceeds to lay down the sides of roofs in
each piece the pieces of the core being inserted in the one
; piano, and shows the backings of the hips in the same man-
half, so as to abut firmly at the. ends, and the two flitches put ner as has been detailed by Godfrey Richards in the former
together so that the internal braces may abut firmly at the part of this article, "according to Pope's principle.
ends of the other Hitch, and then bolted together, will com- We
shall here transcribe one of his examples, in which he

plete, the girder; he prefers that

of Figure 8, to Figure 7, as attempts to show, for the first time, a method for finding the
being divided into three parts, it raises the pitch of the braces, joints of purlins upon hip-rafters: his process, which is as
and though the middle part is left untmssed, it may be looked follows, is diagram and explanation are both
tedious ;
his

upon as mi inflexible solid, as the proportion of the breadth obscure and defective, but show some novelty of form and
to the length is reduced much nearer to a ratio of equality geometrical skill in lines.
" Admit
the plan (Plate VI., Figure 1, No. 1) was required
than the dimensions of the whole beam, the depth being the
same in both cases. The flitches, he observes, may be mor- to be enclosed with a hipped roof: first, find the middle of
tised through at the lower end of each truss, and the core it, as/; then draw the bases of your several hips, as a f, b f,
tightened by wedges driven therein. Girders constructed in cf, df, and e f; resolve on some pitch or height, as in No. 2,
the manner of these. two examples are much better calculated at/</ ; to this section bring all the bases of
your respective
to perform their office, than those before given by Smith, hips, as the letters of reference show you the ;
this gives
which are void of every principle of mechanical science. length of each respective hip; therefore, from the section
This author then speaks of the method taught by Albert!, No. 2, you describe the skirts round the plan No. 1, as a bg,
as follows: "Take two pieces or flitches, being well dried, beg, caff, deg, and e a g, which form the roof required.
"
and turn the but end of the one to the top end of the other, To find the back of any hip, do thus Draw a line at :

without trussing at all, and bolt or screw them together." pleasure, crossing the base of the hips at right angles, as the
Mr. Price then proceeds to the various joints in roofing, as line h i, which crosses the base of the hip cf ; observe where
in Figure 9, which represents the junctions of the struts and it passes through the sides of the plan ; on the base line of

this hip, raise its section from No. 1, as c gf; lastly, place
principals with a king-post.
Figure 10, is another mode, which he uses where the one foot of your compasses in the intersection, as at y ; open
breadth of the bottom of the truss-post will not allow a right- the other foot, till it touch the hip eg at its nearest distance ;
cross the base, as at k ; so is
angled abutment to the direction of the strut he makes the: draw a small section till it

angle on the end of the tenon, with good reason, equal to the h kk i the back of that hip ; and is the most exact, and easiest
angle made by the shoulder, but on the contrary side, so that method that ever wan delivered for thin purpose; the shadowed
the two abutments may contract each other's efforts in moving is the section of the supposed timber the hip is
part, o,
the strut up or down on the side of the said post. shaped out of, being cut off at right angles with its side and
Figure 11, represents his method of forming the end of the back. What is said of this explains the hip a f, whose back
tie-beam and lower end of the principal, so as to forma joint is I m n, and its section p is shaped so as to have the purlin

with double mortise and tenon, which, he says, presents come square against it ;
the letters of reference show the

greater resistance than when made with single mortise and rest."
" To
tenon. find the side joint of a purlin, (in case the hip be
Figure 12. No. 1 and 2, show the proportion which the not shaped as above) so as to cut it by a templet, supposing
mortise or tenon ought to have to the breadth of the there be no room, or occasion to frame it into the hip. For
stuff, either for the joints of roofs or truss partitions, by example, take any two hips from the plan No. 1, as e/and
 K r

fir/ I.

/if/// .'.V .I".'

Fig a N"J,

u
 PLATE vi.

Tiff. 4.

Fig. 5

\
 CAR 01 CAR
af, which to keep from confusion is transferred as to No. 3, the seat of the part of the roof; describe the section c d e as
and admit the plan of the purlin to be o p ; first, raise the before draw c perpendicular to d e, cutting J e mf; from
:
f
sections of the hips from No. 2, as e fy and a fy, as the letters c d cut of c y equal to c f; parallel to A D draw k f. cutting
show ; then raise perpendiculars at o and p to the back of A c and D c in k and I ; likewise draw h i parallel to A B ;
the hips, as o q and p r ; lastly, draw a line from the point 7, perpendicular to X- / draw k m
and / M, cutting h i at and m
and at right angles from the back of the hip e g (as it is so n ; and join c m
and c n ; then will the angles at and n m
near to a square, or else it should be drawn from the back of of the triangle c m n be those required for forming the end
a rafter standing at right angles with the sides of the plan) of the purlin, in order to form a junction with the hip-rafter.
observe where it cuts the base line, as at * ; draw the line t .v We now return to Mr. Price, who. in laving down the
parallel to the purlin
:
lastly, draw the line t r. From all framing of root's in piano, or in lodgement, begins thus:
"
which you take the templet Q in T (see No. 4) in the follow- Kverv man who frames roofs, does first piece his plates,
the line n w in No. 3 at right angles
ing manner: Draw cock or dovetail down his beams on the said plates, and pre-
from the side a e. which transfer to No. 4. as u ir ; take from pare pieces on which his hips are to stand ; as appears in
No. 3 the distances s and n t, and tran-fcr them to No. 4: this plan Q. at y and z."
(See Figure 2.)
"
take also the distances j- o and .r /> in No. 3. and transfer Then he frames his principals, as it, and likewise his
them to No. 4 take also the distances
; q in No. :>, and
.\
hips, as s. into pieces prepared for them to stand on ; and
transfer to No. 4, as o ; lastly, lake from No. 3 the dis-
.v
although all these respectively are framed for the generality
tances >, and transfer to No. 4. as / p ; so that ij is the
I. on the floor, and when in practice is the best way, they are
templet to cut the side, and the skirt r a g is the templet to here placed by themselves to avoid confusion.
"
cut the back. 1 think any farther explanation needless, be- I
hope the pricked lines are enough to show that the
cause by a little serious inspection, the reader may see that skirl* T, v, w. x, are laid out agreeably to the plan Q ; and in
all the lines necessary to be understood in a root* are con- which are shown that one purlin lies above the strut, and the
tained in this Plate. other below it ;
for if they were all to lie in a right line, in
parts of a roof may lie cut by templets, cuts the stuff to pieces so as to weaken it
'
'1 hat is, all the the first it
place
as these lines, and the explanations of them, do direct; and still more, and at the same time you lose your pinning.
"
although 1 have shown but one example for the cutting of Here is shown a method to turn up your hips without
any purlin that comes against a hip, as explained in k /.
//
backing at all; and is thus: your hips being tirst framed

(figure 1, No. 1) 1 hope it will be sufficient, because the into the pieces they are to stand on. take a broad board, or
met In >d in /, ;/;, n, cuts oll'all such difficulties, and is equally small panel, lay it on the place where your respective hip
strong." stands, and there mortise it as if it was your beam ;
cut oil'

In this description, he is unintelligible, vague, and errone- the corners of it. so as to make its angles agreeable to your
ous : there is a certain tendency towards the principle, but plan, whether square or bevel lastly, when you come to ;

he loses sight of it. lie is negligent in directing his reader turn up your hip in framing the skirts, slip this mould, as Y,
then give it a
to raise perpendiculars at o and p, the bases of the two hip- upon the tenon at the foot of your hip, and
rafters, instead of raising a section at right angles to the base tack with a nail, and the angles" of that board will turn up
and to the wall-plate ae. He tells us to draw the line u w
'
a hip as desired, and is far preferable to any other method
in 8 (which ishere No. 3) at right angles from the side a r. whatever.
'
"
which transfer to T (or No. 4) as w but he makes no use
;
Hut because sometimes buildings must be level, and
of this line, which is the line on which the width of the tem- the beams to be laid so, to miss some
necessity requires
" Take
plet should have
been extended. -Then he says : chimney or window; therefore let A (Figure 3) represent
from s (No. 3) the distances u s and u /, and transfer them a bevel plan, whose beams also lie bevel at the time of
half the beam that the
to T (No. 4) ; take also the distances x o and x p in 8 (No. 3), framing; and that is just as much as
and transfer them to T (No. 4);" but he does not show how are the same way
rafter stands on; the skirts B, c, i>, E,
the distance between the lines p o and t s are obtained in T shown as before.
saying that a man
"
(No. 4) ; and thus, after a long and tedious description, ho I
hope it will not be taken ill, my
leaves the construction vague, and obtains nothing but uncer- must be deprived of sense, who would run into almost endless

tainty. Weshall here complete what he has unsuccessfully trouble of cutting his timbers all bevel, unless some unavoid-
attempted. able necessity require it, but rather use. the method I propose
Let the same plan a f t be laid down at No. 5, as at No. 3 ; in plate E." (That is, Figure ii of this article.)
draw / w perpendicular, and / y parallel to a e ; make /' g The method of laying roofs in piano is first shown by
equal to the height of the roof, and join g w ; let p o be the Price. seems to have been much practised in his time,
It
the work in this way.
place of
the purlin, parallel to a e, meeting the bases of the and indeed till
lately; but to perform
utmost wire of the
hips at o and p ; produce p o to meet w y at q ; draw q u requires the most ample space, and the
his timbers; without this it will be
perpendicular to w 17, meeting fw at u ; parallel to a c, draw
in placing
carpenter
with exactness. In the
t n *,
meeting the bases/a and/0 of the hips at t and s. difficult tobring the work together
In No. 6, draw u x, which make equal to u q, No. 5 ; timbers be all cut to their lengths
present practice, the may
draw TUB and p x o perpendicular to u x ; make u s, v T, and angles before they are applied to their places, and then
on the ground before they are
x o, x p, respectively to u s, u t, x o, x p, and join T p and they may be fitted together
6 o ; then p o 8 T is the templet required, or any parallel por- raised on the building.
In roofing, his rules for finding the pitch of
the rafters
tion of its breadth.
The reader will observe that this is found by much fewer for different coverings, are these (page 15
of his work) :

lines; and there is no occasion for raising the sections of the

"
A leaden covering requires theheight two-eighths or one-
three-
hips, but only the section of the rafter at right angles to the fourth of the breadth of the beam; a pantile covering,
or one-half, which brings
wall-plate. eighths; and plain tiles, four-eighths
No. 7 is another invention of the author of this Dictionary, the vertical angle of the roof to a square."
founded upon the same principle as No. 5 and 6 ; but the But in the following plate, n, of his work, he is not very
which are to the
construction in confined to one diagram, thus Let A n r be
: consistent; he delivers different rules,
 CAR 92 CAR
following purpose : divide the breadth into six equal parts ribs are equal. Observe, as at the corners of the purlin, ,

for pantiles, into seven for slates, and i;ito eight for plain from which the perpendiculars are let fall to the plan B.
tiles ; then in each of these the whole number, wanting two, So that your purlin being first cut out to the thickness re-
will be the height of the roof; that is, pantile , slates |, quired, as appears in e, and also to the sweep f ; so that k
and plain tiles -|, of the breadth of the beam." is the mould for the bottom, and /the mould for the
top by ;

The following observations, with respect to the trusses of which, and the lines for the corners of the said purlin e, the
roofs, are
very judicious : same may be truly shaped and squared.
" "
That the less in number the divisions or pieces are, that N.B. This particular ought to be well digested, it being
compose each truss, the stronger it is for even the shrinking;
a principal observation in a circular roof.
"
of the, wood will let a well-framed truss sag or drop in pro- From the purlin </, in the section A, perpendiculars
cess of time ;
for which reason I cannot help recommending are dropped to the plan B in which it appears that h
;

English oak, particularly for king-posts." He recommends is the mould for the
top, and i the mould for the bottom;
" for this reason so may this be squared, which completes the performance.
square bolts in preference to round ones; :

if you use a round bolt, it must follow the auger, and cannot As to other particulars, due inspection will explain them.
be helped ; by this helping the auger-hole, that is, taking If any should say, a dome cannot be done so safe without
off the corners of the wood, you may draw a strap exceed- a cavity as usual, let them view St. Stephen's, Walbmok,

ingly close, and at the same time it embraces the grain of Stock's-market, built by that great architect, Sir Christopher
the wood in a much firmer manner than a round one can Wren."
possibly do." With respect to strapping, he observes li If : method of covering polygonal buildings:
lie then shows the
it be
objected that there is too much trust reposed on the Plate VII. Figure 2. " Let A be the plan, the upper part
iron-work, may it not be asked, if any common strap at the of which is half an octagon. It is observable that a circular
bottom of a king-post was ever known to break by continual roof, as B, should extend no farther than the upright of its
support, and there made so as to carry off the water whereas
1

pressure ? Witness the straps in a theatre, to which is ti.xed ;

a prodigious weight." With respect to timbers, he says, an ogee roof, as c, may extend to the extremity of the cor-
"
If purlins are used, they ought to be agreeable in number nice, without injury to its strength, or offence to the eye of
"
to their supports;" but if bridged, need not be regarded." the most curious also, a hollow roof, as D, may extend to
:

The following designs, which he shows for tlie fronts of the extremity of the cornice.
"
buildings, which am required to have the ground story open, It
appears to me, that many angles of a cnpo'a give it
and supported with story -posts, may be useful to some: beauty ; therefore the sweep E (F!;/ tire 2) is a regular curve,
"
In Fiytn-e 4, is shown the manner of a timber front, the base line / k being taken from the angle of the octagon
supposed to be open underneath, in form of an arcade. And in the
plan A, as at I k. This curve, E, is divided into a
for such open fronts, tlie foundation should be laid on reversed number of equal parts, in order to trace the common rib, F,
arches, which will strengthen it very much; by this means, from the said angular rib, E :
observe, in A, the base of the
the ground bears between one post or pillar and the other, common rib, f I, which is
placed in F, as from Itof; con-
as well as under the same. tinue the perpendicular, /, at pleasure; take the base I k in
E, on which are the perpendiculars dropped from the curve,
'
If on it you would have brickwork, or even stone, then

support the bressummer, as is shown in Figure 5, which and observe to place that distance, k I in E, from/in F, to
manner of framing renders it as strong between the posts any part where it cuts the perpendicular / in F, as at m;
or pillars as it is directly on the same, and this seems suffi- from these divisions raise perpendiculars, so by continuing
cient to explain proper bearings for partitions." the base lines from the divisions in E, to these perpendiculars
Mr. Price then proceeds to circular domes, and in their in F, their intersection or meeting is a curve, or sweep,
construction shows, for the time, how the purlins are to
first exactly agreeable, and which, indeed, may serve as a standard
be squared ; his description is as follows : rule to trace any moulding whatever.
" "
Of what has hitherto been described, nothing appears so To back the said angle-bracket, D, observe to describe
beautiful when done, as domes or circular roofs ; and, as for the thickness of it on your plan, as in A at , which shows
as I can perceive, nothing has appeared so difficult in doing, how much your mould must be shifted, as may appear in D.
therefore it will be
proper to speak something of them." This also may be observed to be a general rule for the back-
"
Plate VII. Figure 1. Let D represent a plan, in which ing of any bracket."
let 4, 4, 4, be the plate on the supposed wall and let c, c, r, ;
These methods arc certainly founded on truth, but his
be the kirb on which stands a lantern, or cupola ; also let diagrams are not laid down in the most obvious way ; being
a, </,represent the principal ribs.
,
so scattered as not only to be tiresome to the eye, but to
From
the plan B make the section A ; in which the kirb occasion also a long and tedious description. He then pro-
or plate h should be in two thicknesses ; as also that of c ; ceeds with the centerings of groins, as follows :

by which it is made stronger and indeed the principal ribs

; Figure 3.
li
Let A be the plan of a vault to be centered
would be much better to be in two thicknesses. The best for groins. At a, 6, c, d, are piers, generally prepared in
timber for this use is English oak ; because abundance of with the foundation, which bear the weight of the brickwork.
that naturally grows crooked. As to the curve or sweep First, resolve on the curve you would have, as d e c, being a
of this dome A, it is a semicircle ; although in that point, semi-circle, which is shown by the section B. Begin in A at
every one may use his pleasure ; and in it are described the dec; centre through as it were a common vault, and board
purlins </, e, from which perpendiculars are dropped to the it which being done, to make your groin set centres, as from
;

plan B so that/is the mould the lower purlins are to be cut

;
a to c, and from
4 to c/, divide the curve dec into four equal
out by. before they are shaped or squared for use ; and that parts, as at g and f, so are g f
e small centres, you will want
of g is the mould for the upper purlins. I rather show it to nail on the centres first boarded, whose place or plan is at
with purlins, because under this head may be shown the h ; these small centres may be put in at pleasure, according
manner of framing circular roofs in form of a cone. to the bearing of your boards, that is, as to the distance be-
" To tween each centre. To make your groin straight on its base,
shape these purlins, observe, in A, as at d and e,
thev are so squared, that the joints of the supposed small at some little height over the centres, strain a line from 4 to c,
 I'l-tTK

/'iff
2.

f'ifj 'I

'

V.

/V .;

r
'

&4- 4

?-
Dra>rn It/ P \'u-fiol.ro*
,

H r
 CAR 93 CAR
or from d to a. from which
drop perpendiculars on your at the point of the groin's meeting, on which fasten one end
boarding, first fixed at as many places as you please ; there of a chalked line, straining it tight, slide it down the side of
drive in nails, and bend a straight rod till it touch them all ; the said straight piece, and it will form the
groin so as lo
and then, with a pencil or chalk, describe the curve so formed, stand perpendicularly over its base."
to which bring the boards to be nailed on these little centres, Mr. Price then proceeds to the methods of covering the
and their joints will form a straight, groin." parts of coved ceilings adjoining the angles, and also the
" Let c be a
Figure 4. plan of greater extent, and which coverings of domes, as follows :
suppose to be supported by two piers, as/ /. The section D Suppose M to le the plan of a
'
Plate VI11. Figure 1.
is composed of entire semicircles, then consequently vour ceiling, an a b c <l, and it in required to have a large frame,
curves in the section K will be elliptical, as A ?i d, and may gu/oc/ii, or panel. First, produce some side or end of the
be described with a trammel. What was said in A explains room, as N. Let it be required to describe the curvilinear
this at one view. face of the cove. The extent of the end of the said room
"If these pillars should be in the way, view the plan and is b f e, and it is coved one-fourth part of the height,
sections again first, form the principal curve, as D at a g h A,
: at 7/4 b. The said frame or panel being g /< ; the quarter
being an ellipsis, so that the centres will be a Gothic sweep circle m g is divided into eight equal parts, which are trans-

against the windows, as eg a: trace the curve tl h b in K, ferred to 1-, so that m g h I is the face of o, as stretched or
agreeable to e g a in D, with which centre it. as shown in A. extended out, on which any thing proposed to be described
and make good your groins to the sides lastly, make a flat
: therein mav be truly performed.
centre, as at g It i k, which flatness is shown in either of the In Q is shown the plan of a niche, or dome ;
'
Figure 2.
profiles or sections
D and E, and fix it on your centres before if a niche, let it be demanded to be tineered with walnut-

completed, which doubtless due inspection will make plain, tree, &c. If a dome, let it be required to be covered with
and hereby you avoid the pillars, which are equally firm. boards or lead. Divide it into any number of parts, as here
"
N.B. The cause of these centres against the windows into nine, which transfer to a, as appears from h to /. Describe
being a Gothic arch, proceeds from their making part of tin- the section also, as u. being a quarter of a circle, which
whole sweep or arch, which though it does not add to its divide into any number of parts, as here into fiv(,as is
beauty, it docs to its strength in a particular manner." shown in the figure from h to i, which transfer in the plan Q
After showing how to find the groined lines, as it were by from a to/; middle some one division, as from 4 to 5; then
a mere mechanical process, the method of fmdin<; the groined take those distances from R. and transfer them to s, as from
lines on the body centre, he then shows how the same may /to so that each division is halved or middled, as/,/ ;
.">,

be found upon true geometrical principles, which may lie on these lines place the distances from 13,
as at e. il, c, />,

looked upon as the foundation of all kinds of cylindrical to 1, 2. 3, 4, in s, and these will form such curves as
soffits. shall meet.
" "
Regarding variety, I have given here another method N.B. The more parts it is divided into, the better and
for vaults, and which, indeed, may give more pleasure to the truer it will be performed."
reader, as being a curiosity never before published, and may In this description, he is far from being clear, as \ve shall
"
appear more intelligible than that in the foregoing." here explain. Take the distances from R, and transfer
Figure 5. "View the plan G and its section H, which is them tn s. as from to 5." But the extent of the line from
f
composed of entire semicircles, as life: see also the section i, /'to a at s does not contain the whole stretch of the arch h i
which is an ellipsis traced from b f e in H but for use,
;
of the section R. as it contains only four of the equal parts,

nothing is more true than the trammel. whereas there are five one part should have been described
;
" See this to be below the line/// &e., as the diagram s shows. The
plan again, and also its section i, from which is
described the curvilinear face K, and also the face of the words "so that each divixion is halved, as, fa, fa" etc., have
semicircular arches, as L, all being alike. And this is what no meaning. " On these lines place the i/istiinres from Q, as
I call a more accurate method for
finding the groin, so as to at e, d, c, A, to 1,2, 3, 4, in s,
and the.ie will funn such curves
be straight over its base, and at the same time gives a standard as shall meet:" this is extremely obscure, and ought to have
rule whereby to account for any curve, or face of a ceiling been thus described From the points A c, d e, in Q, describe
:

whatever. The curve in i is divided regularly, though seem- the several arcs meeting each of the radii n/and a 4 then ;

draw lines at
ingly into unequal parts, which being drawn to the groin at through the divisions,
in s, 1, 2, 3, 4, right
the plan o, as appears by the figures 1,2, 3, 4. 5. 0, 7, 8, 9, angles ;
and on each side of the said points,
upon these lines,
and which are transferred into L at 1, 2, 3, &c. Also the 1, 2, 3, 4, set off
the several arcs at <j, beginning with/4,
e in H is divided into eighteen equal parts ; the half at the bottom of s. and through the points on each side of the
circle b f and the space comprehended
consequently into nine, which appears from A to e in L. This line/rt describe the two curves,
method doubtless will be plain, and therefore needs no far- between them and the bottom line is the board required.
ther explanation. It must be observed, that though it is sometimes conve-

"That of K belongs to the section i, extended as it were, nient to detach the parts of a diagram when it would occupy
and that of L belongs to one of the small arches of H, also too much space, it is by no means so obvious as one con-
stretched out, they being all alike." nected figure. In this respect, Mr. Price is very obscure, in
different figures.
Here it must be observed, that he has stretched out the transferring to so many
which are of no use, the covering only being wanted, He then shows the nature of oblique or rampant arches,
piers,
and he has extended all the compartments of the plan in the tracing of, and the manner of finding the base or seat of
all that is the angle ribs of an annular groin, as follows:
piano at K, which is absurd, one of each being to be the mitre-bracket
necessary; for they cannot be extended in contiguity,
nor Figure 3. "That of A, is supposed
of a cove, w hose projection is be; and the height thereof
any two contiguous parts on the plan, though each adjoining
is <z A ; the curve being a segment, or part of a circle,
let it
part may be done separately.
"N.B. To find the groin by a more common method, do be demanded to trace a curve from it, as B, which shall be
as a common bracket, e d being
thus Erect a straight piece of a board, or the like, on the
: agreeable thereto, if applied
as and its first, divide the
ef
corner of the the groin springs from, and drive in a nail
pier
its height, before, ; projection
 CAR 94 CAR
" As
given curve A, into a number of parts, or take points thereon to the particular use of this kind of arches, I must

promiscuously, which will answer as well. From these divi- leave to the determination of the curious, and have nothing
sions, or points, drop perpendiculars to some straight line, as farther to say on that head, than that if occasion require
that of a c, observing their meeting with the said line a c ; either of them to be executed, there is no other true way to
and in practice take off all these distances on a lath, or rod, describe them.
applying the proper end thereof to the projection of the com- Figure 6. "That of r is a plan of circular groins, whose
mon bracket B, as f, observing where the other end passes extent is a b c d, an example of which may be seen in St.
through the perpendicular line e d, as at g ; there raise Clement's Danes, Strand, and in several other circular build-
indefinite perpendiculars from the said points, then draw ings and, in my opinion, is a curiosity worthy of regard. To
;

the line d f. find the plan of these groins, do thus Divide from a to 4, into
Lastly, transfer the distances, as from the :

straight line a c, in A, to the figures, to that of d f in B ; a number of parts, as into ten ; the lines a b and d c being
which, no doubt, inspection will explain, more especially if continued, meet in a point as </, being the centre of the
the letters and figures be duly observed. curves a d and !> c ; from which strike curves from the points
" Now view the same in <t I to d c : divide also from a to d, into ten parts, which
figure A again ; and admit it were
the curve of a common bracket, let it be demanded to trace being drawn to the centre g, divides the line be into the same
a mitre or angle brac-ket from it, as c ; g h being its height number of parts equally ; so that the meeting of these lines is
as before, and h i its projection (the method of finding which the plan of the groins, as a e c and b e d, and their upright is
in either case, no doubt, will be well known to every one :) H, i, K, L, each being traced from the semicircle a bfin o,
take the line, as a c in A, which in practice (as was before being the principal curve. As to the method whereby
observed) 1 suppose to be on a rod, or lath, with its divisions, it is done,
enough has been said of the foregoing examples
or points on it, and transfer it to c, as g k; then draw to explain it; the letters of reference show plainly what part
the line g i ; lastly, from the said points on the line g k, draw of the plan each curve belongs to, which being bent agree-
base lines, observing their meeting the line g i; at which able thereto, will strictly correspond with each other.
respective places raise perpendiculars, and transfer your "N.B. If the principal curve had been a segment, or part
several heights from A, as before, observing to place each in of a circle, or an ellipsis, the method of performing would
its due
position. And although the abundance of points have been the same.
should render this method somewhat confused, it may be "This plan would be difficult in performance, if required
evaded by making but few points, and driving nails therein, to be ribbed with timber for plastering, but if to be centered
round which a straight lath being bent till it touch them all, for brickwork, it would be much easier; because the centres
the curve may be described with a pencil, &c. might be placed as from the line o A to that of c d, as in a
"
N.B. This may serve as a general rule for all such common vault. The curves of each centre would be dif-
curves as are not regular, or cannot be formed with a tram- ferent, on account of its being taper, but the height is equal ;
mel, supposing either to be the given curve. The principal these centres should be boarded as others are, the boards
curve being formed on any plain superficies, it may be taken requiring to be taper only.
"
off on a lath, as before was observed ; and by it the required To make groins so as to hang over the plan, the sides
curve may be described on a piece of slit deal, ccc., of a width /; e and c d c must not be centered as usual but have ribs
;

equal to the deflection of the arch from a straight line, with agreeable to the plan, and placed horizontally, so that the
an allowance of wood capable of holding it together. boards would stand as it were upright; as in domes, which
"
Figure 4. That of D, represents a common bracket for was explained in the foregoing plates, which shows the method
a plastered cornice, whose shape the plasterer ought always for finding the curvilinear form of any ceiling.
"
to be consulted for : let it be
required to trace a corner, or N.B. The foregoing must be well understood, in order
angle-bracket from it, as E ; first, draw base lines from the to describe on the centres first boarded, the accurate curve

respective angles </, b, c, d, to the line t r, as 1, 2, 3,4; also of the groin ; which can be done by no other method than
perpendiculars to the line r s, as 5, 6, 7, 8; and (because an is there shown.
"
If this plan were to be executed with ribs of timber for
example for finding the prefecture of the angle or mitre
bracket, may be required) observe to make r u equal to r s ; plastering, then the groins must be performed by the
so is u s the projeeture of the said angle or mitre bracket; methods, as will be hereafter inserted, for the twisted rails
and the points will be w, x, y, z ; so that by transferring this for staircases, on account of their plan not being a regular
said line with its points as before to E, as also those of the curve."
height as before, draw perpendicular and base lines, when, as This method of constructing an annular groin, is of no
no doubt inspection s^hows, their meeting gives the shape of the other use than that- of finding the seats of the lines of con-
bracket as desired, and this also may serve as a standard rule course of the meeting of the curved sides. It does not show
in any such case. As to shifting this mould (in practice) so how the boarding is to be formed geometrically, neither does
as to give the said angle-bracket its true back, there seems it
give the least idea of constructing the ribs of a plaster
to have been enough said in plate p. groin. The line of concourse of the two sides may be
"
Such things as the construction and use of lines, are not obtained by plumbing up from the base, but even this cir-
conceived by every one ; therefore, because I would omit cumstance is not mentioned by Mr. Price, nor any other
If it were required to con-
nothing that 1 think would prove useful, I have inserted application of this construction.
several more examples of tracery, the knowledge of which struct the ribbing for a plaster groin, the method here shown
seems indispensably necessary. is
perfectly adapted to the formation of
the ribs in thick-
"
Figure 5. That of T is a regular semicircle, as a 6 f, from nesses, as the whole of the ribs round the curves arc extended
which is traced the raking (or rampant) one u that of w is
;
in piano. But the glueing up of the ribs in thicknesses is
of car-
a regular ellipsis, as d e f, from which is traced the raking altogether nugatory, when applied to the purposes
one x that of Y is a regular segment (or part of a circle)
; pentry. Another mode, which we would propose, in order
as g h i, from which is traced the raking one z the man-
;
to bring this method into use in groin ribbing, is, to get the
ner whereof being so plain, a farther explanation seems ribs cut into two thicknesses, say 1^-inch stuff, and kerf each
needless. of them from one side ; then put the two kerfed sides toge-
 CAR 95 CAR
ther, and nail or bolt them to the curve: to
prevent them remain firm, and this without much trouble of
construction.
from extending before they are fixed, nail a
temporary piece In thisoperation, the kerfs must run in lines perpen-
across the two extremities, and set them in
their places- dicular to the base, otherwise
then when the other ribs are nailed they will not bend to the
against them, they will plan.

A TABLE FOR THE SCANTLINGS OF TIMBER

A Proportion for Timbers for small Buildings.

 CAR 96 CAE
It is singular that in the
foregoing table, the oak scantlings "The strength of timber in general is always in propor-
are greater than those of fir. Oak is more cohesive than fir, tion to the quantity of solid matter it contains. The quan-
but fir is less compressible by forces acting in the direction tity of solid matter in timber is always more or less, as the
of the fibres oak is therefore more fit for ties, and fir for
;
timber is more or less
heavy; hence it is, that all heavy
struts, or straining pieces. But Mr. Price, in this table, woods, as oak, box, mahogany, lignum-vitte, &c., are stronger
inconsiderately and indiscriminately makes the oak scantlings than elder, deal, sycamore. &c., which are lighter or
(rather)
larger than those of fir. less heavy ; and, indeed, for the same reason, iron is not so
The following observations, in the introduction to Price's strung as steel, which is heavier than iron ; and steel is not
work, are very judicious, and worthy of transcription. so strong as brass or copper, which are both heavier than
"
Nevertheless, it may not be improper, in this phice, to steel. To prove this, make two equal cubes of any two
mention some general observations. There is a moisture in kinds of timber, suppose the one of fir, the other of oak ;
all timber; therefore all bearing timber ought to have a weigh them singly, and note their respective weights ; this
moderate camber, or roundness for till that moisture is in
:
done, prepare two pieces of the same timbers, of equal
some sort dried out, the said timber will sag with its own lengths, suppose each five feet in length, and let each be
weight and that chiefly is the reason girders are trussed when
;
tried up as nearly square as can be, but to such
scantlings,
used, as in its place will be shown. But here observe, that that the weight of a piece of oak may be to the weight of
girders are best trussed when they are first sawn out, for by a piece of fir, as the cube of oak is to the cube of fir ; then
their drying and shrinking, it
tightens the trusses in them those two pieces being laid horizontally hollow, with equal
yet more. bearings, and being loaded in their middles with increased
"
Observe also, that all beams, or ties, be cut, or forced in equal weights, it will be seen that that they will bend or sag
framing, to a camber, or roundness, such as an inch in the equally, which is a demonstration that their strengths are to
length of eighteen feet ; and that principal rafters be also each other as the quantity of solid matter contained in
cut, or forced up to a camber, or roundness, as before the
: them."
reason of this is, all trusses, though ever so well framed, by This is reasoning only from conjecture, and therefore the
the shrinking of the timber, and weight of the covering, will consequence must be erroneous. The relation between weight
sag, and sometimes so much as to offend the eye of the and strength is not general. In some instances the very
beholder; so that by this preparation your truss will ever reverse takes place to what this author asserts.
"
appear well. As the whole weight on partitions is supported by the
"
Also observe, that all case-bays, either in floors or roofs, principal post, their scantlings must be first considered, and
do not exceed twelve feet if possible; that is, do not let this should be done in two different manners, viz., first,

your joists in floors, your purlins in roofs, &c., exceed twelve when the quarters, commonly called studs, are to be filled
feet in their length, or bearing ; but rather let the bearing be with brickwork, and rendered thereon ; and, lastly, when to
eight, nine, or ten feet ; which should be observed in forming be lathed and plastered on both sides.
"
a plan. When the quarters are to be filled between with brick-
"
Also, in bridging-floors, do not place your binding or work, the thickness of the principal posts should be as much
strong joists above three, four, or five feet apart; and that less than the breadth of a brick, as twice the thickness of a

your bridgings or common joists are not above ten or twelve lath ; so that when these posts are lathed to hold on the ren-
inches apart, that is, between one joist and the other. dering, the laths on both sides may be flush with the surfaces
" Here also And to give these posts a sufficient
observe, never to make double tenants or tenons of the brickwork.
for bearing uses, such as binding-joists, common joists, or strength, their breadth must be increased at discretion; but
purlins; for, in the first place, it weakens very much what- when the quarters are to be lathed on both sides, or when
ever you frame it into ; and, in the second place, it is a rarity wainscoting is to be placed against the partitioning, then the
to have a draught in both tenons, that is, to draw your joint thickness of the posts may be made greater at pleasure. The
close by the pin for the said pin, by passing through both
: usual scantlings for the principal posts of fir, of 8 feet in
tenons, (if there is a draught to each,) must bend so much, height, is 4 or 5 inches square ; of 10 feet in height, 5
or 6
that without the pin be as tough as wire, it must needs break inches square ;
of 12 feet in height, or 7 inches square ; of
in driving, and consequently do more hurt than good." 14 feet in height, 7 or 8 eight inches square. ; of 16 feet in
We are now come to Mr. Batty Langley, in whose nume- height, from 9 to 10 inches square. But these last, ill my
opinion, are full large, where no very great weight
rous publications are to be found many particulars relating is to be

to Carpentry. In his Builder's Complete Assistant, published supported. As oak is much stronger than fir, the scantling
1738, page 147, the fourth edition, he has the following of o:ik-posts need not be so large as those of fir; and there-
observation : fore the scantlings assigned by Mr. Price, in his Treatise of
"
Whenpartitions have solid bearings throughout their Carpentry, are absurd, as being much larger than those he
whole extent, they have no need to be trussed ; but when has assignedfor fir-roofs. To find the just scantling of oaken
posts that shall have the same strength
they can be supported but in some particular places, then of any given fir-posts,
they require to be trussed in sueh a manner, that the whole this is the rule:
" As the
weight shall rest perpendicularly upon the places appointed weight of a cube of fir is to the weight of a cube of
for their support, and nowhere else. Partitions are made of oak of the same magnitude, so is the area of the square end
different heights, to carry one, two, or more floors, as the of any fir-post to the area of the end of an oaken post, and
kinds of buildings require. whose square root is equal to the side of the oaken post
"The first things to be considered in works of this kind required."
are the weight that is to be supported, the goodness and He might as well have asserted, that as the weight of a
kind of timber that is to be employed, and
proper
scantlings cube of steel is to the weight of a cube of lead, so is the
necessary for that purpose." area of the square end of any steel bar to the area of the end
So far his observations are tolerable; but his subsequent rea- of any leaden bar which proposition would have led to mani-
;

sonings are drawn rather from his own caprice, than from the fest falsehood. In the rule he has not mentioned the length,

principles of science, as will be seen in the following quotations :

which, if taken into the consideration, would bring a very
 CAR 97 CAR
different result ;
as timber is
considerably weakened by its piece with its less dimension in the same position, as the
length. The rule is therefore not only erroneous, but defec- greater dimension is to the less. Another uncertainty will
tive also. arise from the proportion ; for if the
scantlings are not in the
With respect to Mr. Price's table, we have only to observe same ratio, the strength will be more or less in the one, as
that as there are no details of experiments on the strength of the vertical dimension may be greater in
proportion to the
oak and fir, when employed as posts, we cannot decide in this horizontal than those of the other piece. Mr. Langley should
matter. It must, however, be observed, that the fibres of fir have noticed this also. Ho has assumed 12 inches as the
are straight, whilst those of oak are very crooked ; whence it depth, then finds the breadth to be 14 inches and two-thirds,
is reasonable to conclude that a body with
straight fibres is by dividing 176 by 12 ; but this is only guessing at the pro-
better adapted to resist compression than one whose fibres portion, which might be properly stated by the rules of
are crooked ; and this supposition is strengthened, if not con- algebra, as follows: What two numbers are those, whose pro-
firmed, by the experiments of Muchenbreuk, who asserts, duct is 176, and whose proportion is in the ratio of 11 to 8?
that though oak will suspend half as much again as fir, it Take x for the greater, and y for the less of the two num-
will not, as a pillar, support two-thirds of that load. Now if bers; then we have
we can put any dependence on these experiments, fir should = 176
be used in cases of compression, as in story-posts, partitions,
zy
x :
y : : 11
&c., and oak in cases of tension, as ties, truss-posts, &c. 8.e = lly
"The distances of principal posts are generally about ten
From the first equation we have
feet, and of the quarters about fourteen inches ; but when
176
they are to be lathed on both sides, the distances of the quar-
ters should be such as will be agreeable to the lengths of the
laths, otherwise there will be a great waste in the laths. The
thicknesses of ground-plates and risings are generally from
two inches and a half to four inches,, and are scarfed and from the second,
together." 8
With respect to lintels, bond-timbers, and naked flooring, Therefore, ll.V 176
he observes as follows :
" For the better 8
disposing of the weight imposed on
girders, lintelsshould always be firmly bedded on a sufficient
number of short pieces of oak, laid across the walls, vul- y'= 128
garly called templets, which are of excellent use. consequently, y (128) J =
1 1 .3 =
nearly ;
" Let and by dividing by 11.3 inches, the depth, we should then
girders be laid in piers, or in lintels over windows;
it will in both these cases be commendable to turn small have the breadth. We
have here taken it for granted, that
arches over their ends, that in case their ends are first the former part of his proposition is true, but, indeed, nothing
decayed, they may be renewed at pleasure, without disturb- can be more erroneous ; for their lengths are not in the ratio
ing any part of the brickwork ; and for their preservation, of the areas of their sections, when the pieces are of equal
anoint their ends with melted pitch and grease, viz., of pitch strength, but their lengths are in the ratio of the breadth
four, of grease one ; and, indeed, were lintels to be covered multiplied into the square of the depth; or if their sections
with pitch and grease also, it would contribute very greatly be similar figures, the lengths will be in the same ratio as
to their duration. the cubes of their vertical dimensions. By this method, if
" In the two pieces of timber were .of the same thickness, and of equal
carrying up the several walls of buildings, it
should be carefully observed, to lay in bond-timbers on tem- strength, the lengths would be as the depths ; whereas they
plets, as aforesaid, at every six or seven feet in height,
arc as the square of the depths. So that, besides the ambi-
cogged down and braced together with diagonal pieces at guity of his rule, allowing the data to be properly fixed, the
every angle, which will bind the whole together in the results would give the dimensions of the section much too
most substantial manner, and prevent fractures by unequal great, in calculating from a given beam of less length to one
settlement. of a greater ; and much too small in calculating from a
"The distances of girders should never exceed twelve greater length to a smaller one. In calculating the strength

feet, and their scantlings must be proportioned according to of beams, it is material to recollect the loss of strength in
the strength of
their lengths ; as by experience it is known that a scantling large beams, occasioned by their weight, as
of 1 1 inches by 8 inches is sufficient for a fir-gi rder of 1 feet beams is not in the same ratio with the stress occasioned by
in length, the area of whose end is 88 inches, it is very easy their weights, but in a much less degree: but as we shall
to find the proper scantling for a girder of any greater length, hereafter discuss this subject, under the article STRENQTII OF

suppose 20 feet, by this rule As 10 feet, the length of the

: MATERIALS, we shall for the present take leave of the sub-
first girder, is to 88, the area of its end, so is 20 feet, the ject, and
return to our author.
."To prevent the sagging of short girders, it is usual to
length of the second girder, to 176, the area of its end.
" Now to find its cut them camber ; that is, to cut them with an angle in the
scantlings, that, being multiplied into each
other, shall produce 176 inches, the area found, one of them midst of their lengths, so that their middles shall rise above
must be given, viz., either the depth or thickness. In this the level of their ends, as many half inches as the girder
example, the given depth shall be 12 inches, therefore divide contains times ten feet. And, indeed, girders of the greatest
176 by 12, and the quotient is 14 inches and two-thirds, length, although trussed, should be cut camber in the same
which is the other scantling, or breadth required." manner."
In this example, the length is regarded ; but in the first It may bo proper here to notice, that the cambering of gir-
instance, in the dimensions of the given piece, he does not
ders does not prevent them from sagging, though perhaps it

say which of them is the depth. This should have been may obviate their becoming concave on the upper side. With
should not bo cut to a
noticed, as the strength of a piece of wood with its greater regard to trussing girders, the flitches
dimension disposed vertically, is to the strength of the same camber, but brought into this state in the act of trussing.
18
 CAR 98 CAR
" The next order is joists, of which there are five kinds,
viz., common-joists, binding-joists, trimming-joists, bridging-
joists, and ceiling-joists. First, common-joists are used in
ordinary buildings, whose scantlings in fir are generally made
as follows, viz. :

Common Joists, as used in

small buildings.

Length Scantling in
in feet. inches.

6 64 by 24
9 64 by 24
12 8 by 24

In this table, it may be observed, the increase is not very

regular : should
why the scantling of the joist 9 feet in
length, be no more than that of 6 feet ? This must be a
mistake
" But in
large buildings, the scantlings are much larger,
where it is common to make joists of the following dimensions:

Common joists, as employed

in large buildings.

Length
in feet
 PLATE TK.
Fig. 7 Fig. 3.
J-'y 20.
.
>.
fig.

j /_

Drawn n
?
 CAB 99 CAR
"
Figure 3, represents the section of a girder b I, <Szc.,
;
sure. Make r and s each equal to one-fourth of a /; then
/ /
parts of two binding-joists, tenoned into the girder ; a a, &c., r s will be equal to half a f, and draw the lines r b and s
b,
the ends of bridging-joists ; e e,
boarding on the bridgings ;
divide b d into any number of equal parts, and draw the ordi-
d d, &c., mortises in the binding-joists to receive the tenons of nates 1, 8; 2, 9; 3, 10, &c., and on the points where those
the ceiling-joists as also the mortises b c, b
; c, &c., but these ordinates cut the semi-diameter b </, with the radius of each
last are those which are called
pulley-mortises, into which the scmi-ordinate, describe semi-circles, as the dotted semi-circles
ceiling-joists are slid. To understand this more plainly, (see Make e equal to the curve a/; make p
in the figure. / /
Figure 4,) the figures // // are added, which represent the equal to a 1 ; f
o equal to o 2; equal to o 3 ; fn equal fm
sections of so many binding-joists g g, &c., the sections of to a 4 ; fl equal to a 5 ; fk equal to a 6 ; and
small joists between them x x, a side view of a
;
g equal to f
;
bridging- at. On the point e describe the arches 13, 14; 11,12; 9,10;
joist h h h, ceiling-joists tenoned into the &c. Bisect the half part of each of the dotted semi-circles,
;
binding-joists,
flush with their bottoms, as aforesaid, to receive the lath and
as/cinone ; 1,8, in two; 3, 9, in four; 5, 10, in six; 7,11,
plaster." in eight ; 9, 12, in ten; 11, 13, in twelve ; and 13, 14, in
Figures 5 and 6 are parts of Figures 3 and 4, enlarged. fourteen ;
make / A and / g each equal to half the arch 1 ; /
The joists Figure 4, add considerable expense, with-
# g, in p 1 and p2
each equal to half the arch 1,2; o 3, o 4, each
out being of adequate service.
equal to half the arch 3, 4 ; and so, in like manner, n 5 and
Figures 7, 8, 9, 10, are scarfings shown in plate 50, of his n 6, to the half arch 5, 6, &c. From the point c, through the
work but he takes no notice of them in the text, and indeed
;
points 12, 11, 9, 7, &c., and 14, 12, 10, &c., trace the curves
they are not deserving of it we have already noticed those
; e h and e g ; then four such
pieces as e g h will cover the head
in Smith's work, to which these of
Langley's have a near of the niche, as required."
affinity. This is certainly a very tiresome method, as each of the
Figure 11, represented in plate 53 of his work, is not semi-circles must be divided into equal parts ; but why divide
noticed in the text, but the following words are written over each quadrant into two, which he has directed ? as the more
the top of the figure " : A
new method for trussing-beams, the parts, the truer the covering will be. If the arches a rfanil
c d had been divided into
by Batty Langley."
girders, &c., equal parts, the covering could
The showing of such ridiculous constructions in carpentry, have been traced with more exactness, as there is a very
has certainly lessened the credit of this author, as permitting long space beginning with the point e, without any guide,
fancy to take the place of judgment, in cases where strength and is as much as the three lower spaces taken together an :

alone was the object. equality of the parts in a d and c d would have been produc-
Figure 12 is his method of laying roofs in lodgement ; he tive of the parts e g, g k, k I, &c., also equal to each other,
only differs from Price in this particular, that he lays all the and consequently the distances of the points in the curves
rafter feet next to the wall-plates, whereas Price e h and e g,
lays them though not exactly equal, would have been
the contrary way. Price's disposition is more convenient in nearly so.
practice, but Langley's more natural for building up. The description given by Mr. Price for the covering of
Figures 13 and 14 are his methods of tracing angle- domes, is defective ; but his aim was at a much more con-
brackets, and are the same in principle as that shown by venient method than this of Langley's, which requires ample
Halfpenny, which was an example for a right angle. But space, and is very troublesome and tedious in practice, with-
Langley, always profuse in his figures, and pompous in his out obtaining any greater accuracy. The reader must observe,
text, hasnot only shown the description of angle-brackets for that in strictness of principle, no flat surface, however thin,
right angles, but also for obtuse and acute angles, likewise can be made to comply with a spheric surface ; yet if com-
for ovolos, cavettos, cimarectas, and cima-reversas, as if the paratively a very small portion of the flat surface be taken,
same principle did not apply to all forms alike. it
maybe made so nearly to coincide with the spheric, as not
In Figure 15, his
description is as follows: "The curva- to be detected by the eye, which is as near as we ever need
tures of hip-rafters to polygonal roofs, that is, those whose in practice and thus the narrower the board, the more
;

plans are polygons, are also found by transposing the ordi- nearly will its surface comply with the spheric surface but ;

nates of a principal rafter (which must be given) upon the as we shall have occasion to speak of this in another place,
base of a hip-rafter. we shall leave it for the present, and proceed to show his
" " methods of finding the coverings of solids.
Suppose in" (Figure 15) a d to be the base, over which "
the cavetto principal rafter c d, is to stand and let a e be the
:
Figure 17, represents the manner of covering the outside
base of a hip-rafter: divide a d into equal parts, and draw of a cone; the arch e a being made equal to the circumfer-
the ordinates 2, 1 ; 4, 3, &c., on the line ad; divide a e in ence e, which is equal to the base of the cone this figure is :

the same manner as a d, and on the line a e draw the ordi- exhibited here to show, that the soffits of a semi-circular
nates 1, 2; 3, 4 ; 5, 6, &c., and from the point b, through headed window, whose splay is continued all round, is no
the points 2, 4, 6, 8, &c., trace the curve of the hip-rafter, as more than the lower supcrfices of a semi-cone ; for if the
splay were continued, it
would meet in a point."
required."
This disposition of confining the parts into one connected In this respect he is right ; but no covering can be more
The
diagram is more obvious to learners than Mr. Price's, but easy to conceive, except that of a right cylinder.
even this of Langley's is not shown to the utmost advantage ; method of covering an oblique cylinder he never could-obtain,
for why divide the bases into equal parts, as this equality as the edges which should coincide with the elliptic sections
causes the curvature of the ribs and the curving sides of the are all exhibited in straight lines. See Plato 74, at the end
of his Builder'i Complete Assistant ; neither has he ever been
covering to be divided unequally 1 Though the covering is
shown in the figure, he has given no description of it in able to obtain the covering of the ungula of a right couc,
the text. or of its complement when cut to produce an elliptic sec-

of covering niches or domes, so that the edge of his covering may coincide with the
Figure 16, shows his method tion,
" Let a c be the plan of the head of said elliptic section, and its surface with the curved surface
explained as follows /
:

a semi-circular niche, and complete the circle a / c d. Draw of the cone.

" frustrums are laid out
the diameters a b c and d b /continued out towards e at plea- Figure 18. The superficies of these
 CAB 100 CAR
"
as follows." m
On a describe the arch c I, &c. e equal to tedious work of dividing the base of each curve into equal
the circumference of the base of the cone, which divide into parts, as well as the transferring of the ordinates of the semi-
eight equal parts, at the points m, I, k, i, &c. and draw the circle to those of the ellipses, and then, at last, either
tracing
lines a m, a I, a k, &c. Draw b 1, parallel to d c, and divide the elliptic curve by hand, or bending a thin slip of wood
i c into four
equal parts. Make a 5, a 11. each equal to round pins or nails stuck in the points. At all events, even
a 4; make a 6, a 10, each equal to a 3 ; make a 7, a 9, each in the operation of tracing, the dividing of the bases into

equal to a 2 ; make a 8 equal to a 1. Through the points equal parts is a very bad practice, as it always leaves so large
11, 10, 9, 8, and 7, 6, 5, trace the curves e S and 8 c; then and so quick a portion of the curve at each extremity to be
the figure c 8 e i c is the superficies of the side." guessed at ; but here it is admissible, on account of the fol-
What has the division of the line i c to do with the prin- lowing diagrams connected therewith.
" To divide the
ciple ?
1

This equality is not founded upon any part of the courses in the arch of this window. On a
construction of the solid, and consequently the method can flat panel, &c. draw a line, as b e, in Figure 7, make a
fo
never obtain a true cover or envelope ; indeed, it is so void equal to the curve a c d, also make a b and o e each equal
of science as not to deserve any farther notice. In the next to the intended height of the brick arch. Make f p, in
place, he attempts to find the envelope of a part of a semi- Figure 7, equal to f p, in Figure 6 ; also make a b and o e,
cuneoid, contained between two concentric cylindric surfaces, in Figure 7, each equal to b a, in Figure 6 ;
then the points
or of the covering or lining of the soffit of a window turned b and e will be the extremes of the arch. Make p r, in
upon a centre, which has either an elliptic or circular section, Figure 7, equal to b a, the given height of the arch, and
everywhere parallel to its end, and to coincide with the through the points b r e and a p o describe two semi-ellipses,
superficies of a circular wall, or the head of an aperture which divide into courses as before taught, and which will
splaying on the sides, and level at the crown. But are we be the face of the arch required."
now to expect that this will be accomplished, unless by acci- This operation produces nothing, as he does not show its
dent, when he has already failed in obtaining methods for application to practice, in the formation of the stones or bricks
the description of much more simple envelopes, viz. for cylin- to their proper shapes.
ders and cones cut obliquely 1 The reader will, however, " To find the angles or bevels of the under part of each
attend to his description, which is as follows, and then course. Continue the splay backs of the window m d and
judge for himself. n a until they meet in p. On F, with the radius F n and
The descriptions of the following diagrams are equally F ,
describe the arches n y v and af s, making n y v equal
deficient in method, and void of principle his diagrams,
: to the girt of the arch n k m. Make n 6, n 4, n 2, n y, &c.
also, are full of redundant lines. He begins the text without on the arch n y v, equal to n 6, n 4, n 2, n y, &c. on the
announcing the purpose of the operation, so that the reader curve n k m, and draw the lines 6 F, 4 F. 2IF, y F, &c.
must be kept in the dark till the conclusion. Make the ordinates 6, 5 ; 4, 3 ; 2, 1 ; y x, &c. on the lines
" and 6 F, 4 F, &c. equal to the ordinates 5, G ; 3, 4 ; 1,2; h i, &c.
Plate X. Figure 1. Of straight, circular, elliptical
arches in circular walls. The first work to be done, is the on the line n m and through the points 5, 3, 1, x, &c. trace
making of the centres, to turn these kinds of arches upon, the curve v x n. In the same manner transfer the ordinates
which may be thus performed Let o H i K be the plan of
:
5, 6; 3, 4 ; 1,2; c /, &c. on the line a d to the arch sf a,
a circular building, and at Figure 6, it is required to make as from 5 to 6, from 4 to 3. &c. and trace the curve sea;
a centre for a semi-circular arch to the window, whose diameter and then will the figure n x v s c a be the soffito of the window
without is a d, and within n m. Bisect a d in f, and describe laid out, and which being divided into the same number of
the semi-circle ap d. Divide a d into any number of equal equal parts, as the under part of the arch a p o, Figure 7,
parts at the points 6, 4, 2, &c. and draw the ordinates 6 6 ; and lines drawn to the centre F, as is done in Figure 2, to
4. 4 2, 2, &c.
;
Divide n m
into the same number of equal the centre A, by the line 2, 2, 2, &c. those lines will give
parts, and make the ordinates 6, 5 ; 4, 3 ; 2, 1, &c. equal to the bevel of every course in soffito, as required."
the ordinates C, 6 ; 4, 4 ; 2, 2, &c. and through the points Here is an attempt to find the lining or envelope of a
5, 3, 1, k, &c. trace the curve n k m, then a p d and n k m cuneoid or cono-cuneus, in a circular wall, for the soffits of
will be the two ribs for the centre this being done, place
: the stones or bricks; and had he succeeded, his endeavours
the ribs perpendicular over the lines a d and n TO, and cover would have been so far right but the method which he
:

them, as centres usually are, and then, applying the edge of follows has no relation to the construction of the centre
a plumb-rule to the divers parts of the inside and outside itself, and is therefore extremely erroneous. Nor can the
of the window's bottom, the top of the rule will give the same method be applied to the covering of a cone, though
several points at which the inside and outside of the covering the affinity or relation is much nearer in the latter solid than
is to be cut off", so as to stand exactly over the inside and in the former, and, consequently, the envelope here found
outside of the building, and then the centre will be completed would cover a cone more nearly than the surface of a cuneoid.
as required." But, indeed, though very near approaches have been made
It is hardly possible to conceive anything so unscientific to the cuneoidal surface, its determinate figure has never
as this description. In describing and forming the centre been exactly shown on a plane however, the geometrical
:

for the head of the required aperture, he is accurate ; but construction may be laid out on the surface of the solid itself,
when we are told to apply " the edge of a plumb-rule to the and all curves, corresponding to given ones on the plan,
divers parts of the inside and outside of the window's bottom," found with the utmost accuracy. The other parts of Figure 7,
and that " the top of the rule will give the several points at are not described in the text, but seem to contain lines with-
which the inside and outside of the covering are to be cut out meaning. The following is all that is said of Figures
off, so as to stand exactly over the inside and outside of the 1, 2, 4, and 5 :
" "
building ; and" that the centre will be completed as required," Figure 5 is another example of a semi-elliptical arch,
he is altogether intolerable ; for besides being tedious to an whose front is Figure 2. Also Figure 4, is a third example
extreme, it is no more than every mechanic could have easily of a scheme arch, whose front is Figure 8. And Figure 1,
conceived. In forming the centre, it would be better to form is a fourth example of a straight arch, which, in general, are
the inside curve with a trammel, which would obviate the performed by the aforesaid rule."
PL4TE
 PLATE'S!
The. SpU.cinpcrLejtjjthtnintyofBcamj explained.

/'if/ .>

Ill A
i
Fit/
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'<

r
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i

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 CAR 101 CAR
Here the text is unintelligible, and the discovery of the in 1738 ; when the first edition was published we do not
still more so.
principles, by inspection, know, but probably about the same time as Oakley's, or
Passing from the The Builder's Complete Assistant, we before. With respect to carpentry, these two works are
nearly
come next to The Builder's and Workman's Treasury of alike, as to the number of the problems, their order, the
Designs, by the same Author. The portion of this work method of and the end intended ; one seems to
treating them,
which treats of carpentry, is contained in an appendix at the have been copied from the other, and the first of the two
end, consisting of fourteen plates. to have been taken from Halfpenny's Art of Sound Building,
In Plate XI. Figures 1 and 2, Nos. 1, 2, 3, of each Figure, with the exception of a problem, which is exhibited in a plate,
are shown two methods of lengthening beams but there is : and explained in each of these authors, for covering of the
no other description than what is exhibited at the top of head of a niche or dome, with boards, to bend with their
" The
the plate, viz., splicing or lengthening of beams joints in vertical planes, passing through its axis. This pro-
explained." blem is thus explained by Oakley :

The two pieces are tabled together, by a very different " To make a niche or
Figure 6. globe, with thin boards ;
method to what any former author has exhibited. The tables or to them with paper or pasteboard. Admit afl
cover
are concealed, showing on the outside, when bolted together, (No. l)to be the plan of a semi-circular niche cefd (No. 2) ;

as in No. 3 of each Figure, an oblique continued joint. The to be the board,

paper, or pasteboard, of a given width, c d
construction is ingenious, as it prevents their separation with- or ef. Divide the semi-circle afl into
equal divisions, accord-
out breaking the tables by a longitudinal strain but the diffi- ; ing to the breadth of (No. 2) as a b, b c, c d, d e, e g, g h, h i, t k,
culty of fitting them together with accuracy, and the tedious and k 1; draw the lines, b u, c d u, e u, g u, hu, iu, k u,
,

process, renders
them unfit for practice. and let fall perpendiculars on the line a I, from the points
Langley's Geometrical Principles of Roofing are similar b, c, d, e, g, h, i, k. Upon the centre u, with the intervals,
to those of the preceding author ; but for the sake of show- m, o, r,and t, describe semi-circles set the girt of the arch
;

ing the terms applicable to different purposes, and his method af or //, on the board, g c, (No. 2) as c a and db, which
of treating the subject, we shall extract a few of his descrip- divide into so many equal parts as there are semi-circles, as in
tions "abed (Figure 3) plan of the raising; ef the cen-
:
(No. Divide (No. 2) in the midst, as by the line u w ;
2.)
tral line; im, I o, base lines of the outward principals, take the arch a b, and set it equally on each side of the line
ay,gc, bh, h d, base lines of the hips ; g h base of the ridge ; u w, as at a b ; set the arch m n, in like manner, on u w, as
k n base line of the middle pair of principals; eg, hf, base at mn, and so on to Is; then by sticking in small tacks at
lines of the single principals, which meet the hips in the the points a, m, o, r, t, and u, on the one side of u w, and

points g h ; i
k I, m n o, dovetail mortises in the raising, to at the points b, n, p, q, and s, on the other side of u w, by
receive the dovetails or cauks 1, 2, 3, of the beams ABC ; applying a thin ruler from a to u, and b to the curve lines ,

on each side will be given, which may be described by a pen-

(Figure 10) pp, dovetail mortises to receive
the angle-braces,
as p, p. Figure 4. D, a cauk or dovetail at large ; E, the cil, &c., which is the true mould for every piece in a globe or

dovetail-mortises in the raising, to receive the dovetail or niche, which was required."
cauk D." Here it must be observed, that the division of the semi-
Figure 4. "abc d, plan of the raising fg,fg,fg, beams
;
circle (No.
1) is erroneous for if the quadrant a for fl be
;

cauked down on the raising ; p p, p p, &c., angle-braces considered as a vertical section of the dome, it is evident it
cuuked down in like manner a e, b e, c e, de, dragon-pieces to
;
should have been divided into the same number of parts as
receive the feet of the hip-rafters; ah, b h, ch, d h, hip- the length of the board (No. 2;) and the several lengths of
rafters ; a h k, the angle at the top and h a k the angle of
;
the one equal to those of the other; but af or // is only
the foot of the hip ah." divided into 4^ equal parts, while the board is divided into
" To 5 which inequality causes the board to be too narrow towards
Figure 5. find the angle of a hip in any regular ;

or irregular building. RULE. On any part of its base line, the top, and to swell out too much at the bottom, as shown
as c, draw a right line at right angles, osfg ; set up the hip, in the following figure.

as h b,and from c draw c d perpendicular to the hip h b ; In The London Art of Building, written by Salmon, there
make c e equal to c d, and draw the lines fe, eg ; then the is
nothing new in construction. His geometrical principles
the angle of the back required." of roofing are like those by Godfrey Richards ; besides which,
angle feg is

These descriptions are tolerably clear ; the technical terms he treats of no other subject, except a few designs of roofs.
used by him, are raising, base-line, hips, back of the hip, The British Architect, the production of Mr. Abraham
principals, dovetail-mortises, cauks, angle-braces,
and dragon- Swan, is not very abundant in curious constructions of car-
of notice.
pieces. Raising is used by Moxon, in his Mechanical Exer- pentry, yet there are some ideas worthy
No. " Shows the of the hip." Divide ;

cises, vaguely defined by that author ; base-lines, hips,

but is Figure 7, 1, backing
back of the hip, and principal rafters, are used by Godfrey the thickness of the hip into two equal parts ; then having
found the of as is shown in (No. 2) set one of
Richards, in his Constructions of Roofs, in finding the lengths pitch your hip,
and backings of hip-rafters. This last-mentioned author these parts upon the base line, from 6 to a, and it shows what
names the diagonal beams under the hips, dragon-beams; wood is to be taken off.
" If the side of the as the
Langley calls them dragon-pieces. What Langley spells building comes in with a bevel,
Angle-braces are not, that we have dotted line A, in (No. 1) then transfer half the thickness of
cauks, Price spells cocks.
in
observed, before Langley, who also
named by any author the hip, from d to c, in (No. 3) and take the distance fe,
This will show how
names jack-rafters, in Plate 5, of his Builder's and Work- (No. 1) and set it from c tog,
in (No.
3.)
man's Treasury. much is to be taken off the hip, when the building bevels."
There is a work, not mentioned in the list of authors, by It is strange that this author should have departed so far

Edward Oakley, Architect, which, in point of priority, ought

from Pope's scientific method, as first shown by Godfrey
to have stood even before Smith's Carpenter's Companion, it Richards, in order to adopt one so mechanical,
more liable to
being dated in the title-page 1730 another
work was like-
: inaccuracy, and less expeditious.
wise published by Edward Hoppus, Surveyor, the second With respect to groins, all that Swan has said on this sub-
edition of which, as appears from the title-page, was published ject, is contained
in the following words :
 CAB 102 CAR
"
Figure 8, exhibits an arch boarded over, wherein the (No. 2) and set it on the said lines 1, 2, all the way up,
several figures &c., represent so many ribs, or jack-
1, 2, 3, and mark by the mould, it will give the backing in any case
rafters, set upon the circular body of the arch, in order for required, straight or curved."
another arch to intersect it, where those boarded over the This general and correct principle was first noticed by Price.
groins are formed." We
learn nothing from this, but the man- Figure 5.
" The method
of coving the angles, when there
ner of placing the jack-ribs on the body of the arch. Price is a circle or oval in the centre
of the ceiling. Draw the
describes the method of placing these low ribs upon the centre part, touching the sides and ends ; then draw another
boarding, and calls them small centres ; but his diagram is to the extreme of the angles,
parallel with the centre ; then
different, and not near so clear. draw the semicircular arch A, and from that trace the side
In the boarding of domes with the joints in horizontal arches B, B, and the rib c, c, c, c, which is a mould to cut
planes, Swan has shown the first ideas of the subject : all the brackets for the angles ; as is plain to inspection by
Figure 9, "represents a circular body. To find the curve the lines on the plan."
of any lath or margin to be bent round this body, parallel to This principle is erroneous, and the description deficient.
its base. There is no respect paid to the elliptic base ; but the brackets
"
Let the points b and c represent the margin which you are traced upon the principle of angle-brackets. The sections
intend to bend round ; then draw a right line through these of any body must depend upon the construction of that body,
points, to meet the perpendicular or diameter produced, as in or upon its properties ; thus, if a body is intended to have
a, and it gives the length a b the shorter, and a c the longer this property, that all parallel sections are to be similar
radius fur striking the curve required." figures, and if the method of forming it is not founded upon
This author has nothing more of novelty in the art of this principle, the body is not what it was intended to be,

carpentry. but something else ; the construction will therefore be erro-

Our next author is Mr. William Pain. In his British neous. All sections of a body must be found by describing
Palladia, he shows the methods of his bracketing for coves, the seats of the curves of as many parallel sections as may
and plaster cornices, as follows: Plate XII. Figure 1, "D be thought sufficient, on one of the largest of them ; then
is an
angle-bracket for an internal angle, which are (is) traced having a given or transverse section, that will cut all the
by ordinates." Figure 2, "E is an angle-bracket for a plaster parallel sections of the body, all other sections whatever may
cornice, at an internal angle ; F, an external angle, allowing be found but our author, Mr. Pain, forms the section of all
:

one inch for lath and plaster." The formation of angle-brackets bodies like those of prisms, without attending to the pro-
is so
easy, that a very little reflection, on inspecting the figure, perties of the body required, as is the case in the example
will show the method adopted, without description but still
: before us.
something more might have been said on the practical part. In the first edition of his Practical House Carpenter, he
From The Builder's Golden Rule, the following diagrams, has presented the diagram of an interior circular dome, formed
"
with their descriptions, are taken. The backing of curve- into pendentives by bracketing the spandrels above, and
line hips, and tracing them. Figure 3, (No. 1) is the rib of traced according to the same erroneous principle : but after
a dome, and (No. 2) is the hip traced from it. Divide the the publication of the Carpenter's New Guide, by the author
given rib (No. 1) into five parts, on the base line, and draw of this Work, the error was corrected, in the second edition
the ordinates 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5 ; then divide the base of the said Practical House Carpenter, so as to correspond
line of the hip into the same number of parts ; take them with the legitimate principle, first published in the Carpenter's
from (No. 1) and set them on (No. 2) ; then tack in nails New Guide : his description, which is very short, is partly
at the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; bend a thin slip round, and mark contained in the text, and partly on the plate in the text,
:

as that curve directs, which gives the hip-mould. To back he says, Figure 6, " is a conical skylight, showing how to
the hip, take from (No. 3) the plan of the hip, 1, 2, and set bracket the angles of the ceiling under the kirb, the hip-mould
it on the
hip at the bottom 1, 2; then shift the hip-mould g at the angle is traced from the rib b, and that mould would
to 2, and out to the top mark it by, and that will be the
: do to cut all the ribs at the angles, as shown at the angle a."
wood to come off for the backing of the hip." The practice What is here said, refers to the diagrams in the first edition ;
of dividing the base of the given rib, and the base of the but the text stands in the sixth edition, as in the first, though
required rib into equal parts, was first shown by Halfpenny, the diagram is altered in the second and succeeding editions.
and now by our present author, Pain ; and though the prin- There is no rib b, nor angle a, shown on the improved diagram.
ciple is true, the practice is bad, as it leaves so great a por-
On the plate he writes thus " F dome with a skylight on
:

tion of the curve to be traced by the eye, where it rises from the top. g, g, moulds for the ribs of the dome ; a, a, the
the base ; and though it is not necessary that each base should kirb of the light." This latter description refers to the
be divided into equal parts, or into any series of parts which diagram as it now stands.
shall have a given proportion to each other, yet it would be The skylight on is exhibited in a very erroneous
the top
better to divide the curve of the given rib into equal parts, manner, being inconsistent with the principles of any kind
then divide the base of the required rib in the same propor- of projection that we are acquainted with. The plan of the
tion ; and the arcs of the required rib terminated by the bracketing, and the ribs of the domical part, are shown by
upper extremities of each two ordinates, will be very nearly, a common ichnographical projection, while the skylight is
if not
quite, proportional ; that is, the distance between the
exhibited in a kind of false perspective, and being without
tracing points will be nearer where the curve is quickest, any connection with the kirb on which it is placed, it has
and where the greater number of points are most required. the appearance of being raised upon its edge, resting upon
" the
Figure 4, shows backing for a straight hip. You two points iu the kirb.
" is an
are to observe that the piece of wood be of the same thick- Figure 7, ogee roof, whose plan is a pentagon, and
ness as the hips, and form of the curve, for the little part you shows the method of drawing the polygon figure to any given
want; then cut it to the pitch of the hip at foot, set it on side ; make a radius of that side, and draw the arches 2, 6 ;
the plan, and mark it by that, which will give the backing divide one of these arches into six parts, and turn them to
exactly ; and so for any other. Or, if you draw a line the centre line, as shown by the letters and figures 5 d, 4 e, &c.;
and take off 1,2, on the plan the centre c will draw a circle to receive the side 5 times,
parallel with the base line,
CAHIP'EIWIRT.
I'MTK \

/iy 3

.-I I 3

fn; 'tv R Thtw-

 CAB 103 CAR
6 is the centre to receive the side 6 times, d seven times, and many more lines than are sufficient, which superabundance
so on to i, which is the centre to draw the circle -to receive makes his diagram much less intelligible to the understanding
the side twelve times." of his reader. The concentric arcs, which he has used as
This problem should have been classed in practical geometry, ordinates, are erroneous in principle, though the use of them
as it has no reference whatever to carpentry. It is only true does not affect the practice, as we shall here show.
"
in the hexagon and dodecagon, and is very incorrect for the Figure 3. Let A B c be half the section of a dome passing
description of polygons upon a given straight line, which through its vertical axis ; divide the curve A B into as many
have fewer sides than six. In his diagram, he shows the equal parts as the number of boards of which the covering
method of describing the hip from the common rib being is to consist
; through each point in the circumference draw
given but the text contains no description of it.
;
a line to the centre c and through each of the same points
;
"
Figure 8, is a dome, whose plan is a hexagon, and shows draw another line at right angles to the respective radii, and
how to divide a circle into any number of parts divide one- :
produce them upwards, as also the axis c B, so as to cut each
fourth of the circle into the number of parts you would have of the tangents from the several points in the curve ; then
the circle, as, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and always take four of them. each of these tangents, so limited, are the radii of the suc-
To find the backing of the curve-line hips, lay down the plan cessive ordinates ; the tangent at the bottom is of infinite
of the hip at the angle, as a; then take the distance 1, 2, at length, the next is limited, and the succeeding ones become
bottom, tack in a nail, then shift the hip-mould, and marking gradually shorter and shorter, till the tangent and the arc
by as 1 2, 3 4, 5 6, 7 8, 9, 10, will show the wood to come
it,
become nearly of one length. So that the ordinates of the
off." In this description, Mr. Pain proposes to find the board exhibited in Figure 4, are arcs of radii, respectively
division of a circle into any number of parts ; but as he does equal to the tangents; consequently, the bottom ordinate of
not mention any fixed ratio of these parts, they may be taken the board is a straight line, the next is the arc of a circle
at pleasure, without rule ; but allowing that he had neglected of a very flat curvature, the next is an arc of greater curva-
to name this condition, under which the circle was to be ture, and so each arc becoming quicker and quicker in its
divided, and suppose that he meant the parts to be equal, curvature, till they reach the summit of the board, which is
and to be found by a general method there is no regular
;
the last centre."
rule of performing this problem but by an approximation. The most eligible method in practice, founded upon evi-
If we allow that the quadrant can be divided into equal parts, dent principles, is to suppose the dome to become an equi-
we must also allow that the whole circle will contain four lateral and equiangular polygon, and suppose the axal section
times that number of parts ;
but the division of the quadrant ABC, Figure 5, perpendicular to one of the sidesof the dome
into equal parts is equally impossible with that of the whole to be given, and the curve A B to be divided into equal parts,
circle ; the rule is therefore absurd, and consequently it is and suppose the parts to be extended upon B c produced ;
only accomplishing one absurdity by another,
and wasting then, if lines be drawn through the divisions of the curve,
the reader's time to no purpose. In this problem, as in the and through the points of division in c B, produced perpen-
last, he has also neglected to inform
his reader how the hip dicular to the said B c ; and if B D be drawn perpendicular
isfound, though it is sufficiently clear on the plate to present to B c, equal to half the width of a board, and n c joined,
the idea of forming it to any intelligent person. and the ordinates produced so to meet D o ; then, if the
" is a dome on a circular a and I show lines parallel to B D, contained within the triangle B D c bo
Figure 9, plan ;
the section of the horizontal rib." successively taken towards c, and applied on the perpen-
" diculars from and on each side of c D produced ; then if curves
Figure 10, is a dome on an elliptic plan ; the centres for
the mould of the horizontal ribs d d, are a a, b b, c c, d d ; be drawn through the points at the extremities, they will ter-
the place of that rib on the plan is found by dropping dot minate the edges of a board, which will accurately cover a
lines from the sections dd: c c on the top, is designed for side of the polygonal dome.
a skylight." These descriptions are unintelligible. Let us now suppose the number of sides of this dome to
" be very great, then the sides will vary only in a very small
Plate XIII. Figure 1, shows the method for cutting the
boards to cover the dome ; divide the dome into as many degree, either from the inscribing or circumscribing sphere,
parts as you think it will take boards, and draw lines to cut and this variation will decrease as the number of sides is
the edges of each board, and where they meet the centre line, increased, and the excess or defect would become insensible ;

that is the centre for the edge of each board. This is drawn and if we suppose the sides to be infinite, the board which
one inch to a foot." This has already been shown and covers the side of the polygonal dome will accurately cover
described by Swan, but he is deficient in not representing the the inscribing or circumscribing spherical dome. This latter
boards as Pain has done the description of the former, how-
;
method is founded upon principle, but that of forming the
ever, though short, is much
clearer than that of the latter. bottom ends of the boards into curves is totally destitute of it.
he says, " is
Figure 2, is taken from the Practical House Carpenter, Figure 6, from Pain's British Palladia, which
but the description is to be found neither in the text nor on a pentagon to be covered with a domical roof. To find the
the It must therefore be left to the sagacity of the
plate.
curve of the boarding, divide the girth or curve of the rib on
reader to find it out. We suppose the diagram to represent the back into as many parts as you please, as here into four,
the method of covering a dome by bending .the boards with and draw them to the base-line of the rib e a, as 7, 8, 9 ;
the joints on vertical planes passing through the axis. This stretch out a the middle of the side, and 9 9, 8 8, 7 7,
b,
method has already been shown by several of the preceding parallel thereto
then take one of the divisions on the girth
;

authors, of whom
Price and Langley are the most accurate, of the rib, and set off from e to 7, 8, 9, b, and where that
and differ most mode of ascertaining the form of
as to the cuts the lines 77, 88, 99, b, there tack in nails, and bend
the board, but come to the same result at last. a thin slip to the nails, and mark from to b, as that curve
directs ; this will be one edge of the covering : prick these
Oakley, Hoppus, and Price, perform .the operation by
straight ordinates, whereas Langley and Pain do it by curved marks on the other side of the line a b, and proceed as before ;
ordinates : one method ascertains the form with as much ac- then will the or boarding be complete. The cover-
covering
is found in the same man-
curacy as the other, but the operation with straight ordinates ing or boarding of (Figure 7)
Pain even shows which to the girth of" the
requires much less trouble than the other. ner, is very plain inspection ;
 CAR 104 CAR
"rib being stretched out, and the parts set on as above ence, the greater will be the degree of curvature of the con-
directed." cavity and convexity of the sides of these boards.
When he says, " stretch out a b, the middle of the side, and Figure 9, No. 1, shows groins and arches, of different
9 9, 8 8, 7 7, parallel thereto," he is not intelligible however,
; descriptions, from the Practical House Carpenter. Pain
if we understand that a b is drawn at
right angles to the side divides this figure into several others, and distinguishes them
e d of the polygon, and 9 9, 8 8, 7 7, drawn parallel thereto, by letters of the alphabet. He only gives the following
the method which he uses will be found to be correct, and, "K
description on the plate :
centering for groins. L is a half
we believe, original. groin cutting under pitch, for a door or window, a a Welsh
" method for getting out the veneer,
Figure 8, shows the groin cutting under pitch. M is the method of tracing the
or cover for an elliptical dome or niche. Divide the circum- ribs and hips for a groin " N is
ceiling." Figure 9, No. 2,
ference of one quarter of the plan into any number of parts, a mould to bend over the body range ; K to get the lines
as here into 8, and draw them to the centre 4 ; let the first to set the jack-ribs by." The reader who has not already
line from the transverse diameter be the edge of the veneer ; acquired a competent knowledge of geometrical lines, will
the second line will be the middle of the next veneer ; the profit but little from this description. The showing of the
third will be the other edge of it, and so on :continue this jack-ribs upon the diagram is an improvement. Swan has
line out at pleasure : consider this line as a base, and draw shown them perspectively, but the geometrical method of
thereon a section of the dome, as No. 1 ; then divide the cir- representing them is more serviceable to the workman, as it
cumference into four parts, draw them, to the base-line at right shows the lengths of the ribs distinctly. He observes that
"
angles, and transfer those distances to the corresponding line Q is a Welsh groin cutting under pitch," but he docs not
on the plan ; then take the four parts on the girth, and run show how the crooked line, which he has exhibited, is obtained ;
them on the line stretched out, 1, 2, 3, 4, this will be the and even if he had shown it, the method of constructing the
length of the veneer ; set the compasses on the plan, and rib would still have been wanting. In the mould N, for
strike a curve-line of this radius ; then continue the middle groin-centering, in order to find the place, or curve-lines,
line of the veneer, and where it intersects, that curve-line on the boarding, for fixing the jack-ribs, he has given no
will be the point of veneer next the top of the dome ; from description, either in the text or on the plate, except that he
" "
this point set off the divisions 1, 2, 3, on the circumference writes, the arch line a stretched out," and half the base-
by curve-lines ; then take the width of the divisions 1, 2, 3, line b," upon the respective sides ; and, consequently, we
from the middle line of the plan, and set them on the same have no other instructions to inform us how the mould N is
line stretched out to cut them at their respective distances, found, than by inspecting the figure itself, and tracing out
the points of intersection will be the breadth of that side of the operation by the connection of the lines ; and even then
the veneer ; connect them by a curve-line from the plan to the we are left in the dark as to its application. The moulds for
point, and you have one edge complete. For the veneer on groin-centering upon this principle, were first shown by
the transverse diameter, this edge will serve as a mould ; or Price, as well for finding the angles of the jack-ribs, as the
you may set the half of the veneer to the other side of the form of the boarding.
"
plan, and draw a chord-line from these points ; set this off figure 10, from the Practical House Carpenter, is a bevel
that distance of the arch (the little curve) to be outside, and roof; the sides are parallel on one part of the plan, the other
draw a line parallel to the chord-line, on which set off the bevels. To frame this roof in lodgement, the principal rafters
breadth of the veneer on both sides, then with the whole must be framed to a level base; that is, the ends of the
length of the other veneer in the compasses, set one foot on beams all of one height from the face of the plate ; when
that breadth, and strike a curve-line to cut the middle line you come to lay them the other way, to frame in the purlins,
on the transverse diameter; or repeat the curve from the there must be winding sticks held to the bases of the rafters,
other side, and where they cross will be the point of that which winding sticks must be all out of winding and as the ;

veneer, from whence set off the divisions, and proceed as width of the building diminishes, the backs of the rafters
before. But as the radii of an oval are of different lengths, will lie in winding, as they will when in their places and ;

to get the other edge of the veneer, make a section as before, mind that they are backed according to the bevel of the plan,
(see No. 2,) and set off, as before, the divisions on the base and for turning them up to tumble in the purlins ; by this method
plan, and strike the divisions on the girth, from the point of the business may be well completed." Allowing that the
the veneer stretched out, intersect them from the plan, and heels of the rafters are cut to their proper bevels with the
those points connected will give the other side of that veneer, backs, the application of winding sticks to such short distances
whieh will be a mould for the next adjoining ; proceed again will never make the sides fall accurately into their proper
for every veneer by transferring that length from the plan, winding. This is altogether a mechanical operation ; but it
and the shortest length from the point; repeat the same would have been no difficult task to have shown an operation
operation for every veneer required. strictly geometrical.
Note. "The conjugate and transverse diameters will have The foregoing remarks will be found to contain a fair and
the two sides of the veneer equal. Observe, only four parts impartial statement of the geometrical improvements and
are used, to prevent confusion in the figure ; but the greater errors of the several writers on Carpentry, at least as far as
number of parts, the truer the line. Again, if your boards they have come to our knowledge we' shall now, in con-
:

will suit, divide the plan to their number, and proceed as clusion, draw a general result from the whole of their
before for every board respectively." theories, and endeavour to trace the progress of the art
This method is so absurd in every particular, that the towards its present state of comparative perfection.
The method of bracketing which is said to be
coverings obtained are erroneous in the greatest degree; hip-rafters,
indeed, it leaves no room for argument, and we shall only the invention of a Mr. Pope, of London, was originally pre-
observe, that in the true form of the boards, between the sented to the public by Godfrey Richards, who also first
the
extremities of the greater and less axis, in any one of the represented roof in lodgements, in order to ascertain
four quarters, one side of the board would be concave and several lengths and angles which the rafters make with each
the other convex, where the dome has a considerable differ- other.
ence in its axis ; and the greater this eccentricity or differ- The use of the trammel in common cases; the description
 CARTPENTRY /'/.///; xni

.
In

ff
Tig

Drawn fy P Nirhols-on ,.
 CAR 105 CAR
of a curve through points, by bending a
lath, or slip of wood ; hints ;
but his errors are numerous, and his inventions few.
cove-bracketing, and the construction of ribs in groined His more unintelligible than that of
text, also, is
any writer
ceilings, disposed in vertical planes, were first shown by who preceded him in this art.
Halfpenny. In the latter, however, he divides the bases into The inventions and discoveries of the writers
equal parts, in order to place the ordinates, which is incon- be reduced to the following Sections of
quoted, may
venient ; for the equi-distance of the ordinates leaves a
:
prisms at right
ve/y angles to one side or plane of the prism coverings of
large portion of the curves at each extremity, where they
;

prismatic and conic surfaces, in the most simple cases; and

are quickest, to be traced only by the This writer also the method of
eye. ascertaining the lengths and backings of hips.
first described the formation of
spherical and spheroidal niches, To these principles, the Author of the ARCHITECTURAL
upon semi-circular and semi-elliptic plans, with semi-circular DICTIONARY has added those of the intersection of one
and semi-elliptic faces, under the names of semi-circular and piano
with another, the latter
resting on three lines perpendicular
elliptic niches. to the former the geometrical construction of all cases in
;
To Price we owe the mode of framing roofs in
lodgement, spherical trigonometry, by solid angles; sections of a prism,
with all the beams and rafters laid out on a plane
though ; cone, or cuncoid, through any three given points ; the section
itmust be remembered that the general outline had been of a prism making a given
angle with a given parallelo-
previously described by Godfrey Richards. The squaring gramniatic section of such prism, and passing through any
of the purlin of a circular dome, and of a conic roof or
sky- given line on the said section ; the section of a cone passing
the backing of angle-brackets
light ;
(and consequently of through any line on a given axal or vertical section, and
ribs in general) by shifting the mould of the rib ; the ordi- making a given angle with that section; the section through
nary construction of groin-centering, an<] moulds for drawing any three given points on the surface of a body, of such
the diagonal lines at the feet of the
jack-ribs; the covering property that all sections parallel to a certain plane will be
of domes, by bending the boards from the base to the vertex similar figures, having the scats and heights of the
;
points
and the stretching out of the surfaces of coved
ceilings, were upon one of the similar planes, and another section of the
also first described by this writer.
body in a given position to that plan, cutting all the said
To the writings of Batty Langley we are indebted for the similar sections the sections of various other bodies, whose
;
extension of the superficies of polygonal roofs with curvilinear
properties are defined ; the formation of the edge of a thin
rafters; and likewise the covering of the frustum of a semi- pliable surface, which, when bent upon the surface of a prism,
cone for a soffit in a straight wall, with the axis of the cone
may coincide in its edge with a section passing through any
at right angles to the plane of the wall. three given points on the surface of the said
prism ; the
The principle of forming boards to cover a dome, with the formation of the edge of a surface, to fit a conic section,
in
joints running horizontal planes, or on the surface of a passing through any three given points on the surface of the
cone with a vertical axis, was laid down
by Swan. cone, while such surface and that of the cone coincide ; the
That of extending the superficies of a semi-cylinder on a formation of the edge of a thin pliable surface to lit the sec-
plane, for the soffit of an aperture in a circular wall, with tion of a body cut by any prismatic surface, while the
pliable
the axis of the cylinder at right surface coincides with that of the section made by the
angles to the surface of such pris-
wall, so as to cover the surface of the cylinder contained matic surface ; the properties of the body being such, that
between the two walls and each spring of the
aperture, was all sections parallel to a certain
plane will be similar figures,
first exhibited by
Pain; as was likewise the principle of given a section of the body parallel to one of these sections,
squaring purlins for an elliptic dome, though very imperfectly. and another cutting all the said similar sections in a given
The sum total of the geometrical constructions by these position, and the intersections of the given planes on each
writers, may be comprised as follows the use of the trammel ;
: other.
drawing curved lines through points ; ascertaining the lengths These subjects include the finding of the sections of cylin-
of rafters, and the
backing of heps for both straight and ders and cones, spheres and spheroids, and the coverings of
curvilinear rafters ;
framing of roof's in lodgement, whether these bodies, under the circumstances already stated. To these,
rectangular or bevel on the plan ; squaring purlins for circular the author has added the following inventions or discoveries,
or elliptic domes and cones; the construction of curvilinear
viz., the method of extending the surface of a cylinder or
ribs for angle-brackets, and plaster groins ;
polygonal roofs, cylindroid, being the centre of an arched aperture in an
centerings of groins; forming a conic soffit in a straight oblique wall, terminated by the faces of the said wall ; and
wall, with the axis of the cone at right angles to its surface ;
the covering of the surface of a part of a semi-cone, being
forming a cylindric soffit in a circular wall, with an horizontal the centre of an aperture, with its axis oblique to the surface
axis ; and the
covering of polygonal roofs or domes with of the wall which terminates such covering. In ascending
boards, whose joints fall either in horizontal or vertical planes. groins, he has likewise shown the centering
for brickwork,
These inventions, however, are far from being laid down and ribbing for plastering ; the construction of polygonal and
in the most annular groins, both level and ascending in a spiral, whether
happy manner. The text of these authors is
frequently obscure, and their diagrams, which have little for centering or ribbing ; cylindro-cylindric arches, or what
connection with it, are badly projected, and little calculated are commonly, but improperly, denominated Welsh arches ;
to inform they have likewise so far neglected the requisite and circular walls, under
spherical niches, both for straight
:

arrangement, that their subjects are thrown together in a any circumstances the true methods of constructing penden-
:

promiscuous jumble, without either attention to the affinity tive or spandrel ceilings, either spherical or spheroidal ; the
of their principles, or their order of succession in practice. bevels of purlins in all positions to the common rafters; the
Of the several works quoted, Price's alone can justly claim formation of boards for covering spherical domes, without
the title of a treatise on
carpentry. laying down either plan or section of the dome, entirely
Langley general tolerably intelligent ; he has treated on
is in within the boards themselves ; the forming of the lower
all that has been done by his predecessors, and has attempted boards, without centres, in the covering of a dome, with the
many things of his own ; but his labours have not been suc- joints in horizontal planes ; the
formation of boards to cover
cessful. a spheroidal dome, with the joints of the boards in vertical
In the diagrams of Pain, we find some useful practical planes ; the covering of an elliptic
dome with one mould
14
 CAR 106 CAR
only ;
the covering of a spheroidal dome with boards having wished to construct ; by losing sight of which, they have
their joints in parallel vertical planes; the construction of fallen into puerile operations, and drawn erroneous infer-
a dome with horizontal ribs, without taking the trouble to ences.
square them by horizontal and vertical faces ;
the method of In the course of this work, we shall treat of the several
cutting purlins and jack-rafters to fit the hips, without laying branches of the building art, and each article of those
the roof in lodgement ; principles for the equilibrium of poly- branches, in a manner similar to this on Carpentry ; and all
gonal roofs without ties, so that the rafters may obtain a given inventions, as well useful as otherwise, with every unsuccess-
ratio among themselves, provided the abutments be sufficient ; ful attempt at geometrical construction, will be noticed under
a principle for preventing rafters without intermediate ties, their respective heads.
from having any lateral pressure ; these two latter inven- It is now only necessary to observe, briefly, that as the
tions have been several years before the public, in the archi- arrangement and classification of the subjects, as well as the
tectural plates of Rees's Cyclopaedia. To these might be mode of conceiving and presenting them in the diagrams, are
added various other principles of less importance, which it is altogether different from those adopted by the writers who
not necessary to recapitulate in this place. In most of the have preceded us in this department, so it is believed, that
subjects above alluded to, he has given more than one method tliis method will display the art of carpentry in a novel point

of operation, and in some instances he has multiplied his of view, and reduce it to that pure scientific form it has never
examples to live or six different modes of practice. One or hitherto acquired. But notwithstanding all that has been
two of the inventions in the foregoing list, he acknowledges, done, and the great advances made in the art since the pub-
are only his own by their new application, the principles lication of the various works we have been examining, it is

being known prior to his time ; but he has adapted them to evident that the subject is not exhausted, but is still suscep-
subjects to which they were never before applied ; and he tible of many improvements. Such improvements will
conceives that it requires at least as much ingenuity, and is doubtless be effected, in by the labours of abler
time,
frequently attended with more utility, to be able to apply an men who will carry to perfection the science and prac-
old or well-known principle to an useful object, as to discover tice of an art so important and so interesting as that of
a principle destitute of practical application he has, therefore,
:
Carpentry.
not scrupled to include them in the list of his discoveries. CARPION, a Grecian architect, who wrote a treatise on
Nor has he, while thus claiming credit for himself, denied it theTemple of Minerva, in the citadel of Athens.
to others ; as may be seen in his remarks on Pain's lining of CARRIAGE OP A WOODEN STAIR, the frame of timber-
a cylindric soffit in a circular wall, the principle of which was work which supports the steps.
previously laid down by Price, in his centerings of groins. The carriage of a flight of steps, supported on one side by
The inventions which the author has thus appropriated to a wall, generally consists of two pieces of timber, inclined to
himself, are the following the application of the principle
: the pitch of the stair. These pieces are called rough-strings,
of covering the surface of the frustum of a cone to a spheroidal or carriages.
dome, with the joints in vertical planes the application of the
;
When a geometrical stair consists of two alternate flights,
principle of covering an oblong spheroidal dome by one mould with a half pace between, the carriage of the half pace con-
only ; and the application of the principle shown by Price, sists of a beam parallel to the risers of the steps, and several
in his centering of groins, to a cylindric soffit for an aper- joists framed into the beam, for the support of the boarding.
ture in a straight wall, with its axis oblique to the surface The beam which sustains the joists, is called the apron-piece,
of such wall which latter was likewise attempted by Pain,
;
and that which sustains the rough strings at the upper end
but without success. is called a pitchiny-piece. The joists of the half pace are
The author has not been able fully to satisfy himself as to sometimes tenoned into the pitching-piece, and sometimes
the extension of the surface for the head of an aperture, bridge over it ; but the steps of both flights are supported by
splaying in the sides and level on the crown, so that the aper- string-pieces, as before. The upper ends of the string-pieces
ture shall form a semi-circle on one side of the wall, and a at the landing, rest upon an horizontal piece of timber, deno-

semi-ellipsis on the other or a semi-ellipsis on each side, but

;
minated an apron-piece.
of different horizontal dimensions, though of the same height, If the steps wind round a circular newel, the carriage of
lie is, however, convinced, that though the form be not geome- the circular part consists of uprights and bearers, the latter
trically true, it is much more correct than anything attempted of which are wedged into the wall ; though it will answer the
by Langley or Pain; and on it, he has accordingly founded purpose as well, to frame them into a string placed against
the principle by which alone the nature of the solid itself the wall. The uprights and bearers are either framed with
can be understood. And though unsuccessful in his attempts mortises and tenons, or are dovetailed together.
to extend the surface exactly, he has had the satisfaction of When the staircase is of the dog-leg kind, with winders and
laying down such lines as will apply to the surface of the a close newel, the carriage is formed of bearers let into the
solid with far greater accuracy and dispatch, than could be wall, and fixed to the newel post. For
more information, see
obtained by the mechanical operation of plumbing the lines STAIR-CASING and HAND-RAILING.
from the plan; by applying the distances on the plan upon CARTELLI. See CARTOUCHES.
their respective level lines on the surface of the solid, all CARTON, or CARTOON (a French term, signifying thick
drawn from one vertical line resting on the point where the paper, or pasteboard), in painting, a design
on strong paper,
two sides of the splay come in contact. By this means the to be afterwards chalked through, and transferred on a newly-
line of every wall may be found correctly on the surface, plastered wall, which is to be painted
in fresco. The word
whether the wall be straight or curved, or whether the axis is also used for a coloured design, that is to be wrought into

of the solid stand oblique or at right angles to its sur- mosaic or tapestry.
face ; which cannot be done by any other method hitherto CARTOUCHES, or CARTOOZES (French, from the Italian
used in the cornices
attempted. Cartoccio), a kind of blocks or modillions,
In conclusion, it may be
observed, that writers on carpen- of wainscoted apartments ; differing from modillions in being
try have frequently been unsuccessful, for want of grounding confined to the interior, whereas modillions are applied both
their schemes upon the simple principles of the bodies they externally and internally.
 CAB 107 CAR
CARTOUCHES, are ornaments representing a scroll of paper, ration is carried to so great an extent, that nothing less
usually in the form of a tablet, with wavings, whereon is tlian a close and
diligent inspection will suffice to unfold its
some inscription or device. beauties.
They are sometimes drawn on paper, as in the titles of CARVEL-BUILT, in ship-building, when the edges
maps, &c., and are sometimes made of stone, brick, plaster, of the planks join each other, the vessel is said to be carvel
wood, &c., for buildings. built. This term is used in contradistinction to clinker-built,
Norden uses this term to signify the winged globe, usually which is when the edges of the planks are lapped upon each
placed over the middle aperture of Egyptian buildings. other.
CARVED WORK, all those mouldings, planes, or other CARVER, an artist in the carving of wood.
employed
surfaces which are cut into ornaments, representing, in CARVING, the art of cutting a body by
in general, is
relief or in recession, foliages, animals, utensils, historical recession, in order to form upon it various fanciful represen-
events, &c. tations, as foliages, flowers, fruit, animals, landscapes, or his-
Mouldings are generally carved with leaves, honeysuckles, torical events, either in relief, or recessed within a general
lions' heads, beads, egg and tongue, egg and dart, guilloches, surface. In this sense, carving comprehends both statuary
reeds, flutes, &c. Tori are carved with guilloches, reeds, and and engraving, the latter upon either wood, stone, metal, or
flutes. Astragals are carved with beads, of various forms, any other material.
strung together. In a more particular sense, carving is the art of cutting
Ovolos, with egg and tongue, and at the corners with honey- wood, as in the above definition. See CARVED WORK.
suckles, as in Grecian architecture ; or with egg and dart, and CARYAT1C, whatever relates to the ancient country of
sometimes with leaves, as in Roman architecture. the Carians.
Sima-rectas, with honeysuckles, of various forms, con- CARYATIO ORDER, an order of architecture, whose entabla-
nected with scrolls and lions' heads at certain intervals, as in ture is supported by female figures instead of columns the:

Grecian architecture ; or with leaves of various kinds, as in figures themselves arc culled C'aryatiJic, Cart/ales, or Carians.
Roman architecture. Sima-inversas, with leaves, stalks, &c., The Caryatic order differs from the Persian in having the
enclosed in borders. entablature supported by females, whereas in the latter it is
Facias and large surfaces, with foliage interwoven or wind- supported by males. 8ee PERSIAN ( )KER.
ing, or with historical subjects from the heathen mythology, The history of these orders, as related by Vitruvius, is as
a;id sometimes with flutes, fillets, &c. follows :

"
But of all carved work none is so beautiful as that left us Caria, a city of Peloponnesus, having joined with the
by the Gothic architects. Of the styles comprised, under Persians against the Grecian states, and the Greeks having
this denomination, carving is one principal feature, and it is put an end to the war by a glorious victory, with one consent
surprising to what perfection the art arrived ; during this declared war against the Caryatides. They took the city,
period of the dark ages, as they are called, it advanced gra- destroyed it, slew the men, and led the matrons into captiv-
dually, and passed through many stages ere it arrived at its ity, not permitting them to wear
the habits anil ornaments
fullmaturity, from the simple and somewhat barbaric mould- of their sex they were not only led in triumph, but were
:

ings of the Normans, to the luxuriant foliage of the Deco- loaded with scorn, and kept in continual servitude, tlnis suffer-
rated, or the elaborate richness of the Florid styles ; and yet ing for the crimes of their city. The architects, therefore, of
even the carving of the earlier periods is by no means to be those days, introduced their effigies sustaining weights, in the
public buildings, that the remembrance of the
crime of
despised; the specimens belonging to the Early English
style, although somewhat stiff and harsh, possessed a sim- the Caryatides might be transmitted to posterity. The
plicity and chasteness which was never afterwards surpassed. Lacedaemonians, likewise, under the command of Pausanias,
The Decorated style lays claim to the highest rank in carved the son of Cleombrotus, having, at the battle of Platen, with
enrichment, it approaches nearest to nature ; indeed, it is a small number, vanquished a numerous army of Persians,
almost nature herself, only changed in substance ; everything solemnized the triumph, by erecting, with the spoils and
connected with this period is full of grace and elegance. In plunder, the Persian portico, as a trophy, by
which to trans-
the next, or Perpendicular style, the flowing lines of the pre- mit to posterity the remembrance of the valour and honour
ceding period were deserted for the straight; or if curved lines of the citizens ; introducing therein the statues of the cap-
were introduced, they were of a character purely geometrical ; tives, adorned with habits in the barbarian manner, support-
the method adopted was rather artificial than natural, and we ing the roof."
see but few examples of foliage such as is found in the pre- Whether this account is correct, in any respect, scorns
vious styles ; there was, however, an elaborateness and doubtful ; it is certainly incorrect as far as it relates to the
exuberance at this period never before attempted ; in some origin of the order, but whether
its distinguishing appellation

is rightly attributed to the above circumstances, remains

instances, to such an extent was carved enrichment employed,
that scarcely any portion of the plane surface was discernible. a matter for consideration ; we think the evidence is decidedly
first place, be it remembered, there
This is very conspicuous in the fan-work, as it is termed, against Vitruvius. In the
which was introduced into the vaulted roofs we would espe- is no allusion made to such circumstances by the Greek his-
;

the Seventh's torians and in an inscription brought from Athens by Dr.

cially cite, as an example, the roof of Henry ;

Chapel, Westminster, than which, we suppose, there exists Chandler, containing a description of the temple of Pandrosus,
not a more elaborate specimen of carving, at least in a work the figures are called K.OQO.I, or damsels, and are thence natu-
of such magnitude. The light and beautiful pendents of this rally supposed to represent
the maidens engaged in the
celebration of the Panathenaic festival. Mr. Gwilt, who was
chapel afford a magnificent specimen of the most enriched
and delicate sculpture. Other examples of the same kind, the first to remark upon the incorrectness of the account of
Vitruvius, is of opinion, that the figures -were named
after
are St. George's Chapel, Windsor, and the Chapel of King's
College, Cambridge. Equally beautiful specimens
of carving, the goddess Diana, to whom the title Caryatis was given by
sometimes even of a more minute description, may be seen the Lacedaemonians, from the circumstance of her having
in works of a smaller kind, such as fonts, altar-screens, &c., made known to them the story of Carya, daughter of Dion,
more especially in the latter, in some of which the elabo- king of Laconia, who was turned into a nut-tree by Bacchus.
 CAR 108 CAR
With respect to the epithet, Caryatis, we are inclined to of the three Grecian orders, according as they were them-
think rather that the goddess obtained this surname from selves decorated.
being worshipped especially at Carya, near Sparta, where she Male figures may be introduced with propriety, in arsenals,
had a temple, and where also the Lacedaemonian virgins cele- or galleries of armour, in guard-rooms, and other places
brated an annual festival in honour of her ; but as regards devoted to military affairs ; they may either represent the
the main point in question, we think there can be little doubt figures of captives, or of martial virtues ; such as Strength,
but that, as is evidenced by an old commentator on Statius, Valour, Wisdom, Prudence, Fortitude, &c.
the term Caryatides was applied to the virgins employed As these figures should be of a striking character, they
in the service of Diana, and that female figures were first may be of any colossal size that will agree with the archi-
employed in the architecture of the Greek temples as repre- tecture of other parts of the building.
sentations of the virgins engaged about the service of the In composing Caryatides, the most graceful attitudes and
deity to whom the temples were dedicated. pleasant features should be chosen ; and, to prevent an
That the fgures of men and animals were used for the appearance of stiffness, the drapery and features should be
purpose of supports in the place of columns, long before they varied in the different figures of the range ; at the same
were so employed by the Greeks, is well known. That time, a general uniformity of shape should be preserved
they were not uncommon in Egypt, we learn from Diodorus throughout. They should always be of a moderate size, or
Siculus, who informs us, that the roof of the hall in the they will appear monstrous, and destroy those sensations,
sepulchre of King Osymandyas, was supported by animals which representations of the fair sex ought to inspire.
instead of pillars, each composed of a single stone, and Le Clerc says they may be advantageously employed for
twenty-four feet in height. Psammeticus also employed sustaining the canopy of a throne in which case, they
:

colossalstatues twelve cubits in height in the propylseum should be represented under the figures and symbols of heroic
which he erected on the east side of the temple at Memphis. virtues. In banqueting-rooms, ball-rooms, or other apart-
In Denon's Travels in Egypt, we find, among other ments of recreation, they must bear such characteristics as
frag-
ments, representations of five insulated pilasters or pillars, are calculated to inspire mirth and promote festivity.
bearing an entablature ; the fronts of which are decorated As Termini are susceptible of a variety of decorations,
with priests or divinities. they may be employed as embellishments for gardens and
We find several instances of a similar application of men fields where they may represent Jupiter, the protector of
;

and animals, in one case of elephants, in the temples of boundaries ; or some of the rural deities, as Pan, Flora,
India, as in the temple of Elephanta, that near Vellore, and Pomona, Vertumnus, Ceres, Priapus, Faunus, Sylvanus,
several others. Nymphs, and Satyrs. They are also much employed in
The molten spoken of in Holy Writ, was supported
sea, chimney-pieces and other interior compositions.
by twelve bulls and in the Odyssey of Homer, book vii.
; CASE (from the French, caisse,) an outside covering,
verse 118, we find the effigies of animals, both rational and envelope, box, or sheath applied generally to such coverings
;

irrational, employed as decorations. We

do not learn, how- as completely surround the object enclosed. In building, it
ever, that these latter representations were employed as means the shell or carcase of a house.
columns to support an entablature and there is reason to
; CASK-BATS, in naked flooring, the joists framed between
believe that they were nothing more than ornamental sculp- a pair of girders. Flooring-joists framed with one of their
tures. In Stewart's Antiquities of Athens, we find a most ends let into a girder, and their other ends inserted in the
beautiful specimen of Caryatic figures supporting an entabla- wall, are called tail-bays. The case-bays officers and roofs
ture, consisting of an architrave cornice of a very elegant should not exceed ten feet.
profile. CASE OF A DOOR, a wooden frame, in which the door is
The examples to be found amongst the Greeks are those
hung ; door-cases are either constructed of architraves and
in the temple of Pandrosus, and five specimens out of six linings, or wrought framed, rebated, and beaded ; in the latter
previously existing, supporting an entablature adjacent to case they are called door-frames.
the temple of Erectheus. In this case there is no frieze, but CASE OF A STAIR, a name given to a wall by which a
the entablature is carried to an extraordinary height. staircase is surrounded.
Various fragments of male figures are also met with among CASED, a term in masonry, indicating that the outside
the Roman antiquities, which, from their attitudes and orna- of a building is covered or faced with materials of better
ments, appear to have supported the entablatures of buildings. quality than those of the backing or inside of the walls.
Besides Caryatides and Persians, it is sometimes customary Thus brick walls are frequently cased with stone, or with
to support the entablatures with figures, of which the upper the best kind of bricks. See WALL.
part represents the head and breast of the human body, and CASED SASH-FRAMES, have their vertical sides hollow, to
the lower part an inverted frustrum of a square pyramid, with conceal the weights for hanging the sashes. See SASH-FRAME.
the feet sometimes projecting out below, as if the body had CASEMATE, a cove, or hollow cylindrical moulding,
been partly cased figures of this form are called Termini ;
:
the section of which is from one-sixth to one-fourth part of
and had their origin in stones used by the ancients for mark- a circle.
ing out the limits of property belonging to individuals. Numa CASEMENTS, sashes or glass frames, opening on hinges,
Pompilius, in order to render these boundaries sacred, con- and revolving upon one of their vertical edges. When
verted the Terminus into a deity, and built a a casement fills the whole aperture, it is called a single case-
temple, dedicated
to him, on the Tarpeian Mount, wherein he was ment ; and when two are used, they are called double case-
represented
by a stone, which in the course of time was sculptured into ments, folding casements, or French sashes.
the form of a human head and shoulders, with the lower Casements are more liable to admit rain, wind, or snow,
parts as we have just described. On particular occasions, in stormy weather, than vertical sliding sashes, particularly
this idol was adorned with garlands. at the bottom,when they open from the inside.
Persian figures are generally charged with a Doric entab- CASING OF TIMBER-WORK is when the outside of a
lature ; the Caryatides, with an Ionic or Corinthian archi- timber building is plastered all over with mortar after which
;

trave cornice ; and the Termini, with an entablature of it is made to resemble stone-work, by striking it, while wet.
any
 CAS 109 CAS
with the edge of a trowel, or other implement,
guided by a century, by casting the plaster ornaments in moulds previously
rule. This operation is best performed on heart laths, because prepared for the purpose, so that from a single mould might
the mortar is apt to cause a rapid decay in
sap laths. The be produced a number of casts, thus
reducing the expense
coating is commonly laid in two thicknesses, the second considerably. Soon afterwards.another material was employed
being applied before the first is dry. in similar decorations this was the
; pulp of paper, which was
CAST (from the Danish, kaster, to throw), in plastering, very generally used, though not so extensively as plaster ;
a piece of insulated plaster, originally formed in a
cavity, through the poverty of the designs in this material, as well
the bottom of which is the reverse of the face of the cast. as the imperfection in the
The operation is thus performed a small machinery of those days, it fell
quantity of into disuse, and was at last
:
entirely superseded by plaster.
plaster of Paris is mixed with water in a bason, or pan, and The latter material, however, could not
produce the desired
stirred up with a spatula, till thoroughly
incorporated ; more ultimatum, it answered very well so long as the Greek style
plaster is then added by degrees, till the mixture assumes of ornamentation prevailed ; but when this was
superseded
a moderate consistency, such as to flow on all sides when
by the French, Flemish, and Elizabethan, its defects were
poured on a horizontal surface; the mould being slightly seriously felt : it was by no means calculated to express the
oiled or greased, to prevent adhesion, the fantastic forms of the latter, or the luxuriant richness of
liquid plaster is
poured in, so as to fill the mould, or something more. When the former styles,
especially when, as was frequently the
stiffened in a small degree, the superfluous
parts are scraped case, the design was marked by bold projection and deep
off to the middle, or in several parts at the
edges ; when it undercutting. This difficulty led to a new trial of the
begins to heat, which happens in a few minutes, it will be carton pierre, or papier macho as it is now called, whicli, by
sufficiently hard then, if the mould be made of wax, it may
: the aid of improved machinery, and a greater knowledge
be removed by bending it away from the cast, gently at the of chemical and general science, has been advanced to a
high
edges, quite round, using the parts left on the surface as state of excellence, and is in
every respect superior to plaster
handles; and proceeding gradually towards the centre, till casts previously One invaluable advantage it
employed.
the cast is quite relieved ; but if the material of the mould
possesses, is, that preserves the indents and undercutting
it
be brimstone, a slight knock on the back will relieve it. As of the original or mould, however much recessed ; in fact,
this operation can only be performed in the direction of a it can
readily l>c made to assume any form, however intricate.
straight line, no part of the cast near the bottom of the mould Add to this its hardness and durability, its adaptation to
must project from this line to a greater distance than any external ornaments, for it is known to have remained unin-
part more remote, otherwise it cannot be drawn out without jured for many years, though exposed to the vicissitudes of
breaking such projections. If more relief is
required, than the weather; its
indestructibility by vermin, its lightness,
what can be given by the mould, the cast must be undercut and its sharpness, and truth of outline, and its superiority to
with a knife. plaster, will not be for a moment questioned. In many of
If the impression can be relieved of the mould, the cast the above particulars, it is
superior even to wood, to which
may be of one piece ; otherwise it must be made in several it is in some
respects similar, for it may be cut with a saw
segments, and in such manner as may best conceal the joinings. or chisel, bent by heat or steam, and even planed and smoothed
Plaster casts are sometimes used for mouldings, instead with sand-paper. Further, its lightness will allow it to be
of working them by hand, in situations where they cannot fixed in any situation, without fear of displacement, and it
be conveniently run with a mould. requires but nails or screws, and even in some cases only
An exact representation of an original piece of sculpture, needle-points, to secure it firmly in its position. It holds
or even of a living animal, may be taken, whether pre-eminence over plaster, in as much as it will receive
generally
concave or convex, by using the original as a mould on ;
colour very readily, and gilding much more so than the
which, having first oiled or greased the parts in a slight generality of materials to which such enrichment is applied.
degree, pour the plaster, as just directed; and this impression Another article which has of late been introduced as a
is in its turn to be used as a mould, and will substitute for the above materials, is embossed leather, which
give a fac-simile
of the original. in some instances is superior to either of them. It can be

Pliny mentions the.

casting of faces from nature, as being made to assume any degree of relief short of the complete
early in practice among the Greeks. round, and it preserves all the sharpness and fineness of out-
This useful art supplies the painter and sculptor with line possessed by the mould from which it is cast. The
exact representations from nature, whether of men, brute moulds in this process arc of metal, into which the leather
animals, draperies, or plants; it multiplies models of all previously prepared by steaming, is forced by a combination
kinds, and is now brought to such perfection, that casts of of hydraulic and pneumatic preasure, by which extraordinary
antique statues are made perfectly similar to their prototypes, power the finest lines on the mould are repeated with the
It might be supposed from
except only with respect to colour and materials. greatest accuracy on the copy.
The introduction of plaster in architectural decorations, the nature of the material, that this delicacy of outline would
dates from the prevalence of the style called by us the be deteriorated by time, or that the cast might be altogether
Elizabethan, but its influence is more conspicuous during destroyed by damp ; but there is really no ground for appre-
the succeeding or Italian style. It was first employed in hensions of this nature, as the casts are found under all
carved and paneled wainscoting, and in the enrichment of circumstances to preserve, undintinished in the minutest
the highly-decorated ceilings, which were a prominent feature details, the form transferred to them from the original mould,
in buildings of the period. At the first onset, however, the and to be improved and hardened rather than injured by age.
plaster was not cast, but each individual ornament moulded This material has an advantage in the facility with which it
by hand, fixed in the situation which it was intended after- can be made to imitate old carved work ; indeed, when intro-
wards to occupy ; it was indeed merely the substitution of duced in the restoration of such works, it is difficult to
distinguish the original from
the imitation; it may be
plaster for wood, and the only advantage consisted in the
facility with which the former could be carved, whereas
coloured or gilded as desired. It is applicable to all kinds
the execution of the latter was difficult. This advantage of interior decorations, such as cornices, friezes, &c., and has
was further extended at the commencement of the eighteenth been employed even in the entire paneling of rooms.
 CAS 110 CAS
Another material which, until very recently, was entirely of hardness in the body, occasioned by knots, &c. This effect
unknown to us, but which, since its first introduction, has is otherwise called warping.
come into extensive use, threatens to prove a formidable CASTING OF BRICK OR STONE WALLS. See ROUGH CAST.
rival to the above-mentioned articles we allude to Gutta CASTING OF BRONZES, is thus performed The figure to be:

Percha. This substance has not been tested sufficiently to cast from must have a mould made on it, consisting of a mix-
allow us to speak decidedly as to its applicability to the pur- ture of plaster-of-paris and brick-dust, in the proportion of
poses we are considering; it is moulded into cornices, panels, not more than one-third of the former, to two-thirds of the
and other forms of architectural decoration, and is on many latter. The thickness of this mould must be according to its
accounts eligible for such uses ; it can be moulded, cast, length and breadth, in order to be sufficiently strong. Little

stamped, or embossed, into any form however elaborate, and channels, tending upwards, should be cut in various parts of the
is
susceptible of colour ; it has, however, disadvantages which joints, to give vent to the air forced out by the metal as it runs
for the present must preclude its employment ; for, although into the mould. After the mould is made, a thin layer of clay
it promises considerable hardness, it is readily injured by is spread smoothly and
uniformly over its inner surface, of the
contact with any sharp body ; besides this, it is liable to intended thickness of the bronze ; the mould is then closed,
soften and liquify when exposed to an elevated temperature. and its cavity filled with a composition of two-thirds brick-
This last defect has been modified by a process to which the dust and one-third plaster, mixed with water, to form the core ;
material is subjected in its manufacture, which is termed previous to which, should the work be of any magnitude, it
metallo-thionising, but still it has not been entirely removed. will be necessary to insert strong irons bars within the mould,
The properties of this production, however, have not yet to secure it from accidents, and to facilitate the removal of
been sufliciently developed to decide upon its capabilities; the core. The mould being then opened, and the clay
many improvements will doubtless be introduced into its removed, is with the core thoroughly dried ; to effect which
manufacture, as its nature becomes more fully understood. more perfectly, they are exposed to the action of a charcoal
CAST, among plumbers, a little brazen funnel at one end fire or lighted straw; great attention is required to this part
of a mould, for casting pipes without soldering, through of the process, for should the least moisture be suffered to
which the melted metal is poured into the mould. remain, the mould will burst, and the cast be blown to pieces,
CAST, Rough. See BOUGH CAST. to the great danger of the lives or limbs of the workmen.
CASTELLA, or CASTLES, in British antiquity, one of the When the mould is finally closed, the cord must be supported
three kinds of fortifications built along the line of the wall in its place by short bars of bronze, running from the mould
of Severus, the other two sorts being denominated stations and into the core. The whole then is bound round with iron
towers. The Castella were neither so large nor strong as the bars, proportioned in strength to the weight of the cast, and
stations, but much more numerous, there being in this wall no laid in a proper situation for receiving the metal, supported
fewer than 81. The figure of the castellum was cubical, 66 by dry materials, as sand-stones, &c., to prevents accidents.
feet in each dimension, fortified on every side by thick and In placing the mould, due care must be taken to connect its
lofty walls, but without any ditch, except on the north side, mouth with the reservoirs, by means of a channel on an
where also the wall was raised much above its general inclined plane, that the liquid metal may run freely. The
height, and with the adjoining ditch formed the fortification. form of the furnace, and mode of running, are similar to
Thecastella were placed in the intervals between the sta- those practised in bell-founding.
tions, generally at the distance of about seven fin-longs from CASTING OF LEAD. See PLUMBING.
each other, and guards were constantly kept in them, consist- CASTLE (from the Latin, castellum, a diminutive of
ing of a certain number of men, detached from the nearest castrum), in ancient writers, a town or village surrounded
stations. See CASTLE. with a ditch, and wall furnished with towers at intervals, and
CASTELLA, in Roman antiquity, also denoted the reservoirs, guarded by a body of troops.
in which the waters from the aqueducts were collected, Castellum originally seems to have signified a
smaller fort,
whence the city was supplied by leaden pipes. for a little garrison. Though Suetonius uses the word where
CASTELLATED HOUSES, those mansions which sue. the fortification was large enoughto contain a cohort.
ceeded the castles and fortified residences of the feudal According to Vegetius, the castella were often, like towns,
barons ; they still preserved the appearance of strength, built on the borders of the empire, where there were con-
although in reality incapable of defence against a regular stant guards, and fences against the enemy.
force. These buildings were provided with battlements and Horsley takes them for much the same with what were
turrets, rather for ornament, however, than for practical otherwise denominated stations. See CASTELLA.

purposes. CASTLE, in a modern sense, is a place fortified either by

The windows are generally closed horizontally with labels, nature or by art, in a city or country, to keep the people in
over them; the apertures are sometimes divided by mullions, their duty, or to resist an enemy. In the more extensive
the various methods of
consisting of one or more munnions in the breadth, and one interpretation of the word, it includes
or two transoms in the height, by which the great opening is encampment, but in its stricter meaning, it is usually applied
divided into several smaller apertures, sometimes arched un- to buildings walled with stone, and intended for residence as
der the lintels, and sometimes also under the transoms. One well as for defence. Few branches of historical research have
of the most remarkable of these edifices is Haddon-Hall, been so little attended to, as that which relates to military archi-
tecture. Castles, indeed, such as we now see them,
were of
Derbyshire.
CASTING, the act of taking the impression of any sur- late introduction to the world. Whether we may rank them
face, whether plain or sculptured, by pouring a liquid matter with the accommodations of life brought by the crusaders
on that surface. See CAST. from the East, is doubtful : but this much seems tolerably

CASTING, in joinery and carpentry, is said of a piece of certain, that it was in France, England, Germany, Switzer-
land, and Savoy, that the system of castellation
first prevailed.
timber, when its sides are bent or twisted from their original
surfaces, by the fibres being unequally heated, dried, or In Italy, till the Normans got possession of Naples and Sicily,
moistened ; or by being naturally disposed in different direc- castles were comparatively few. We
may at least date
from in with the feudal system.
tions ;
or the twist may, perhaps, arise different degrees their general adoption Europe
 CAS 111 CAS
The early British fortifications seem to have been little more some also oblong or square. Several of the round ones were
than mere entrenchments of earth. Caesar, however, penetra- fifteen feet in diameter ; which brings to mind the houses of
ted not far enough to know the true nature of the British fort- the ancient Gauls, described by Strabo ; and of those that were
resses ; and in his work, De Bella Gallico (lib. v. section 17), oblong, there was at least one even thirty feet in length. Of
has given only the description of a lowland camp. In all the same kind of fortresses were Penmaen Mawr, in Caernar-
parts of England, there is a vast number of strong entrench- vonshire ; Warton Cragg, in Lancashire ; Old Oswestry, in
ments of a very peculiar kind, situated chiefly on the tops of Shropshire ; the irregular encampment of Maiden Castle, near
natural hills, and which can be attributed to none of the dif- Dorchester and probably Old Sarum, whose character was
:

ferent people who have ever dwelt in the adjacent country, new-modelled by the Romans. Mr. King, in the Munimenta
but the ancient Britons. That they may have been used at Antigua, vol. i. p. 63, considers the dens in the mountains and
different times, and occupied upon emergencies, by the sub- the thickets, of Scripture, as strongholds or hill-fortresses
sequent inhabitants of the island, is no more than probable ; of the kind described. When Samson had made a great
but there are many, and undoubted reasons, for deeming slaughter of the Philistines, we are told he went and dwelt
them the strong posts and fastnesses of the aboriginal settlers, in the top of the rock Elam ; where we find, afterwards,
where they lodged formed their garrisons, and
their wives, three thousand men of Judah went up to confer with him.
made their stand. That the Britons were accustomed to That hill-fortresses were used in the earliest ages, there can
fortify such places, we have the authority of Tacitus, who, be doubt.
little The Israelites, when their land was invaded
describing the strongholds formed and resorted to by Carac- by Jabin, the king of Canaan, in consequence of an exhorta-
"Tune monlibus arduis, et si qua clementer tion from Deborah the prophetess, assembled to make their
tacus, says,
accedi polerant, in modum valli saxa prccstruit." Annal. stand upon Mount Tabor. Among the Indians of South
lib. xii. sect. 33. One of these entrenchments still makes a America, strongholds, of a similar nature to those of
formidable appearance on a mountain hanging over the vale Britain, have been frequently discovered. Ulloa's Voyage to
of Nannerch, in Flintshire, called Moel-Arthur. But their South America, vol. i. p. 503-504. And a very curious
situation being so high that they could have no supply of instance of the attack and surrender of one in Sogdiana, in
water except from the clouds, they were often liable to be Asia, in the time of Alexander the Great, is related by
untenable tor a considerable time together. Quintus Curtius, lib. vii. chap. xi. The anecdote is worth
One of the most important of these fastnesses in our own the reference of the reader.
country, is the Herefordshire Beacon, situated on a spot that The British mode of warfare appears to have received but
could not but be an object of the utmost attention to the little alteration from the introduction of Roman tactics. Till

original inhabitants of those territories, which afterwards finally subdued, their princes
showed abilities both in the
were deemed distinctly England and Wales, from the very command of armies and in the conduct of war; they chose
division here formed. It is on the summit of one of the their ground judiciously ; formed able plans of active opera-
highest of the Malvcrn hills, and is known by the name just
tions ;
and availed themselves of all the advantages of local
mentioned. It has been by turns attributed to the Romans, knowledge but to the fortresses described, if we may rely
:

the Saxons, and the Danes, but its construction as a strong- on,the testimonies of our ancient writers, they did not very
hold shows it was designed as a security for the whole frequently retire. Their deficiencies both in the attack, the
Another of these fort- construction, and the defence of such places,
must have been
adjacent country on any emergency.
resses is at BruflT, in Staffordshire, which has been described very obvious even to themselves ; and as they delighted to
so they usually chose to fight, in open plains. Their
by Mr. Pennant, in his 47, and
Journey from Chester, p. live,
their aversion from labour, made
exactly answers the account of Tacitus. It is placed on the impatient courage, and
summit of a hill, surrounded by two deep ditches, and has a them unable to endure the delays and fatigues of defending or
besieging the castles of their time ;
and they often reproached
rampart formed of stone. Other instances are adduced by
Mr. Pennant, in his Tour in Wales, and by Mr. King, in the the Romans with cowardice, for raising such solid works
first volume of the Munimenta Antigua: but a stronger about their camps and stations. See Boadicea's famous
ex Dione in Nerone.
instance than all, perhaps, is given by Mr. Gough, in the speech to her army, in Xiphilin,
Additions to Camden, vol. ii. p. 404, where he shows that the Of the Roman military works in this country, they were
were
true Caer Caradoc, the very fortress alluded to in the sen- for the greater part temporary; many, however,
tence we have quoted, which, if not the royal scat of Carac- stationary posts ;
and some few, to the retention of which the
seems to have been at least his stronghold, was in greatest importance
was attached, became walled caslra.
tacus,
already quoted, De
the work Bell. Gall. lib. vii.
Shropshire, two miles south of dun, and three from Coxal, Cfcsar, in
describes one of his camps as fortified very much in the
man-
being a large camp, three times as long as it is broad, on the
point of a hill, accessible only one way, and defended on
the ner of a walled city. A
few of the Roman stations in our
north side by very deep double ditches, in the solid rock own country assist in throwing light on the description ; and,
;
to have been
whilst on the east, the steepness of the ground renders it in short, such as were so surrounded, appear
the link of connection between the British earth-work
and
impregnable. On the south it has only one ditch, for the
same reason and the principal entrance is on the west side,
:
the feudal castle.
Richborough, Portchcster,
and Pevensey, are the three
fenced with double works; whilst to the south-west it is
even fenced with triple works. The most extraordinary, fortresses the Romans have left us. Richborough,
greatest
the very earliest in order of time, is supposed to
have been
however, of all these kinds of fortresses, is situated in Caer-
in the in the reign of Claudius ; but not to
narvonshire, called Tre'r Caeri, or The Town of Fortresses. begun year 43,
The plan and elevation of this ancient stronghold and abode have been completed till 205, under the direction of emperor
Severus. in this distinguished fortress, says Mr.
There are
is given by Mr. Pennant, in his Tour in Wales, vol. ii. p.
vol. ii. p. 8) still plainly to be
206. On the accessible side it was defended by three rude King, (Munimenta Antigua,
and
walls of stone ; the upper ones being lofty, about fifteen feet traced all the principal parts of one of the very greatest
most perfect of the stationary camps. The upper
division
high, and sixteen broad ; exhibiting a grand
and extensive
for the general and chief officers, and the
lower division for
front. The space on the top is an irregular area; but the
whole is filled with some round, and some and the legion. In the former, the pnctorium with its parade ,
cells, oval,
 CAS 112 CAS
and the sacellum, or small temple, for depositing the ensigns. knowledge of castle-building at a short period subsequent to
In the walls too are the traces of the four great gates ; the this, may be found in William of Malmesbury, chap. vi. when
decuman, the praetorian, and the two posterns. The great he mentions the rebuilding of Exeter by Athelstan, who died
"
courses of stone, with which the wall is formed, are separated in 941. Urbem igitur illam" says the historian, " quam con-
from each other by alternate layers, composed entirely of a taminates gentis repurgio defcecaverat, turribtis munivit, muro
double course of bricks each ; as in the walls of Verulam, ex quadratis lapidibus cinxit." And from the few remains of
Silchester, and other of our Roman towns. the fortifications of this period, we find, that the walls pre-
The Eoman remains at Portchester are not perhaps so cisely answer Malmesbury's description. They were faced
clearly to be traced ; since, having been constantly used as a with these four-square stones both within and without, and
fortress in succeeding ages, it has received vast and extremely the intermediate space between the facings was filled up
various additions and presents us with specimens of military
: with rubble or rough flint-stones, mixed together with a
architecture in almost every period, from the Normans to the strong and permanent cement. It is to this period too, that
time of Queen Elizabeth. the most judicious of our writers have referred the castle at
Similar alterations to those first mentioned, have given so Colchester, which has been already mentioned. Its form is

strong a turn to the general character of Pevensey, that its four-square, flanked at the four corners with strong towers,
real sera has been sometimes doubted ; though portions of the and it is about two hundred and twenty-four yards in circum-
Roman wall, as well as the decuman gate, may be easily and ference on the outside, all projections and windings included ;
accurately traced. the four sides nearly facing the four cardinal points. Some
Here too it may not be irrelevant to observe, that the have even gone so far as to call this venerable ruin British ;
castle at Colchester, in Essex, has been sometimes taken for others, as we have already said, have attributed it, with a
a Roman fortress. And this not only because it has many of greater share of plausibility, to the Romans ; but Camden
the same sort of tiles which are found in Roman walls, but and our better writers ascribe it to Edward the Elder, who
because they are laid in the same manner, with bands. repaired the walls and rebuilt the town, in the beginning of
Though, if the building be examined with attention, there the 10th century.
may be traced, in almost every part, evident marks either Still, however, the paucity of strong posts in the island
of the later Saxon or Norman workmanship and though :
during every period of the Anglo-Saxon history, may be
many of the tiles which are used in it may have been gathered constantly observed. And it is more than probable that to
from the remains of Roman buildings, the greater part this defect we may attribute the defeat of Harold ; since it

appears to have been made on purpose. See the Archacologia, became necessary that all should be risked upon the issue of
vol. iv. p, 33. a single battle. The Conqueror, himself, was evidently sen-
That in the Roman
times, however, there must have been sible that the want of fortified places inEngland had greatly
many other such walled stations as those at Richborough, facilitated his conquest,and might, at any time, also facilitate
Portchester, and Pevensey, there can be little doubt. The his expulsion. He therefore made all possible haste to
Saxons, in the course of their long wars with the Britons, remedy the defect, by building magnificent and strong castles
"
may be fairly supposed to have destroyed many of the fortifi- in all the towns within the royal demesnes. William," says
cations which had been thus erected and after their final
: Matthew Paris, "excelled all his predecessors in building
settlement, they neglected to repair those which remained, or castles, and greatly harassed his subjects and vassals with
to build many of their own. these means the country
By these works." Matthew Paris, Hist. p. 8. col. 2. And his
became open and which greatly facilitated the
defenceless ; earls,barons, and even prelates, imitated his example ; and it
incursions of the Danes, who met with little obstruction from was the first care of every one who received a grant of an
fortified places. That there was, however, something like a estate from the crown, to build a castle upon it for his
castle at Bamborough, in Northumberland, we have the con- defence and residence. The disputes about the succession,
current testimony of historians, as Matthew of Westminster, in the following reigns, kept up this spirit for building great

p. 193, sub ann. 547. Saxon Chronicle, p. 19. Roger and strong castles. William Rufus was still a greater builder
Hoved. p. 238, b. Bede, lib. iii. chap. vi. p. 12 a castle at : than his father ; and Henry I. was not idle in adding to their
" William
Corfe, in Dorsetshire, is said to have existed in the days of number. Rufus," says Henry Knyghton, col.
"
Edgar. Gough's Add. to Camden, vol. i. p. 49. King's Muni- 2373, was much addicted to building royal castles and
menta Antiqua, vol. iii. p. 209. Portchester castle, during palaces, as the castles of Dover, Windsor, Norwich, Exeter,
this period, probably retained its designation. And Mr. the palace of Westminster, and many others, testify ; nor was
King, Munimenta Antiqua, vol. iii. p. 211, has taken consi- there any king of England before him that erected so many,
derable pains to prove that the fortress at Castleton, in Derby- and such noble edifices." Though of one or two of these,
shire, is of as high antiquity. William Rufus was only the improver. But the rage for
Alfred the Great, however, seems to have been the first of building castles never prevailed so much in any period of
our princes with whom the building of castles became an the English history as in the turbulent reign of Stephen,
object of national policy. Though, if Asser's authority may between 1135 and 1154. In this reign, says the writer ot
be received, they were not exactly what the reader, at the the Saxon Chronicle, p. 238, every one, who was able, built
first mention of their name, might take them for ; since they a castle ; so that the poor people were worn out with the toil
were composed not only of stone, but of wood ; Asser de Reb. of these buildings, and the whole kingdom was covered with
gestis Alfredi, p. 17, 18. Elfleda, too, his daughter, gover- castles. And this last expression will hardly appear too
ness of Mercia, who seems to have been the only person in strong, when we are informed, that, besides all tHe castles
the kingdom who properly complied with the commands, and before that time in England, no fewer than eleven hundred
imitated the example, of her illustrious father, and who in- and fifteen were laised from the foundation, in the short
herited more of the wisdom and spirit of Alfred than any of space of nineteen years. Rad. de Diceto, col. 528. " Stephen,"
"
his children, not only followed his steps by fighting many Holinshed, vol. iii. fol. 50, began to repent himself,
says
battles with the Danes, but built not less than eight castles although too late, for that he had granted license to so
in the space of three years, to check their incursions. Hen. many of. his subjects to build castles within their own
Hunt. Hist. p. 204. A
still more remarkable instance of the
grounds
 CAS 113 CAS
An art, Dr. Henry observes, (History of Britain, vol. vi. at the fourth assault, the miners set fire to the
tower, so that
p. 188, 8vo.) so much practised as architecture was in this the smoke burst out, and the tower itself was cloven
to
must have been much improved. That it
period, that degree, as to show
really visibly some broad chir.ks ; where-
was appear from the following very brief description
so, will
upon the enemy surrendered."
of the most common form and structure of a As
royal castle, or Britain abounded in this period in fortified towns and
of that of a great earl, baron, or prelate, in this
period ; and castles, much of the
art of war, of course, consisted in
as these castles served both for residence and
defence, this defending and assaulting strong places and a knowledge ;

description will serve both for an account of the dom'estic of the application of them in this
period may be obtained
and military architecture of those times, which cannot well from the relation of the siege of Exeter castle by
be separated. king
Stephen, in the year 1136. See the Oesta Rey'u Stephani,
The situation of the castles of the Anglo-Norman
kings apud Duchesn, p. 034. It is perhaps the most consummate
and barons was most commonly on an eminence, and near
specimen of the military skill of that age with which we are
a river; a situation on several accounts eligible. The And it may be enough to observe, that after
acquainted.
whole site of the castle (which was frequently of
great this siege had lasted three months, and king Stephen had
extent and irregular figure) was surrounded
by a deep and expended upon it in machines, arms, and other
things, no
broad ditch, sometimes filled with water, and sometimes less than
dry, 15,000 marks, equal in efficacy to 150,000 pounds
called the fosse. Before the great gate was an outwork, of our money, the besieged were obliged to surrender for
called a barbacan, or antenuiral, which was a
strong and want of water. Henry's Hist, of Britain, vol. vi. p. 217.
high wall, with turrets upon it, designed for the defence of Berkeley, which was originally founded in the reign of
the gate and drawbridge. On the inside of the ditch stood Stephen, is one of the best remains we are now possessed
the wall of the castle, about eight or ten feet
thick, and of, of an ancient feudal castle. But the changes which almost
between twenty and thirty feet high, with a
parapet, and a all these
buildings have undergone in subsequent times, may
kind of embrasures, called crennels, on the top. On this bo judged of by those which have taken place at Berkeley.
wall, at proper distances, square towers, of two or three The buildings within the inmost only of the three gates are
stories high, were built, which served for
lodging some of said to have been the work of Ilenrv II. when duke of
the principal officers of the proprietor of the
castle, and for Normandy ; while the two outermost, with all the buildings
other purposes and on the inside were erected
;
lodgings belonging to them, except the keep, are referred to the latter
for the common
servants or retainers, granaries, storehouse*, end of the reign of Henry II. and to those of the second and
and other necessary offices. On the top of this wall, and third Edwards. The hall and the two chapels are of the
on the flat roofs of these buildings, stood the defenders of latter period and the groat kitchen, adjoining to the keep,
;

the castle, when it was besieged, and from thence was of the work of Henry VII.
discharged
arrows, darts, and stones, on the besiegers. The great gate Among the castles which Mr. King has endeavoured to
of the castle stood in the course of this wall, and was
strongly appropriate to the early Norman period, are those of Notting-
fortified with a tower on each side, and rooms over the
ham, Lincoln, and Clifford's tower at York, all erected by
passage, which was closed with thick folding-doors of oak, the Conqueror Archccol. vol. vi. p. 257.
: The remains of
often plated with iron, and with an iron
portcullis, or grate, he observes, fully illustrate the
all these, Norman mode of
let down from above. Within this outward wall was a large constructing such edifices. Tickhill, in the neighbourhood
open space, or court, called, in the largest and most perfect of Doncaster, appears to have been another of these castles,
castles, the outer baijle or ball'ium, in which stood commonly ibid. 207 ; and Pontefract bespeaks a Norman design, with
a church or chapel. On the inside of this outer was rude and imperfect alterations. All of these appear to have
bayle
another ditch, wall, gate, and towers, been erected upon artificial mounts, and nearly cover the
enclosing the inner
bayle, or court, within which the chief tower, or keep, was whole area of the summit of the respective hills on which
built. This was a very large square fabric, four or five they are situated.
stories high, having small windows in
prodigious thick walls, Tunbridge castle, in Kent, built by Richard do Clare,
which rendered the apartments within it dark and gloomy. about the time of William Rufus, is mentioned by Mr. King,
This great tower was the palace of the
prince, prelate, or as a specimen of the later Norman structures and he has ;

baron, to whom the castle belonged, and the residence of the been very accurate in his description of it ibid. 270. ;

constable or governor. Under ground were dismal dark Gundulph, who directed the building of the Tower of Lon-
vaults, for the confinement of prisoners, which made it some- don, in 1078, and the castle at Rochester, he describes to have
times be called the dungeon. In this building, also, was introduced a great many judicious alterations, and not only
the great hall, in which the owner displayed his hospitality, to have increased the security, but the magnificence of our
by entertaining his numerous friends and followers. At one military piles and observes that the castle at Rochester is
;

end of the great halls of castles, palaces, and monasteries, a complete specimen of all that he effected. Newark, which
there was a place raised a little above the rest of the floor, Mr. King afterwards mentions, is an instance of a prelate's
called the dais, where the chief table stood, at which persons castle in the reign of Stephen and the keep of Knaresborough,
:

of the highest rank dined. Though there were unquestionably of the time of Henry III., completes the specimens it may be
great variations in the structure of castles and palaces in this proper to mention of the irregular style of castle-building
period, yet the most perfect and magnificent of them seem which prevailed during the interval between the Norman
to have been constructed on the above
plan. Such, to give 'Conquest and the middle of the thirteenth century.
one example, was the famous castle of Bedford, as appears To these succeeded the magnificent piles of Edward I.,
from the following account of the manner in which it was more convenient and more stately, and containing not only
taken by Henry 111. A. D. 1224, from Matthew Paris, Hut. many towers, but great halls, and sometimes even religious
Angl. p. The castle was taken by four assaults.
221-2. houses. The best style of military architecture in this period
"
was taken the barbacan ; in the second, the
In the first was displayed in the castles of Caernarvon, Conway, and
outer ballia ; at the third attack, the wall by the old tower Caerphilly ;
and it is to observe that many of our
singular
was thrown down by the miners, where, with great danger, more ancient castles were then increased with additions in

they possessed themselves of the inner ballia, through a chink ; the same sumptuous style.
15
 CAS 114 CAS
After the ago of Edward I. we find another kind of castle of and for all the castles and fortifications in England and
introduced, approaching nearer to the idea of modern palaces. Wales, with an allowance of 13s. 4d. a day, to be paid out
The first of l,';ose was that at Windsor, built by Edward III., of the cheques and defalcations that should be made by him
who employed William of Wykeham as his architect. This from time to time ; or, in default thereof, out of the Treasury.
convenient and enlarged style of building was soon imitated, Whether this office was really instituted for the purpose of
on a lesser scale, by the nobles of the realm ; and two
scrutinizing into the state of these fortresses, as foreseeing
remarkable 'instances, wherein convenience and magnificence the events which afterwards happened ; or whether it was
were singularly blended at this period, may be found in the only formed to gratify some favourite, does not appear.
castles of Ilarewood and
Spofford, in Yorkshire. The im- During the troubles of that reign, some ancient castles
provements at Kenilworth afford another instance of the were garrisoned and defended, several of which, particularly
great enlargement which our castles, during this age, were Corfe castle, in Dorsetshire, were afterwards destroyed, by
accustomed to receive : and Naworth, in Cumberland, is order of the parliament since that period, they have been
:

another of the best specimens that can probably be referred abandoned to the mercy of time, weather, and the more
to. Caistor, in Norfolk, affords the style of Henry the unsparing hands of avaricious men. The last have proved
It was built
Sixth's reign.
by Sir John Fastolf, who died the most destructive; many of these monuments of ancient
in 1459.
magnificence having been by them demolished for the sake
To these venerable piles succeeded the castellated houses; of the materials by which the country has been deprived of
:

mansions adorned with turrets, and battlements ; but utterly those remains of antiquity, so essential, in the eyes of
incapable of defence, except against a rude mob, armed with foreigners, to the dignity of a nation ; and which, if rightly
clubs and staves, on whom the gates might be shut ; considered, tended to inspire the beholder with a love for the
yet still
mansions almost quite devoid of all real elegance, or com- now happy establishment ; by leading him to compare the
fortable convenience, and fitted
only to entertain a herd of present with those times when such buildings were erected:
retainers wallowing in licentiousness. At the same time, times when this unhappy kingdom was distracted by intes-
however, they discover marks of economy and good manage- tine wars ; when the son was armed against the father, and
ment, which enabled their hospitable lords to support such brother slaughtered brother ; when the lives, honour, and pro-
rude revels, and to keep up their state even better than perty of the wretched inhabitants depended on the nod of an
many of their more refined successors. Of these buildings arbitrary king, or were subject to the more tyrannical and
one of the most perfect and most curious, now capricious wills of lawless and foreign barons.
remaining,
is Haddon House, Derbyshire castellated and embattled,
in ;
The few castles existing in the Saxon time, were, pro-
in all the apparent forms of regular defence but really ; bably, on occasion of war, or invasions, garrisoned by the
without the least means of resistance in its original construc- national militia, and, at other times, slightly guarded by
tion. The description Mr. King has given of it, Arckccol. the domestics of the princes or great personages who resided
vol. vi. p. 847, is, however, too
long to be extracted, and in them ; but after the Conquest, when all the estates were
too curious to be abridged. converted into baronies, held by knight's service, castle-guard,
After this kind of building, the magnificent quadrangular coming under that denomination, was among the duties to
houses of the reign of Henry VIII. succeeded ; of which which particular tenants were liable. From these services
the most and genuine models, perhaps, were those
beautiful the bishops and abbots, who, till the time of the Normans,
of Cowdray, Sussex, and Penshurst, the seat of the
in had held their lands in frank-almoign, or free alms, were, by
Sidney family, in Kent. this new regulation, not exempted ; they were not, indeed,
Without referring to the stately buildings of Elizabeth's to personal service, it being sufficient
like the laity, obliged
reign, it may be enough to say, that here ends the history that they provided fit and able persons to officiate in their
of the English castle. The block-houses of Calshot, Hurst, stead. This was, however, at first vigorously opposed by
Sandown, Sandgate, and South Sea, are the last instances of Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury ; who, being obliged to
such buildings ever intended for a stand, and seem find some knights to attend King William Kufus in his wars
strongly
to mark the revolution which has taken Wales, complained of it as an innovation and infringement
place in our defen- in
sive system of war. of the rights and immunities of the church.
The total change in military tactics, brought about by the It was no uncommon thing for the Conqueror, and the

kings of those days, to grant estates to men of approved fide-

invention of gunpowder and artillery; the more settled state
of the nation, Scotland
becoming part of the dominions of lity and valour, on condition that they should perform
castle-

guard, with a certain number of men, for some specified

the kings of England ; the respectable
footing of our navy,
whose wooden walls secure us from invasions ; and the abo- time and sometimes they were likewise bound by their te-
;

lition of the feudal

system, all conspired to render castles of nures to keep in repair some tower or bulwark, as was the
little use or Dover
consequence, as fortresses so the great improve-
: case at castle.

process of time, these services were commuted for

nient in arts and sciences, and their constant attendant, the In
increase of luxury, made our annual rents, sometimes styled ward-penny, and wai/t-fee,
nobility and gentry build them-
selves more pleasant and but commonly castle-qwtrd rents ; payable on fixed days,
airy dwellings; relinquishing the
ancient dreary mansions of their forefathers, where the
enjoy- under prodigious penalties, called sur-sizes. At Rochester,
ment of light and air was sacrificed to the consideration of if a man failed in the payment of his rent of castle-guard
strength ; and whose best rooms, according to our modern on the feast of St. Andrew, his debt was doubled every tide,
during the time for which the payment was delayed. These
refined notions, have more the
appearance of gaols and
dungeons for prisoners, than apartments for the reception of were afterwards restrained by an act of parliament, made in
a rich and powerful baron. the reign of King Henry VIII., and finally annihilated, with
However, in the reign of Charles I., a little before the the tenures by knight's service, in the time of Charles II.
breaking out of the civil war, some inquiry into the state Such castles as were private property, were guarded either
of these buildings seems to have taken
place; for on the by mercenary soldiers, or the tenants of the lord or owner.
22nd of January, 1636, a commission was issued, Castles which belonged to the crown, or fell to it either by
appointing
lieutenant-colonel Francis forfeiture or escheat (circumstances that frequently happened
Coningsby, commissionary-general
 CAT 1 CAT
in the distracted reigns of the feudal
times) were generally bably more numerous than other churches, as we know that
committed to the custody of some
trusty person who seems there was a bishop in
every town of importance wherever
to have been indifferently
styled governor or constable. the Christian religion prevailed. The bishop, the head ,<(
Sometimes also they were put into the possession of the sheriff the church, was assisted in the services of
of the county, who often converted them into religion by his
prisons. That priests and deacons, the bishop, however, retaining the ni'nv
officer \va-ithen accountable to the
exchequer, for the farm important duties, such as preaching and the administration
or produce of the lands belonging to the of the sacraments, which he seldom
places entrusted to delegated to the assistant
his care, as well as all other
profits he was likewise, in case
:
presbyters, unless necessitated so to do. In process of time,
of war or invasion, obliged to victual and furnish them with as occasion offered, other churches were
munition out of the issues of his formed, subject to
county ; to which he was the mother-church, and to the
jurisdiction of its bishop; at
directed by writ of privy seal.
Variety of these writs, this early
period, however, it cannot be doubted but that the
temp. Edw. III., may be seen in Madox's History of ike proportion of bishops to the lower order of the clergy was
Exchequer ; and it appears, from the same authority, that much greater than at the present day, and
the barons of the exchequer were sometimes
consequently the
appointed to number of cathedrals or bishops' sees must have been more
survey these castles, and the state of the buildings and works numerous. It is not our intention, however, in this
place,
carrying on therein. Rees's Cyclopedia. to dwell at
length upVm the general subject; we would con-
CASTRA, the Latin name for a camp. fine ourselves more
especially to our own country, and will
CASTS. See CAST and CASTING. accordingly proceed to investigate the accounts we have left
CATABASION (from KaTafSaivu, I descend), in the us of the early cathedrals of Great Britain.
Greek church, a hollow place under the altar, wherein the No one, probably, would think of controverting the fact
relics were
kept, and through which was the descent into of the early introduction of
Christianity into this country ;
the vaults beneath. it
may indeed be questioned whether Saint Paul, or Saint
CATABULUM, a building, or stable, in which the beasts Joseph, or the British king Lucius, be the benefactor to
of burden and carriages were whom we owe
kept for the public, service. its
introduction; but its existence here dining
The ancient Christians were sometimes condemned to serve the We know
century will scarcely admit of a doubt.
first
in the calabula. further that the British church was 1

episcopal!} governed, for

CATACAUSTIC CURVE. See CAUSTIC CURVK. we hear of the presence of British bishops at the council of
CATACOMB, a grotto or subterraneous place for the Aries, as early as the commencement of the fourth
century ;
interment of the dead. and we have consequently every reason to conclude that
In Italy, this term is particularly applied to an assemblage the episcopal form of government was co-existent with the
of subterraneous sepulchres, three leagues from Rome, in the church, and further, that if churches existed at all, some
Via Appia. Each catacomb is three feet wide, and such churches must have been cathedrals.
eight or
ten feet high, running in the form of an
alley or gallery, and \V e cannot speak with
any degree of certainty of the date,
communicating with each other. Some authors imagine them form, or material of the first cathedrals. Dr. Milner says,
to be the cells wherein the that a cathedral was erected
^
primitive Christians hid them- by Lucius, at ^S illchester, of
selves ; and others take them to be the the enormous length of 600 feet, as
burial-places of the early as the close of the
early Romans, before the practice of burning the dead was second century. Whether the dimensions given do not belie
introduced. the whole statement must be left to the judgment of indi-
The most celebrated catacombs are those of Egypt, viduals; but there is good reason to believe that churches
wherein the ancient inhabitants deposited their mummies. did exist at this period, as we hear of their demolition during
The descent into them is through a square aperture with the Diocletian persecution, which took place A. D. 303.
holes in the sides, for the feet, somewhat like an upright Upon the success of the Pagan-Saxons, the Christian
ladder. These excavations are hewn out of the solid rock, churches of England were of course destroyed, whilst those
which consists of free-stone, and the walls are adorned in Wales and south-west of
England, where the British
with hieroglyphics, and representations of utensils and im- Christians had retreated, were considerably increased ; this
plements of war. See Pocock, Norden, and Dunou. was especially the case with monasteries, which served in
CATADROME, an engine used in building, for lifling a measure as places of safety, and in building which the
and letting down
great weights. Britains followed the salutary advice of Saint Germain. Upon
CATAFALCO (from the Italian), a decoration, of archi- the conversion of the Saxons by Saint Augustine, churches
tecture, sculpture, or painting, raised on a scaffold, on which again made their appearance in Kent, as we learn that a
to exhibit a coffin or cenotaph, in a funeral solemnity. cathedral was erected by that missionary -bishop at Canter-
CATCH-DRAIN, in the construction of canals, the same bury, and dedicated under the title of Christ Church. At a
as counter-drain ; sometimes it also
implies the feeders of a not much later period we hear of the foundation of the
reservoir. cathedral churches of Saints Paul and Andrew, the one at
CATENARIA, a mechanical curve, which a heavy flex- London and the other at Rochester. Shortly after Augus-
ible body, of uniform thickness, would form itself into, if tine's mission in the south, the wonderful success of Paulinus
in the northern parts of the island, in converting the king,
hung freely from its two extremities. The famous Galileo
first
investigated the nature of this curve, and supposed it Edwin, and his pagan subjects, gave rise to the cathedral
to be a parabola. This problem, after being proposed by of Yor.c. It is stated that Edwin first erected a church of
Mons. J. Bernouille, was first solved by Dr. D. Gregory, who timber in this city, but afterwards built a larger church of
also affirmed, that the inverted catenaria was the best figure stone, in which the timber one was enclosed. Paulinus,
for the arch of a bridge ; the intrados of which, however, again successful at Lincoln, caused to be erected a church
must depend entirely upon the curvature of the extrados. of stone, of " admirable workmanship," as Bede tells us.
CATHEDRAL, (from the Greek, KaOedpa, a chair; Stephen Eddy, a writer older than Bede, informs us that
derived from KaOefyfiai, sedeo, I sit,) the head church of a Wilfrid, bishop of York, finding, upon taking possession of
diocese, wherein is the see or seat of a bishop. his see, that the old church built by Edwin and Oswald was
"
in a dilapidated condition, set abput repairing it
During the first ages of the church, cathedrals were pro- skilfully
 CAT 116 CAT
roofing it with lead, and preventing the entrance of birds means, nor workmen to complete a more finished structure.
and rain by putting glass into the windows, yet such glass as It is very probable that Wilfrid's church was built
by
allowed the light to shine within ;" and our author goes on Italian workmen, as we know that he had frequented Rome,
to state that the same Wilfrid built a new church at liipon, and was a man too zealous in promoting the temporal
of polished stone, " with columns variously ornamented, and splendour of the church, to allow any opportunity of for-
porches." The account of the dedication of this church is warding his object to slip past unimproved. There can be
given in full, and is the earliest description of the kind little doubt but that in process of time the
employment of
extant. stone entirely superseded that of timber.
A curious and somewhat detailed account
given by the
is No inconsiderable notion is afforded us of the form and
Monk of Ramsey, of the construction of the church at llam- disposition of the parts of the early cathedrals, from an
sey existing previously to the one dedicated in his time. He account already referred to we allude to that of the church
" it was raised on a solid
says, foundation, driven in by the at Ramsey. From this description we gather that the plan
battering-ram, and had two towers above the roofs the
: of the church was cruciform, with a tower rising from the
lesser was in front at the west end ; the greater, at the inter- intersection, and another at the west end of the church.
section of the four parts of the building, rested on four We learn from Wolstan, that there was a tower at the
columns, connected together by arches carried from one to west end of the old church at Winchester, but that in the
the other." lie further adds, that this church was obliged new structure the tower was towards the eastern extremity,
to be pulled down, and a new one erected in its stead, in and of the last it is related that it consisted of five stories,
consequence of a settlement in the central tower, which ren- in each of which were four windows looking towards the
dered the entire building unsafe. That this church was of cardinal points.
stone can scarcely be doubted, after perusing the above Further, in the miniature of the Illuminated Pontifical
narrative ; but we have direct and explicit mention of the above described, we notice that the tower is surmounted by
fact, for the same author, in describing the labours of the a steeple, a fact which, were it not for other considerations,
"
workmen, says Some brought the stones, others made
: would almost tempt us to refer the manuscript to a much
the cement, while others attended to the machines for raising later date, as we know that such additions were not very
the stones ; so that in a short time was seen the sacred frequent, even in the Norman period ; indeed, the idea of a
edifice with its two towers, where previously there had Saxon cathedral afforded us by these descriptions, approaches
been but a barren waste." very nearly to actual existing specimens of much later date.
A curious representation of an Anglo-Saxon church is to We must not conclude from these accounts that all churches
be seen in an Illuminated Pontifical in the Public Library of this date were cruciform, for we learn the contrary from
at Kouen, containing the order for the dedication and con- Bede, who speaks of churches as square; some have sup-
secration of churches; the date of which is ascribed by some posed that Ramsey was the first instance of a cruciform
to the eighth, and by others to the tenth, century ; that the edifice, but this was not the case, as is evinced by a metrical
manuscript is of English origin has never been doubted. description of a cathedral, written long before its erection.
This miniature in black outline represents the ceremony of Having thus far considered the nature of the Saxon cathe-
dedication. The form of the church is remarkably similar drals, we arrive at the Norman era, during which a great
to that of our existing cathedrals, which is more especially number were erected ; but as we have no lack of existing
noticeable in the form of the towers and spires, the symbol- examples of this period, we do not think it requisite to pur-
ical cock on the steeple, and the ornamental
hinges of the sue a detailed inquiry any further we shall now proceed to
:

door. some description of the cathedrals of the present day.

We are here naturally led into some inquiry respecting the The term Cathedral includes generally the whole of the
materials, form, and disposition of these early cathedrals. buildings connected with the bishop's see, including
the
The materials employed by the Anglo-Saxons seem to have church, chapter-house, chapels, cloisters, dormitories, refec-
been wood and stone, but during what time either material tories, residences for those engaged in attendance
on the
was used cannot easily be determined whether they were
; bishop, and in the services of the cathedral, and buildings for
both used at the same period, under different circumstances, a variety of uses ; it is applied, however, in a more especial
or whether at any point of time the one was superseded by sense, only to the church, and to such application
we shall
the other, we are unable to learn. It has been supposed, and confine ourselves in the following remarks.
with some plausibility, that wooden churches were erected The plan of our old cathedral churches is invariably that
by the Scotch and Irish missionaries, and the more substan- of a Latin cross, having the nave in the longest arm, the
tial fabrics by those from Rome, and this idea seems to be the
transepts in the two cross arms, and the choir, comprising
borne out by Bede,who states "that Adrian, the first bishop of the nave ; the
remaining length of the church, to the east
of Lindisfarne, having departed this life, Finan, sent and east end, which was
English always placing their altar at the
ordained by the Scots, succeeded him, and built a church in more frequently square, than either circular or multangular,
the island after the method of the Scots; which was built as in the continental churches. Not unusually the plan was
not of stone, but of hewn oak, and covered with reeds." extended further eastward, to provide for an additional chapel,
This writer adds, that " Eadbert, the seventh bishop, took off dedicated to our Ladye, and sometimes, though much less
the thatch, and covered both the walls and roof with lead."
frequently, a similar, but
smaller projection, was added at
It seems very reasonable likewise that the Roman mission- the west end :this was the Galilee porch, so named, as we
aries, who had been used to the structures of Italy, should learn from Gervase, from the passage of Scripture He'

not feel satisfied with mere wooden buildings. It is true it before you into Galilee, there ye shall see him,"-
goeth
seems to be noted as somewhat unusual, that Wilfrid built this being the place where the monks were allowed to see their
a church at Ripon of polished stone, yet the novelty may female relatives here was also the station of catechumens,
;

not have consisted in the erection being of stone, but rather and the resting-place of corpses previous to their interment.
in the fact of the stone being smoothed or
polished ; for it In some instances we find a double transept, east and west ^f
is probable that the first
buildings, after the Roman man- each other, as at Canterbury; the additional arm s accounted
ner, were of rough undressed stone, there being neither time, for symbolically as representing the inscription placed above
Pi

eg
P

H-

ra
fe!
ES

es
?~

CC

O a
o
 CAT 117 CAT
the head of our Lord at his crucifixion, the lower Chichester
symboliz- ;
the north
transept of that at Ely the choir of
ing the cross-piece on which the arms were extended.
;
It
Peterborough cathedral the oldest part of the western front
;
is noticed in some cathedrals that the eastern
is
extremity and central tower of that at Lincoln the central church
not in the same line with the nave, but bent on one ;of
side, as it Durham, excepting the additional
were ; this is explained in a similar manner as transept on the east ; the
marking the nave and tower of Norwich ; and
many arches of Worcester
inclination of the head of our Lord while on the cross." At cathedral.
the west end of the nave, on each side of it, were situated the In the. period between 1170 and
1220, including the latter
towers, and another at the interseetion of the nave and tran- part of the reign of Henry II., and the reigns of Richard I.
septs, all of which were in some cases surmounted with spires ; and John, the older Ladye
sometimes this addition was restricted to the western towers chapel and chapter-house of Bris-
tol were erected as were likewise the choir and round
;
but it is frequently omitted altogether, when the towers are tower (called Becket's Crown) at
At Exoter, we meet Canterbury ; the nave and
usually carried to a greater elevation. chapter-house at Oxford ; the nave and choir of Norwich
with the towers forming the transept, and at cathedral ; the western towers at
Peterborough Ely ; the transepts of
with one at the northern extremity of the west
transept. Peterborough; the presbytery, Chichester; the transept,
the nave and choir are divided into three aisles,
Internally tower, and choir of that at Hereford ; the nave and choir of
the central one being carried up above the others. This Wells cathedral (begun) ; and the
chapter-house of Chester.
seldom carried out in the transepts, in
tripartite division is In the period between 1220 and
1300, including the
which, however, we sometimes find one aisle as at Durham, reigns of Henry III. and part of Edward I., were erected
and sometimes two as at Westminster and Bristol. The the nave and arches
beyond the transept of Lincoln cathe-
aisles are separated from the body of the church
by an arcade, dral ; the north and south
transepts of York minster ; the
immediately above which the vaulting commences; in the choir and transept, Rochester
;
nn additional transept to the
body, however, between the arcade and vaulting, are inter- cathedral of Durham ; the tower and whole western front of
posed two stories, the lower one consisting of a gallery called that of Wells; the choir at
Carlisle; the presbytery and
triforia, opening into the. nave and choir bv means of a small south transept at Ely ; the and choir at Worcester
transept ;
arcade, and supposed to have been appropriated to the nuns; and the whole of Salisbury cathedral.
and the upper, termed the clere-story, in which were placed In the
period between 1300 and 1400, including the latter
the windows for lighting the central avenue of the church.
part of the reign of Edward I, and the reigns of Edward II.
In Bath Cathedral, the triforia are omitted, and their and III. and Richard II., the nave and choir of Exeter
place
supplied by a string-course. cathedral were erected and that at Liclificld was built
;
An approximation to the proportions of the different mea- uniformly; additions were made to the central tower at Lin-
surements of cathedral churches is given by Brown Willis, coln the nave of Worcester cathedral was built, as were the
:

as follows : The height is generally equal to the breadth of nave, choir, and western front of York minster; also the
the nave and aisles; the cross, in which the transepts and
transepts at Canterbury and Gloucester the spire and tower ;
intermediate space are contained, is extended half the length at Norwich the spire and additions to
;
Salisbury cathedral ;
of the whole fabric, as is likewise the nave ; the side-aisles the cloisters were begun at Gloucester: the nave and choir
equal half the breadth and height of the nave, and the spires were erected at Bristol, as well as the spire and choir at
and tower have a mean proportion between the length of the Chichester our Lady's chapel at Ely
;
and the chapter- ;

nave and that of the transept. house and cloisters (now destroyed) at Hereford.
The above description will give a general idea of the con- In the period between 1400 and 14GO,
including the reigns
struction of our cathedrals; but from the exceptions already of Henry IV., V., and VI., were erected the choir of Glou-
noticed, it will be understood that no rule applies invariably cester cathedral the nave of that of Canterbury
; Bishop ;

to all buildings of the kind ; for although the plans are in all
Beckington's addition to Wells cathedral and that of Lin- ;

cases similar, and the arrangement of the parts of the edifice coln, from the upper transept to the great east window.
systematic, yet we find not one cathedral in any respect a In the period between 14o'0 to 1547, viz., from the reign

copy of another. of Edward IV. to the end of that of Henry VIII., were
We now proceed to give some account of the edifices erected our Lady's chapel at Gloucester the roof of he ;
t

of this rank preserved to us in the present day, of which we choir of Oxford cathedral the choir of that of Chester ;
;

have 21 in England, and 4 in Wales. There were also Alcocke's chapel at Ely ; the Ladye chapel, Peterborough;
13 in Scotland, and 22 in Ireland. In addition to the num- the north porch, Hereford; and the exterior of the choir at
ber already mentioned, we have in England one modern Winchester.
cathedral, Saint Paul's, London besides which the collegiate
;
The following particulars respecting the English Cathe-
church at Manchester has recently been elevated to the drals are extracted principally from the works of Britton
dignity of a bishop's see but as the latter was never con-
;
and Dal a way I :

structed for such a purpose, we do not think it can be PECULIARITIES.

correctly included with the others as an architectural Bath The unusual height of the clere-story.
example. Bristol Had no nave, the present choir being formed out of
The following isan account of the erection of cathedral the Ladye chapel.
churches in England, and additions made to them, arranged Canterbury The grand entrance is under the south tower.
in
chronological order : The marble columns of the choir with Romanesque capi-
To the period of the Anglo-Normans, or between 10G6 and the octangular chapel called Becket's Crown.
tals,
and 1170, including the reigns of William I. and II., Chester Extraordinary size of the south transept.
Henry I., Stephen, and the first sixteen years of Henry II., Ckichester Double aisles to nave, and detached campanile at
we may attribute the western front and nave of Rochester north-west angle.
its

cathedral ; the nave, north aisle, and the chapels round the Durham The chapel of our Ladye placed at the east end as
choir of that at Gloucester ; the original substructure of a second transept ; the Galilee placed before, and distinct
Exeter cathedral, with its transepts and towers ; the central from the facade.
tower and transept of Wintoii cathedral ; the nave of that at Ely A
single western tower connected with the nave ;
the
 CAT 118 CAT
octangular tower ; the Ladye chapel detached from choir, sculpture, which is in the triforia of the transept, and
and a Galilee in a perfect state. represents a concert of musical instruments.
Exeter The skreen before the west front, and towers at Ely The octangular lantern, which is 71 feet in diameter,
either end of the transept. This cathedral was completed and 142 feet from the ground, supplied the place of a lofty
according to the original plan. central tower which fell down a short time previous to the
Lincoln The arches in the west front, the work of Remi- erection of the lantern. There exists one of the earliest
gius the Galilee and double transept.
; specimens of the pointed arch in the tower and transept.
Licit'field The three stone spires. Gloucester The eastern termination is apsidal ; and the
Norwich The roof of the nave, and the west end, with the cloisters, the most perfect and beautiful in England, un-
Erpingham gateway. usually situate on the north side of the church.
Peterborough The triple arcade before the west front eighty- Lincoln Old west front ; the large and beautiful south
two feet high the double towers with spires at the western
; porch, and east facade ; the Galilee. The central tower
angles tower at the southern extremity of the north-west
;
had a spire higher than Salisbury, which was blown down
transept, and the Galilee. A. D. 1547. This church is remarkable for its sculpture,
Rochester The choir longer than the nave. and has a curious bas-relief of the Deluge over the west
Salisbury The complete uniformity of style ; the height of door, and of the Last Judgment over the south porch.
the central spire, and the double elliptic inverted arch Lichfield Is nearly uniform, and was completed through-
under the tower, as at Wells. out on the original plan. The east end is apsidal in plan.
Winchester The
longest nave. Norwich The end of the choir is octangular, and the clois-
York The double aisles to the transept ; the
largest win- ters are very spacious.
dow ;
the square louvre, and the absence of cloisters. Peterborough The grand fafade and portico, remarkable for
REMARKABLE PARTS. their fine proportions the Galilee and aspidal termination,
;

Bath The tower has four turrets, without pinnacles, and is also the west transept, which is placed at the west end.
oblong in
plan, which is
owing to the, narrowness of the Rochester The west facade is one of the most perfect speci-
transept the aisles are very low, and there is no triforium
;
mens of Norman ; the choir is longer than the nave.
in the nave, but merely a
plain stringcourse. There is an Salisbury Is the most uniform cathedral in England, and
alto-relievo of Jacob's ladder at the west end. has a lofty and beautiful spire, only seven inches thick.
Bristol Has no external flying buttresses, the walls of the Wells The west front is noted as bearing a resemblance to
nave being supported by the roofs of the aisles, which are the faf ades of Continental cathedrals ; it is filled with
formed of complicated open arches the aisles and nave ;
statues ; the central tower is supported on an inverted arch
are of equal height, only forty-three feet. as at Salisbury.
Canterbury The crypt, which is of greater extent, and more Wine/tester Is remarkable for its fine nave ;
the choir is

lofty than any other in England ; the central tower and the under the central tower.
apsidal form of the east end. Worcester The style and proportions of the nave are con-
Chester The unequal dimensions of the north and south sidered beautiful.
transepts, the latter being wider, and nearly as long as York The aisles surrounding the whole church are of the
the nave, with aisles on each side, while the former is same dimensions throughout the rose window, which is
;

unusually short, and of the same width as the central 22 feet 6 inches in diameter, is the finest in England ;
tower ; the aisles of the choir also extend beyond it east- the choir is under the tower, as at Winchester.
ward, and form the aisles of the Ladye chapel. The subjoined Tables may be found useful ;
the former, from
Chichester Has the earliest specimen of a vaulted roof; its the works of Dallaway, gives the dates of the principal por-
spire greatly resembles that of Salisbury. tions of the English Cathedrals; the latter, compiled princi-
Durham Pillars of nave curiously striated; the Galilee pally from Britton's Antiquities,
shows their dimensions. It
measures 50 feet by 78 feet. will be noticed that Mr. Dallaway's dates do not agree in
Exeter Possesses almost the only example of a group in every case with those above given.
Dates of the Principal Portions of the English Cathedral*.

Cathedrals.
CAT no CAT
 CAT 120 CAT
niches, statues, and other embellishments ; the upper part Towers and spires Strasburg, Mechlin, Antwerp, Ulm,
of this splay is of course of an arched form, and the tympanum Cologne, Friburg, Louvain, and Vienna. The height
over the door-head is frequently filled with large groups of of that of Strasburg is 550 feet ; that of Louvain (now
sculpture. The upper half of the fi^ade is occupied by a fallen) 533 feet ; and that of Vienna, 465 feet. Stras-
circular or rose window of great magnitude. This arrange- burg, Friburg, and Constance, are noted for their spires
ment is frequently carried out in the ends of the transepts. of open work or pierced tracery.
Further we have to notice the apsidal forms of the east end, The cathedrals of Freidburgh and Frankenburgh have
the numerous chapels surrounding the choir, and the great the nave and aisles of the same height, and that of Freidburgh
height of the roof, which in France is in a great measure has the side aisles nearly as wide as the nave. St. Lorenzo,
concealed by lofty parapets, but in Germany, where it is Nuremburgh, has a choir loftier than the nave, and the
even more lofty, is left exposed. Internally, the foreign cathedral at Worms is celebrated for its two choirs.
structures are remarkable for the great height of the body S. Peter's, Rome, is the most spacious cathedral, after which
and aisles, and simplicity of the vaulting ; for the apsidal follow those of Cologne and Milan, of which the former has
termination with its vaulted roof, and the size of the rose never been completed ; it was commenced in the middle of
windows of the nave and transepts. The body of the build- the thirteenth century, but the choir is the only portion that
ing is frequently divided laterally into five parts, having a was finished, the nave is carried up only half its intended
central nave with a double aisle on each side of it. height. This building, if entire, would be perhaps the most

The following cathedrals are remarkable for their magnificent cathedral in existence, but there seems but a
remote probability of its completion it is said to be adorned
:

Entrance. Porches Rheims, Strasburg, and Rouen. with 4,973 pinnacles, 576 statues, 128 windows, 160 flying
Rose windows Strasburg, Notre Dame, S. Ouen, Rouen, buttresses, 104 pillars, and 9 entrances, while Milan boasts
and Rheims. of 4,400 statues, and 160 columns of white marble.

Admecaurementt of some of the more remarkable Continental Cathedrals, given in Engliih feet.

Name of
Cathedral.
 CAT 121 CAT
fieldsfrom which the food is to be brought. In large farms, turn round. Many feeders think the cattle thrive better in
moveable sheds with temporary yards may be erected ac- stalls of this description, than when they are bound. At
cording as different fields are in grass or roots, and a great each stake there should be a trough for holding provender,
saving of carriage thereby effected, both in the bringing the and between these two troughs there should be another for
food to the cattle, and carting the dung unto the land ; a clay water, common to the cattle on both sides this water-trough,
;

bottom should be selected, in a high and dry spot, if possible, which, as well as the others, may be of stone, and of one
and it should ever be borne in mind, that, with cattle, as piece, may be supplied by a pipe from a cistern or reservoir ;

with human beings, cleanliness, free ventilation, and perfect and over them should be a perpendicular rack for straw or
drainage are indispensable to perfect health and a sound hay. But though the double stalls, here recommended, are
condition of the body. much used for milch cows in different parts of England,
Cattle sheds are most cheaply constructed when placed they have, in general, only one provender-trough for each
If they are to be erected cow, and none for water.
against walls or other buildings.
in an isolated situation, the expense of the double shed will In paving stalls for cattle, the declivity is in general too
be much less than that of the single one, to contain the same great, which occasions them to stand uneasy. The best
number of cattle. mode is similar to that of paving stables. .Wood has lately
Every building of this description should be capable of been used with advantage for paving stalls.

being well aired, by a free ventilation ; and so constructed In many places, it is the practice to fasten the heads of
as to require the least possible labour in giving the food and the cattle between two stakes ; by which they can neither lie
clearing away the dung; the stalls should be so placed as to down in comfort, nor
dislodge or destroy those tormenting
keep the cattle dry and clean, with sufficient drains to carry vermin, which frequently prey upon them. No animal can
away, and reservoirs to receive the ordure. The greater thrivewhen confined in this manner.
number of the air-holes should be in the roof; and if the As dung of cows and oxen is of a liquid nature, it may
the
building have gables, there should be a window in each, as perhaps be carried off by means of an iron grating, placed
high as possible, with moveable boards, or air flights, as in behind each animal, as nearly as can be, in the spot where it
granary windows, which may be easily opened or shut, by usually drops, and immediately over the stall drain, or over a
means of a small rope. These precautions will not only wooden spout, which being continued in a sufficient slope, to a
conduce to the health of the cattle, but tend to preserve the pit or reservoir without, will, with the assistance of water occa-
timbers, which, from the alternate wetting by the breath, sionally thrown down.empty itself therein. Should any obstruc-
and drying, would otherwise soon go to decay. tion occur, the aid of a rake or a hoe, fitted to the drain, mav be
In single sheds, the cattle are, in many parts of the country, easily applied ; especially if the drain be only covered with a
fastened to stakes about three feet distant from each other, strong plank, which may be taken up when necessary. The
ranged in a line parallel to the wall, at the distance of about greater part of the dung being thus carried uway, the remainder
18 or 20 inches from it, thus leaving sufficient space for will be easily removed. Such a contrivance would save much
laying down the food ;
but this plan is inconvenient, as it labour, and facilitate the keeping of cattle clean ; it would
obliges the feeder to pass between the cattle when he feeds also be the means of saving a great deal of litter, when scarce
them, and is consequently attended with loss of time, and or dear. On this part of the subject it may be observed, that
is sometimes dangerous. the waste of urine and dung, too often seen in even well-con-
The best construction is that which admits a sufficient ducted farms, is much to be deprecated and lamented every-
space for a passage before the cattle, for the feeder to pass thing of the kind is valuable, and should be conducted to
along with a wheel-barrow, when he distributes their food. proper reservoirs judiciously constructed and arranged for
In single sheds, three feet will be sufficient for the width of the purpose, to be afterwards used on the land.
this passage ; and in double sheds, the heads of the cattle Where a great number of cattle are kept, the erection of
should face each other, and the breadth of the passage need sheds or feeding houses on a circular plan, proves very
not be increased beyond four feet. economical, and saves much labour, though a little more
Where cattle are fed from the outside, through holes left expensive in the first cost. In this form of building, the
for the purpose, many inconveniences may arise from wet animals stand all round with their tails towards the external
weather, a severe frost, or a heavy fall of snow ; but when wall, leaving a sufficient passage or gangway behind, for
fed within, no change of weather can have any influence on them to pass to and from their stalls proper openings are
;

their feeding ; particularly if due care be taken to keep the also to be left in the wall, for discharging the dung, which
provender dry and under cover. may fall into covered pits on the outside. The openings
In single sheds, it would be convenient to have a
provender- should be so contrived, as to be capable of being shut up in
loft above the cattle, for
holding, occasionally, hay and straw ; severe weather. The area, or space in the middle, is con-
a loft of this kind might be provided with flaps in the floor- verted to the use of feeding and attendance ; and, to render
ing, furnished with hinges, which, when opened, would the plan complete, there should be a room above, to
afford an easy access for putting in the fodder from the cart, store up the different sorts of food that the cattle may
and enable the feeder to throw it into the racks when require.
required. In this case the roof may be supported by posts The oblong plan likewise admits of much room and con-
or pillars, about three or four feet high, on the top of the venience, and is a form in which many cattle houses have
wall, and eight or ten feet distant from each other ;
the flaps been lately erected. In this kind of shed, the length of fifty
may be lifted by rings, and be made stationary in any or sixty feet affords room for a great number of cattle. The
required position, by a catch. roof is made shelving, 14 feet in the highest part, and six or
In many places, cows and oxen are bound to stakes, with- seven in the lowest. The place for the reception of the cattle
out any stalls, or divisions between them. In some parts, is separated from that wherein the dung is to be deposited,
cows are bound in pairs, with a slight division between by a wall, or other convenient division, and may be about 18
them in others, they are not bound, but every cow or ox
;
or 20 feet within, to afford good room. The stalls are twelve
has a separate stall, divided from the rest by wooden rails, feet long, and from 4 feet to 4 feet 6 inches wide ; leaving
so that thev cannot get out, and so narrow that
they cannot gang ways at the heads and behind the cattle, 3 feet or 3
16
 CAU 122 CEI

feet in breadth. Each stall has two

doors, the one for admission forms one of the known curves, which are
this reflection only
of the other for the persons who attend them ; and
cattle, the under their respective heads.
all specified
when the buildings are of great length, it may be convenient CAVjEDlUM (from the Latin, cava and cedium), a vacant
to have additional doors at each end. There should likewise space within the body of a building ; in a Roman house, it
be a water-trough in each stall, and where a stream can be was what we now call a court. According to Vitruvius, there
made to run through the whole range, it is productive of great were five kinds of cavsedia, denominated Tuscan, Corinthian,
advantage. The boxes, or mangers, for particular sorts of tetrastyle, displuvinated, and testudinated.
food, as well as racks for hay, are also necessary to render The Tuscan cavsedium had a roof projecting from each wall,
these buildings complete. The bottom of the stalls may be leaving an aperture in the middle it was suspended on
;

formed of strong planking, laid so as to have a very slight the walls without the intervention of any support from pillars
descent, and perforated with holes for the passage of the urine or columns.
into the reservoir. There should also be openings in the wall, The Corinthian cavsodium was similar to the Tuscan, except
behind the cattle, between every two stalls, of about two feet that the roof was supported by columns.
square, for discharging the dung, with proper shutters fitted The tetrastyle, as its name implies, had one column at each
to them. Each stall should likewise have a wooden window, of the four angles of the roof, for its support.
of about the same size, for the admission of light and for free The displuvinated, being without any roof, admitted a free
ventilation, placed as high as the house or shed will admit. access of the light to the windows of the surrounding rooms,
The reservoir for the dung or urine should extend the whole and was therefore calculated for winter apartments.
length of the building. For further particulars on this subject, The testudinated, which was covered with a vault or con-
see Cow-IIousE. cave ceiling, rising from the walls, was used when the span
CAUK1NG, or COCKING, the mode of fixing the tie-beams or impetus was not very great ; the space above being used
of a roof, or the binding-joists of a floor, down to the wall- for various kinds of apartments. The latter, however, can
plates. This was formerly done by dovetailing, in the follow- hardly be deemed a court, though it comes under the general
ing manner :a small part of the depth of the beam at the denomination of cavsedium.
end of the under side was cut in the form of a dovetail, and CAVAZ1ON, CAVASION, or CAVATION, an excavation
a corresponding notch, to receive it. was formed on the made in the ground for the foundation of a building.
upper side of the wall-plate, across its breadth; making, of CAVE, a subterraneous hollow place, or the space dug out
course, the wide part of the dovetail towards the exterior for cellarage and other purposes below the basement rooms of
part of the wall, so that the beams, when laid in their notches, a house. A
common allowance for this is one-sixth of the
and the roof finished, would tend greatly to prevent the walls height of the building. Caves, without doubt, were among
from separating, though strained by inward pressure, or even the first habitations of men, before they became acquainted
if
having a tendency to spread through accidents or bad with the method of rearing a covering for shelter. They
workmanship. But beams fixed according to this mode, were also used in the early ages as receptacles for the
having been found liable to be drawn to a certain degree out dead.
of the notches in the wall-plates, from the shrinking of the CAVEA, in the ancient amphitheatres, properly signified
timber; a more secure mode has succeeded, which prevents the place where the wild beasts were kept ; but the word
all possibility of one
being drawn out of the other, however was also applied to the middle part, called the arena, and
unseasoned the stuff" may be, or however affected by changes frequently denoted the whole of the interior of the amphi-
of weather. See COCKING. theatres, as well as of the theatres.
CAULICOLES (from caulis, a stalk or stem), in the CAVETTO (Italian, a diminutive of the Latin, cavus,
Corinthian capital, eight stalks between each two of the hollow), a concave moulding or cove, the curvature of whose
upper row of leaves, ramifying upwards, each into two section does not exceed the quarter of a circle; its projection
foliated branches, and seeming to support the volutes under may be equal to its altitude, and should never be less than
the abacus ; each branch supporting one of the sixteen two-thirds of it. The cavetto, which is the reverse of the
volutes, or helices, two of which are placed at each angle, ovolo, or quarter-round, is sometimes used in the bed and
and two in the middle of each face of the abacus. crowning mouldings of cornices; and forms the upper mem-
CAULKING, in ship-building, the operation of driv- ber of the architrave of some of the most beautiful Grecian
ing a quantity of oakum, or old untwisted ropes, into Ionics. The hollow moulding used in the bases between the
the seams of the planks in the sides or decks of a tori, &c., is also called a cavetto.
ship, to secure the interior from water. After the oakum CEILING (from the Latin, ccelum the sky, or celare, to
cover), the inside of the roof, or top of an apartment, opposed
is driven
very hard into the seams, it is covered with
hot melted pitch, or rosin, to prevent the water from rot- to the surface of the floor. Ceilings may be either flat, or
ting it. coved, or both. Coved ceilings are sometimes concave round
CAULKING IRONS, chisels for driving the oakum into the the margin and flat in the middle, or otherwise they are
seams in caulking, these chisels are some broad, some round,
; vaulted. See VAULT. The former occupy from one-fifth to
and others grooved. one-fourth of the height of the room. The principal sections
CAUSEWAY, in the most usual sense, denotes a common of vaulted ceilings may be of various segments, equal to, or
hard raised way, maintained and repaired with stones and less than semicircles as may be most suitable to the height of
rubbish. the room.
It also signifies a massive construction of
stone, stakes, and Flat ceilings are adorned with large compartments, or
fascines ; or an elevation of fat viscous earth, well beaten ; or with both.
foliages and other ornaments,
serving either as a road across wet marshy places, or as a Compartment ceilings are either formed by raising mould-
mole to retain the waters of a pond, or
prevent a river from ings on the surface, or by depressing the panels
within a

overflowing
low lands. moulded enclosure, which may be partly raised upon, and
CAUSTIC CURVE, in the higher geometry, a curve partly recessed within the framing, or entirely
recessed. The
formed by the concourse of the rays of light reflected from figures of the panels may be either polygonal, circular, or
some other curve. It is not of much use in building, as The ceilings of the porticos, and of the interior of
elliptical.
 CEI 123 CEL
ancient temples, were comparted, and the panels deeply by mouldings of a smaller section. The concave ceilings,
recessed ; the prominent parts between them representing, it which present the form of a barrel vault, have most frequently
is said, the ancient manner of framing the beams of wood only a single rib running along the top; when others are
which composed the floors. The mouldings on the sides of introduced, it is but sparingly. In all cases, ceilings were
the panels are sunk in one, two, or several degrees, like enriched with gilding and colours of the most brilliant kind,
inverted steps ; and the bottoms of panels are most frequently examples of which are constantly being brought to light
decorated with roses. The figures of these compartments are during the restoration of old churches.
mostly equilateral and equiangular. Triangles were seldom Plaster was very much used in the ceilings of Elizabeth's
used but we find squares, hexagons, and octagons in great
;
time and the succeeding reigns, in which period the ceilings
abundance. The framing around the panels, in Grecian and were generally flat, divided into panels by ribs, which, as well
Human examples, is constantly parallel, or of equal breadth ;
as the panels themselves, were often adorned with an exube-
therefore, when squares are introduced, there is no other rance of decoration moulded in the plaster, of which we have
variety but hexagons will join in contiguity with one
; many beautiful specimens.
another, or form the interstices into lozenges, or equilateral Soffit same thing as a ceiling, except
amounts to nearly the
triangles. Octagons naturally form two varieties, viz., that that the former applied to the under sides of apertures and
is

of its own figure, and squares in the interstices; this kind of cornices, and the latter to a more extended space, as the top
compartment is called coffering, and the recessed parts coffers, or side of an apartment opposite to the floor. The under
which are used not only in plain ceilings, but also in cylin- surface of an arch is also called the soffit, or intrados, whether
it be the head of an
drical vaults. aperture, or extended over an apartment.
The borders of the coffering are generally terminated with Arched ceilings are described under the article VAULT.
belts,charged most frequently with foliage; and sometimes, CEILING, is also understood to be the lath and plaster at,
again, the foliage is bordered with guilloches, as in the Tem- the top of a room, or on the under side of common or ceiling
ple of Peace, at Rome. joists.
In the ceilingof the entire temple at Balbec, coffers are CEILING, carpentry, the joisting, ribbing, or bracketing
in

disposed around the cylindrical vault in one row, rising over for supporting the lath and plaster of the upper surface, or
each intercolumn, and between every row of coffers is a pro- ceiling of a room. There are various kinds of ceilings, as
jecting belt, ornamented with a guilloche, corresponding with plane ceilings, cove ceilings, and plane and cove ceilings.
two semi-attached columns, in the same vertical plane one ;
Under cove ceilings may be classed several other kinds, as
column supporting each springing of the belt. waggon-headed, or cylindrical ceilings, dome ceilings, groin
The ceilings of the ancients were commonly relieved by ceilings, and spandrel ceilings. For bracketing these different
colour and gilding in various designs, which must have figures, see the words BKAOKETINO and RIUBING for the
;

greatly added to the effect of the whole edifice; this practice definition of arch ceiling, sec VAULT.
has been adopted in the new entrance-kill of the British CEILING-FLOOR, the joisting and ceiling supported by the
Museum with very great success. beams of the roof.
The moderns follow the practice of the ancients in their CEILING-.IOISTS, small beams, which arc either mortised
cupolas and cylindrical vaults, ornamenting them with coffers into the sides of the binding-joists with pulley-mortises, or
and belts; and the belts again with frets, guilloches, or foliages, notched upon, and nailed up to the under sides of the said
Small panels are ornamented w ith roses, and large ones with joists. This last mode takes away from the height of the
foliage or historical subjects. The grounds may be gilt, and room but it is easier to execute, and is thought to be less
;

the ornaments white, partly coloured, or streaked with gold ;

liable tobreak the plaster, than when the ends of the ceiling-
or the ornaments may be gilt, and the grounds white, pearl, joists are inserted in pulley-mortises. When girders are
straw-colour, light-blue, or any tint that may agree best with introduced in the floor, the under sides of the girders must
the ornaments. be furred, to correspond with the level of the under edges of
Some ceilings are painted, either wholly or in various com- the ceiling-joists.
partments only. When a ceiling is painted to represent the CELL, in carpentry. See SILL.
sky, it ought to be upon a plane or spheric surface, without CELLA, in Roman
antiquity, was variously applied. It

being coved at the edges. denoted, in temples, the interior or most retired place, called
Ceilings plane and coved are much employed in modern by the Greeks, naos ; and in baths, various apartments, as
apartments ; they seem to be a kind of medium between the the frigidaria, tepidaria, ealilaria, &c. It was also used to
horizontal and the various arched forms practised by the denote the apartments of prostitutes, and the bed-chambers
ancients they do not require so much height as the latter ;
: of domestics.
but they are neither so graceful nor yet so grand. CELLA, was likewise applied to monasteries, to denote
Vaulted ceilings are more expensive than plane ones; a lesser one, subordinate to a greater ; and was even applied,
but they are also susceptible of a greater variety of embel- vice versa, to rich monasteries not dependent on any.
lishments. CELLAR, in ancient writers, a conservatory for provisions,
When is made on the under side of the rafters of
a ceiling whether to eat or drink. The term comes from the Latin
a roof, said to be camp-ceiled, or tenLceiled.
it is celariitm, and is of the same import with cella.
The timbers of ceilings in Gothic edifices are seldom plas- CELLAR, as now used, is generally applied to an apartment
tered, although examples are occasionally found, as at in which liquors are deposited. Cellars are commonly placed
Rochester Cathedral, of the Decorated p"eriod, which is in the lower story of the dwelling-house, sunk beneath the
divided by moulded ribs of wood. The timber ceilings are surface of the ground ; sometimes they are placed under
either flat, concave, circular, or
ranging with the principal ground, and are entered from the area before the building ;
timbers of the roof; sometimes, however, we have vaulted they are sometimes also placed in out-houses. When they
ceilings of timber, as at Winchester Cathedral. When flat, are placed within the dwelling-house, or contiguous to an
the ceilings are divided into panels Cellars
by moulded ribs, which out-building, they should have a north exposure.
at their intersection are enriched with bosses,
pendants, or should be kept cool, and consequently remote from any place
such like ornaments ; sometimes large panels are subdivided that would communicate heat, and care should be taken to
 CEL 124 CEL

preserve them of as uniform temperature as possible ; for this and the northern tribes are of the same family, and if so,
purpose they should be constructed with double walls and we allow early separation, which is the fact for which the
its

double vaults, leaving a hollow space all round. opposite party contend; the only difference being this, that
Cellars, and other places vaulted under ground, were in one case, we need only account for one separation ;
called the Greeks hypogcea.
by while in the other, we must necessarily suppose a second.
CELLARAGE, the number of cellars which a dwelling- The fact of the identity of the Phoenicians with the
house requires, whether one or many. northern tribes of the Cimmerians does not rest solely on his-
CELTIC, or DRUIDICAL ARCHITECTURE. term appliedA toric evidence, it is also demonstrable from other facts, such
to a class of structures composed of rough unhewn stones of as the common origin of their languages, and the similarity
great size, the erection of which is
generally attributed to of their customs and religious observances. 'As far as the
that family of mankind classed under the name of Celts, former is concerned, there seems to be sufficient evidence to
more especially to the Druids. show that the Hebrew, Phoenician, Sanscrit, Irish, and
These erections are of various descriptions, some consist- Manx languages, are derived from the same source and as ;

ing of a single stone, others comprising many hundreds their ; regards the latter, Dr. Borlase, in his attempt to controvert
arrangement also differs very greatly, yet at the same time the opinion, admits that the customs and ceremonies of Asia
there is a general similarity which readily marks their rela- and of Northern Europe were known and practised by the
tion. The remains are more numerous in this country than British Druids, although he maintains that the Britons had
in any other, but they are
by no means confined to it, similar several observances which were peculiar to themselves. It
erections being found riot only in the neighbouring islands, would indeed seem that Druidism appeared in a more
in France, Germany, the Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden, matured and systematic form in these islands, than else-
and Denmark, but also in Phoenicia, Palestine, India, Mala- where, and this is but reasonable, for, as was before remarked,
bar, Persia and China, and even in the western continent. the Cimbrians were a nomadic race, and were constantly
To account for the existence of these works in such being driven forward by the Scythians ; until, as a last
remote regions, their construction has been attributed to the resource, they crossed the German ocean into Britain here :

Celtre. These Celts, or Gauls, as they were termed by defended on all sides by the sea, they had but little to fear
the Romans, are supposed to be descendants of Gomer, the from their aggressors, and were precluded from making fur-
son of Japhet, whose posterity were called after his name, ther movements westward ;
here therefore they permanently
Gomerians, a title which is identical with the Cimmerians of settled, and betook themselves to the arts of peace, and thus
the Greeks, and the Cimbri of the Latins. That the Celtae was their religion elaborated and reduced to a system ; and as,
were a branch of tlie same stock as the Cimmerians, is gene- in the case ofNuma, and the early Romans, religion estab-
rally allowed, and it would seem, that they followed in their lished peace, so in this instance did peace establish and
migrations a south-westerly course, while the Cimmerians extend religion.
pursued a northern, and afterwards a westerly direction. From the above observations, we think, may reasonably
When and where the great family separated is not so univer- be drawn the following conclusions, namely, that the erection
sally agreed upon, some writers asserting that they divided of all structures of this kind is to be attributed to one race
before they took their departure from the East, others main- of people, and their appearance in such different and distant
taining that the separation did not take beforeplace had they quarters to the fact of that race being migratory or nomadic.
advanced some distance into Europe. The latter class of The monuments erected by the Celts may be divided and
writers, who rest mainly on the authority of Herodotus, sup- classed as follows: Lithoi, composed severally of one, two,
pose that the two branches of the one family travelled toge- and three stones, to the first of which is applied the distin-
ther until they were overtaken and harassed monolithon, and to the that of
by the Scy- guishing appellation last,
thians, when a large number, the Celtro, moved southward, trilithon. They have all the common name of Cromlehs.
and spread westward from Asia Minor to Italy, and after- After these come the kist-vaens, or chests, composed of four
wards to Spain and Britain. It is certain that" the Cimme- stones, and lastly, circles comprising a large number of stones.
rians were closely followed
by the succeeding horde of Further, we have logan, or rocking-stones, tolmen stones,
emigrants, the Scythians, and were by them continually cheese-rings, and cairns.
pressed further westwards it is also generally allowed, that
;
The most simple of these structures are the monolithoi,
Great Britain was peopled principally by the northern hordes or single stones, of which we find a great number in various
who passed through Denmark and Gaul. If we follow the parts of the British Islands. The first mention of such stones
theory of those who place the separation at the later period we find, is of that set up by Jacob after his dream, which he
on this side the Sea of Azoph, we
shall have to account in named Bethel ; the next is that set up by Joshua under an
some other manner the existence of Celtic remains
for oak by the sanctuary, as a witness unto the Israelites, lest
in Syria and Phoenicia, as well as in India. This difficulty they denied their God. Another stone is spoken of at a later
is obviated
by attributing the introduction of such a mode of period, called the stone of Abel, upon which the ark was
building into this country to the Phoenicians; but then we are rested ; and another, which was placed by Samuel between
left to account for the
appearance of the same in the north. The Mizpeh and Shen as a memorial of the Divine assistance.
supporters of this opinion quote the statement of Caesar, that We read also of the stone Ezel, and the great stone in Gibeon.
Druidism originated in Britain, and was carried thence to Many such stones are seen in Palestine at the present day, but
Gaul ; and from whom, say they, are the Britons likely to have not in the places mentioned in the Old Testament. The same
learned it, but from the Phoenicians, with whom we know
they kind of stones are almost universal in India, few, if any, of the
carried on a trade in tin, and who, on account of the advan- temples being without them ; there are two also
in Tyre. It

tages obtained from that traffic, were very jealous of their is suggested, that the pillars of Hercules were of this class,

knowledge of the island being extended to other nations ; it and with some probability, as Arrian says, that "Gades was
is allowed, that the structures we are
considering were closely built by the Phoenicians ; the sacrifices and ceremonies there
performed are all after the Phoenician manner ;" and
allied to Druidism. But this theory, as we said before, Strabo
to Hercules.
raises the difficulty about the existence of similar works in adds, that there were here two pillars dedicated
the north, unless it be admitted indeed that the Phoenicians Plato mentions a pillar connected in some way with the
 CEL 125 CEL
Amazons, and similar lithoi were to be seen at Megara, present day, with the exception that the separate stone last
at Cheronsea, in Thessaly, Ionia and Mauritania, one also mentioned, is now entirely buried in the ground. The
within the walls of Athens. Cyrus erected obelisks over the dimensions are given as follows in Grose's Antiquities :

"
grave of Abradates, king of Susa, and over those of his wife Upright stone on the north or north-west side, eight feet
and officers. Further north we find such stones in Denmark, high, eight feet broad, two feet thick ; estimated weight, eight
Sweden, Scotland, Ireland, and in our own country. tons and a half. Upright stone on the south or south-east
As these stones are of necessity much alike in all cases, side, eight feet high, seven and a half feet broad, two feet
we need only give a description of one, to afford a general thick ; estimated weight, eight tons. Upright stone between
idea of the whole of them ; we select that of Kudstone, in these, very irregular ; medium dimensions, five feet high,
the East Hiding of Yorkshire. It stands about four yards five feet broad, fourteen inches thick ; estimated weight,
from the north-east corner of Rudstone Church, and rises about two tons. Upper stone very irregular eleven feet
;

above the ground twenty-four feet if, as is stated, it mea-

; long, eight feet broad, two feet thick;
estimated weight,
sures the same below ground, its total length will be forty- about ten tons seven hundred-weight."
eight feet ;
its breadth is six feet, and thickness two feet ;
Monuments of the same description are to be seen in
all four sidesare slightly convex. The stone is of a very hard Palestine, the following account of some of which is given
"
quality, and its weight is calculated at above forty tons. by Captains Irby and Mangles : On the banks of the
The uses of the monolithoi seem to have been various. That Jordan, at the foot of the mountain, we observed some very
some were used as sepulchral monuments, is allowed by all ; singular, interesting, and certainly very ancient tombs, com-
and some allow them to have had no other use such was the ; posed of great rough stones, resembling what is called Kit's
pillar set up by Jacob over Rachel's grave, also those erected Coty House, in Kent. They are built of two long side-
by Cyrus, as before mentioned. Some were trophies of vic- stones, with one at each end, and a small door in front,
tories, as that erected by Samuel after his defeat of the Phi- mostly facing the north this door was of stone. All were
;

listines ; some were witnesses to covenants, as that set up by of rough stones, apparently hot hewn, but found in flat frag-
Jacob and Laban, and that of Joshua; whilst others are ments, many of which are seen about the spot in huge flakes.
merely boundary stones. Over the whole was laid an immense flat piece, projecting
Similar in description are the curious round towers so pre- both at the sides and ends. What rendered these tombs more
valent in Ireland, which are generally found in the locality remarkable was, that the interior was not long enough for
of a Christian church, a situation which is accounted for by the a body, being only five feet. This is occasioned by both the
supposition that the Christian missionaries were accustomed front and back stones being considerably within the ends of
to rear their edifices near the spot where the
pagan temples the sides only. There are about twenty-seven of these tombs,
had stood. It is certain that these towers are very old, as very irregularly situated." This description would answer
they were considered ancient even in the twelfth century ; very well for our own erections of the kind, were it not for
they vary both in height and construction, but their general the second stone and doorway, no traces of which are to be
appearance is that of a circular obelisk tapering gradually found in these islands. Sir Richard Colt Iloare gives two
towards the summit, and finishing in a conical roof. See representations of similar stones in Malabar, but he does
ROUND TOWERS. not accompany them with any description.
These obelisks are also termed Cromlehs, a word signifying Numerous monuments of this kind are to be found through-
a stone of adoration also Bothal, which doubtless is the same
;
out the British Isles, but they occur most frequently in Corn-
as the Hebrew, Bethel, both terms
signifying the House of wall and Wales, also in the Isle of Anglesea, the last resort
God. Under these names are also included monuments of the Druids, and in Ireland.
of two or three stones, the former comprising an upright What the use of these caves were is not agreed upon,
pillar with a cross-piece on the top, and the latter two some claiming them as sacrificial altars, others as tombs, and
upright stones, with a third at the top, stretching from one others again as simply sacred constructions answering to the
to the other; the latter are named likewise trilithons. ark or sacred chest of the Jews. The former position is
Next to the lithoi, or cromlehs, stand the kist-vaens, or maintained by King, who, after referring to the account given
monuments of four stones, consisting of three uprights, and by the Romans of the human sacrifices of the Druids, con-
one horizontal stone covering the whole they are often
: tends for the peculiar applicability of such erections to
found in, or near circles, and are frequently
accompanied that purpose but his opinions do not seem to be borne out
;

with barrows of various kinds. Kist^vaen is a Welsh term, by facts. As a

decisive argument in the matter, he cites an
and signifies stone-chest, but the term quoit is
frequently instance of a structure of the kind existing in the county of
applied to the same structures, more especially in Cornwall, Louth, Ireland, which is called the killing-stone; but if this
and there is one near Cloyne, in Ireland, named Carig-Croith, hold good as a proof, a similar one may be advanced for the
which is interpreted Sun's House. Such monuments are second class of opinions, in the case of the Trevethy Stone
found in abundance, and in every quarter of the in Cornwall, the word Trcvedi signifying, in the British
globe ; we
select one as a specimen, Kit's
Coty House, Kent. language, it is said, the Place of Graves and besides this,
;

This monument stands near to the village of Kit's Coty House is transferred into Catigern's house of coits,
Aylesford,
and is thus described by Stowe " It the term coit being translated large flat stone. This place is
: consists of four flat
stones, one of them standing upright, between two others, so named, it is averred, from the fact of Catigern being
inclosing the edges of the first, and the fourth laid flat upon buried theje, after the battle with Hengist and Horsa, which
the other three, and is of such
height that men may stand on occurred at Aylesford, and in which he was slain.
either side the middle stone in time of storm or
tempest, safe We have now arrived at the largest and most interesting
from wind and rain, being defended with the breadth of the class of monuments, the Druidical circles ; they consist
stones, having one at their backs, one on either side, and of one or more circles of upright stones placed at short
the fourth over their heads." " About a intervals from each other ; the circles are usually concentric,
coit's cast from this
monument, lieth another great stone, a great part thereof in but we have not unfrequently two smaller circles placed side
the ground, as fallen down where the same had been affixed." by side within a larger one, and the whole surrounded with
This description answers a circular ditch and vallum. The stones composing the cir-
very well to its appearance at the
 CEL 126 CEL
cles are not
always single, but sometimes consist of trilithons, mortise and tenon, and formed a complete and regular circle.
sometimes of kist-vaens. Such erections are found in various Within this enclosure is another of a similar figure, and
localities, although more frequently in this country than else- eighty-three feet in diameter, composed of the same number
where. Mention is made of them in the Sacred writings in of stones, which however are of smaller dimensions and
more than one instance Moses is said to have erected an
: without imposts. Within this again were five separate
altar, and twelve pillars, according to the twelve tribes of structures, termed trilithons, each consisting of two large
Israel, ere he ascended the mount to receive the law; he also stones surmounted with an impost, and having three smaller
gives directions to the Israelites at a later period, that upon stones a short distance in advance. These structures were
crossing Jordan they should set up in mount Ebal great situate, one immediately opposite the avenue, and two on
stones, and plaster them with plaster, and especially orders each side of it, leaving an unoccupied space for an entrance.
that they should be whole stones, and unwrought; we The larger upright stones were more lofty than any of the
accordingly find Joshua setting up twelve stones in the others, one of them measuring upwards of twenty-one and
midst of Jordan, and taking twelve further forward, and a half feet in height ; thus overtopping all the outer circles.
pitching them in Gilgal, as a memorial of the passage of the In front of the centra] trilithon, is placed, by Stukeley, a low
Jordan ; it is worthy of remark, that the word Gilgal signi- flat stone, supposed to be the altar. The avenue noticed at
fies a wheel or circle, and doubtless the
place was so named the commencement of this description continued in a north-
is
from the circle of stones there set up. Such circles are found easterly direction for a distance of about a third of a mile,
likewise Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland, in
in where it separates into two branches, the one leading south-
which they are termed Doom circles they are
last place ;
ward between two rows of barrows, the other in the opposite
spoken of by Clarke as existing in the Troad, and Sir direction for more than a mile and a half to a spot called the
William Ouseley gives views and description of one to be cursus, which is a flat tract of land, bounded on each side
seen in Persia but what is most remarkable, there exist
; by banks and ditches, and at its extremities by barrows or
three in America, one upon a high rock on the bank of the tumuli.
river Winnipigon. The erection at Abury, although of more rude construc-
Such structures were unquestionably temples in which the tion than Stonehenge, is of more stupendous dimensions ;
Druidieal services were performed, and not only so, but they few of the stones remain at the present day, great numbers
seem to have been the prototype of all heathen temples, for having been employed in the erection of the neighbouring
we gather from authentic sources, that the most ancient town, yet we have accounts of many which existed at a pre-
heathen fanes were all open to the sky without roof of any vious period, with the aid of which, and of his own experi-
kind. It is argued
by some, that they were used merely for enced judgment, Dr. Stukeley made out a plan of the original
civil purposes, or that some of them at least were structure entire. It consisted of a large circular enclosure
exclusively
so employed ; that they were all so employed we do of more than twenty-eight acres, surrounded with a great
not for a moment doubt, but we contend that they were all vallum and ditch, the inner slope of the former measuring
likewise employed for sacred purposes ; indeed, the govern- eighty feet, its circumference at the apex being four thousand
ment of the people was so implicit with their religion, that four hundred and forty-two feet. On the inner side of the
the Druids were at one and the same time both priests and ditch, and close upon its bank, was a circle thirteen hundred
rulers. feet in diameter, composed of one hundred immense stones
The circles are supposed by some to have been closely con- of an average height of seventeen feet, and placed at a dis-
nected with astrology, and indeed the agreement of the tance of about twenty-seven feet from each other. Within
number and arrangement of the stones with the divisions this outer circle were two smaller ones, situate side by side
of the ancient cycles remarkable, as will be seen by
is on a diameter running from north-west to south-east, of the
referring to the tables of Dr. Stukeley, which are given more northerly of which some stones of great size are still
in the following page. standing. These circles consist of two concentric rows of
The most remarkable of the circular erections in Great stone, within which, in the southern circle, was a central
Britain are those of Stonehcnge and Abury, both of which obelisk, towards which, it is said, the worshippers used to
are situate in the neighbourhood of Salisbury Plain. The turn during the celebration of the rites, and in the same
former, about seven miles north of Salisbury, is approached position, on the northern circle, a structure termed a cove,
by a broad avenue protected on either side by a vallum, or consisting of three large stones placed towards each other at
long mound of earth this avenue leads into a large circular
;
an obtuse angle. The distance of the centres of the north
platform three hundred feet in diameter, enclosed from the and south circles is given at five hundred and eighteen feet,
surrounding plain by means of a vallum fifteen feet in and the distances of their circumferences at eighty-six feet,
height, with a ditch on either side of it, and, as some sup- thus determining the length of the diameters, four hundred
pose, by an inner circle of stones, some few having been and thirty-two feet. These admeasurements, however, must
found in immediate proximity to the other circle. In the be received with some reserve, as the remains were so scanty
avenue, at a distance of about a hundred feet from the cir- at the time they were taken, as to leave the exact position of
cular ditch, is a large stone inclining towards you as you the circles or their centres a matter of great uncertainty.
approach, and a similar one in the ditch at the entrance. Of this structure, which it is calculated could originally
Passing onwards in a straight direction you approach a large boast in all of more than six hundred stones, but few portions
number of stones composing the temple, more especially so remain, the rest having been employed either in the erection
termed, which consists of an outer circle of stones four- of the town of the same name, which stands within its
teen feet in height, seventeen of which still remain, six boundaries, or in constructing and repairing its roads.
scattered in various parts of the circle, but eleven on the From two entrances on the southern side of the exterior
line of
north-cast side, at equal distances from each other, forming circle, extend two avenues, each formed by a double
a continuous segment of a circle, thus demonstrating the upright stones, and of more than a mile in length.
One
form and position of the whole. This circle consisted of them running in a south-easterly direction, the breadth of
originally of thirty stones, surmounted by a continuous impost which averages fifty feet, led to an elliptical piece of ground
of large flat stones, which were fitted on to the upiights by on the top of a hill called the Hackpen, enclosed within two
 CEL 127 CEL
hundred upright stones, and surrounded on all sides with those already mentioned, may be classed that of Stanton
barrows. The south-western avenue,
consisting of about two Drew, consisting originally of three circles, of the larger
hundred stones, is nearly a mile and a half in length, nnd of which five stones remain, and of the smaller, a larger num-
terminates in a single stone. It has to be remarked, that ber ; the stones are much inferior in point of size to those
both these avenues run in a curved direction, and are hence already described. Kollrich is another circle of stones near
by some supposed to represent a serpent, thus connecting the Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, the highest of which is not
religion of the Druids with the early and prevalent supersti- more than five feet above the ground ; they are irregular, and
tion of serpent-worship; the western avenue answers to the of unequal height. Another is found near Penrith, Cumber-
tail of the reptile ; the larger circle to the body ; while the head land, which consists of seventy-seven stones, each ten feet in
is
represented by the Hackpen, a word which, in some lan- height, and before them, at the entrance, stands a single one
guages, signifies serpent. The circles of this portion of the by itself, fifteen feet high. Similar structures are found in
structureare concentric, the outer one containing forty stones, other parts of England, Scotland, and the Isles, but none of
having a diameter of one hundred and fifty feet, and the them approaching in size those of Abury or Stonehenge.
inner, which is composed of eighteen stones, a diameter of There exists at Carnac, in Brittany, a monument, which
forty-eight feet. in size approaches nearer to Abury than any other such
Between the two avenues just mentioned, are three mounds, work, but which, in its form and general character, is perfectly
or hills, one of which, situate at the extreme south, and nearly unique ; it is of ruder formation than either Abury or Stone-
" and consists of
midway between the extremities of the avenues, is remark- henge, eleven rows of unwrought pieces of
able as being the largest artificial mound in Europe ; it is rock or stone, merely set up on end in the earth, without
named Silbury Hill. The base of this mound covers a space any pieces crossing them at top. These stones are of great
of five acres and thirty-four perches, and its circumference thickness, but not exceeding nine or twelve feet in height;
is two thousand and
twenty-seven feet, the length of the there may be some few fifteen feet. The rows are placed from
slope three hundred and sixteen feet, and the diameter of fifteen to eighteen paces from each other, extending in length
the platform, at its apex, one hundred and twenty feet. taking rather a semicircular direction above half a mile,
Besides this and other erections connected with Abury, are on unequal ground, and towards one end upon a hilly site.
a variety of Druidical remains scattered in all directions for When the length of these rows is considered, there must have
some distance round the great circle. been nearly three hundred stones in each, and there are
The number of stones employed at Abury and Stonehenge, eleven rows ; this will give some idea of the immensity of
with their distribution, as given by Dr. Stukcley : the work, and the labour such a construction required. It is
said that there are above four thousand stones still remain-
8TOXEHENGE. This accountis takon from Mrs. Stoddart's Tour in
ing."
Stones. Stones.
Normandy and Brittany but a French writer gives the size
;
The great circle contains . ...100
. The great-circle uprights 30
North temple, outer circle ...30 The
of some of the stones at twenty-one and twenty-two feet,
.
great-circle imposts .... 30
North temple, inner circle ... 12
. Inner circle 40 and he especially alludes to one specimen, which was twenty-
South temple, outer circle ...30. Trilithou uprights 10 two feet high, twelve broad, and six deep its weight ;
is
given
South temple, inner circle .12 . Trilithon imposts 5 at two hundred and fifty-sevon thousand pounds.
The cove and altar 4 Inmost stones 19
Obelisk and altar 2 Altar 1
Logan stones, or rocking-stoncs, as they are less technically
The eastern avenue 200 Stones within the vallum .... 2 termed, are stones, often of an immense size, poised on others,
The western avenue 200 Large table stone 1 or on natural rocks, in such a peculiar manner, as to move with
Hackpen, outer circle 40 Distant pillar 1 the slightest touch. They seem to have been erected at vari-
Hackpen, inner circle 18 Stone at entrance . . 1
ous times and places. They were known to the Greeks, and
Long stone-cove jambs 1
The Ring stone 1
called by them AtOot ffi^v^oi, or live stones, also named
Closing stone of tail 1 Petne Ambrosias, from the ceremony they underwent of
being anointed with oil. Pliny takes notice of one erected
Total. .652 Total. .140
by Lycippus, at Tarentum, and also of one at Cyzicum,
which is said to have been left by the Argonauts but the ;

Mr. Toland gives the following account of a remarkable most celebrated was the Gygonean stone, near the Pillars of
"
structure of this kind. " at
In the isle of Lewis," he
says, the Hercules, of which Ptolemy Hephcestion relates, that it
village of Classerniss, there is one of these temples very stands near the ocean, and may be moved with the stalk of an
remarkable. The circle consists of twelve obelisks, about asphodel, but cannot be removed by any force. Pliny like-
seven feet high each, and distant from each other six feet. wise says of one at Harpava, in Asia, that it is of so strange
In the centre stands a stone thirteen feet
high, in the perfect and wonderful a nature, that if even a finger is laid on it, it
shape of the rudder of a ship. Directly south from the will move, but if you thrust it with your whole body, it will
circle, there stand four obelisks running out in a line ; as not move at all.
also another such line due east, and a third to the west, the These stones are very common in Britain; there are
number and distances of the stones being in these wings several in Cornwall and Yorkshire, as also in Scotland,
the same so that this temple, the most entire that can be,
; where they are called Claca Breath, or stones of judgment ;

is at the same time both round and knownthat there existed formerly several in the island
winged. But to the it is

north, there reach, by way of avenue, two straight ranges of lona, which have since been destroyed. In some cases
of obelisks, of the same the stone rests on two points, in others on one ; it is said that
bigness and distances with those of
the circle ; yet the ranges themselves are eight feet distant, the junction was formed in one instance in Scotland, where
and each consisting of nineteen stones, the the stone had been removed, by a protuberant knob in the
thirty -ninth being
the entrance to the avenue." Dr. Borlase mentions three cir-
upper stone fitting into a socket.
cles of stone in the
parishof St. Clare, Cornwall, called the A stone of this nature is that near Penzance, Cornwall,
Hurlers, which are separate and distinct from each other, but named Men-amber ; it is eleven feet in length, four feet in
whose centres are in one straight line. equilibrium was destroyed
depth, and six in width. Its

Amongst some few of the most important circles besides by Cromwell's soldiers, by breaking off a poition. Another
 CKL 128 CEM
logan stone situate at Land's End, is said to weigh seventy Rooke mentions one situate on Brimham Craggs, Yorkshire,
tons; it stands on one of a stupendous group of granite rocks the circumference of which is forty-six feet, and the pedestal
which rise to a prodigious altitude, and overhang the sea; on which it rests, only one foot by two feet seven inches.
it was thrown down by a ship's crew, but the good sense Cairns are conical heaps of loose stones frequently found
of the inhabitants obliged them to replace it. on the top of hills or artificial tumuli ; the term is derived
Borlase was the first to notice a structure of a somewhat by Mr. lloland from two Hebrew words, signifying coped
different character to the last, called Tolmen, or Hole of heaps. On these are supposed to have been kindled fires,
Stone, consisting of a large stone supported at two points at which certain religious ceremonies took place, such as
by others, leaving a space between them, through which that mentioned as being observed by the Israelites in making
it is supposed devotees passed for religious purposes. Of their children pass through the fire, in imitation of their
a similar opening at the extremity of Malabar Hill, in the heathen neighbours ; thus connecting the customs of the
"
island of Bombay, a writer says This place is used by British Druids with those of Asia and Phoenicia. From
the Gentoos as a purification for their sins, which they say these Druidical practices may have arisen perchance the
is effected by their going in at the opening below, and ordeal by fire of later times.
emerging out of the cavity above." We find stones of this At New Grange, near Drogheda, Ireland, is a curious
kind in Cornwall and in Ireland; the most noted is that in sepulchral pyramid of stone, formed of pebble stones, the
the parish of Constantine, Cornwall, which is thus described weight of the solid contents of which amounted to no less
" It
by Dr. Borlase : is one vast
egg-like stone, placed on than one hundred and eighty-nine thousand tons. The plan
the points of two natural rocks, so that a man may creep of this monument is curvilinear, and covers about two acres
under the great one, and between its supporters, through of ground, and is surrounded by a number of large unhewn
a passage about three feet wide, and as much high. The stones, rising about seven feet above the ground ; the height
longest diameter of this stone is thirty-three feet, the depth of the pyramid is calculated at seventy feet. greatA
thirteen feet, and the breadth eighteen feet six inches. number of stones, removed for paving and other purposes,
I measured one half of the circumference, and found it, led to the discovery of a passage leading into an interior
according to my computation, forty-eight feet and a half, vaulted apartment. This passage began about forty feet
so that this stone is ninety-seven feet in circumference, within the body of the work, and is entirely composed of
about sixty feet across the middle, and by the best informa- large flag stones its length is
; sixty-one feet, the width three
tion I can get, contains at least seven hundred and fifty tons feet, and the height varies from two to nine feet. This
of stone. Getting up a ladder to view the top of it, we passage leads into an octangular vaulted apartment, whose
found the whole surface worked like an impel feet or mutilated diameter is seventeen feet, and its height twenty the vault ;

honey -corn b, into basons one much larger than the rest
;
or dome is remarkable as being composed of overlapping
was at the south end, about seven feet long another at the
;
horizontal stones, the upper ones projecting inwardly beyond
north, about five ; the rest smaller, seldom more than one the lower, sustained in their position by having a larger
foot, often not so much: the sides and shape irregular. portion of each stone upon the one beneath it, than projects
Most of these basons discharge into the two principal ones towards the interior; this construction is exactly similar to
(which lie in the middle of the surface) those only excepted that of the tomb of Agamemnon, or treasury of Atreus at
which are near the brim of the stone, and they have little Mycene. The side of this irregular octagon immediately
lips or channels which discharge the water they collect over opposite the entrance, is formed into a niche, as are also two
the sides of the Tolmen ; and the flat rocks which lie under- sides at the right and left, similar to the erections called
neath, receive the droppings in basons cut into their surfaces. kist-vaens, the last two containing each a rock-bason. This
This stone is no less wonderful for its position than for its building is, we believe, the only one of its kind existing in
size, for although the under part is nearly semicircular, yet Britain.
it rests on the two large rocks, and so slight and detached We have not included the barrows or tumuli in the list
does it stand, that it touches the two under stones, but as of monuments to be considered, simply because they can
with
it were on their points. scarcely be considered to have any great connection
Wring-cheeses, so named from their resemblance in form Architecture, but as they are closely allied to the structures
to an ancient cheese-press, consist of large masses of stone we have been considering, we ought not to pass them by
placed one upon the other for several tiers, the whole resting without notice. They are mere mounds of earth, of various
on a base of much smaller dimensions than the superincumbent shapes, raised, as is supposed, over the graves
of men of rank,
mass. By some it is contended that they are merely the and are found numbers in the neighbourhood of the
in great

productions of nature, but it seems more reasonable to sup- larger monuments some of them are of oblong shape, raised
:

pose, that at least some art has been employed in their like coped tombs, some triangular, some circular and oval,
formation. They are by some termed rock-idols, under of which again some are convex, some concave. Some are
the supposition that they were worshipped as gods. of the shape of bowls, and some of bells, while others are of
One such monument, situate in the parish of St. Clare, a conical form occasionally two are formed together, and
;
" are called twin-barrows, but more frequently they are seen
Cornwall, Dr. Borlase thus describes : The rock now
called Wring-cheese, is a group of rocks that attracts the separate. Many of them have been opened, and are found
admiration of all travellers. On the top stone of this, were to contain not only human remains, but also spear-heads and
two regular basons part of one of which has been broken
;
other implements of war, besides articles of domestic use, .

off. The upper stone was, as I am informed, a logan or such as earthen vessels and the like. Their contents deter-
rocking-stone, and might, when it was entire, be easily moved mine as well their use, as the date of their formation.
with a pole, but now great part of that weight which kept CEMENT. The word cement may be defined as any
The whole heap of stones is of uniting bodies in
it on poise, is taken away.
glutinous or other substance, capable
thirty-two feet high, the great weight of the upper part and close cohesion, or making them adhere firmly together, so as
the slenderness of the under part make every one wonder to form of the whole one solid mass as mortar, glue, solder,
for conve-
how such an ill-grounded pile could resist, for so many ages, asphaltum, &c. Cements are of various kinds, but,
the storms of such an exposed situation." Mr. Hayman nience, be divided into NATURAL and ARTIFICIAL.
may
 CEM 129 CEM
Natural cements are found in Russia, France, and other made from chalk, lime-stone, or marble, will not acquire any
and indeed the substance so extensively used in
countries, degree of hardness ; the brown lime will become considerably
England, and very improperly termed Roman cement, is indurated ; and the shell lime will be concreted into a firm
nothing more than a natural cement, resulting from a slight cement, which, though it will fall to pieces in water, is well
calcination of a calcareous mineral, containing about 31 per qualified for interior finishings, it can be where
kept dry.
cent of ochreous clay, and a few hundredths of carbonate was the opinion of the ancients, and is still received
It
of magnesia and manganese. It may be observed, that
among our modern builders, that the hardest lime-stone fur-
when the proportion of clay in calcareous minerals exceeds nishes the best lime for rnortar ;
but the experiments of
27 to 30 per cent, it is seldom converted into lime by Dr. Higgins and Mr. Smeaton have proved this to be a mis-
calcination, but they then furnish a kind of natural cement, take, and that the softest chalk lime, if thoroughly burned,
which can be used by pulverizing it, and kneading it with is equally durable with the hardest stone lime, or even
water. marble but though stone and chalk lime are equally good
:

There are some natural cements which do not water

set in under this condition, there is a very important practical
for many days, but these are now rarely used those which
;
difference between them ; as the chalk lime absorbs carbonic
solidify quickly, being generally preferred. The adhesive acid with much greater avidity; and if it be only partially
power of some cements in the open air, is very remarkable ; calcined, will, on the application of water, fall into a coarse
and we have ourselves seen 33 bricks stuck to one another powder, which stone lime will not do.
by Roman cement, and projecting at right angles from the For making mortar, the lime should be immediately used
side of a wall. from the kiln ; and in slacking it, no more water should be
The argillaceous limestones, and the artificial mixtures allowed than what is just sufficient: and for this purpose Dr.
of pure lime and clay, in the proportions requisite to con- Higgins recommends lime-water.
stitute hydraulic lime by the ordinary calcination, become The sand made use of should be perfectly clean if there ;

natural or artificial cements, when they have been subjected is

any mixture of clay or mud, it should be divested of either,
merely to a simple incandescence, kept up for some minutes. or both, by washing it in running water. Mr. Smeaton has
Calcareous cements may be classed according to the three fully shown by experiments, that mortar, though of the best
following divisions, namely, simple calcareous cements, water quality, when mixed with a small proportion of unbimit
cements, maltha, and mastics. clay, never acquires that hardness, which, without this addi-
1st, Simple calcareous cements include those kinds of tion, it speedily would have attained. If sea-sand be used,
mortar which are employed in land-building, and consist it
requires to be well washed with fresh water, to dissolve
of lime, sand, and fresh water. the salt with which it is mixed, otherwise the cement into
Calcareous earths are converted into quick-lime by burn- which it enters, never becomes thoroughly dry and hard.
ing, which being wetted with water falls into an impalpable The sharper and coarser the sand is, the stronger is the
powder, with great extrication of heat and if in this state
: mortar also a less proportion of lime is necessary.
;
It is
it is beat with sand and
water, the mass will concrete and therefore more profitable to use the largest proportion of
become a stony substance, which will be more or less perfect sand, as this ingredient is the cheapest in the composition.
according to its treatment, or to the quality and quantities The best proportion of lime and sand in the composition
of ingredients. of mortar is yet a desideratum.
When carbonated lime has been thoroughly burned, it is It may be affirmed, in general, that no more lime is

deprived of its water, and all, or nearly all, of its carbonic required to a given quantity of sand, than what is just
acid;
much of the water, during the process of calcination, sufficient to surround the particles, or to use the least lime,
being carried off in the form of steam. so as to preserve the necessary degree of plasticity. Mortar
Lime-stone loses about of its weight by burning, and in which sand predominates, requires less water in preparing,
when fully burned, falls freely, and will produce something and therefore sets sooner it is harder, and less liable to crack
:

more than double the quantity of powder, or slacked lime, in in drying ; for this reason, that lime shrinks greatly in dry-
measure, that the burnt lime-stone consisted of. ing, while sand retains its original magnitude. are We
Quick-lime, by being exposed to the air, absorbs carbonic informed by Vitruvius, lib. ii., chap, v., that the Roman
acid with greater or less rapidity, as its texture is less or builders allowed three parts of pit sand, or two of river or
more hard ; and this, by continued exposure, becomes unfit sea sand, to one of lime ; but Pliny, Hist. Nat. lib. xxxvi.,
for the composition of mortar ; hence it is that quick-lime prescribes four parts of coarse sharp pit sand, and only one
made of chalk, cannot be kept for the same length of time of lime. The general proportion given by our London
between the burning and slacking, as that made from builders, is1
j cwt., or thirty-seven bushels of lime, and 2j
stone. loads of sand ; but if proper care were taken in the
Marble, chalk, and limestone, with respect to their use in burning of the lime, the quality of the sand, and in temper-
cements, may be divided into two kinds simple lime-stone, ing the materials, a much greater quantity of sand might be
or pure carbonate of lime, and argillo-ferruginous lime, which admitted.
contains from -jV to j'j of clay, and oxide of iron, previous to Mr. Smeaton observes, that there is scarcely any mortar
calcination there arc no external marks by which these can
: but which, if the lime be well burned, and the composition
be distinguished from each other, but whatever may have well beaten in the making, will require two measures
been the colour in the crude state, the former, when calcined, of sand to one of unslacked lime ; and it is singular, that
becomes white, and the latter more or less of an ochrey the more the mortar is wrought or beat, a greater proportion
tinge. The white kinds are more abundant, and when made of sand may be admitted. He found that by good beating,
iuto mortar will admit of a greater portion of sand than the the same quantity of lime would take in one measure of
brown, consequently are more generally employed in the terras, and three of clean sand, which seems to be the
composition of mortar ; but the brown lime is by far the best greatest useful proportion.
for all kinds of cement. If white, brown, and shell lime, Dr. Higgins found that a certain proportion of coarse and
recently slacked, be separately beat up with a little water fine sand improved the composition of mortar ; the best
into a stiff paste, it will be found that the white lime, whether proportion of ingredients, according to experiments mado
17
 CEM 130 CEM
by him, is as follows, by measure Lime, newly slacked, one
: The sand is equally defective, consisting of small globular
cart ; fine sand, three parts ; coarse sand, four parts. He grains, containing a large proportion of clay, which prevents
also found that an addition of one-fourth part of the quantity .
itfrom drying, and attaining the necessary degree of hard-
of lime, of burnt bone-ashes, improved the mortar, by ness. These materials being compounded in the most hasty
giving it tenacity, and rendering it less liable to crack in manner, and beat up with water in this imperfect state, can-
drying. not fail of producing a crumbling and bad mortar ; and to
The mortar should be made under ground, then covered complete the miserable composition, screened rubbish, and
up, and kept there, for a considerable length of time, the the scraping of roads, are thrown in, as substitutes for
longer the better ; and when it is to be used, it should be pure sand.
beat up afresh. This makes it set sooner, renders it less How very different was the practice of the Romans The !

liable to crack, and harder when dry. lime which they employed was perfectly burnt, the sand
The stony consistence which it acquires in drying, is sharp, clean, and large-grained ; when these ingredients were
owing to the absorption of carbonic acid, and a combination mixed in due proportion, with a small quantity of water, the
of part of the water with the lime and hence it is that lime
: mass was put into a wooden mortar, and beaten with a heavy
that has been long kept after burning is unfit for the purpose wooden or iron pestle, till the composition adhered to the
of mortar, for in the course of keeping, so much carbonic mortar being thus far prepared, they kept it till it was at
:

acid has been imbibed as to have little better effect, in least three years old. The beating of mortar is of the utmost
a composition of sand and water, than chalk or lime-stone consequence to its durability, and it would appear that the
reduced to a powder from the crude state, would have in effect produced by it, is owing to something more than a mere

place of it. mechanical mixture. See MORTAR.

Grout is a cement, containing a larger proportion of water Water cements are such as are impervious to water they :

than is employed in common mortar, so as to make it suffi- are generally made of common mortar, or of pure lime and
ciently fluid to penetrate the narrow irregular interstices water, with the addition of some other ingredient to give it
of rough stone walls. Grout should be made of mortar the property of hardening under water.
that has been long kept and thoroughly beat, as it wilUthen For this purpose there are several kinds of ingredients, as
concrete in the space of a day whereas, if this precaution
:
puzzolana, cellular basalt, or wakke, compact basalt, coal-
be neglected, it will be a long time before it sets, and may ashes, coal-cinders, wood-ashes, pumice-stone, brick-dust,
even refuse setting for ever. See GROUT. powder of quick-lime, forge-scales, roasted iron-ore, &c.
Mortar made of pure lime, sand, and water, may be The cement employed by Mr. Smeaton, in the construction
employed in the linings of reservoirs and aqueducts, pro- of the Eddystone lighthouse, was composed of equal parts,
vided it have sufficient time to dry ; but if the water be by measure, of slacked Aberthaw lime and puzzolana ; this
put in while it is wet, it will fall to pieces in a short time ; proportion was thought advisable, as the building was exposed
and, consequently, if the circumstances of the building be to the utmost violence of the sea but for other aquatic
:

such as render it impracticable to keep out the water, it works, as locks, basins, canals, &c., a composition made of
should not be used there are, however, certain ingredients
:
lime, puzzolana, sand, and water, in the following proportion,
put into common mortar, by which it is made to set imme- viz., two bushels of slacked Aberthaw lime, one bushel of
diately under water, or if the quick-lime contain in itself a puzzolana, and three of clean sand, has been found very
certain portion of burnt clay, it will possess this property. effectual. It is well known, that sand and lime, mixed toge-
From the friable and crumbling nature of our mortar, ther with care, will incorporate and form a mortar imper-
a notion has been entertained by many persons, that the vious to water, and sufficient even for the linings of cisterns
ancients possessed a process in its fabrication, which has been and reservoirs ; but then the mortar must be hardened before
lost at the present day ; but the experiments of Mr. Smeaton, it is
exposed to the water, or otherwise it will crumble to
Dr. lliggins, and others, have shown this notion to be un- pieces ; and therefore, if the situation be such as to require
founded, and that nothing more is wanting than that the the mortar to be dried in a certain time, the use of this
chalk, lime-stone, or marble, be well burned, and thoroughly cement must be abandoned.
slacked immediately, and to mix it up with a certain propor- Among the ancient nations, the Romans appear to have
tion of clean large-grain sharp sand, and as small a quantity been the only people who practised building inwater to any
of water as will be sufficient for working it; to keep it great extent, particularly in the sea. The discovery of puzzolana
a considerable time from the external air, and to beat it over is attributed to the following circumstance,
among this great
again before it is used : the cement thus made will be suffi- people. The Bay of Baias, like our fashionable watering-
ciently hard. places, was the summer resort of all the wealthy in Rome :
The practice of our modern builders, is to spare their the inhabitants of this place did not content themselves with
labour, and to increase the quantity of materials they pro- erecting their houses as near the shore as possible, but they
duce, without any regard to its goodness the badness of our
: even constructed moles and small islands, on which they
modern mortar is to be attributed both to the faulty nature erected their summer-houses in the more sheltered parts of
of the materials, and to the slovenly and hasty methods of the bay. By the fortunate discovery of an earthy substance
using it. This is remarkably instanced in London, where at the neighbouring town of Puteoli, they were enabled to
the lime employed is chalk lime, indifferently burnt, con- build both expeditiously and securely in water. From this
veyed from Essex or Kent, a distance of ten or twenty circumstance, the earth thus discovered was called pulvis
" " Puteolean
miles, then kept many days without any precaution to pre- Puteolanus, powder of Puteoli," powder," or,
vent the access of external air. Now, in the course of this as it is now denominated, puzzolana, which is a mineral of
time it has absorbed so much carbonic acid as nearly to lose a light, porous, friable nature, and of a red colour, supposed
its cementing properties, and though chalk lime is to be formed by concretion of the volcanic ashes of Vesuvius,
equally
good with the hardest lime-stone, when thoroughly burned, near to which mountain the town of Puteoli is situated. The
yet,by this treatment, when it is slacked, it falls into a thin original material seems to be a ferruginous clay, which,
powder, and the core or unburned lumps are ground down, baked and calcined by the force of volcanic fire, and mixed
and mixed up in the mortar, and not rejected, as it ought to be. with common mortar, not only enables it to acquire a remark-
 GEM 131 CEM
able hardness in the air, but to become as firm as stone under In some parts of the Low Countries, coal-ashes are sub-
water. The only preparation which puzzolana undergoes, is stituted for terras with very effect, of which the valu-
good
that of pounding and sifting, by which it is reduced to able cendrte de Tovrnay is a striking instance. The deep
a coarse powder; in this state it is beaten up with lime, blue argil lo-ferruginous lime-stone of the Scheldt is burnt
either with or without sand, which forms a mass of remark- in kilns, with a slaty kind of pit-coal found in the
neigh-
able tenacity, that sets under water with great
celerity, and bourhood. When the calcination of the lime is completed,
at last acquires a strength and hardness equal to those of the pieces arc taken out, and a considerable quantity of dust
free-stone. and small fragments remain at the bottom of the kiln. This
Among the nations of modern Europe, none have practised refuse, consisting of coal-ash, mixed with about one-fourth
the art of building under water to so great an extent as the of lime-dust, is called the cendree, and is thus made into
Dutch, to whom we are indebted for the discovery of another mortar with lime Put a bushel of the materials into any
:

valuable material, admirably adapted for aquatic works : suitable vessel, and sprinkle it with as much water as is
this substance is called terras, or trass, and is nothing more sufficient to slack the lime ; then take another bushel, and
than walcke, or cellular basalt. It is procured chiefly from treat it in the same manner ; and so on, till the vessel is
Bockenheim, Frankfort on the Maine, and Andernach, whence filled. it remains some weeks, and may be
In this state kept
it is
transported down the Rhine, in large quantities, to for a much longer time, if covered with moist earth. A
Holland, and is prepared by grinding and sifting, so as strong open trough, containing about two cubic feet, is filled
to reduce it to the consistence of coarse sand ; when it is about two-thirds with cement in the above state, and by
mixed, in the following manner, with blue argillaceous lime means of a heavy iron pestle, suspended at the end of an
from the banks of the Scheldt. They take such a quantity elastic pole, is well beaten for about half an hour; at the
of quick-lime as may be judged sufficient for a week, and end of this time it becomes of the consistence of soft mortar,
spread it in a kind of bason, in a stratum about a foot thick, and is then laid in the shade from throe to six days, according
and sprinkle it with water; this is covered with a stratum to the dryncss of the air. When sufficiently dry, it is beaten
of terras, of about the same thickness, and thus left for two again for half an hour, as before and the oftoncr it is
;

or three days; it is then beaten into a mixture, and left beaten, the bettor will be the cement ; three or four hours,
for two days longer; after which such portions as are wanted however, are sufficient to reduce it to the consistence of a
for daily consumption are taken from the mass, and beaten uniform smooth paste. After this period it becomes too
up again previous to being used. This is the celebrated stiff, on account of the evaporation of its wator, as no more
terras mortar, with which the mounds and other aquatic of this fluid is allowed to enter the composition than what
works, used as a defence for protecting the low lands of was at first employed to slack the lime. The cement, thus
Holland, against the incursions of the sea, are consolidated. prepared, is found in a few minutes to unite so firmly, upon
The proportion of the ingredients for terras mortar, as brick or stone, that still water may be let in immediately
used in Britain in the construction of our water-works, is upon the work, without any inconvenience and by keeping
;

the same as practised by the Dutch, viz., one measure of it

dry for twenty-four hours, it has nothing farther to fear
quick-lime and two of slacked, in the dry powder, mixed from the most rapid current.
with one measure of terras, and well beaten together to the A composition of a similar nature, is the blue mortar,
consistence of a paste, using as little water as possible. commonly used London, for setting the coping of buildings
in
Another kind, almost equally good, .and considerably and other works much exposed to the weather. It is made
cheaper, is composed of two measures of slacked lime, one with coal cinders and lime, but is seldom prepared with the
of terras, and three of coarse sand ; but this composition requisite attention.
requires more labour in beating than the foregoing, and pro- Ash-mortar is used in some parts of England, and is
duces three measures and a half of excellent mortar. When prepared by slacking two bushels of fresh meagre lime, and
the building is composed of rough stones, which leave irre- mixing it with three bushels of wood ashes ; this mass is to
gular interstices and large cavities, the joints may be filled lie till it is cold, and then to be well beaten; in this state
with pebble mortar, which is thus composed Take two mea-
: it is kept for a considerable time without injury, and even

sures of slacked argillaceous lime, half a measure of terras, with advantage, provided it be thoroughly beaten twice or
or puzzolana, one of coarse sand, one of fine sand, and four thrice over before it is used. This cement is superior to
of small pebbles screened and washed, and mix them toge- terras mortar, in situations alternately exposed to wet and
ther. Pebble mortar was a favourite cement among the dry ;
but under water, terras mortar has the advantage.
Romans, and has been used, ever since their time, in those The scales which are detached by the hammering of red-
works wherein a large quantity of mortar is required. hot iron, have been long known as an excellent material in
Terras mortar will only acquire its proper hardness under water-works. Mr. Smeaton appears to have been the first
water ; for if permitted to dry by exposure to the air, it person who tried the relative strength of mortar made of the
never arrives at the same degree of hardness as if the same oxide of iron, and several other compositions. The scales
lime had been mixed with good clean common sand, and is being pulverized and sifted, and incorporated with lime, are
very friable and crimibling ; but when kept always wet, found to produce a cement equally powerful with puzzolana
it throws out a substance
something like the concretion in mortar, when employed in the same quantity. Mr. Smeaton
lime-stone caverns, called stalactite, which substance acquires having been successful in his experiments on these materials,
a considerable hardness, and in time becomes so exuberant was induced to try others of a similar nature. Having
as to deform the face of the walls. substituted roasted iron ore for the scales, he found that this
Although the Dutch terras has hitherto been prepared also gave to mortar the property of hardening under water,
with cellular basalt, it appears, from the experiments of though it required to be used in greater proportions than
Morveau, that the common compact basalt, if previously either puzzolana or terras. Two bushels of argillaceous
calcined, will answer nearly the same purpose. Compact lime, two of iron ore, and one of sand, being carefully mixed,
mortar.
basalt abounds in all the districts where coal is raised, and produce 3.22 cubic feet cement, fully equal to terras
may therefore be procured easily, and calcined with the If the common white lime be employed, it would be advisable
refuse coal. to use equal quantities of all the three ingredients.
 CEM 132 CEM
With respect to the water used in the preparation of boarded floor, till you make it as fine as flour; then, without
aquatic cement, that of rivers or ponds, where it can be loss of time, sift it through a coarse hair or wire sieve, and

procured, is to be preferred to spring water but for works

: to the quantity of a hod of your
setting mortar (which on
exposed to the action of the sea, it is usually more convenient, this account should be poorei than ordinary) put in two or
and equally advantageous in other respects, to use salt water. three shovelfuls of this fine flour of the roach-lime, and let
The Loriot-mortar is a composition which at one time had two men,- for expedition's sake, beat them together, with
obtained considerable celebrity in France, and was employed such beaters as the plasterers make use of, and then use
in many large works. It was invented, about seventy years it
immediately. This, 1 can assure you, will not only stand
ago, by M. Loriot, who imagined that he had discovered the as well, but is
really preferable to any terras." The memoir
process used by the Romans. The principle of the invention of M. Loriot was published in 1774, only two years previous
consisted in adding to any quantity of mortar, made in the to this treatise of Semple, who appears to have been a man
usual way with lime and sand, but prepared rather thinner rather of practice and experience than of reading; and,
than usual, a certain portion of quick-lime in powder. The besides, in the book quoted from, he expressly, though
lime-powder being well incorporated with the mortar, the incidentally, mentions his ignorance of the French language.
mass heated, and in a few minutes acquired a consistence We are justified, therefore, in stating that the knowledge
equal to the best plaster-of- Paris ; at the end of two days of the advantages of mixing quick-lime powder in mortar,
it became as
dry as an ordinary cement at the end of several was not confined to M. Loriot, though it might have been
months and when the ingredients were well proportioned,
;
an original invention in him, and that he was the first who
it set without
any cracking. The quantity of powder varied drew the public attention to the process, and used it in any
from ^ to ^ of the other materials, according to the quality considerable works.
of lie lime: too much, burning and drying up the mass; and
I Wehave now to notice the valuable Treatise of M. Vicat,
with too little, its peculiar advantages being lost. The pro- the celebrated French engineer, on the Composition of Mor-
portions are essential, but can only be determined by actual tars and Cements. This scientific and elaborate work has
experiment. been made extensively known in this country, by the able
Loriot's process was at one time, as we have observed, manner in which it has been translated by Captain J. T.
very much in vogue, but has now fallen into disuse. Founded Smith, of the Madras Engineers. The labours of this gen-
on the false conception that the induration of mortars was tleman have given increased value to M. Vicat's work, and
the mere result of a more or less rapid desiccation, and the numerous notes, tables, and other information, added to
presuming it to be possible to obtain this end by the intro- the original work by Captain Smith, will be found most use-
duction of a powerful absorbent, it met with the usual (ate ful to tlie
professional man, and well worth his careful and
of error, and sunk into disrepute. attentive study.
Mr. Smeaton says of this composition " I have made In this place we shall briefly describe the mode pursued
trial of this method, both in small and in
large ; for however by M. Vicat in the manufacture of the Artificial Hydraulic
little likelihood of
advantage a proposition may contain, yet, Limes, he so strongly recommends. We
shall have occasion
when this concerns a physical process, nothing can be safely to return to his work hereafter, when on the subject of
concluded but from actual trial and I must candidly own
;
CONCRETE.
that the efteet was much better than I had expected ; for The practice of M. Vicat seems to have been principally
I found the
composition not only set more readily than mortar directed to the adoption of the hydraulic limes, in preference
as commonly made up, but much less liable to crack, and to the more energetic cements so generally used in this country,

consequently, if this cement was made use of in water-build- but his investigations have been conducted on so compre-
ing, it was less apt to re-dissolve, because it would more hensive a scale, that the processes laid down by him for the
speedily get set to a firmer consistence, and so as more ably manufacture of artificial hydraulic compounds are capable of
to resist the water from entering its pores ; but when the application to almost every requirement of the Architect or
water was brought upon it, in Engineer, or to almost every situation.
whatever state of hardness
it was at the time, it at best remained in that state without The opinion so decidedly expressed by M. Vicat, that the
any further induration, while the water remained upon it ; superior adhesion of the hydraulic limes, must inevitably
and, as I expect, would so remain, till it had some opportunity lead to their general adoption in this country, in preference
of acquiring hardness by further drying." to our (so-called) Roman cements, has been much combated
Indeed, for the purpose of quick concretion, various by practical men. It may be said, without entering into a dis-
materials are recommended to be added, such as brick and cussion of the question, that it appears to be one on which
tilepowder, and forge scales. The following is an approved a contrariety of opinion may be occasioned by a difference of
receipt one measure of bricks, finely pounded ; two mea-
: situation and circumstances. Thus, in comparing the merits
sures of fine river-sand ; old slacked lime in sufficient quan- of the two systems, it is important to consider, that, in one,
tity to make a mortar in the usual manner, and sufficiently the means of minute mechanical division are an essential
liquid to quench the lime-powder, which is added to the same element, in the other that it is unnecessary ; and that this
quantity as that of the pulverized bricks. element, which in one situation may be obtained at a cheap
It is somewhat
extraordinary, that a process similar to the rate, in another may be expensive and unattainable.
composition of the Loriot-mortar is described in A
Treatise The hydraulic limes, therefore, which do not require to be
on Building in Water, by George Semple, printed in Dublin, ground previous to use, are at all events most suitable for
1770. In discoursing on the
good qualities of the roach- those situatious where the facilities of mechanical agency can-
lime of Ireland, Mr. Semple remarks, that "it has some not be resorted to, while the ground cements are better
useful qualities, not much known among the
generality of adapted to the vicinity of a large capital, where it is of little
workmen. As, for instance, our lime-stone will make importance that the builder becomes dependent upon others
exceeding good terras for water-works, for which purpose for his supply.
you are to prepare it thus get your roach-lime brought to
: The difference, in fact, consists in this, that the ground
you hot from the kiln, and immediately pound, or grind it cements, of whatever kind, will ever be furnished by manu-
with a wooden maul, on a smooth large stone, on a dry facturers, whereas the hydraulic
limes may at all times be
 OEM 133 CEM
prepared by the common workman, without machinery, and half English) radius. In the middle of the basin is a pillar
at a cost not much exceeding that of common lime. of masonry, on which turns the vertical arbor to which the
The description given by M. Vicat of the mode in which whole system is fixed into this basin, to which water is
:

the artificial hydraulic limes are prepared is as follows :

conveyed by means of a. cock, they throw successively four
" The artificial measures of chalk, and one measure of clay. After an hour
hydraulic limes are prepared by two methods :
the most perfect, but alsothe most expensive, consists in and a half working, they obtain about 1.50 metres cube
mixing with rich lime slacked in any way, a certain propor- (nearly 53 cubic feet English), of a thin pulp, which they
tion of clay, and calcining the mixture ; this is termed arti- draw off by means of a conduit pierced horizontally on a level
ficial lime twice kilned." with the bottom of the basin. The fluid descends by its own
u
By the second process, we substitute for the lime any weight ; first into one excavation, then into a second, then
very soft calcareous substance (such, for instance, as chalk), a third, and so on to a fourth or fifth. These excavations
which it is easy to bruise and reduce to a paste with water. communicate with one another at top when the first is full,
;

In this way a great saving is effected, but at the same time the fresh liquid, as it arrives, as well as the supernatant
is procured an artificial lime of good quality, though not fluid, flow over into the second excavation , from the second
equal to that derived from the first process, in consequence into the third, and so on to the last, the clear water from
of the rather less perfect amalgamation of the mixture." which drains off into a cesspool. Other excavations, cut in
" Wesee that by being able to regulate the proportions, steps like the preceding, serve to receive the fresh products
we can also give to the factitious lime whatever degree of of the work, whilst the material in the first scries acquires
energy we please, and cause it at pleasure to equal or surpass the consistency necessary for moulding. The smaller the
the natural hydraulic limes." depth of the pans in relation to their superficies, the sooner
" We usually take twenty parts of dry clay to eighty parts is the above-mentioned
consistency obtained.
of very rich lime, or to one hundred and forty of carbonate " The mass is now subdivided into solids of a
regular form,
of lime. This refers to the lime in the unslacked condition, by means of a mould. This operation is executed with
or to the uncaloined mineral. If the lime be slacked, the rapidity. A moulder, working by the piece, makes on an
proportion should be increased to 110 parts. But if the lime average five thousand prisms a day, which will measure about
or its carbonate should already be at all mixed with clay in six cubic metres (211.8 cubic feet English). Those prisms
the natural state, then fifteen parts of clay will be sufficient. are arranged on drying shelves, where in a short time they
Moreover, it is proper to determine the proportions for acquire the degree of desiccation and hardness proper for
every locality." calcination."
"The mixture here described," adds Captain Smith in These artificial limes are intended to supply the place of
a note, "is such as to produce the hydraulic limes, whose the natural ones in those countries where argillaceous lime-
properties are similar to the Aberthaw, the analysis of which stone cannot be obtained. The price at which they were
shows it to correspond nearly with the proportions hero sold in Paris a few years back, was about 2 5s. 'per cubic
recommended, as it consists of 86.2 of carbonate of lime to yard English.
11.2 clay, (with 2.6 water and carbonaceous matter), being Maltha, and mastic, are cements, whose hardness depends
at the rate of 18.2 parts clay, to 140 of the carbonate of lime. on the oily or mucilaginous substances that enter into their
The cements now in use in England, are much quicker composition. The use of these is at present very limited in
setting than these, and differ in being unslacked. They con- Europe ;
but they were highly esteemed by the ancients,
tain a greater proportion of clay, but may be manufactured especially for stucco. The- maltha of the Greeks seems to

artificially with equal ease, by combining such relative have been more simple than that employed by the Roman
quantities of chalk, or lime, and clay, as will suit the purpose architects; at least wo are informed, that Panamas, the
intended. Parker's Patent Cement, as analv/ed by Sir brother of Phidias, lined the inside of the temple of Minerva,
Humphrey Davy, contains 45 per cent of clay to 55 carbonate at Elis, with stucco, in which the usual ingredients of sand
of lime ;
the Yorkshire cement, 34 clay to 62 carbonate of and lime were mixed up with milk, instead of water, some
lime; the Sheppcy, 32 clay to 66 carbonate of lime and ;
saffron being added to give it a yellow tinge. The Roman
the Harwich, which is a quicker-setting cement, 47 clay to maltha, according to Pliny, was prepared as follows : Take
49 carbonate of lime." It seems to be evident from the fresh-burnt lime, and slack it with wine, then beat it up very
experiments of M. Vicat, that the manufacture of artificial well in a mortar, with hogs' lard and figs: this cement, if
cements may be almost infinitely varied by the admixture well made, is excessively tenacious, and in a short time
of different ingredients. The character, quality, and propor- becomes harder than stone the surface to which it is to bo
;

tions of these must be the result of actual practice and applied is to be previously oiled, in order to make it adhere.
experiment, for so different may be the chemical properties Another kind almost equally strong, and considerably cheaper,
of apparently similar materials, that no results, however was prepared by beating up together fine slacked lime, pul-
successful in one locality, can be trusted to with certainty verized iron scales, and bullocks' blood.
in another. It is only necessary to add, that in all cases, In the preparation of maltha, as well as of every other kind
particular attention should be paid to the perfect amalgama- of mortar, so much depends on the manipulation, and on the
tion of the materials ; and the degree of calcination best care and long beating of the ingredients, that those countries
suited to it should be carefully observed, before attempting in which labour is of the least value, possess, in general, the
the manufacture on a large scale. best mortar. Hence, no doubt, principally arises the unrivaled
The process made use of at a manufactory of artificial lime excellence of the mortar made by the Tunisians, and other
at Meudon, near Paris, is thus described by M. Vicat " The inhabitants of the northern coast of Africa. Dr. Shaw gives
materials made use of are chalk of the country, and the the following account of their manner of preparing their
clay of Vaurigard, which is
previously broken up into lumps mortar : One measure of sand, two of wood-ashes, and three
of the size of one's fist. A millstone set up edgeways, and of lime, being previously sifted, are mixed together, and
sprinkled with a little water ; after the mass has
a strong wheel with spokes and felloes, firmly attached to a been beaten
set of harrows and rakes, are set in motion by a two-horse some time, a little oil is added the beating is carried on for
:

gin, in a circular basin of about two metres (six feet and a three or four days successively, and, as the evaporation in
 CEM 134 CEM
that hot climate is considerable, the cement is kept in a proper Within the last few years various compositions have been
degree of softness by the alternate addition of small quantities invented for the covering of the exterior of buildings, such
of water and oil. The cement, being completed, is applied in as Roman Cement, Terra Cotta, Bailey's Composition, and a
the usual manner, and speedily acquires a stony hardness. host of others, all more or less patronized by the public.
The term maltha is also applied to a variety of bitumen It would be impossible for us to
give descriptions of
or mineral pitch of a viscid and tenacious character ; unctuous all these compositions; but we shall
shortly explain the
to the touch, and exhaling a bituminous odour. This sub- mode of preparing and using the Roman cement. This cement,
stance, as also Asphalte, (see ASPHALTE,) has been success- familiarly known among plasterers as Compo, was first intro-
fully used as a cement. duced to public notice by Messrs. Parker and Wyatt, who
The celebrated chunam, of India, is a species of maltha took out a patent for it, and who succeeded in obtaining for
which has been used in that country from time immemorial. it an extensive sale.
The method in which it is prepared at Madras is as follows : It isprepared from the kind of stone called clay-balls, or
Take fifteen bushels of pit-sand, and fifteen bushels of septaria, by being, after a manner of manufacturing plaster,
stone-lime ; slack the latter with water, and when it has first broken into pieces of a convenient size, slowly calcined
fallen to powder, mix the two ingredients together, and let in kilns or ovens, and afterwards ground to a fine powder,
them remain for three days untouched. Dissolve 20 Ibs. of and put into proper casks, great care being taken to preserve
molasses in water, and boil a peck of gramm, (a kind of pea,) it from damp. Two parts of this composition, with three
and a peck of mirabolans to a jelly mix the three liquors,
; parts of clean grit-sand, will form a very durable substitute
and incorporate part of the mixture very accurately with the for stone. In selecting the sand, great care must be taken
lime and sand, so as to make a very fluid cement some short ;
to procure it free from clay or mud, and of a sharp and bind-
tow is then to be beaten well into it, and it will be fit for use. ing quality, or it must be washed until perfectly clean.
The bricks are to be bedded in as thin a layer as possible of this This composition, when it is intended to compo, as it is
mortar and when the workmen leave off, though but for an
; termed, the exterior of a building, is thus used :

hour, the part where they recommence working is to be well After the walls have been well soaked with water, the
moistened with some of the above liquor before the appli- cement must be prepared by the hawke-boy on a stiff board
cation of fresh mortar. When this composition is used for made for the purpose, adding as much water as brings it to
stucco, the whites of four eggs, and four ounces of butter- the consistency of paste, but no more must be mixed than
milk, are to be mixed up with every half bushel of cement, can be used in ten minutes. It must be laid on with the

and the composition is to be immediately applied. greatest possible expedition, in one coat of three-quarters
Mastic is an external composition possessing peculiar pro- of an inch in thickness, and after being well-adjusted with
perties, which, in some cases, render it superior to Roman the floating-rule, the hand-float must be incessantly used to
cement, having the power of resisting heat and adhering to bring it to a firm and solid surface before it sets, which it
iron, copper, and even glass, with equal tenacity. It is does in about fifteen minutes.
generally applied to the exteriors of mansions, but it may The work should then be drawn and jointed to imitate
also be very beneficially used for laying the floors of halls, well-bonded masonry, and afterwards coloured with a wash
kitchens, &c. composed of five ounces of copperas to every gallon of water
Mastic was first introduced from France by Ilamlin, but a sufficient quantity of fresh lime and cement and to the
is now sold whole adding the colours necessary to imitate any particular
only by Messrs. Francis and White, at Nine
Elms. It is composed of pounded stone, silver sand, litharge, stone that may be required.
and red lead, and, when manufactured, has the appearance of Terra Cotta, or artificial stone, is an excellent and durable
very fine sand. The manner of working Mastic is entirely composition, advantageously used at the present day for all
different from that of Roman cement. kinds of exterior decoration. It is a compound of pipe-clay,

To one cwt. of Mastic add one gallon of linseed-oil, and let stone-bottles, glass, and flint, well pounded together, and
them be well incorporated by the labourer, which must be sifted through a fine sieve, a small portion of silver-sand
effected by treading them together with the feet until the afterwards added.
amalgamation is complete, which may be easily ascertained by Bailey's Composition is also a valuable invention,
which has
smoothing a portion of the mixture with the shovel should : been used with great advantage in various situations, without
being at all injured by winter. The exteriors
of many of
any bright spots be observable, the treading must be again
and again repeated until they completely disappear, when it the public buildings in the metropolis are covered with this
is considered fit for use. composition, amongst which is the
Colosseum in the Regent's
The manner in which Mastic is used is as follows : The Park.
joints of the brickwork being well cleaned out, the work It is simply a mixture of lime and sand, the strength of
must be correctly plumbed up by means of flat-headed nails, the lime being preserved by the peculiar manner in which it
and screeds, for the guidance of the floating-rule, formed with is prepared. In its manufacture, chalk should never be
Roman cement, and kept about one inch in breadth. This used ; it ought always to be made from lime-stone, or car-
being done, the bricks must be well saturated with boiled lin- bonate of lime. The lime, being taken before being slacked
seed-oil of the best quality, and the Mastic laid on with the and ground to powder, must be placed in iron-bound casks to
hands, assisted occasionally by the laying-trowel, until the prevent the admission of air or damp.
When used, it must
space between the screeds be covered to the thickness be mixed with one-third its quantity of sharp river-sand, the
required. The floating-rule is then passed carefully over manner of working it being the same as that of .Roman
the work ; and when the space between the screeds is suffi- cement. See MORTAR, GROUT, STUCCO, and CONCRETE.
ciently filled up, it must be floated with a hand-float, com- CEMETERY, a sacred place, set apart for the burial "of
the dead. The term is of Greek derivation, signifying a
posed of sycamore or beech, until it assumes the same
and was the Christians
appearance as highly-polished stone. Thus a space of large place of rest or sleep," applied by early
dimensions must be followed up until the whole iscompleted, to common places of interment.
when the screeds must be cut out, their places filled with The subject of burial in towns has of late occupied so
that the description
Mastic, and compactly hand-floated into the rest of the work. prominent a place in public estimation,
 GEM 135 GEM
of a few of the great receptacles for the dead lately established lie then proceeds to recommend, that a piece of ground,
in or near the metropolis, cannot be out of
place in a work of being purchased in the fields, should then be "enclosed with
this kind ; the more especially, that the a strong brick wall, and having a walk round, and two cross
professional talent
of the architect has, not unfrequently, been called into walks, decently planted with yew-trees. The four quarters
action, to furnish designs for the buildings connected with to serve four parishes, where the dead need not be disturbed
public cemeteries, if not for the ornamental gardens, since it at the pleasure of the sexton.
has become the fashion of the day to make these " cities of " In these
places beautiful monuments may be erected ;
the dead." but yet the dimensions should be regulated by an architect,
From the very earliest ages the disposal of the bodies of and not left to the fancy of every mason ; for thus the rich
the dead has been a necessary, and with many nations, a with large marble tombs would shoulder out the poor: when
sacred duty. Among some we find that a superstitious a pyramid, a good bust, or statue on a proper pedestal, will
veneration for those who had " passed away ;" the necessity of take up little room in the quarters, and be properer tlian
funeral rites to secure the future happiness of the deceased ; figures, lying on marble beds ; the walls will contain
and the crime attached to the violation of the tomb, formed escutcheons and memorials for the dead, and the real good
a part both of their civil and religious code. The practice of air and walks for the living."
burying the dead in the earth is
probably the oldest, as it is Though the cemeteries which have been formed are pro-
the simplest mode of disposing of them but the custom of
: nounced to be only improvements on the places of burial in
burning the body, and afterwards collecting the ashes, and this country, and far below what it would
yet be practicable
depositing them in a tomb, or urn, became very general to accomplish; they have indisputably been viewed with
amongst the Greeks and Romans. The Egyptians do not public satisfaction, and have created desires of further
seem to have ever adopted this practice and even amongst
;
advances by the erection of national cemeteries. Abroad the
the ancient Greeks and Romans, it seems national cemeteries have obtained the deepest hold on the
likely that inter-
ment in the earth was mostly resorted to by the lower orders. affections of the population. They have been established
At the present day, all European nations deposit their dead near to all the large towns in the United States. To some
in the earth, and the of them a horticultural garden is attached ; the garden-walks
ceremony of burning is extinct.
The establishment of public cemeteries is now becoming being connected with the places of interment, which, though
general in the neighbourhood of large cities a practice pro-
; decorated, are kept apart. These cemeteries are places of
bably suggested to us by the customs of the Orientals, with public resort, and are there observed, as in other countries,
whom the burial-places of their departed friends are objects to have a powerful effect in soothing the grief of those
of peculiar care, and who cultivate, with extreme affection who have departed friends, and in refining the feelings
and solicitude, the flowers and trees with which it is their of all.
delight to adorn them. At Constantinople, the place of promenade for Europeans
"
Among the first objects that present themselves to a is the
cemetery at Pera, which is planted with cypress, and
"
stranger entering Turkey," remarks a recent writer, are has a delightful position on the side of a hill overlooking
the groves of cypress extending in dark masses
along the the Golden Horn. The greatest public cemetery attached to
shores. These are the last resting-places of the Turks ; and that capital is at Scutari, which forms a beautiful grove. In
their sad and solemn shade, far more Russia, almost every town of importance has its burial-place,
gloomy than any which
Christian usage has adopted, informs the traveller that he is at a distance from the town, laid out by the architect of the
now among a grave and serious people. government. It is always well planted with trees, and is
The situation of cemeteries is of great importance, both frequently ornamented with sculpture. Nearly every Ger-
with regard to the public health, and from considerations of man town has its cemetery, planted and ornamented. In
convenience. Among the Greeks we find that they were Turkey, Russia, ard Germany, the poorer classes have the
usually without the cities. Among the Romans the tombs advantages of interment in the national cemeteries.
were generally placed by the sides of the public roads. The One of the most celebrated cemeteries in Europe is that of
early Christians followed the custom of the Romans, but they Pere la Chaise, but in this, as in all the cemeteries of Paris,
afterwards transferred their burial-places to the it has been a subject of complaint, that the graves of the
vicinity of
the churches, and within towns. This insalubrious practice, poor are neglected and little cared for, amidst the splendid
it is to be
hoped, will soon entirely cease, and the health of monuments and sculptured ornaments which mark the tombs
the living be no longer endangered by the too close of the higher classes.
proximity
of the graves of the dead. The first attempt at a metropolitan cemetery, in imitation
Cemeteries should be placed on high ground, and to the of that of Pere la Chaise, was made by the General Cemetery
north of habitations, so that southerly winds should not blow Company, who, in the year 1833, opened to the public their
over the houses, charged with the putrid exhalations low ;
new and extensive burial-ground at Kensall Green. This
wet places should be avoided, and care should be taken that cemetery occupies above fifty acres of ground ; which is taste-
bodies be not interred near wells, or rivers, from which fully laid out with flowers and plants ; well-gravelled walks
people are supplied with water. lead to various parts of the ground ; and yews, evergreens,
It may not be
uninteresting here to state that extra-mural and shrubs, deemed appropriate to a place of sepulture, orna-
or suburban cemeteries, formed part of the
plan of the cele- ment and diversify the landscape. On the road-side, the
brated Sir Christopher Wren, for the rebuilding of London cemetery is bounded by a high wall, affording protection and
after the grea tfire. "I would wish," says he, " that all burials seclusion; on the other side, towards the canal, an open iron
in churches might be disallowed, which is not
only unwhole- palisading permits an uninterrupted view of the country,
some, but the pavements can never be kept even, nor which here presents a prospect both extensive and beautiful.
the pews upright ; and if the church-yard be close about At the entrance there is a handsome gateway, from which a cen-
the church, this is also inconvenient, because the ground tral walk leads to the church in the consecrated portion of the

being continually raised by the graves, occasions in time a cemetery. In this building are solemnized the funeral rites
descent by steps into the church, which renders it damp, and according to the Church of England. In front of the church
the walls green, as appears
evidently in all old churches." a large circle is appropriated to many of the more splendid
 CEM 136 CEN
tombs and mausoleums, and beneath it are extensive cata- The South London Cemetery comprises fifty acres of dry
combs. well-drained land, in one of the most beautiful
spots within
In the unconsecrated part of the cemetery, set apart for the the vicinity of the It is situate at Nunhead,
metropolis.
burial of Dissenters of every denomination, a neat chapel has between Peckham Rye and New Cross. The grounds are
been erected for the performance of service according to their most tastefully laid out there are handsome lodges, a resi-
several forms of worship. The principal feature of this dence for the superintendent, episcopal and dissenters'
chapel is a rather handsome Doric colonnade, and near it also chapels, and extensive catacombs. The architectural ar
are catacombs. rangements were superintended by Mr. Runnings.
The etablishment of the cemetery at Kensall Green was The West of London Cemetery, situate at Earl's Court,
immediately followed by that of several others in the suburbs consists of about forty acres. The buildings, &c. in the
of London ; one of the most picturesque of these is Highgate Italian-Doric style, are of a similar character to those pre-
Cemetery, situated on the rising slope of the hill behind viously described, and the grounds are laid out in the
Highgate Church. Here, the natural beauty of the ground pleasure-garden manner, so popular with those who have
has been tastefully made use of, and the result produced is the management and designing of Cemeteries. It would be

pleasing, if viewed as a pleasure-garden, though certainly con- well, were a few hints taken from the solemn, beautiful
veying but little of that solemnity of thought and feeling we burial-places of the Orientals, in laying out such establish-
are accustomed to associate with a burial-place for the dead. ments in this country.
The southern entrance, in Swain's Lane, is in a style com- CENOTAPH (from the Greek, Kevorcujiiov) an honorary
pounded of Gothic of all periods, exhibiting more of tawdry monument erected to the memory of the dead, when the
decoration than the sobriety which should have characterized funeral rites have been performed in some other place.
it. The Egyptian style has been selected for the catacombs, CENTATJK, in heathen mythology, a fabulous monster,
which are approached through an arched avenue, with an with the head and breast of a man, and the body of a horse.
entrance flanked by two obelisks. This passage, in the CENTERING, the act of making a centre, or the centre
of the is lined on each side by a range of itself. See CENTRE.
upper part grounds,
sepulchral chambers, and leads into another avenue, forming CENTERING! TO TRIMMERS, the centre made to support
a circular walk between similar chambers, each of which has a brick arch suspended between the wooden trimmer and
its Egyptian doorway. These sepulchres, amounting alto- the wall, for supporting the hearth or slab.
gether to forty-six, besides eighteen others in the first men- CENTRE, or CENTER, (Greek, nevrpov, a point, or punc-
tioned avenue, form as many sides of two polygons, an outer ture,) in a general sense, denotes
a point equally remote from
and inner one. Midway is an ascent, first by a single flight the extremes of a line, figure, or body; or the middle of a
of steps, and then by others on each side, leading to a terrace is divided into two
line, or plane, by which a figure or body
overlooking the catacombs, from which they present a equal parts ; or the middle point, so dividing a line, plane, or
striking appearance; the summit of the inner polygon solid, that some certain effects are equal on all its sides.
being, covered with earth, and having a large cedar in the CENTRE OF GRAVITY, that point at which all the
centre. The back wall of this terrace is in a semi-Gothic weight of a mass might be collected, without disturbing
style, crowned by
a fancy open-work parapet, placed before the equilibrium of any system of which the mass forms a
another terrace, under the south end of the Gothic Church, part. Thus, if a lever were balanced by means of two solid
erected a few years ago by Mr. Vulliamy. The prospect from spheres of uniform density hung at the ends, the equilibrium
this terrace is exceedingly beautiful. would still remain, if all the matter of either of the spheres
Norwood Cemetery occupies about forty acres, on the could be concentrated at its centre. The centre of the
north-west side of a hill to the east of St. Luke's, Norwood. sphere is then its centre of gravity.
The entrance is an open arch, which, with the lodge CENTRE OF PRESSURE, the point at which the whole
adjoining it, are in much better taste than that of Highgate, amount of pressure may be applied, with the same effect as
although, had there been a gateway, the design would have it has when distributed.
been greatly improved. There are two chapels one for CENTRE, in building, is a combination of timber-beams,
members of the Church of England, the other for Dissenters so 'disposed as to form a frame, the convex side of which,
though varying somewhat in design, there is great when boarded over, corresponds to the concavity of an arch ;
similarity in their style, which is a sober, but correct or the wooden mould, used for turning an arch of stone or
Gothic. The principal objection is the injudicious position brick during the time of erection.
of these two buildings, which, from being too near together, Centre of a cylindric or cylindroidal arch, which rises
neither form distinct architectural pictures, nor group so as more than the breadth of a plank, is a number of boards
to form one design. The architect is Mr. W. Tite. supported transversely by one or
more vertical frames, or
or that of its axis,
Abney Park Cemetery contains about thirty acres, and trusses, as the length of the cylinder,
displays evidence of a simple and pure taste, in its buildings may require.
and general arrangement. The entrance, if wanting in Centre for a groined arch upon a rectangular plan is thus
architectural composition, has something bold and effective constructed Make the centre for one of the cylinders, or
:

in its general appearance. The four piers are lofty and well- cylindroids, viz. that of
the greatest diameter, when there
masses, constructed of Portland stone, upon is a difference, as if there had been no other cylinder crossing
proportioned
granite plinths, and are surmounted by handsome coved cap- it; find out the places
on the surface of this cylindric or
pings, in the Egyptian style. The lodges are in the same cylindroidal centre,
where the surface of the transverse vault
and extend the frontage to 118 feet, 40 of which are would intersect fix the whole ribs on the cross vault, and
:
style,
occupied by the piers and gates in the centre. The effect of parts of ribs on the surface of the vault already completed,
of these ribs the thickness
this entrance is greatly enhanced by the park-like aspect of the observing to keep the outer edge
grounds, and the fine old trees with which they are adorned. of the boards wi:hin the intended surface of the intrados of
Nearly in a line with the entrance is the chapel, in the early the arch when this transverse vault is boarded over, the
;

with lancet windows. The architect is Mr. boards will intersect the lines drawn on the first centre,
pointed style,
W. Hosking. and the surfaces of the boards of each vault will form the
 CEN 137 CEN
true surface of the groined centre, on which the stone or tie,a numberof ties are disposed around the polygon,
forming
brick arch is to be turned. the interior part of the centre but as in many practical cases
;

The frames or trusses which support the boarding are the most judicious and well-skilled theorist might be deceived
frequently called ribs; and the short ribs which are fixed as to the equilibrium of the arch to be supported, or the
to the boarding, and made to range with the whole ribs, are points in which it has the most tendency to fall, it would be
called jack-ribs. very difficult to say what are ties and what are strutts ; and
Under the word STONE-BRIDGE, &c., the theory and even if the true pressure of the arch could be ascertained,
construction of arches will be described ; in the present the knowledge of this alone would not be sufficient ; for the
article we propose to show how the arch-stones are same
supported parts of the vaults, in the process of execution, vary
till the arch is
completed ; and the most commodious and their pressure in every succeeding additional part, and what
least expensivemanner in which this can be accomplished. was a tie at one time, becomes sometimes a strutt; while a
The proper construction of such supports, or the best mode strutt, on the contrary, will become a tie, either in building,
of framing the centres for large works, has always been or at the completion of the vault. This ought to be well
considered so important a subject, that it has occupied the considered ; and where the pressure is doubtful, or any of
attention, and exercised the talents, of the most eminent the lengths of timber forming the centre are ascertained
engineers and architects. The principal object to be kept to be in the two different states above mentioned, such
in view is, to fix the various parts of the centering in such timbers should be made to act in cither case.
a manner, as to support, without change of shape, the weight Though the timbers upon which the vault immediately
of the materials that are to come upon them, throughout the rests, cannot be supported transversely throughout, the othei
whole progress of the work, from the springing of the arch pieces, which support the arch from the several pressing
to the fixing of the key-stone. This object has not always points, may all be made to act, by a judicious arrangement,
been sufficiently attended to by the professional men, either in the direction of their
lengths. The abutting joints, which
of this, or of other countries ; for in many instances it has are pressed, will be sufficiently resisted, when their shoulders
been ascertained that the centres of bridges, from the injudi- are made perpendicular to the direction of their force, and
cious principles of their construction, have changed their with the small tenon; but if the timbers are drawn in a
shape considerably, or entirely failed, before the arch was direction of their length, the joints ought to be strapped.
complete; and in consequence of change of shape only, the The beauty of every truss is to have as few quadrilaterals
arches built upon them have varied, both in form and strength, as possible. All the openings should be triangles the inter-
:

from the intention of the engineer. In the large works of section of the timber should be as direct as possible. Oblique
this kind, however, erected in Great Britain, our best engineers directions exert prodigious strains, which require timbers
have constructed their centres on principles calculated to sup- of very large sections to withstand them, and press \ipon the
port every weight, and resist every strain to which they abutments so much as to make the whole truss sag by the
might be exposed. compression of the intermediate joggles.
"The qualities of a good centre," says Tredgold, "consist If proper attention be paid to these circumstances, and
in its being a sufficient support for the weight or pressure the bearings of the timbers be well ascertained, a centre,
of the arch-stones, without any sensible change of form constructed upon such principles, must answer its intended
throughout the progress of the work, from the springing of purpose, provided a proper estimate be taken of the com-
the arch to the fixing of the key-stone. It should be capable municating forces during the execution of the vault, and the
of being easily and safely removed, and designed so that it centre be well secured at its abutment,
may be erected at a comparatively small expense." A centre for the arch of a bridge over a navigable river,
The centre of a large vault, as that of a bridge, is con- may either be accomplished with one centre around the
structed of trusses disposed equidistantly in vertical parallel interior of the entire arch, supported between the piers; or,
planes, and boarded over so that the convexity of the boarding if the
span of the arch will admit, the aperture may be sub-
may coincide with the intended internal intrados of the arch. divided into two or more apertures, by one or more supporters,
The distance of the ribs may be disposed at from three to each consisting of one or more posts of wood, braced together
eight feet, according to the strength of the boarding and when necessary these supporters, together with the sides
;

weight of the arch. In very large works, a bridging is laid of the stone piers, support the centre of the aperture, on
for every course of arch-stones, with blockings between, to which the stone arch is to be erected over the whole. By this
keep them at regular distances. The ring-stones do not mode, the centering is much more simple in its construction
always rest upon these bridgings ; planks being sometimes and requires fewer timbers, and these of smaller scantlings
put between, that they may be cut away afterwards, to than when made in one centre.
separate the centre and the intrados from each other, in order If a centre be truly constructed, every point of the vault
to ascertain whether there are any settlements, to repair the to be built ought to be supported, without giving any trans-

damages, and put the arch in a state of equilibrium. verse strain to the incumbent part of the centre: but this is
Where the river is not navigable, the trusses may be con- impracticable ; for, as it would require a multiplicity of joints,
structed with a beam at the bottom in this case, there is no
: it would, from the shrinking of the timber, be less sufficient

difficulty. The forms for the trusses of roofs with tie-beams, than if composed of few pieces, supporting only a certain
may form the grand or principal part of the truss for the number of points disposed at judicious distances, leaving the
centre. But when the river navigable, the centre requires
is intervals to be supported by timbers in which the super-
as large an opening as is consistent with its strength, in incumbent part of the arch might act transversely, but still
order that vessels may pass under it; and as the horizontal presenting such a resistance, as not to be materially bent or
tie is interrupted, this disposition of the timbers will require put out of form by the load of the arch above.
much greater skill in the carpenter. By these precautions, the centre will be constructed so as
If the river over which a bridge is to be built be not not to yield, or give way, though the load should vary during
navigable, the manner of constructing the centre is so easy, the erection of the arch, and will stand as firm as if the
that it would be unnecessary to give any examples here ; whole had been constructed out of a single solid the only
:

but where the river is navigable, instead of the horizontal thing to be attended to, as before observed, being to
make
18
 CEN 138 CEN
the timbers sufficiently strong to withstand either tension ascertained, it would be better to place two diagonals, halved
or compression. upon each other. The frames are to be secured with keys or
There are several other principles of constructing the ribs bolts, and by this precaution each frame will be rendered
of centering; one of these may be that of a large truss, quite immovable.
spanning the whole opening, having its vertex supporting The general principle of construction is a series of trian
the summit of the arch, and its rafters, or principal braces, gles, of which every two are connected by a common side.
supporting other subordinate trusses which resist the pressure Plate I., Figure 1. Let ABCDEFO be the curve of an
of the arch at other intermediate points. arch which requires a centre ; let the points A, u, c, &c., be
Of this kind is that of the bridge of Orleans, by M. Hupeau, connected so as to form the equilateral polygon, ABCDEFO,
one of the boldest centres ever executed in Europe. Another and join A c, c E, and E o ; the timbers thus disposed will
principle is that of two independent trusses,
one supporting form three triangles, which may be looked upon as so many
the sides or haunches of the arch, and the other the crown. solids,revolvable about the angular points A, c, E, o ; sup-
Of this construction was the centering of the nave and tran- pose now, that these are to be in equilibrium, the smallest
septs of St. Peter's church,
at Kome, by Michael Angelo, and force on either side would throw itdown, and therefore,
two centres by Pilot. Another principle of centering is that without other connecting timbers, it would be unfit for the
of inscribed equilateral polygons ; that is, the exterior beams, purpose of a centre.
supporting the curve, are of equal lengths, and joined toge- Figure 2. Let ABCDEPobe the curve of an arch which
ther in the form of a polygon another polygon is formed
:
requires a centre ; first, form the equilateral polygon, A B c D
within this, having its angles in the middle of the sides of the E F o, with the timbers A B, B c, c D, &c., and fix the timbers
former, and so on, alternately, until there are as many poly- A c, c E, E o, as before, which will form three triangles,
gons inscribed as will make the centering sufficiently strong movable round A, c, E, o ; let the timbers B D and D F bo
or stiff. This mode of centering may be of two kinds: one, fastened, and thus the whole will be immutable ; so that if
when the angles are fixed at their junction to the sides of the supported at the points A and o, and a force applied at any
last polygon with bolts ; bridles, or double truss-pieces, being other of the angles B, c, D, or F, the timbers will be all in a
put over the angles to prevent a transverse strain at the sec- state of tension, or in a state of compression, and the whole
tion of the timbers where the two pieces meet, and to support may be looked upon as a solid body ; for suppose the triangle
the curve above. The other kind is, when the polygons act A B c to be supported at the points A and B, the point c, and
independently of each other ; these polygons are brought into the other two sides, B c, c A, will be fixed ; and because BCD
action by bridles, which support the curve, and act upon the is a
triangle, and the points B and c are fixed, the point D,
angular points of each other's polygon. Of this kind were and consequently the sides c D and D B ; in like manner, since
the centering of the bridges of Cravant, Nogent, Mayence, c D E is a triangle, and the points c and D fixed, the point E
and Neuilly, constructed by Perronet. Though these center- will also be fixed, and therefore the sides D E and E c. The
to very large spans, the last men- same may be shown, in like manner, for the points F and a.
ings have been executed
tioned being 120 feet, their equilibrium is by no means so Suppose, then, two equal and opposite forces applied at the
secure as when the angles of the inner polygon are fastened points A and o, in the plane of the figure, the figure can
to that immediately preceding, as is evident from the infor- neither be extended out, nor compressed together. The
mation given of the erection of these bridges, by the ingenious pieces A H, H B, and o i, i F, are of no other use than to make
architect who has favoured the world with a treatise on this the centre stand firmly on its base. This disposition of the
subject. timbers will cause them to occupy the least possible space.
Another principle of centering is that of Westminster and If the timbers are fixed at the points, Tc, /, m, n, o, p,
Blackfriars bridges, London. They consist of a series of Figure 2, the same immutability of figure may be demon-
trusses, each supporting a point in the arch, the principal strated ; for, suppose the points A and H to be fixed, the
braces having their lower extremities abutting below, at each point k will also be fixed ; the points A and k being fixed, the
end of the centering, on the striking-plates, and at the upper point B of the triangle A k B ; again, the points B and k being
end, upon apron-pieces, which are bolted to the curve that fixed, the point I will also be fixed in the same manner, all
:

supports bridgings for binding the pieces which compose them the remaining points, c, m, D, , E, o, F, p, o, i, will be proved
together at their junction. There is one disadvantage under to be stationary in respect of the points A, n ; and the whole
which this mode labours that is, the frequent intersection of
; figure being kept in equilibrio by any three forces, acting in
the principal braces with each other they must either be
: the plane of the figure, at any three angles, the action of the
halved one upon the other, otherwise they must be discon- forces will only tend to compress or extend the timbers in a
tinued, and made in various lengths. Both these modes direction of their length.
diminish their lateral strength, and consequently make them In the construction of this truss, the triangular parts may
much more liable to buckle than when whole but of the two,
;
be constructed all in the same plane, as in Figure 1 ; and the
that of halving is to be preferred as by the braces being in
; pieces B D and D F may be halved upon the pieces
c A and
one length, there can be no sagging occasioned by interme- E o ; but the utmost care must be taken to secure the several
diate joggles, and the braces may be rendered sufficiently or iron
pieces concurring at each of the angles, by bolting
secure, laterally, by running straps longitudinally across straps, as no dependence can be put in any such joint
without
the notched part on each side, bolting these straps to the iron :but perhaps the best method of any is to halve the
braces. thickness of the pieces A c, c E, E o, at the points c and E,
Lastly, another mode of centering may be that of a number and also the pieces A B, B c ; c D, D E ; E F, F G ; at the points
of quadrilateral frames abutting on each other, having their B, D, F then bolting the ends A and c of the pieces B A, B c,
:

joints radiating to a centre, in the manner of the wedge-stones the ends c and E of the pieces D c and D E, and the ends E
of an arch in masonry. These frames should all be resolved and o of the pieces F E and F G, and then fixing double
into triangles by one or two diagonals, according to the kind braces B D, D F, that is, fixing B D upon one side of the truss,
of strain, keeping in view that a piece, which is a tie in one and another upon the other side of the truss, opposite to it,
diagonal, is, in 'he other diagonal of the same quadrilateral, also fixing D F upon one side, and another opposite to it.
a strutt ; but if the kind of strain on any frame be not well The disposition of the timbers forming only a scries of
 I'/, ATE I

A G I II A

/'ur.6'.

Drawn b>t jAM A ishnltvn

 CEXTR E, PLAT E 2

Drawn ly,
U.A.Nirltnlson,
 (C JE IT T 1R E PUTK m.

(<-///n- of Westminster Bridge

Centre of Waterloo Bridge

40 3" 10 O 2O

Dravn Tiy
P. NifhoJst
l\ 77irw.
S3

Q
 CEN 139 CEN
quadrilaterals, gives nothing but immutability of figure. It Ronnie, and is a noble specimen of
simplicity of design, skil-
can only derive its stiffness from the resistance of the ful arrangement, and solidity of execution. The centre was
joints. composed of eight frames or trusses, and, though somewhat
Figure 3 shows the manner of forming a centre by two complicated, was on the whole a judicious combination ex- ;

polygons, of which the interior one is secured to the exterior :

hibiting rather an excess than a deficiency of strength.
in this there is no occasion for double In the erection of Chester Bridge, finished in 1832, an
trussing-pieces, as the
parts of the inscribed polygon act either as strutts or ties to entirely different principle was adopted in the construction
that of the circumscribing one. and the mode of relieving the centre ; it isthus described in
Figure 4 is the manner of forming the rib for a centre, by the Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
two independent trusses; in this form of centering there is Vol. I. :
no occasion for bridles, or double trussing-pieces, as in those "
The centre on which the stupendous arch of Chester new
of Pilot, of the same construction. bridge was raised, and which is stated by Mr. Hartley, (the
Figure 5 is the manner of constructing a centre, according engineer of the bridge,) to have been exclusively designed by
to Perronet, with four polygons, Mr. Trubshaw, claims a detailed notice, from the novelty of
independent of each other,
but with this improvement, that the lower extremities of each the principle it was formed on, the efficiency with which it
ring of polygons are framed into the two abutments ; this did its work, and the economy that attended its use. The
gives a much firmer base than if they were all to meet at the centre consisted of six ribs in width, and the span of the arch
same place, and renders the centre much stronger, by making was divided into four spaces by means of three nearly equi-
the angles more acute. In this it becomes also necessary to distant piers of stone built in the river, from which the tim-
have bridles, otherwise the exterior polygon only would be bers spread fan-like towards the soffit, so as to take their
effective. load endwise. The lower extremities of these radiating
Figure 6 is the manner of constructing a centre with three beams rested in cast-iron shoe-plates on the tops of the piers,
polygons, which are all secured to each other. In this, truss- and the upper ends were bound together by two thicknesses
pieces become necessary, otherwise the angles of the inner of 4-inch planking bending round, as nearly as they could be
polygon would bend the sides of that next to it. made, in the true curve of the arch. On the rim thus formed,
Plate II., Figure 1, is the design of a centre, its principle the lagging, or covering, which was 4.} inches thick, was
being that of two roofs intersecting each other. In this supported over each rib by a pair of folding wedges, 15 or
example, the forces which are communicated to the various 16 inches long, by 10 or 12 inches broad, and tapering about
parts of the frame are resisted longitudinally, either by com- 1 inch; for every course of arch-stones in the bridge, there
pression or extension ; and no force is exerted transversely were therefore six pairs of striking wedges. The horizontal
on any part, excepting the curved pieces in contact with the timber of the centre was only 13 inches deep, and the six
boarding supporting the arch-stones. ribs were tied together transversely near the top, by thorough
Figure 2 is the design of a centre ; it is first framed in one bolts of inch iron, but with a view not to weaken and injure
large truss, like a common roof, with two principal rafters, the timber more than was absolutely necessary, the least pos-
and a collar-beam ; each of the rafters becomes a tie for the sible of iron was used."
two small trusses above, which are framed in the manner of This centre thus differs essentially from any other hitherto
a roof, with queen-posts and braces. The lower angles of employed ; each rib, instead of forming one connected piece
the principal rafters are braced from the lower
queen-posts to of frame-work, consisting in this of four independent parts,
the posts. This truss is free from transverse strains in all and hardly any transverse strain has to bo resisted. It has
its
parts, except the curve, which supports the arch-stones ; also this advantage, that the bearings may bo gradually re-
and, if well secured at the abutments, an arch of immense lieved, or tightened at one place, and slackened at another,
weight may be sustained by it. as may be necessary, because the wedges are in this construc-
Figure 3 is the celebrated centre used at Blackfriars tion borne by the centre, instead of the centre being borne by
Bridge. The names of the timbers are as follows : the wedges.
A. Timbers which support the In striking centres it is of groat advantage to be able to
centering.
B, c. Upper and lower striking-plates, cased with copper. sufferthem to rest at any part of the operation ; for it is
D. Wedge between striking -plates, for lowering the important that the arch in taking its proper bearing do not
or settle too rapidly.
centre. acquire any sensible degree of velocity,
E. Doubletrussing-pieces, to confine braces. The centre, says Alberti, should always be eased a little as
F. Apron-pieces, to strengthen rib of centre. soon as the arch is completed, in order that the arch-stones
5. Bridgings laid on the back of the ribs. may take their proper bearings before the mortar becomes
H. Blocks between bridgings, to keep them at equal dis- hard. If the mortar be suffered to dry before the centre be
tances. lowered, the arch will break at the joints in settling, and the
i. Small braces, to confine the ribs
tight. connection of the arch will be destroyed. In small centres,
K. Iron straps bolted to trussing-pieces and
apron-pieces. the wedges are driven back with mauls, men being stationed
L. Ends of beam at the feet of
truss-pieces. at each pair of wedges for that purpose. But in larger works
M. Principal braces. a beam mounted, as a battering-ram, to drive the wedge-
is
The centre used at Westminster Bridge was formed by formed blocks back. The French engineers, in removing
centres, destroy, by little and little,
the ends of the principal
independent trusses, consisting of two rafters ; the intersec-
tions all supposed to be halved together, and firmly strapped a work of as well as danger, and which
supports ; difficulty,
across the notchings. Double truss-pieces were also "used, cannot be done with so much regularity in this way as by
but for these there was evidently no occasion, as the pres- wedges. See IRON BRIDGE, STONE BRIDGE, and SUSPENSION
sure would be directed to the abutments, or to two opposite BRIDGE.
points of the arch in the same level. CENTRE, in geometry, a point in a figure or solid, such that
The annexed a perspective view of the centering
is if any straight line be supposed to pass through the point
plate
of one of the arches of Waterloo Bridge. This magnificent until it terminate on both sides of the figure or solid, the line

bridge was built under the direction of the late Mr. John will be bisected. Figures of this property are infinite. Some
 CHA 140 CHA
of them are the circle, ellipsis, parallelograms, of every Chalk beds occur frequently in the east and south parts of

species, &c. ; and some solids of this nature are the sphere, England, in the north-east of France, in Poland, and in some
spheroids, parallelepipeds, &c. parts of the Danish islands.
In a circle, the centre is everywhere at an equal distance Its uses are numerous; it is employed in walling or vault-
from the circumference. In a sphere, the centre is every- ing, as building-stone; many of the groins or vaults of our
where at the same distance from the surface. In the ellipsis, Gothic churches are constructed with it ; it is also employed
in the composition of mortar, in countries where lime-stone
any two straight lines passing through the centre, terminat-
is less abundant ; and when well burnt, is found not much
ing at each end on the circumference, and making equal
angles with either axis, are equal ; or the four lines drawn inferior to lime-stone.
from the centre to the circumference, are equal. The same CHAMBER, (from the Latin camera, derived from the
property applies to the opposite hyperbolas. Greek Kafiapa, a vault, or curve,) a vaulted apartment, a part
CENTRES OF A DOOR, two pivots, round which the door is of a lodging. This term was formerly applied to any room,
made to revolve. and sometimes even to a suite of apartments but in modern ;

CENTROL1NEAD, an instrument for drawing converg- times it is used to designate rooms ordinarily intended for

ing lines, when the point of intersection is inaccessible. sleeping in. The proportion of its horizontal dimensions may
CENTRY-GAUT1I, an old English term for a burial- be varied, to accommodate different circumstances, which
ground. may occur either in the form of a building, or in the disposi-
CEROFERARIUM, a candlestick used to hold the paschal tion of the apartments, from the square to the proportion, of

taper. which the breadth is two-thirds of the length its altitude ;

CEROMA, the anointing-room in ancient baths and may be three-fourths of the breadth. The word originally
gymnasia. implied a vaulted apartment.
CESTOPIIORI, sculptures of females bearing the cestus, In building bed-chambers, the situation of the bed, as well
or marriage-girdle. as of the fire-place, ought to be attended to, as should the
CESSPOOL. See SESSPOOL. disposition of the windows, when they can be shifted without
CHAIN-TIMBER, in brick houses a timber of larger destroying the symmetry of the exterior. If the bed and
dimensions than common bond, placed in the middle, of the fire-place be opposite to each other, the fire-place may
be in
height of the story, for strengthening the building; the the middle of its own side ; but if it should be found neces-
scantling of chain-timber is 8 inches by 5 inches, or 8^- sary to have the bed on the same side of the room with the
inches by 5 inches, viz., equal to the length and breadth of fire-place, on account of doors or windows,
or both, then the
a brick. chimney ought to be placed in the middle of the remaining
CIIALCIDICyE, a large magnificent hall, belonging to a distance between the bed and the wall, the bed being sup-
tribunal, or court of justice. Vitruvius employs the term for posed to stand at one extremity. The situation of doors
the auditory of a basilica; and other ancient writers use it may be the same as in other apartments ; passage-doors
for an apartment in which the gods were supposed to
sup.
should bo within about two feet of the angle of the room, on
CHALICE, the cup used to contain the wine at the cele- whatever side they are made ; and may either be on the
bration of the eucharist. In early ages, chalices were made same side with the or on the opposite side to the
fire-place,
of glass, wood, or horn ; but in the council of Rheims, fire-place, in the return side, opposite to the window,
or next
A. D. 847, the materials for the chalice were restricted to to the farther corner from the fire-side of the room.

gold or silver. The rim of the chalice should never turn The bed oughtto be so placed as to be out of the current
over. of which usually rushes from the door to the fire-place.
air,

CHALK, an opaque mineral, of a yellowish white, or The most eligible figure of chambers, for furniture, is the
rather of a snow colour, of a fine earthy fracture, without rectangle though sometimes the circle, ellipsis, or octagon,
;

lustre, breaking into blunt-edged angular fragments when ; may be allowed to some particular room, for the sake of
contaminated with iron, it has more or less of an ochrey variety. Besides passage-doors, it is convenient for cham-
tinge, and stains the fingers ; but when pure it is very soft bers to communicate with each other, or with a dressing-
and almost friable, gives a white streak, has a meagre feel, room.
and adheres to the tongue. It effervesces
violently with CHAMBER OF A LOCK, in inland navigation, the space be-
acids and when mixed with iron becomes harder and
;
tween the gates, in which a boat rises and sinks from one
heavier its specific gravity varies from 2 4 to 2 6.
: It level to another, in order to pass the lock.
occurs generally in a mass, sometimes disseminated, or invest- CHAMBER-STORY, a story of a house appropriated to bed-
ing other minerals. rooms. In good houses it should never be less than 10 feet
In a state of purity, it appears to be composed and in mansions 12, or even 15 feet high. Chambers
only of high ;

water, lime, carbonic acid, and a small quantity of alumine. should not be too high, because it is difficult to warm them ;
prejudicial to the
Mr. Kirwan obtained the following analysis : nor too low, as it is health.

CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM, a distinguished architect,,

3 water
53 lime is have derived his descent from the ancient family of
said to
in Franco. He was
42 carbonic acid Chalmers, in Scotland, barons of Tartas,
2 illumine at Stockholm, in Sweden, where his father
born, however,
had resided for many years, in order to prosecute certain
100
claims he had on the government of that country. When a
very ^oung man, he made a voyage to China, as supercargo
Chalk occurs in thick beds, nearly horizontal, alternating in the service of the Swedish East India Company, and pro-
with thin layers of flint nodules, which are also irregularly Asiatic style of ornament.
bably thus acquired his taste for the
dispersed through its substance. It contains a vast
quantity At the very early age of eighteen, we find him established in
of the relics of disorganized marine bodies, and often the London as an architect and draughtsman, in which capacities
hard parts of amphibious and land animals, as the heads and he soon acquired considerable reputation ; and obtaining an
vertebra; of crocodiles, elephants' teeth, &c. introduction to Lord Bute, shortly afterwards was appointed
 CHA 141 CHA
through that nobleman's influence drawing-master to the horizon, while the other parts are perpendicular and parallel
Prince of Wales, afterwards George III. to it.
He was employed, soon after the accession of George III., A chamfer differs from a splay in being smaller, and in
to lay out the gardens at Kew, and there displayed, without cutting off an equal portion from either side. In Gothic
restraint, his predilection for the Chinese style, both of architecture chamfers are very frequent, and are often orna-
architecture and gardening, decorating the royal gardens with mented with mouldings and foliage at their terminations.
numerous temples, pagodas, and other Asiatic buildings. CHAMP, a flat surface, the ground of relieved sculpture,
Being patronized by the King and Princess-dowager, he was or engraving.
employed as architect to the most considerable buildings of CHAMP AIN LINE, a conjunction of straight lines,
the day ; and was also appointed Surveyor-General to the forming indentations similar to the projecting parts the sides
;

Board of Works in Somerset House, a situation worth at of each ascending part, which are also the sides of the alter-
least two thousand pounds a year. Sir William died in nate indentations, being parallel to each other the bottom of
;

1796, leaving a large fortune. As an architect, although his each indentation being formed of three internal angles, and
taste was fantastic, he frequently displayed a certain gran- the top of each projecting part of three external angles ; each
deur in his designs, and in the disposition of interior arrange- ascendant and each indentation being shaped alike on both
ments particularly, showed considerable ingenuity and prac- sides; that is, the corresponding angles and lines, whether of
tical ability. His chef-cTceuvrcs are his staircases, particularly the ascendants, or in the depressions, being equal.
that in the Italian villa he erected for the Earl of Besborough, CHANCEL, that part of a church which is appropriated
at Roehampton ; and also those at Lord Gower's and the to the clergy and others officiating in the public services.
Royal Antiquarian Society's. The term comes from the Latin, cancellus, which, in the
W. Chambers, pure Greek architecture
In the time of Sir lower Latin, is used in the same sense, from cancelli, lattices,
was only beginning to be known in England and at first its ;
or cross-bars, which anciently partitioned the chancel from
introduction was not much favoured. The indiscriminate the other part of the church.
adoption of Greek models for public buildings in London has Externally, the chancel is distinguished as a projection at
filled the metropolis with structures quite unsuited in external the east end, of smaller dimensions than the nave, and with-
form to improve the appearance of a large city, and often ill out aisles ; so that when the body of the church' is accom-
adapted in their internal arrangements to the purposes for panied by aisles, it is very readily recognized, and in other
which they are designed. Instead of large masses and lofty cases by its proportionate dimensions. Sometimes, however,
buildings, the streets of London are crowded with mean the chancel is of the same size and height as the nave, and
porticos and pigmy pillars, attached to edifices of so little the aisles are continued to its eastern extremity ; but even in
elevation, and so much cut up into small parts, as to suffer this case the division may be shown by means of a belfry on

by comparison even with many of the adjoining houses. the apex of the roof at that spot or by some other such
The street-front of Somerset House, Chambers's best work, method ; in some instances there is no distinction externally.
is, in all respects, better adapted to a great city, than the Internally the chancel is usually separated from the nave by
Greek models which are now too generally adopted and the ;
a lofty arch, in the spandrels above which is often a picture
river-front forms one of the boldest architectural objects in of the Last Judgment ; a further separation is effected by an
the metropolis, particularly when beheld ornamental screen of wood or stone, more frequently of the
Jrom the water.
Its extent and elevation, and the majestic breadth and former, panelled and pierced in open tracery, surmounting
range
of its terrace, give it an air of grandeur exceedingly striking which was in former times, the rood-loft, or gallery in which
and imposing. the rood, or large crucifix, accompanied by the images of the
The works published by Sir William Chambers were blessed Virgin and St. John, was placed, facing the west end
A Treatise on Civil Architecture, of which a new edition, by of the church. Here the level of the flooring was raised by
Joseph Gwilt, Esq., F. appeared in 1824.
S. A., Plans, one or more steps, and again before you arrive at the plat-
Elevations, Sections and Views of (he Gardens
Perspective form on which stood the altar ; in one or two cases the chancel
of Kew ; Chinese Designs ; and Chinese Gardening. His is depressed below the level of the nave, but these are purely
Treatise on Civil Architecture, though prejudiced against exceptions.
Grecian architecture in favour of the Roman, is an excellent When the aisles of the nave are continued eastward, the
work. only division consists of the screen
and steps ; but the dis-
CHAMBRANLE, the border of stone, or the wooden tinction will be effected by some difference in the roof, or by
frame, surrounding the three sides of a door, window, or the superior quality of the decoration. In such cases the

chimney ; the head of the chambranle is called the traverse, aisles are partitioned off from the chancel by other screens or
and the two sides, the ascendants. parcloses.
When the chambranle is plain, it is called a band, case, or The chancel is lighted by the east window, which should
frame. In an ordinary door, it is called the door-case; in a be the most important in the building, and by two or more in
window, the window-frame; in the latter case, it comprehends the north and south walls, according to its length. There is
also the sill. When the chambranle is moulded with one or a door in one of the side- walls, towards the east end, for the
more faces, and bordered outwardly with one or several priest, leading
into the vestry, or forming his entrance into
mouldings, it is called an architrave; though it should rather the church. The roof is of a more elaborate character than
be said to be architrave-moulded, being only an imitation of that in other parts of the structure, as indeed are all the
that division of the entablature of an order. enrichments. The floor was often covered with encaustic tiles,
CHAMFERED, Rustic. See RUSTIC. with devices of various colours painted on their surface,
CHAMFERET, a half scotia, being a kind of furrow, or while the aisles in the body of the edifice were paved with
gutter, on a column ;
called also strix, and stria. tiles of a plainer description ; the whole of the walls were

CHAMFERING, icainrreiv, to bend, the act of cutting the sometimes decorated with colour and rich hangings, a method
edge of anything, which was originally right-angled, aslope, which has of late been adopted with success in one or two
or bevel; so that when placed in its destined situation, the churches in London.
plane formed by this cutting may be inclined to the In the centre of the eastern wall was the altar, and on the
 CHA 142 CHA
south of it the piscina,
usually formed by a recess, in the tained the wine and water preparatory to their admixture in
eastern extremity of the south wall, and used to wash the the eucharistic cup ; a sacring bell ; a pax table, of silver or
sacred vessels, to contain which, when not in use, was pro- other metal, for the kiss of peace, which took place shortly
vided an aumbry or cupboard near the piscina, and taken out before the host was received in communion ; a stoup, or stole,
of the thickness of the south or north wall, furnished with a of metal, with a sprinkle for holy water ; a censer, or thurible ;
door and means of securing it. Adjacent to the piscina are and a ship a vessel so called to hold frankincense ; a chris-
sometimes found, especially in the larger churches, seats for matory, an offering basin, a basin which was used when the
the officiating priests. These sedilla, as they are termed, priest washed his hands ; and a chalice and paten."
consisted of stone or wooden seats, varying in number from Another part of the furniture of the chancel is the credence-
one to five, the more usual number being three, raised in table, or table of prothesis, on which the elements were placed
gradation one above the other, according to the rank of the previous to consecration, usually situate on the north side of
clergy who were to occupy them ; when of stone, they are the altar. This is of much smaller dimensions than the
more generally cut out of the thickness of the wall ; when of altar, sometimes of stone richly panelled, as at the church of
wood, they may be movable. Westward of these, disposed on Holy Cross, near Winchester, and Fyfield, Berks, where it
each side of the chancel, are the seats for the choristers, con- is in
shape semi-octagonal ; they were sometimes also of
sisting of two or three rows, one in front of the other and a wood, a specimen of which is pointed out at Chipping-
little below it. Occasionally these seats are returned in front Warden, Northamptonshire, the date of which is A. D. 1627.
of the rood screen, and in that case they always face eastward The credence is very frequently found in the form of a shelf
toward the altar. above the piscina, and under the same niche and canopy.
In the north wall of some chancels is found an arched We must not forget to mention the lettern, or desk, from
recess, which sometimes contained a stone tomb, occasionally whence the lessons were read, which was placed at the
that of the founder ; this was the holy sepulchre on which western end of the chancel ; it was generally of brass, some-
the ceremonies commemorative of our Lord's burial and times in the shape of an eagle with expanded wings, and
resurrection were celebrated at the season of Easter. Where sometimes forming a sloping desk, with the slope on one or
there is no sepulchre, a movable wooden structure was two sides, in all cases supported on an ornamental stem.
employed for the purpose. Eastward of this, immediately in front of the altar-steps, was
The principal feature of the chancel is the altar. This is the fald-stool, a low, sloping desk, at which the priest knelt
an elevated table of an oblong shape, constructed of either at the Litany.
wood or stone ; in the first ages of the church, up to the The chancels of our old churches vary so much in size and
fifth century, they were generally made of the former mate- proportion, that it is
impossible to lay down any rule by
rial, though stone was recommended by Pope Sylvester, which their dimensions may be determined we always find
;

early in the fourth century. The council of Hippo forbade them, however, of sufficient space to form a prominent feature
the use of wood, as did also that of Epone, in France, at the in the building sometimes they are as long, or longer than
;

commencement of the sixth century, from which period they the nave, but this practice we would not recommend for
have been made of stone. Stone altars were disused in adoption. It may be laid down as a general rule, that the

England at the Reformation, and so few survived the turmoils chancel be well defined and fully developed, yet not of so
of this period, and of the succeeding rebellion, that we have great length as to prevent the voice of the celebrant being
scarcely an entire example left ; those in the chantries and heard throughout the nave ; on an average, we may give the
side-chapels are almost the only ones that escaped destruction. length of 30 feet as a standard for most modern churches, but
The high altar of Arundel church, Sussex, which was pre- of course this dimension will vary with the size and width of
served by being enclosed in wood, will give us a fair idea of the church. The materials and workmanship in this part of
their form and construction. It consists of a slab 12 feet six the edifice should always be of the very best description, and
inches long, by 4 feet wide, and 2 inches in thickness, sup- the ornamentation more rich and frequent ; care must be
ported on a solid stone 3 feet 6 inches in height, and quite taken to avoid the use of any decoration except such as is of
plain ; in some cases, however, the front and sides were a strictly religious character, and adapted to its particular
carved in panels and various devices, and richly coloured. situation all meretricious ornament should be at once dis-
:

Sometimes the slab is supported on stone legs, and sometimes carded ; severity is wanted, not display.
on brackets, as at Broughton Castle, Oxford it was gene-
; CHANDELIER, a candlestick, lamp, &c. suspended by
rally marked on its upper surface
with five crosses in reces- a chain, rope, or bracket.
sion, one in the centre, and one in each corner, representing CHANDRY, a room where candles and other lights
the five wounds of our Lord. In the church of Porlock, Somer- are kept.
setshire, the crosses do not appear on the slab, but are found CHANNEL, a canal, or long gutter, sunk within the
in the centre panel in the face of the supporting masonry. surface of a bodj:
That part of the east wall immediately above the altar is CHANNEL OF THE LARMIER, a hollow soffit, or canal, under
frequently ornamented with a reredos of tabernacle work, or the corona, which forms the pendent on the front. See BEAK.
a series of enriched arches ; sometimes this space is occupied CHANNEL OF THE VOLUTE, in the Ionic capital, is the
by a triptych, or painting of three compartments, often repre- hollow spiral, sinking between the fillets. See CANAL OF THE
senting the crucifixion. IONIC VOLUTE.
" CHANNEL STONES, in paving, are those prepared for
Pertaining to the high altar," says Mr. Bloxham, in his
" and turning off the rain-
valuable little manual, which was covered with a frontal gutters or channels, for collecting
and cloths, and anciently enclosed at the sides, with curtains water with a current.
suspended on rods of iron projecting from the wall, was a CHANTLATE, in building, a piece of wood fastened
crucifix, which succeeded to the simple cross placed on the near the ends of the rafters, and projecting beyond the wall,
altars of the Anglo-Saxon churches ; a pair of candlesticks, to support two or three rows of tiles, so placed as to prevent
instead of sockets, on which lights or the rain-water from trickling down the walls.
generally with spikes
a pix, in which the host was kept reserved CHANTRY, or CHAUNTRY, was anciently a church or chapel,
tapers were fixed ;
for the sick ; a pair of cmets, of metal, in which were con- endowed with lands, or other yearly revenues, for the mainte-
 CHA 143 CHA
nance of one or more priests, daily saying or singing mass for CHAPITERS WITH SCULPTURES, are those that are adorned
the souls of the donors, and such others as they appointed. with foliage, and other carved ornaments ; the finest yet
CHANTRIES, are also small chapels attached to a church, invented is the Corinthian capital.
and are sometimes external additions to the church ; but CHAPLET, a small ornament cut into olives, beads, &c. ;
more frequently, especially in cathedrals and the larger a sort of fillet.
churches, erections within it ; they are separated off from CHAPTER-HOUSE (from capitulum), a place belonging
the body of the church by screens of open work surrounding to a cathedral, or collegiate church, wherein the assemblies
and enclosing the tombs of the founders, and are usually of the clergy were held.
provided with an altar at the east, with its appendages, such The greater number of chapter-houses were connected with
as piscina, aumbry, &c. Many beautiful specimens are to the cloisters of the church to which they belonged, by which
be found in our cathedral and abbey churches, and amongst means they were approached from the church ; but, at Wells,
the most costly may be enumerated those of Henry V. and York, and Lichfield, they are adjacent to the north transept,
Henry VII. at Westminster, the latter of which is, as is well in the first case being considerably elevated above the level

known, of great size and magnificence ; of Edward IV. at of the church ; they are seldom found westward of the tran-
Windsor ; of Edward II. at Gloucester ; and of Bishops sept. The earlier of these edifices, dating of the eleventh
Waynfleet, Beaufort, and Wykeham at Winchester. and twelfth centuries, are in plan parallelogramic, termina-
CHAPEL, a small detached building for divine service, sub- ting sometimes toward the east in a semicircle, as at Durham
ordinate to, and usually dependent on, the parish church, from Cathedral ; at later periods we find them octangular or
which it is distinguished by the fewer privileges belonging to polygonal, while that of Worcester is circular internally, with
it, such as having no proper priest attached, or being deprived ten sides on the exterior. In elevation the walls are supported
of the power of having baptism administered within it. by buttresses that of Lincoln with flying buttresses with
CHAPEL, is also a building adjoined to a church, as a part one or more windows between each pair, the whole being
thereof, having only a desk, &c. to read prayers in, and, in covered in the later instances, with a very high-pitched roof
the Romish churches, an altar, &c. to celebrate mass on ; gathering from each side of the building, and terminating
but without any baptistry or font. in a point at its apex. Below the windows, in the interior,
The eighteen chapels on the sides of King's College chapel, runs a continuous seat or bench-table, backed with a series
Cambridge, are formed between the buttresses; most of them of niches or arcades, and at the east end, facing the entrance,
were originally provided with altars : those on the south stand three stone seats, usually of greater elevation than the
side of this magnificent building, are appropriated to the rest, appropriated to the superior members of the chapter.
college library. The ceiling is more frequently vaulted. Among the
Previous to the Reformation, nearly all castles, palaces, man- earlier specimens may be enumerated Durham, probably
sions,and religious establishments, were provided with private the oldest, parallelogramic, with circular east end ; Gloucester,
chapels. These were either detached buildings, or portions of Bristol, Oxford, Chester, Canterbury, and Exeter, all of
the entire edifice constructed and set apart for sacred purposes. which are rectangular. The first variation seems to have
CHAPEL, also denotes the deep recesses made in the walls been at Worcester, which is circular within and decagonal
of ancient edifices, and is of a similar signification to what without the vaulting of the interior being supported by
;

is otherwise called exhedroe, by Vitruvius ; thus the Roman a central pillar and brackets in the side-walls. Of the
Pantheon has seven chapels in its circumference, the entry remainder, Lincoln has ten sides, the vaulting supported by
corresponding to what otherwise might have been the eighth ; a central column and flying buttresses, which last appendage
and the sides of the courts of the great temple at Balbec forms its peculiarity ; Wells, Lichfield, Salisbury, and York,
are full of chapels, or exhedrw. Those of the rectangular only eight sides, the vaulting sustained, as in the previous
court of this temple, and those of the Pantheon, are alternated examples, that of York only excepted, where the vaulting
with circular and rectangular plans, and most elegantly is carried across the building in a single span of forty -seven

decorated with columns in the front towards the interior. feet. Wells chapter-house is erected over a crypt, a pecu-
The semicircular recess at the end of the basilica, and at the liarity which it shares with that
of Westminster ; that of
Lichfield, although octangular, has two of its opposite
end of our most ancient churches, is often denominated sides

chapel. Smaller recesses in ancient edifices, for containing of longer dimensions than the others, in which respect it is
statues, are denominated shrines, or niches. unique ; while that of Salisbury is perhaps of all
perfectly
CHAPITER, the same as CAPITAL, which see. specimens the most beautiful.
CHAPITERS WITH MOULDINGS, are those without foliage, The subjoined LIST OF CHAPTER-HOUSES IN ENGLAND,
or other ornaments, as the Tuscan and Doric capitals. (from Britton's valuable works,) may
be found useful.
Length. Brauith. Height.
Int. Ext. Int. Eit. Int.
Jlecla>iffu!ar.
BRISTOL 43ft. 53ft 25ft, 36ft, 26ft, Date 1142; adjoins S. transept; approached from cloister by a vestibule; vaulted roof.
CANTERBURY 87 99 35 45 62 N. of transept entrance from cloister vaulted roof with wood and tracery large E. and
; ; ;
W. window*
GLOUCESTER 68 77 35 44 Very lofty entrance from cloister arched roof. ;

DURHAM 78 90 36 45 Date 1133; semicircular end; taken down.

CHESTER 60 68 26 86 36
OXFORD 64 64 24 34 Temp. Henry II.; S. of transept; entrance from cloister.
EXF/TER 66 62 28 88 50 Lower part about 1280 upper part 1427.
WINCHESTER 88 One side remains and joins S. transept with slyp between.
;

LLANDAFF 23 27 21 28 Early pointed

Octagonal, Polygonal, &c,
WORCESTER 55 65 65 65 About 1160; separated from transept by passage.
S.
LINCOLN 62 70 62 70 42 Before 1200; 140 feet diameter including buttresses.
LICHFIELD 46 64 28 36 About 1200; large vestibule.
WESTMINSTER 68 66 68 66 Temp. Henry III.: octagon; central column; over crypt.
WELLS '. . 86 65 65 65 42 Over crypt small vestibule.
;

HEREFORD 45 45 Decagon fragment remaining.

;

SALISBURY 63 68 53 68 62 8. of train.-] entered from cloister vestibule about 1260.

it
; ; ;

YORK 67 70 67 70 Connected with N. transept by vestibule vaulted roof, of wood. ;

 CHE 144 CHI

CHAPTREL, from chapiter, the capitals of pillars and The lines of chevron-work are similar to what is deno
pilasters, which support arches, commonly called impost. minated indented lines in heraldry, and not unlike the inden-
See IMPOST. tations or teeth of a joiner's hand-saw the only difference
;

CHARGED, a term in architecture, implying that one being the greater inclination of the teeth on one side than
member of an edifice is sustained by another ; in which case, on the other ; but in chevron- work,
they are equally inclined
the latter is said to be charged with the former. Thus, to the line passing
through the angular points.
a frieze, or other surface, when ornamented, is said to be CHIMNEY (from the French, cheminee, derived from
charged with the ornament ; but when the ornament is too the Latin, caminus, borrowed from the Greek,
Kapivof, a
abundant, it is said to be over-charged ; a column supporting chimney, from at, / burn), that part of a building wherein
an entablature is said to be charged with the entablature. the fire is contained, and
through which the smoke passes
CHAR or CHARE ; on old term equivalent to the word away.
hewn or wrought ; thus charred stone is hewn stone, as The chimney generally consists of an opening in, and
distinguished from rubble. through a wall, upwards, beginning at the floor on one side
CHARNEL-HOUSE (Latin, caro-carnis, flesh) a vaulted of an apartment, and ascending within the thickness of the
apartment, beneath or adjoining a church, in which human wall, till it comes in contact with the atmosphere, above
bones are deposited. the roof of the building.
CHARTOPHYLACIUM (Greek, %a9 r^, paper, and The parts of the chimney, and of the wall in which it is
ifrv^Maaeiv, to guard), the place where records were kept. inserted, are denominated as follows :
CHASE-MORTISE, or PULLET-MORTISE, a long mortise The opening, facing the room, being the place where the
cut lengthwise in one of a pair of parallel timbers, for insert- fire is termed the fire-place.
put, is
ing the one end of a transverse timber, by making the trans- The stone, marble, or plate, under the fire-place, is called
verse to revolve round a centre at the other end, which is the hearth.
fixed into the other parallel timber. This is applicable to That on the same level, before the fire-place, is called
ceiling-joists, where the binding-joists are the parallel timbers the slab.
first fixed, and the
ceiling-joists are the transverse joints. The vertical sides of the opening, at the extremities of
CHAUNTRY. See CHANTRY. the hearth, forming also a part of the face of the wall of the
CHECKERED, or CHEQUERED, a surface is said to be apartment, are called jambs.
checkered, when it is divided into a number of equal conti- The head of the fire-place, resting at its extremities on
guous parallelograms, alternately coloured. The term is the jambs, presenting one face vertical in the surface of the
sometimes applied to reticulated masonry. See RETICULATED wall, and another towards the hearth, is called the mantel.
and MASONRY. The whole hollow, from the fire-place, to the top of the
CHEEKS among mechanics, are those pieces of a machine wall, isdenominated the funnel.
which form corresponding sides, or which are double and That part of the funnel which continually contracts, or
alike: two equal and similar parts, generally placed parallel diminishes in its horizontal dimensions, as it ascends, is
to each other. termed the gathering, or by some, the gatliering of the
CHEEKS OF A MORTISE, the two solid parts upon the sides wings.
of the mortise. The thickness of each cheek should never The long narrow prismatic tube, over the gathering, or
be less than that of the mortise, except mouldings on the that part of the funnel which has its horizontal dimensions
styles require it to bo otherwise. the same throughout the altitude of the chimney, is called
CHEESE-ROOM, a room appropriated for the reception the flue.
of cheeses, after they are made. Rooms of this description That part between the gathering and flue, is denominated
should be lined round the walls, and fitted up with shelves, the throat.

having one or more stages, according to the size of the room, That part of the wall which faces the apartment, and
and proper gangways for commodious passages. In places forms the side of the funnel parallel thereto, or that part of
where much cheese is manufactured, the dairy-room may be the wall which forms the sides of the funnels of several fire-
placed below, the shelf-room immediately above, and lofts places, is called the breast.
over the shelf-room, with trap-doors through each floor. In an outside wall, the side of the funnel opposite the
This will save much carriage, and be very advantageous for breast, is called the back.
the drying of cheeses. When there are two or more chimneys in the same wall,
CHEQUERS, in masonry, stones in the facings of walls, the divisions between them, or the solid parts of brick, stone,
having all their joints continued in straight lines, without or metal, are called withs. A
gable, partition, or party-wall,
interruption, or breaking joints. Walls constructed in this containing a collection of chimneys, is termed a stack of
manner, are of the very worst description, particularly when chimneys.
the joints are made horizontal and vertical. Those consisting The turret above the roof, for discharging the smoke into
of diagonal joints, or joints inclined to the horizon, were the air, of one, two, or a collection of chimneys, is called
used by the Romans. See MASONRY and RETICULATED. the chimney-shaft ; and the horizontal surface, or the upper
CHEST, in bridge-building, the same as CAISSON, which see. part of the said shaft, the chimney-top.
CHEVET (French), the eastern end of a church, when of When the parallel sides of the jambs are faced with stone,
a circular or polygonal form equivalent to APSIS, which see.
: marble, or metal, so as to form four obtuse angles, viz., two
CHEVRON-WORK, a zig-zag ornament, somtimes called internally with the back, and two externally with the breast
the dancette, usual in the archivolts of Saxon and Norman or side of the apartment, making the horizontal dimension of
arches. The outline of chevron-work is a conjunction of the outside of the fire-place of greater extension than that
right lines, of equal lengths, alternately disposed, so as to of the back, the facings are called covings.
form exterior and interior angles, with the exterior angles In stone walls of ordinary buildings, the -most common
equal to the interior ones ; and all the angular points in the dimensions for the sections of the flues of sitting-rooms
same straight line, or in the same curve line, when they are are from twelve to fourteen inches square, and for the brick-
the ornaments of arches. work, nine by fourteen inches. The section of the flue must,
 CHI 145 CHI

however, be proportioned to the section of the fire, which, Church, Hants. At this period the shafts were carried up
when found necessary to vary from ordinary cases, should be to a considerable height, and nre generally circular ; in after
equal to the said horizontal section of the tire, or nearly so. times the forms varied considerably, and terminated fre-
To prevent smoke, the chimney ought to be so constructed, quently with a spire, pinnacle, or gable, with apertures of
that a current of air may pass immediately over the fire, so ornamental forms in the sides underneath for the escape of
as to be rarefied in its passage, and not to pass entirely the smoke. During the fourteenth century the shafts were
through the fire, as many have erroneously imagined. For very short, and of great variety of forms. In the fifteenth,
this purpose, the throat should be so near to the fire, as to the shafts were more usually octangular, sometimes square,
prevent the cold air from passing over it, and its horizontal with the aperture at the top ; at the latter end of this cen-
dimension in the thickness of the wall should not exceed tury we find clustered shafts, which afterwards became so
four inches and a half, or five inches at most. common in Elizabethan buildings. These clustered chimneys
This contraction is to be formed by facing up the back, are most frequently of brick, variously and elaborately orna-
and bevelling the covings, so that no cold air may be admitted mented all the way up the shaft, and indeed form a very
by the ends of the fire by thus obliging the overplus above
; prominent and beautiful feature in buildings of this period.
the quantity necessary to produce combustion, to pass over Fine specimens of the kind are to be seen at Hampton
the becomes so heated, as to consume the smoke in
fire, it Court Palace, Eton College, East Basham Hall, Norfolk, and
part, and to drive the remaining portion before it, with cele- all the larger
buildings of the Elizabethan style; examples
rity and violence. though more rare, exist at Bodiam Castle, Sussex,
in stone,
The covings are in general placed at an angle of one and on houses at South Petherton and Lambrook, Somer-
hundred and thirty-five degrees with the back and breast, setshire.
and should be made to form an abrupt plane on their top, so CHINESE ARCHITECTURE, that which is used by
as to break the current of a sudden gust of wind. the inhabitants of China, and employed in their
temples and
The greater the quantity of rarefied air that passes up the other edifices. It would be
very difficult to give such
flue, and in general the higher the chimney, the more celerity a definition as should point out the species of architecture
and force will it ascend with. The flue ought, therefore, to practised by the Chinese ; we must therefore have recourse
be carried as high as conveniency will admit. to the descriptions of those who have drawn and
actually
To prevent the absorption of heat, the back and covings measured their edifices with care. To the attainment of this,
should be constructed of white materials, or, if not, they our materials are few. Sir William Chambers is the only
should be covered with plaster, and whitened as often as author we are acquainted with, who has given representations
they become black, and thus they will reflect a greater quan- of Chinese edifices from measurement, and who was able to
tity of heat. discriminate, as an architect, those characteristic forms by
Most metals absorb the heat, and are therefore unfavour- which it is distinguished from other species of architecture,
able tor this purpose. and to mark out its peculiar features. In his preface he
The back and covings are most conveniently put up after observes :

the house is built. The introduction and general use of "To praise too much or too little, arc two excesses which
"
registers," has obviated any difficulty in this respect they
;
it is
equally difficult to avoid. The knowledge of the Chi-
form a great improvement on the old method. nese, their policy and skill in the arts, have been praised
Some of the principles in the construction of chimneys are without bounds and the excessive encomiums that have been
;

very well ascertained, others are not easily discovered till tried. given them, show with what force novelty strikes us, and
The tops of flues should not have such wide apertures, as how natural it is to pass from esteem to admiration.
"
to permit a greater quantity of air to rush down the I am far from
chimney, joining in the over-strained eulogies of the
and counteract the force of the ascending rarefied steam. Chinese. If I find among them wisdom and sublimity, it is
Smoky chimneys are frequently occasioned by the situation only when I compare them with the people that surround
of doors in a room, the grate being placed too low, or the them ; nor shall I put them on a parallel with the inhabitants,
mantle too high. There are many cases in which it is not either ancient or modern, of our quarter of the world. At
easy to discover the cause ; but if once known, it may be the same time, we must acknowledge, that our attention is
easily removed. due to this distinct and singular race of men, who, separated
Flues with circular sections arc, with some reason, from the polished nations of the world, have, without any
sup-
posed to be more favourable for the venting of smoke, than model to assist them, been able of themselves to mature the
those whose sections are square or rectangular. sciences and invent the arts.
There is much difference of opinion as to the origin of "
Everything that regards a people so extraordinary, has
chimneys. They do not seem to have been in use among the a claim to our attention ; but though we are pretty well
classics, as they are not found, as Winklemann informs us, instructed in most things respecting them, we are very little
amongst the ruins of Herculaneum, although coals have been so in their architecture. Many descriptions that have been
discovered in some of the rooms, from which he hitherto given us of their edifices, are unintelligible, the best
conjectures
that the Romans used charcoal fires.; Mr.
Lysons, however, give but indistinct and confused ideas of them, and none of
describes a fire-place, which he found in one of the rooms of the drawings deserve the least attention.
the Koman villa at Bignor, in Sussex. " Those which I at
There does not seem present offer to the public, are drawn
to be any evidence of the use of chimneys in England before from sketches and measures that I took at Canton some years
the twelfth century, when we meet with them in the castles
ago. I took them
merely to satisfy my own curiosity. I had
of Rochester, Hedingham, &c., also in a Norman house at not the least intention to publish them ; and they would not
Winwall in Norfolk, in these cases, however, the flue is have appeared at present, had I not yielded to the solicita-
carried up only a short distance in the thickness of the wall, tions of several amateurs of the fine arts. They have thought
and is then turned out at the back, the apertures being small them worthy of the attention of the public, and that they
oblong holes. Shortly afterwards we meet with flues carried might be useful in stopping the course of those extravagant
up the whole height of the wall, as at the castles of Conis- productions, that appear every day, under the name of Chi-
borough, Newcastle, Sherbourne, &c., as also at Christ nese ; although the most part of them are pure works of
19
 CHI 146 CHI

fancy, and the rest only mutilated representations that have cies of the weather, and when they settled permanently, pre-
been copied from porcelain and various paintings on paper. served the same form in the construction of their dwellings.
"
What is really Chinese, has at least the merit of being The construction of their buildings is indeed remarkable, and
original. Seldom, or never, have this people copied or tends to confirm the foregoing statement ; for, as Mr. Gwilt
imitated the inventions of other nations. Our most authentic "
remarks, though the carpentry of which they are raised
accounts agree on this point. Their government, their cus- has for ages been subjected to the same forms, when we con-
toms, their dress, and almost everything else, have continued sider the natural march of human invention, especially in
unchanged for thousands of years. Their architecture has, cases of necessity, we cannot believe that, in a country where
besides, a remarkable resemblance to that of the ancients ;
the primitive construction was of timber, the coverings of
and this is the more surprising, as there is not the least pro- dwellings would have been at once so simple and so light. Their
bability that the one has been borrowed from the other. framing seems as though prepared merely for a canvas covering.
" In the Chinese architecture, as well as that of the Again, we have, if more were wanting, another proof, in the
ancients, the general form of almost all their compositions posts employed for the support of their roofs. On them we
tends to that of the pyramid. In both, the columns serve find nothing resting analogous to the architecture for receiv-
for supports, and in both the columns have diminutions and
ing and supporting the upper timbers of the carpentry ; on
bases, which in many respects are similar. Tlie entrelas, so the contrary, the roof projects over and beyond the posts or
common in ancient edifices, are often seen in those of the columns, whose upper extremities are hidden by the eaves,
Chinese. The tiny of the Chinese differs but little from the thus superseding the use of a capital. A
canvas covering
peripteron of the Greeks. The atrium, and the monoptcrous requires but a slender support, hence lightness is a leading
and prostyle temples, have a considerable resemblance to feature in the edifices of China whilst other materials than
;

some among the Chinese ; and the manner in which they those which formed tents have been substituted for them, the
construct their walls is on the same principle with the forms of the original type have been preserved, making this
revinctum and emplecton, described by Vitruvius. There lightness the more singular, inasmuch as the slightest analogy
is, besides, a great resemblance between the utensils of the between those of the original and the copy is imperceptible.
ancients and the Chinese both are composed of similar This change of material prevents in the copy the appearance
; parts,
combined in a similar manner. of solidity, and seems a defect in the style, unless we refer
" It is
by no means my intention, in publishing a book on
1'
to the type.
Chinese architecture, to bring in vogue a taste so inferior to Another peculiarity which strikes the European upon first
the ancient, and so little suited to our climate. But the beholding a Chinese city, is the gaiety of their buildings,
architecture of one of the most extraordinary people of the arising from the prevalent application of colour. Their roofs
universe offers an interesting phenomena to a lover of are composed of coloured and glazed tiles, their floors of
the fine arts ; and an architect ought to bo acquainted with variegated stone or marble, and their porticos not only
so singular a manner of building. The knowledge of it is, coloured with the brightest tints, but also profusely varnished,
at least, curious ;
it
may even be useful on particular occa- all uniting to produce an effect
altogether different from that
sions. An architect is sometimes asked for Chinese compo- presented by all other styles.
sitions ; and, in certain cases,
they may be judicious. For Sir William then proceeds with the work as follows :

"
though, in general, the architecture of China is not suitable The Temples of the Chinese. A great number of tem-
to Europe, yet, in parks and gardens, where the extent ples arc to be seen at Canton. The Europeans call them
demands a great variety, or in large palaces that contain commonly pagodas. Many of these temples are extremely
numerous enfilades of apartments, I do not think that it small, and consist only of one single apartment. Some others
would be improper to decorate some of the most inconsiderable have a court, surrounded with galleries, at the end of which
pieces in the Chinese taste. Variety never fails to please, is a tiny, where the idols are placed and there are a few,
;

and novelty, when there is nothing disagreeable or shocking which are composed of many courts, surrounded with galle-
in it, often holds the place of
beauty. At the time that the ries. The bonzes, or priests, have cells there, and the idols
Greek architecture prevailed the most among the Romans, different halls. These are properly convents, ad some of
history informs us that Adrian, who was himself an archi- them have a great number of bonzes, who arc attached to
tect, erected, at his country seat at Tivoli, several buildings them by particular vows, and who live in them in the exact
in the style of the Egyptians and some other nations. observance of certain rules.
"
"The grandeur or the richness of the materials is not the The most considerable of these pagodas
is that of Honang,

distinguishing characteristic of the Chinese edifices. But in the southern suburb, Plate L, Figure 1. It occupies a great
there is a singularity in their manner, a justness in their extent of ground ; and accordingly it contains, besides the tem-
proportion, a simplicity, sometimes even a beauty, in their ples of the idols, apartments for two hundred bonzes, hospi-
form, that deserves our attention. I look
upon them as gew- tals for many animals, a large kitchen-garden, and a burying-

gaws in architecture ; and if singularity, prcttiness, or neat- ground. The priests and animals are buried promiscuously,
ness in the work, give a place to trifles in the cabinets of the and equally honoured by monuments and epitaphs.
curious, we may likewise introduce Chinese buildings among "The first object that presents itself, is a court of con-
compositions of a better kind." siderable extent. In it are three rows of trees, which lead to
Sir William has above noticed the
pyramidal form of an open vestibule, A, to which the ascent is by a few steps, B.
Chinese structures, and indeed the similarity of the architec- From this first vestibule, we pass to a second, c, wherein are
ture of this extraordinary people with that of all the
early four colossal figures in stucco ; they are seated, and hold in
nations in this respect, is worthy of notice ; their hands divers emblems. This vestibule opens into
yet the resem-
blance of their buildings to tents is even more remarkable, so another large court, D, surrounded by colonnades, E, and cells

striking indeed is it, that some travellers have compared their for the bonzes, F. Four pavilions, o, are placed
on
in it,
cities to vast encampments. The Chinese, like all the Tartar socles. These pavilipns are the temples the two stories, of
;

tribes, were a nomadic race ; and doubtless in their wander- which they are composed, are filled with idols, and the bonzes
ings were accustomed to employ tents, coverings portable and perform their religious service
in them. At the four corners
readily erected, to defend them from the heat and inclemen- of the court are four other pavilions, n, where the superior
 CHIH1E S IS AM CMITE C TUB. IE I'LITK I.

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 CHI 147 CHI

bonzes have their apartments ;

and under these columns, I have
just described, that it has not appeared to me neces-
between the cells, are four halls,occupied by idols.
i. sary to give a drawing of it. The first story is the same,
" On each side of this
great court are two other small and all the difference of the second, is, that it is neither sur-
courts, K, surrounded with buildings. One is for the kit- rounded with a gallery nor with a balustrade, and that the
chen, L, and for the refectories, M ; the other serves for the roof which covers the colonnade comes close to the wall.
hospitals, N, of which we shall speak. "The third kind is represented, Plate I., Figure 3. This
" I do
not give the elevation of the great court, because it drawing has been taken from several edifices of this kind ;

could not have the suitable dimensions, without occupying at and particularly from one of the pavilions of the pagoda of
least three plates. The pavilions are of different forms ; but Honang. The first story differs little from that of the first
all present a very similar appearance, and the pro- ting ; but the second has columns on two of its sides,
which
they
stand out and form covered galleries. I have seen, in some
portions between the colonnades and the pavilions are also
nearly the same. The boxes or cells of the bonzes are of of these buildings, a continued colonnade all round the second
stone, they are very small, and admit no light but by the story but the form was not so agreeable to the sight as that
;

door. The bodies of the pavilions are built of the same which I have represented.
" There is of
material, and the columns which surround them, as well as very little difference between the proportions
the colonnades, are of wood, having bases of marble. All the this drawing and that of Plate I. The columns of the first
buildings are covered with tiles, made of a coarse kind of story are, in height, eight of their diameters, and the bases
porcelain, painted green, and varnished. one. All the columns, except those of the corners, have
" The same
plan is observed in all the temples of this eight brackets at the top of their shafts, which form a kind of
kind ; and by detaching from them the three pavilions that very clumsy capitals. This ornament, very common in
occupy the middle of the great court, we may form an idea Chinese edifices, is not at all pleasing to our eyes. The
of the manner in which Chinese edifices of great extent are columns of the second orders are in diameter about four-fifths
planned, or laid out. The imperial palace, those of the of the diameter of the first. Their height is six diameters
princes of the blood, the palaces of the mandarins, the Kong and a half, and they are without bases. Under the second
Quaens, or colleges of letters, are all disposed nearly in the roof is seen an entrelas, all around, composed of circles and
same manner ; the principal difference consists in the number squares. The corners of the two roofs are enriched with
and extent of the courts. ornaments, which represents monsters and foliage and the ;

"The edifices that the Chinese make use of for religious top is ornamented with two dolphins at the two extremities,
purposes, are not, like those of the ancients, of any appropriate and in the middle with a great lleuron resembling a tulip.
"
form ; the particular kind of construction that they call tiny, These three forms are more frequent than any other in
or kony, enters indifferently into all kinds of edifices, they the temples of China, and especially in those of much extent.
are seen in almost all temples, in all palaces, above the gates For the small temples they often use the model shown in
of towns, and, in short, in all buildings where they wish to Plate I., Figure 2. Sometimes, as may be seen in that
show magnificence. drawing, the edifice is shut before by movable gates, having
"
have seen, in several quarters of Canton, four different
I four columns that advance in the manner of pro-style temples.
kinds of tings. The three first are found in temples, and the At other times the building is quite open in the front, and
fourth in many gardens. has simply four columns that support the roof.
"
The most common form in these temples is seen in
' :
I have seen at Canton some other forms of temples ; but

Plate I., (see Chambers' work.) It is a pretty exact copy of none of them appeared to me worthy of representation except
the ting of the Nagada of Cochin-china, in the eastern suburb. two little buildings, of wood, raised in the courts of one of
I have measured
many buildings of this kind ; but have found the pagodas of the western suburb. (Figures 2 and 3, of
so much difference in their proportions, that I am inclined to Plate III. he gives the plans of them.) These are two pavilions,
think the architects, in that particular, follow no exact rule, that cover two iron vases, that the Chinese use in the sacrifices
but that every one varies the proportion according to his of gilt paper, which they make to their idols on festival days ;
which
fancy. they are both octagons, and composed of eight columns,
"In the drawing that I have given, the edifice is, as they support a roof surmounted with a lamp and other ornaments,
all are. raised on a base the ascent to it is by three steps.
;
which are represented in the drawing. Figure 3, is a little
It is a square, surrounded by a colonnade of
twenty columns, raised, and surrounded with steps. The columns have bases
which support a roof surmounted by a wooden balustrade, of a profile little different from the attic. A frieze charged
which contains a gallery, or passage, surrounding the whole with inscriptions in large Chinese characters, surround the
second story. space between the columns under the
roof. The lantern has
" in sima inversa, and on
The second story has the same figure and the same eight sides, it is covered with a roof
dimensions as the first. It is covered with a roof, of a con- the top is seen an ornament consisting of a small globe
struction peculiar to the Chinese ; the angles are enriched surrounded with leaves and flowers."
with ornaments of sculpture, representing dragons. Figured, "is raised on a socle, and surrounded with an
"
The breadth of the edifice, measuring it from the exte- entrelas of masonry. There are no bases to the columns,
rior surface of the columns, is equal to the
height ; and the and under the first roof is seen an ornament composed of
diameter of the body of the building takes two-thirds of the interwoven lozenges. The lamp has eight little columns,
breadth. The height of the order makes two-thirds of the without bases or capitals, which support a conic roof, orna-
diameter of the body, and the height of the second story is mented with eight dolphins, each of which rests on one of
equal to two-thirds of the height of the first. The columns the columns. The top of the building consists of a pierced
have in height nine of their diameters, the bases two, and ball, whose top ends in a flower.
the beams and brackets, which hold the place of capitals, " The be deduced
proportions of these little temples may
only one. That is also the elevation of the entrelases, which from the scale that I have annexed to the drawings."
make the turn of the colonnade under the first roof, and " The Chinese give the name of tea
Towers, or Taas.
which forms a kind of frieze. to their towers, and the Europeans call them (as well as
"The second kind of ting differs so little from that which temples) pagodas: they are very common
in China. Du
 CII 148 CHI

Halde says, that insome provinces they are in every city, variously estimated at three hundred and forty-six, two hun
and even every considerable village. The most remarkable
in dred and fifty-eight, and two hundred and thirty-six feet.
of these edifices are the famous porcelain tower of Nang-king "The inner part or body of the wall," says Mr. Wright
" is
and that of Tong-chang-fou. They are both very magnificent. brick, but the inside lining and the facing without, of
" The form of these taas is
pretty uniform ; they are beautiful white glazed porcelain slabs, fixed in the
masonry
octagons, divided into seven, eight, and sometimes ten stories, by means of deep keys, cut like a half in the brick. T
The
which diminish gradually both in height and breadth, from projecting roof of each story consists of green and yellow
the base to the top. Every story has a kind of cornice, porcelain tiles in alternate perpendicular rows ; and running
which supports a roof, at the corners of which are hung up each angle, is a moulding of larger tiles glazed and
copper bells, and is surrounded with a narrow gallery bor- coloured red and green alternately. Prom each story pro-
dered with a balustrade. These edifices have commonly jects a balcony, enclosed by a light balustrade of green
a long pole at the top, surrounded by several circles of iron, porcelain, upon which open four doorways, set to the
supported by eight chains, tied by one end to the top of the cardinal points, their arches being elegantly turned with
pole, and by the other to the angles of the roof of the highest glazed tiles, cast in all imaginable fancies of design, and
story." variation of colour, representing deities, demons, and mon-
The origin and objects of these towers have been the cause sters of all descriptions." Bells are suspended from dragons'
of much discussion among European antiquaries, nor has the mouths at the angles of every story, making with those
question been as yet satisfactorily settled, some considering attaVhed to the chains of the cupola, a total number of one
them as merely commemorative, some as campaniles or bel- hundred and fifty-two.
"
fries, some as landmarks and beacons, while others assert that Several forms of buildinys used in China. I have
otlier

they are sepulchral, and produce as a confirmation of their given descriptions of three kinds of tings, that I saw in
opinion the discovery of a stone coffin fitted in the pedestal of It remains for me to
different temples at Canton. speak of
the tower of Ardmore. Vallency affirms that they were fire- a fourth kind, which is found in gardens. These edifices
towers erected to Baal, while others no less learned identify are in general composed only of twelve columns, raised on
them with the round towers of Ireland. This last idea may a socle, which serve to support the roof.
appear extravagant at first sight, yet upon further examina- "The building that served me for a model, was placed
tion it will be found equally as reasonable as any of the in the middle of a small lake, in a garden in China; its

preceding. The Irish towers arc generally believed to be of singularity made me give it the preference.
Celtic origin, erected by the same hands as the structures
'
The base that supports it is pretty high. A
balustrade
of Stonehenge, and others similar to them scattered over the surrounds it. The bases of the twelve columns of this
British Isles; now, strange to say, we have the same class of pavilion have a profile very similar to that of a Tuscan base
erections in China, in the province of Keang-nan, and in a of Palladio. The roof, which rests on these columns, is
locality famed not more for its romantic scenery than its crowned with a lantern. The idea of this ornament is taken
ancient legends here we find not only the monolithon, or
: from those which surmount the towers. The tops of the
single, upright column, the counterpart of those already shafts of the columns are pierced by beams that support
described under Celtic Architecture ; but even the most per- the roof, having their extremities ornamented with little
fect form of Druidical structures, the circle, and several of the grotesque heads and bells. A
frieze ornamented with an
intermediate erections, proving without doubt the connection entrelas, goes all round, under the roof, in the spaces between
between them, and the remains of Celtic erection in the remote the columns."
"
west. Add to this, that towers are found in close proximity Sir William describes another pavilion thus It is the :

with such structures, and it must be allowed that their sup- same with that of a temple with one wing; but the elevation
posed identity with those of Ireland is not indulged without is different. It is
composed of ten columns, which support
some reason. a roof and a lantern, covered in the form of a cone, and
Plate III. figure 1, " represents one of these towers, which terminated by a ball.
"
are found on the banks of the Ta-ho, between Canton and The paylous, or triumphalarches, are very common in
Hoang-pou. It is approached by three steps, and consists of China. There are many in Canton but none, that I have
;

seven stories. The first story is pierced with four arched seen, have any beauty.
gates, and contains an octagonal chamber, in the middle of "Houses of the Chinese. The distribution of their houses
which is a staircase conducting to the second story. The is
perfectly uniform and it would be improper, and' even
;

stairs of the other stories are placed in a similar manner. dangerous, for an individual to depart from the general mode.
The cornices over the several stories are all alike, consisting Le Compte tells us of a mandarin, who having built a house
of a fillet and large cavetto, enriched with representations of higher and more beautiful than those of his neighbours, was
shell-fish ; an ornament as common in the edifices of China, accused before the Emperor, and, fearing the consequence,
as in those of the ancients. The roofs are turned up at the he pulled down his house, without waiting for the sovereign's
corners, and, with the exception of the lowest, are ornamented decision.
with leaves and bells. The pole on the top is surmounted with "The Chinese lay out more than half of the ground
a globe, from which descend chains, that are fixed to the angles occupied for their houses in courts and narrow walks ; those
of the highest story, and around them are nine iron hoops.
. of the merchants of Canton, which are close by the water,
I have not set down the stairs of the different stories in the are narrow and very long; but there is no difference in the
drawing, to prevent confusion." disposition of their interior. The level ground is crossed
The porcelain tower of Nan-king is octagonal in plan, forty in its length, by a broad walk, passing through the middle,
feet in diameter, and consists of nine stories,
diminishing in and stretching from the street to the river. On each side
size as the structure rises, and surmounted with a are the apartments, consisting of a saloon for receiving visits,
cupola and
gilded ball. From this ball a rod of iron rises, and from its a bed-chamber, and sometimes a study, or closet. Before
highest extremity eight chains descend, from which seventy- each set of apartments is a court, having a fish-pond, or
two bells are suspended. Each story is covered by a projecting cistern, at its extremity, containing an artificial rock in the
roof of coloured tiles, and the total height of the building is middle, whereon grow bamboos and several other kinds of
 CMHITK 3 E
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TRIUMPHAE ARCH

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 CHI 149 CHI

plants; all which form a miniature landscape, of picturesque vessels are generally simple and agreeable ; the Chinese say
appearance. Some of the fish are so familiar, that they come they were made two thousand years ago, by some of their
to the surfaci! of the water, and allow themselves to be fed most celebrated artists ; and such as are really antique, (for
with the hand. The sides of the courts are ornamented there are some counterfeits), sell at an excessive price; one
sometimes with flower-pots, and sometimes with shrubs in of them sometimes costs no less than three hundred pounds.
flower, vines, or bamboos, forming green arbours. In the They arc kept in small pasteboard boxes, and are only shown
middle, upon a pedestal, a large porcelain vase is generally on great occasions ; nobody touches them but the master,
placed, filled with those beautiful flowers, called lien-hoa. and, to keep them clean, he brushes them from time to time
They also frequently keep in these little courts, pheasants, with a hair-pencil, made solely for the purpose.
"
bantam -hens, and other curious birds. Lamps form the most prominent ornaments of the cham-
"
The great chamber, or saloon, is commonly from 18 to bers ; there are generally four of them hanging from the
20 feet in length, and about 20 feet in breadth. The side ceiling, by cords of silk. They are of various shapes, as
which looks to the court, is entirely open but a screen of
; square, octagon, &c., and are composed of an extremely fine
canes, which is let down at pleasure, keeps out the rain and silken stuff"; decorated with very neat drawings of flowers,
the rays of the sun. The pavement is composed of pieces birds, and landscapes.
of stone or marble, of several colours. The side walls are " A room
partition of folding-doors separates the large
covered with screens, to the height of three or four feet from from the bed-chamber. have already observed, that, in
1

the ground ; and the upper part is neatly decorated with warm weather, these doors are left open all night, for the
white, crimson, or gilt paper. admission of cool air. The chamber is very small, and has
"
Instead of paintings, the Chinese hang up large pieces no other furniture than the bed and some varnished clothes-
of satin or of paper, set in frames, and painted in imitation trunks. The beds are sometimes extremely magnificent the :

of marble or bamboo, on which are written, in characters of bedsteads, or frames, which very much resemble those of
azure blue, proverbs and distichs of morality, taken from the Europe, are of rosewood engraved, or of lackered wood ;
principal Chinese philosophers. They also sometimes have the curtains are of tafTety, or gauze, sometimes flowered
leaves of white paper, quite smooth, containing large charac- with gold, and commonly dyed blue or purple. band of A
ters, traced by some skilful hand, in China ink; this orna- embroidered satin, about a foot in breadth, goes round the
ment is much esteemed. The bottom of the drawing-room whole top of the bed the embroidery is in compartments, of
;

is
composed of folding-doors, over which
a lattice, covered
is various forms, and represents flowers, landscapes, or human
with painted gauze, for the admission of light into the bed- figures, accompanied with moral sentences and tables, written
chamber. The doors, which are of wood, are of very neat with China ink and vermilion.
workmanship, ornamented with different characters and "By the side of the bed-chamber is a passage, leading to
figures, and sometimes richly varnished and painted red, the cabinet, which is always enclosed by walls, and lighted
blue, yellow, or some other colour. by windows. The walls are ornamented, like those of the
"In the middle of the lower part of the chamber, and saloon, with moral sentences and antique pictures ; the fur-
above a table which contains various ornaments, a very large niture consists of arm-chairs, settees, and tables. The books
leaf of thick paper is frequently suspended, covered with are disposed on shelves, and on a table near the window, lie
ancient Chinese paintings of ditfercnt enclosed in
figures, the pencils, and other things necessary for writing, the
squares. The Chinese have a great veneration for these instruments used for arithmetical calculations, and some select
ornaments, under the idea that the painters were inspired ; books, all laid out in great order.
and the connoisseurs pretend to distinguish the hands of the "
Besides these apartments, there are also the dining-room,
several masters, and give a very great price for such as pass the kitchen, the apartment for the domestics, the bath, the
I have seen
many of these paintings they privy, the office, or counting-house, and, towards the street,
for originals. :

usually consist of landscapes or figures, drawn with China the shop.

on white paper. In general they are touched with spirit, " Such is
ink, the distribution of the houses of all the mer-
but they are too incorrect, and too little finished, to deserve chants at Canton. Those of other people only differ in
much attention. having their general plan accommodated to the ground on
"The furniture of the large room consists of chairs, stools, which they are built for the apartments, the courts, and other
:

and tables, made of rosewood, ebony, varnished wood, and conveniences, have everywhere the order just described.
sometimes simply of bamboo, which, though cheap, is very " The
(eon, or upper-story, consists of many great halls,
neat. When the furniture is of wood, the tops of the stools occupying all the breadth of the house, above the apartments
are often of marble or of porcelain ; and though such seats of the ground-floor. They are used occasionally as cham-
are very hard, they are very agreeable in a climate where the bers, for lodging strangers. In every house there is a number
heat of the summer is excessive. On small tables, or stands, of shutters, two or three feet broad, and ten or twelve feet
four or five feet high, placed in a corner of the room, are seen high. When they wish to make chambers, they fix these
dishes of citrons, and other odoriferous fruits, branches of shutters to the floor and ceiling, and in a few hours make as
coral in porcelain vases, and glass globes containing gold- many apartments as they wish. Some of these shutters are
fishes,with a kind of herb something similar to fennel. They cut from the top to within four feet of the ground, and the
also decorate their tables, which are made only for ornament,
openings filled with very thin oyster-shells, which are suffi-
with small landscapes, composed of shell-work, plants, and ciently transparent to admit daylight. All the windows in
a kind of lily that grows among
pebbles covered with water. China are made of these shells.
made " In one of these
They have also artificial landscapes, of ivory, crystal, great halls, and commonly in that next
amber, pearl, and precious stones. I have seen some that cost the door, the image and altar of the domestic idol are placed,
a thousand laels, (more than three hundred guineas), but so that all who cuter may see it. The rest of the second
they are mere toys, and wretched imitations of nature. story is divided into
apartments for the family ; and over the
Besides these landscapes, the. tables are ornamented with shops are the rooms for the shop-keepers.
porcelain vases of different kinds, and small copper vessels, "The sides of the Chinese houses next the street, are
the latter of which are much esteemed. is no opening
The forms of these altogether plain, or employed as shops. There
 CHI 150 CHO
except the door, before which a mat is hung, or a screen is that of the base is from one-half to two- thirds of the diameter.

placed to prevent passengers from looking in. The houses The profile resembles one of the Tuscan bases of Palladio."
of the merchants of Canton have a very gay and handsome "
Figure 8, is found in almost all the pagodas, with some
appearance towards the river. little varieties. The model from which I have taken my
" The
materials used for building are wood and brick. drawing, is in a little pagoda, in the street where are the
The simply dried in the sun, or baked in
latter are either European factories. The columns are octagonal, and of
an oven. The walls of
the houses are commonly about stone. Eight diameters of the circumscribed circle make
eighteen inches thick, and the bricks, which are about the the height ; and they have no diminution toward the base.
size of our own, are used in the following manner the masons : The bases are the most regular that I have seen in China,
place three or four beds at the foundation, entirely solid after ;
and much resemble the attic base of the ancients. Their
which they dispose their bricks alternately length and height is equal to double one of the sides of the column.
"
breadthwise, along the two sides of the wall, so that those The particular divisions of all these profiles are marked
laid across touch one another, and occupy the whole breadth, at the side of each drawing.
but those placed lengthwise have a space between them on ;
"The insides of the temples, represented in Plates I.
this layer, or bed, a second is laid, with all the bricks length- and II. (see Chambers), are quite plain having no orna-
;

wise, and the joinings of the cross-bricks, in the first layer, ments beside the idols. The buildings represented in Plate II.
are covered with a whole brick in this. The work is thus Figures 3 and 4, have no ceilings the beams which support
;

continued, alternately, to the top ; and by this means, the the roofs are seen and their joinings are according to the
;

expense of work and time, as well as the weight of the wall, principles of that in Plate IJL The interior of the tower in
are very much diminished. Plate III. is also quite plain."
"The tiles that cover the roofs, are plain and semi-cylin- We must not omit to mention the Great Wall; it consists
drical ; the latter are laid on the joinings of the former, and of an earthen mound supported oneach side by walls of
the manner in which they are supported, is represented in brick and masonry, the thickness of the whole being twenty-
Plate III. The Chinese, like the Goths, always let the wood five feet at the base, diminishing to fifteen at a height of

appear withinside the ceiling ; for which reason, the beams fifteen feet, which is the level of the platform ; but this
and columns are frequently made of precious wood, and platform is defended on either side by a parapet five feet in
sometimes they are richly inlaid with ivory, copper, and height, thus making the total height of the wall twenty feet.
mother-of-pearl . At intervals of about two hundred paces are towers, rising
"
Various kinds of columns used by the Chinese. Columns to a height of thirty-seven feet, and measuring forty feet
are at least as common in Chinese edifices as in those of the square at the base, and thirty feet at the top ; there are
Europeans. They support the roof, and are commonly made however some larger towers, which consist of two stories,
of wood, with bases of stone, or marble, having no capitals ; and are about forty-eight feet in height. This wall is carried
but, instead, the top of the shaft is crossed by the beams. round a great portion of the empire, passing over in its way
Their height is from 8 to 12 diameters, diminishing gradually mountains, valleys, and rivers, and is altogether fifteen
towards the top, while the lower part of the shaft terminates hundred miles in length.
in an ovolo, producing an effect just the reverse of the CHIP, a small piece cut away from any material, by an
terminations of the ancient columns. This peculiarity is acute-angled instrument.
observable in the drawings of the Antiquities of Egypt, pub- CHISEL, an instrument used in masonry, carpentry, and
lished by Captain Norden some time ago. The bases show joinery, and also by statuaries and carvers, for cutting, either
a great diversity of profile ; none of them are very hand- by the impulse of pressure, or of the blows of a mallet or
some, but the most regular that 1 have seen, are the six hammer. There are several kinds of chisels used in car-
represented in Plate III." See Chambers' Work. pentry and joinery; as, the former, the paring-chisel, the
Figure 2, No. 1, "is taken from the colonnade that sur- gouge, the mortise-chisel, the socket-chisel, and the ripping-
rounds the court of the pagoda of Cochinchina the column : cliisel. These names they have obtained from the uses to
is about seven diameters in
height, and the base one. This which they are respectively applied. See TOOLS, TOOLING.
profile is very common." CHISELED WORK, in masonry, stones that have a chiseled
"
Figure 2, No. taken from one of the temples of the
2, is surface.
same pagoda, represented in Plate I. It is the
only place CHIT, an instrument for cleaving laths.
where I have seen this kind of column. They are about nine CHOIR, (from #opof, Greek, chorus ;) that part of the
diameters high, and their base two." church in which the choir or singers are located, and the
Figure 3, "is taken from the colonnade of the great court services for the most part performed. The term is some-
of the pagoda of Honang. The height of the column is nine times made equivalent to chancel, and defined as that portion
diameters, and that of the base one. The ends of the beams of the building eastward of the nave appropriated to the
are ornamented with heads of monsters, terminating in foliage, priests, but incorrectly so,
as the choir does not extend to
and the brackets that support them come out of the mouths the extreme east. The fourth council of Toledo directs
"
of grotesque heads, cut in half-relief on the columns." the priests and deacons to communicate before the altar,
"
Figure 4, is taken from a little pagoda in the eastern the inferior in the quire, and the people without the quire ;"
suburb of Canton. The height of the column is eight dia- thus making a distinction between the choir and sanctuary,
meters and a half, and that of the base three-fourths of the or division on which the altar stood. In fact the chancel is
diameter. The ends of the beams represent heads of dragons, divided into two parts the choir, and the presbytery or
and all the wood-work of the ceiling is ornamented with mon- the singers and inferior
sanctuary ; the former containing
sters and foliage, in inlaid work of copper, ebony, ivory, and ministers ;
the latter the altar, and the superior officiating
mother-of-pearl." clergy. The choir vras at the western end of the chancel,
"
Figures 5 and 6, the transverse elevation of Figures separated from the nave by one or more steps and the rood
3 and 4." it contained
screen, and from the sanctuary by steps only ;
"
Figure 7, is seen in almost all the houses of the Chinese. seats or stalls on either side, which were returned sometimes on
Their height is from 8 to 12 diameters, and sometimes more ; the western extremity in front of the screen, the returns always
 CHU 151 CHU
facing the altar : in large churches, there are generally two of construction, are those which owe their existence to the
or three ranges of such stalls rising a step or two in succes- zeal of Constantine the Great ; and the most ancient and
sion above each other. When there are aisles at the sides most perfect model of these now remaining, is that of Saint
of the choir, which is generally the case in cathedrals and Clement at Rome. From this and some few other structures
the more important churches, they are separated from it at Rome, we are enabled to determine, to a certain extent,
either by a screen of open work, or by the stalls being carried the form of the churches of that period and our conclusions
;

up to a considerable elevation ; the latter method is more derived from this source, are confirmed by Eusebius, who
usual in cathedrals, where the higher stalls are canopied, and has left us a description of a Greek church of his own time.
enriched with tabernacle work. In our cathedrals, the choir From these combined authorities, we learn that the plans of
is situate more generally to the east of the tower, but is such buildings were either oblong or cruciform, and were
sometimes seen under the tower, as at York and Winchester. divided into distinct portions as follows At the entrance
:

The choir was originally separated from the altar, and to the church was the vestibule or narthex, in which were
elevated in the form of a theatre, enclosed all round with stationed the catechumens and penitents of various stages,
a balustrade : on each side was a pulpit, from which the and which was frequently divided into two or more parts,
epistles and gospel were sung ; as may still be seen, at Rome, each of which was destined for a different class of penitents,
in the churches of St. Clement and St. Pancratius, the
only the outermost for those who were under the more severe
two remaining in the original form. It was separated from censures of the church, and the innermost for the catechumens ;
the nave in the time of Constantino, and enclosed with a this last division was termed vapOt]^ ferula, because those
balustrade, covered with curtains, which were not to be who were admitted into it, began to be subject to the disci-
opened till after the consecration. In the twelfth century, pline of the church. These vestibules or porticos led to the
the choir was surrounded with walls. nave properly so called, in which were assembled the body
In nunneries, the choir is a large hall, adjoining the body of the faithful ; and which was divided in its width into
of the church, but separated by a grate, where the devotees three or more parts a central one, with an aisle on each side
chant the service. of it. In the central avenue or body of the building, and
CHORAGIC MONUMENT of Lysicrates, at Athens. at the remote end of the nave, was the choir, shut off' from
See MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES. the other parts of the church by a rail or otherwise ; in this
CHORD, the extent between the two extremities of an were the amboncs or pulpits for reading, as also the seats for
arch. the choristers, and here was the greater portion of the service
CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE, a designation applied performed. From the choir was an ascent of steps to the
by some toGothic art exclusively, but in our opinion, sanctuary, which was of an apsidal form, having seats all
unreasonably because, although Gothic is doubtless the
;
round for the priests, and a more elevated one in the centre
perfection of Christian art, and the best adapted for religious of them for the bishop, immediately in front of which stood
purposes, and in that respect more fairly entitled to the name the altar. Attached to the church, but forming a distinct
than any other style, still we think all others ought not to erection, was the baptistery, in which persons were admitted
be excluded from the title, since some of them, such as into fellowship with the body of believers. Having thus
Byzantine and Lombardic, owe their origin entirely to given a rapid sketch of a primitive church, we shall pass to
Christianity, and were never profaned by being applied the consideration of our more immediate subject, begging our
to pagan usages. The term ought to include all styles of readers to bear in mind the preceding observations, while we
building invented by the Christians, and adapted to religious describe the form and arrangement of our English churches.
purposes, differing essentially from pagan architecture. In speaking of our parochial churches, we would be under-
CHRONOLOGICAL COLUMN. See COLUMN. stood to refer solely to those erected before the Reformation,
CHURCH, (Greek, Kvpiov OIKO$, the Lord's house,) a in the styles usually denominated Gothic. This is not the
Christian edifice set apart for the public celebration of divine place, even were argument necessary, to discuss the com-
service. parative merits of the Italian and Gothic styles, or their
Churches vary in size, magnificence, and architectural adaptation to sacred purposes. The improved taste of the
features,according to their rank and situation ; and are age has led to the preference of the latter, and there are few
denominated accordingly thus we have metropolitan,
: of the present day who would be found to question its cor-
patriarchal, cathedral,
cardinal, conventual, collegiate, rectness. Gothic is the prevailing fashion now, as was
monastic, and parish churches ; for a description of which, Italian in the preceding generations ; apart from this, how-
we must refer to each separate title, more especially to ever, we think there can be no man of correct taste and
CATHEDRAL and MONASTERY. Under this article we shall unbiassed judgment, but would prefer the quiet unobtrusive
confine ourselves more particularly to the consideration of simplicity of our old parish churches, to the more pompous
parish churches ; as, however, the distribution and architec- grandeur of those of the last two centuries. Nothing can
tural peculiarities of churches vary considerably in different be more diverse than the impressions conveyed by the two
countries, we must premise further, that weinclude only the the one, solemn, subdued, and peaceful the other, secular,
;

parish churches of our own country. The history and pro- showy, and luxurious it is astonishing how completely the
:

gress of Church Architecture in this and other countries, application of the two styles to the same general form, will
and a comparison of the whole, will be treated of under the change the features and general appearance of an edifice.
title of ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE. Our parish churches are perfectly unique ; different from
As there is a general similarity in the division and arrange- what we find elsewhere, they form quite a national charac-
ment of parts in all churches of whatever date or situation, teristic, of which an Englishman may indeed be proud.
it
may not be out of place at the commencement of this Their origin is attributed to Archbishop Theodore, who
article, to say something of the primitive churches, as far as noting the inconvenience which arose from the previous
relates to these particulars. The earliest buildings erected practice of sending priests from the cathedral into the neigh-
for the purpose of Christian worship, or at least the earliest bouring hamlets, adopted the plan of distributing each diocese
of which we have any account, as also the first in which into manageable districts or parishes, with a resident pastor
Christians had an opportunity of following their own mode to take charge of each ; ho carried out his idea by instigating
 CHU 152 CHU
the Saxon thanes in the erection and endowment of churches describing the church at Antioch, tells us, that it stood in
within the precincts of their own estates. The plan thus a different posture from other churches, the altar not
being
commenced, was found to be so advantageous, that it was at the east end, but at the west. The canonical position is
carried out and enlarged upon by the succeeding generations. ordered in the apostolical constitutions. When we state that
We shall not stop here to inquire into the form and construc- the chancel pointed eastward, we do not mean to
say that it
tion of the earlier churches of this island, but refer the faced that quarter precisely ;
very few churches indeed do
reader, as well to the articles above mentioned, as also to this, the orientation varying in many instances considerably
that on SAXON ARCHITECTURE, and proceed at once to the north or south ; such variation is said to have arisen from
general description of a church. the practice of pointing the church to that
part of the horizon
Of the parts or divisions. There are two parts, and only where the sun rose on the day of the patron saint.
two parts, absolutely essential to a church nave and chancel.
:
Of (he exterior elevation. The smaller churches present
These it must have, or it is not entitled to the designation to us an elevation of only one story of rough
walling, pierced
of a church without the former it is no more than a chapel,
;
at intervals with windows, which are usually filled with
and without the latter, little better than a mere lecture-room. tracery ; those at the east and west ends, being of larger
A church consisting only of the above divisions, is one of dimensions than those in the side walls. At the angles of
the nio.-t simple form, few, however, are found without some the building, the outline is bz'oken by massive projecting
further additions: the first addition is that of a porch on buttresses, and at other situations where they are required
one side of the building, forming a covered entrance into for the support of the building ; they are sometimes seen
the church. Buildings consisting simply of these three between every two windows. A more imposing projection
parts are not unfrequent, nor devoid of beauty, although but isafforded by the porch on one side this is carried up nearly
;

seldom imitated in the present day. Jn larger churches, the as high as the side walls, and is surmounted by a high-pitched
capacity of the nave is increased by the addition of one or gable roof; it is formed either of rubble, with or without
two aisles, more frequently of one on each side of the body windows, or of wood, in which material we have many
of the building, thus dividing the nave transversely into three beautiful specimens of the later styles pierced and carved in
avenues and allbrding greater accommodation for worshippers the most elaborate manner some of the plainer ones, how-
;

without enlarging the chancel, as this part does not so much ever, form very picturesque additions to a small church.
require spaciousness as length. In some cases it is true the aisles The chancel, in most cases, is of smaller dimensions than
were continued eastward, so as to encroach upon the chancel, the nave, both in width and height, and forms a picturesque
and sometimes extended its whole length the spaces thus
;
break in the elevation ;
but in some cases it is of the same
gained, were used for the most part for chapels, and contained size as the nave, and occasionally, though rarely, larger in
side-altars with their appurtenances. These chapels were both dimensions, showing a western wall projecting beyond
dedicated, the one in honour of the Virgin, which was more the nave on all its sides. There is a priest's door in one side
frequently on the southern side, and the other in the name of the chancel, and sometimes a vestry, the form and eleva-
of the patron or other saint. Churches with only one aisle, tion of which varies in different examples.
are constantly to be met with. The whole of the building is covered by a high-pitched
'
Another division of a church which we have not yet gable roof of lead, slate, or tile, and sometimes of shingles
noticed, and which, though not an essential, forms a most or thatch, the eaves projecting a little beyond the walls ;
imposing feature, is the tower; this is situated most usually parapets are not found, except in large churches. very A
at the western end of the nave, or at the intersection beautiful addition is frequently to be seen on the apex of
of the nave and transepts, when the church is cruciform ;
the western gable, consisting either of a continuation of a
and in most perfect and beautiful state is surmounted
its part of the gable in a vertical direction, pierced with arched
by a lofty spire. We have now arrived at the most com- apertures to contain the bells, and finished with a gable top ;
plete form of a parish church, which consists of a nave or otherwise of a little turret of four or more sides, to be
flanked on either side by an aisle a chancel at the east,
; employed for the same purpose the eastern gable is for the
:

and a tower at the western extremity of the same, with a most part finished with an ornamental cross.
projecting porch towards the western end of the south aisle. In the larger churches of three aisles, the elevation consists
This is the most frequent form of our smaller churches, but most frequently of two stories, the lower one similar to that
not the only one we not (infrequently find them in the shape
; already described, and an upper one called the clere-story,
of a cross, which is doubtless the most appropriate and which is carried up above the arches which separate the nave
expressive form that could be adopted in the erection of a and aisles, and pierced with windows of a smaller descrip-
Christian temple; but the simple parallelogram is on many tion,sometimes with mere quatrefoils or other small apertures.
accounts the more convenient, nor is it so greatly inferior In very large churches, the clere-story windows are often
in symbolical
meaning; for while the cross plan portrays the larger than those of the aisles. The nave is covered as before
emblem of Christianity, the latter is an evident representation with a gable roof, but the aisles with a lean-to, sloping upwards
of the ark in which Noah was preserved, which has ever been from the exterior walls to the clere-story, with a much more
considered a type of the Christian church. gentle acclivity. In some three-aisled churches, where the
Of the position of Churches, Almost all the old churches width is not considerable, the gable roof spans both nave and
of this country range east and west, having the chancel at aisles ;
sometimes in one inclination, but at others, the incli-
the eastern extremity ; nor is this merely a local peculiarity, nation over the aisles is considerably depressed ; in such cases
but a universal custom ; such was the practice of all Chris- there is of course no clere-story. On the other hand, when
tians from the earliest ages. It is true, exceptions are to be a church is of a great width, especially when the additional
found, but not more than sufficient to prove the rule. The width is in the aisles, we have three gable roofs, one over
church dedicated by Paulinus, bishop of Nola, to the memory the nave, and a similar one over each aisle ; the gable ends
of S. Felix, is an instance of deviation from the usual position, of such churches have a very pleasing appearance ; they have
but of this it is related, that it was not built so as to face no clere-story, and the chancel is mostly but a continuation
"
the east, as was usual," but so as to turn towards another of the nave ; not unfrequently the aisles are continued the
church previously dedicated to that saint ; and Socrates, whole length of the building in such churches.
 CHU 153 CHU
In cruciform churches, the elevation, with the exception Of the internal structure. The principal portion of the
of such differences as the plan necessitates, is for the most structure to which the eye is directed, in the interior is the
part similar to that of the more common forms. chancel ; this is entered from the nave under an arch, termed
Of the tower. A beautiful appendage to a church is the the chancel-arch, and is elevated from the body of the church
tower, nor is it added merely for effect ; its principal object on a raised platform, which is ascended by three or more steps;
is
perhaps to contain the bells, which require to be suspended a further separation is effected by the rood screen, which is
at a considerable height, in order that they may be heard at carried across the opening formed by the arch, and stretches
a distance ; another end which it serves, is to point out the from pier to pier. In three-aisled structures, the aisles are
srtuation of the sacred building, and, .as some suppose, to act separated from the nave by an arcade or series of arches,
as a beacon or landmark for the guidance of travellers an :
supporting in most cases a clere-story, to admit light into
instance of a tower serving this purpose, may be pointed out the body of the church. The proportion between the width
at Boston, Lincolnshire, as also at Dundry, near Bristol, at of the nave and aisles, varies considerably in some cases,
;

both of which places the towers are raised to an extraordinary the aisles being less than half the width of the nave, and in
height. The towt-r is very generally surmounted by a spire, others, of nearly equal dimensions.
which serves as a most efficient covering, while at the same The roofing throughout the church is composed in by far
time it gives additional height, and forms a beautiful finish- the majority of instances, of timber, the few exceptions,
" " in silence heavenward." which are in the larger churches, being of stone vaulting.
ing, pointing," as it does, It is

remarked that spires are not so frequent in elevated situations, In roofs of the former kind, the timbers were originally open
or in level tracts of land, as they are in valleys and in wooded to view, and not concealed, as too many of them are at the
country ;
which fact would seem to imply that they were present day, with a flat plaster-ceiling. The timbers were
added more especially for pointing out the spot occupied by of oak, and consisted of principals, purlins, and common
the house of prayer. rafters, the whole of which were boarded over, and the
The tower with respect to the church is
situation of the boards protected by lead or other covering. The principals
various sometimes we see it at the end, sometimes in the
;
are placed at regular intervals, dividing the roof into a num-
middle of an aisle, frequently at the west end of the nave, ber of bays or compartments, each inclosing several common
and occasionally between nave and chancel; in short, almost rafters, and are partially supported either on corbels, or on
in every situation, except at the eastern extremity of the the capitals of shafts ascending from the floor; they are
chancel. Its plan is
usually square, though occasionally we formed either of collars with collar braces continued to the
find it octagonal, and even circular, and sometimes lower part of the rafter, of collars with intersecting collar
square
at the lower part, but finished oft' at the top in an octagonal braces, of intersecting braces only, or of timbers disposed in
form in elevation, the outline is broken by buttresses pro-
; the form of an avch, and in many other ways which will be
jecting considerably at each angle, and, where there is no discussed in the proper place tie beams are seldom used ;
;

spire, is frequently found a stair turret running up in the in most instances the timbers are plain, but in many, of the
comer next the church, and continued some little distance later ones more especially, a considerable degree of ornamen-
above the parapet. The base or lower storv of the tower is tation is introduced in the shape of carved bosses, open
usually plain and massive, but the upper portion is of a more panelling, and such like.
elaborate appearance, being pierced with windows, the Of the internal arrangement. On entering the church
heads filled with tracery, and the lower parts with louvre- through the wicket, at the entrance of the porch, we some-
boarding. \\ hen there is no spire, the tower is finished with times notice on the right-hand side of the door, often pro-
a parapet, battlcmcnted or otherwise and in later examples,
; jecting from the wall, and partially covered by a niche, a
the parapet is not omitted, even when there is a stone bason, which is called a stoup, or aspcrsorium, from its
spire, and
is sometimes enriched
by continuing the buttresses above the use, which was to contain the holy water, with which, in
tower, in the shape of pinnacles. During the earlier periods olden times, the worshippers sprinkled or crossed themselves
of English architecture, the spires sprang direct from the before entering into the body of the church. This was a very
eaves of the tower, without the intervention of a parapet. ancient practice, and was adopted in a somewhat different
Spires are, in plan, square or multangular, most frequently shape by the early church ; the small stoup, in fact, is a sub-
octagonal ; sometimes they spring from the tower on a square stitute for the fountain to be seen in front of some of the
plan, which at a short elevation is merged in the octagonal ;
Constantinian churches, at which Christians were accustomed
some spring from the tower at a greater angle than others, to wash before entering the sanctuary ; the custom is typical
but all terminate in a point surmounted by a vane, often by of the purity of mind which should accompany our devotions.
the symbolical cock, the emblem of St. Peter's fall, which Before proceeding further, we may notice the stone seat, or
proposes an opportune warning to the passers-by, not to neglect bench-table, which runs along the sides of the porch, and is
the aid of divine power, but to " watch and pray, lest they occasionally covered with an arcade, and sometimes sur-
likewise enter into temptation." The elevation of the spire mounted with a window to give light to the porch : in ancient
is relieved
by one or two tiers of spire-lights, which are small times, several religious ceremonies took place in the porch,
open windows, carried up vertically, and therefore projecting especially those preliminary to baptism and matrimony.
from the line of spire as they rise upwards. Spires are built Having passed under the inner arch of the porch, we
either of stone or of wood, in which latter case, they are usually are now and the first object to attract
fairly in the church,
covered either with lead, slate, or shingles and though not so
;
our attention the font, which is placed always near the
is

imposing as those of stone, have a very picturesque appearance. principal entrance, as being the most fitting situation for the
Towers of wood are very frequent in Sussex, Surrey, and Essex ; performance of that rite by which men are admitted into the
they are surmounted with low spires, the whole being covered membership of the church ; the exact locality is not fixed,
with weather-boarding, small apertures of luffer-boarding
-with being sometimes in the central avenue of the nave opposite
for windows wooden bell-cots of a similar description are
: the entrance, and at others under one of the arches of the
commonly to be met with in Essex. Detached towers are not aislenear the porch, in which case it frequently adjoins one
of frequent occurrence in this country, but several are to be of the adjacent pillars; it is not unfrequently raised on a
found, especially in Lincolnshire. series of steps, which give it a more imposing appearance,
20
 CHU 154 c ii n

and has always a space left around it for the accommodation an azure ground. Few restorations take place without some
of the priest, sponsors, &c. ; for the former there is sometimes additional testimony to the employment of fresco
paintings,
a kneeling-stone on the west side. Fonts in a perfect state which have been previously concealed by successive coatings
are provided with covers, generally of wood, some flat, and of plaster and whitewash. Mr. Poole,
speaking of the internal
others of a pyramidal form more or less enriched. here We decoration of churches, says "Besides the immense variety
of Scriptural and other subjects which are found
speak of fonts as they were in former times, not as they are sculptured on
now found in old churches, for the original ones are some- the walls and roofs of our Gothic churches, we have also
times not only moved from their ancient positions, but even sometimes fresco paintings, covering great portions of the
taken out of the church, and altogether discarded. walls. These paintings have, for the most part, been covered
On proceeding further into the church, the next object which with the successive coats of whitewash and yellow ochre,
probably strikes our eye is the chancel, and at its extremity with which the churchwardens have literally daubed the
the altar, with its appendages, but as this has been described interior as well as the exterior of churches as if, to their ;

in its proper place, we shall not stop to re-consider it here ; eyes, whiteness and yellowness were the only two elements
and besides this, in fixing our attention on the move striking of beauty. Accident has discovered several of them, and
portion of the edifice, we have overlooked the pulpit. Few more are being discovered every day. The most remarkable
pulpits are to be met with of an earlier date than the fifteenth
with which I am acquainted is in the church of the Holy
century, the oldest which remain are of stone, built up with Trinity, Coventry ; the subject is one which cannot be un-
the fabric, from which circumstance we may infer that they profitably suggested to Christians, the last judgment; and
it is treated in a manner
are coeval with the entire structure ; there is a beautiful spe- by no means deficient in expression.
cimen at Beaulicu, Hants, which is attached to the wall, and At Preston, in Sussex, is another fresco, discovered also acci-
entered by a staircase partly cut out of its thickness another ; dentally ; one of the subjects is the murder of Thomas
specimen is to be found in the church of the Holy Trinity, a Becket ; the story is minutely and well told. Another
Coventry, which is attached to one of the piers of the build- subject is the archangel Michael weighing the soul of a Chris-
ing. The later pulpits are of oak, usually of an octagonal tian, which appears in one side of a pair of scales, against the
form, having the sides panelled and enriched with carving, devil, in the form of a boar's head, in the opposite scale. By
and the whole sometimes surmounted with a richly-groined the intervention of a female saint, most probably the blessed

canopy projecting over the head of the preacher. The posi- Virgin, who stands by, the soul is manifestly the weightier.
" In the late
tion of the pulpit was probably always at the north-east or remains of Rotheram church, several frescos
south-east end of the nave, near the arch which separates the were discovered, especially a large one over the nave arch,
nave and chancel. of our blessed Lord and the twelve apostles, with other saints
We have now to consider the f'irm and arrangement of the and angels in act of adoration. The figures were much
pews. There are few churches which have not suffered destroyed in the process of laying them bare ; and they are
severely by the removal of their ancient seats, and the sub-
now covered over again. Might they not have been restored ?"
stitution of close boxes, with high backs; the old seats were This question we shall leave for future consideration ; mean-
low, with very low backs, so as not to destroy or shut out while, we may remark, that many specimens of fresco have
a full view of the church. The backs and seats of such low been discovered since the above was written, and no doubt
benches were fitted at either end into a standard, which fresh discoveries will be made as the process of restoration
served at the same time as a support and finish, being fre- goes on tn our ancient churches.
quently carved in panels, and sometimes finished at the top
Another old method of decorating the walls, the appropriate-
with a poppy -head, or knop of foliage; at other times they ness of which cannot be questioned, is by covering them with
were quite plain, with only a simple moulding, or even chamfer texts of Scripture, on which our previous author, Mr. Poole,
at the top : between every two benches was an open space remarks as follows -"The most simple occupant of the walls
:

ingress and egress to and from the seats, which were

left for of churches is a series of passages from the Sacred Scriptures,
never closed with doors. These benches were all arranged or of moral sentences of tried wisdom and appropriate ten-
north and south, so that the congregation might face the east, dency. The introduction of the inscriptions is very ancient.
having an avenue between them in the centre of the nave, Bingham gives us several instances, and, among others, two
and another leading into it from the entrance, which, in three- distichs written over the doors of the church, one on the
aisled churches, must have been carried right across the outside, exhorting men to enter the church with a pure and
church, to give access to another avenue leading to the seats peaceable heart :

in either aisle. These formed the only seats in the church '
Pax tibi sit
quicunque Dei penetralia Christ!
for the laity Pectore candidua ingrederis
; scarcely necessary to add, that galleries
it is j>acirico ;'

never formed a part of the original arrangement. and the other within, requiring those who go oul of the
Of the internal decoration. There is one method of deco- church to leave at least their heart behind them :

ration so universally applied in our ancient churches, that we '

Quisquis ab aide Dei perfectis ordine votis
cannot pass it over unnoticed ; it consists in the application Egrederis, remea corpore, corde mane.'
of colour; the roof, the floor, the walls, the furniture and "
St. Ambrose
tells us of an appropriate passage of Scrip-
ornaments, and, not to omit the principal feature, the win- ture, written on the walls of that part of the church which
dows, nay, even the very books, were all enriched with gild- was allotted to the virgins. And besides these moral lessons
ing and colour. In paving, the use of encaustic tiles of various and texts of Scripture, records of the dedication of the church
colours and patterns was most common, but besides these, the were sometimes inscribed on the walls such was that written ;

floors were not unfrequently covered with mosaic

work, as by the altar of Sancta Sophia, by Justinian.
instanced at the Prior's Chapel, Ely, where in the chancel " how
To eonvey some notion appropriately such passages
"
immediately in front of the altar was represented the tempt- may be selected and arranged, and how impressive may be
ation" in this method, the other parts of the floor their general effect, we will adduce the whole series of
being
adorned with ordinary patterns. Frequent specimens of paint-
inscriptions from a small chapel at Luton, in Bedfordshire.
ing on the roof have been lately brought to light, a very usual This chapel, which is now the property of the Marquis of
method of decorating which is by a powdering of stars on
gilt Bute, was built by one of the Napier family, in the reign
 CHU 155 CHU
of James I., and the beautiful wainscoting with which it is of great thickness, which tended not only to the greater
fitted up, was brought from Tittenhanger, where it had been stabilityof the structure, but also to maintain an equability
fixedby Sir Thomas Pope, in 1548. of temperature in the interior. A
good specimen of a wooden
"
Over the principal doorway are the words, Domus Dei church is that of Greenstead, Essex, which has recently been
porta Cosli The House of God is
:
'
the Gate of Heaven ;' restored, and of which the following description, previous
and on the north and south side of the entrance : Laudato to its restoration, is given in one of Weale's Quarterly
eum juvenes, laudato cum virgines,
'
Praise Him, yo young Papers :

" "
men ; praise Him, ye maidens,' from Psalm cxlviii. 12. On The timber
walls, which," says the writer, I take to

the two transverses of a beautifully carved door, is an inscrip- be of oak, though some imagine them to be of chestnut-wood,
tion from Psalm cxviii. 20, Porta Domini, Justi intrabunt, are but six feet in height on the outside, including the sill ;
'
This is the gate of the Lord, the just shall enter in.' With they are not, as usually described, half-trees,' but have had
'

reference to a nearer approach to the altar, we have the a portion of the centre or heart cut out, probably to furnish
words Lavabo inter innocentes inanus meas, et circumdabo beams for the construction of the roof and sills the outside :

altare tuum Domino will wash my hands among the or slabs thus left, were placed on the sill, but by what kind
'
1 :

innocent, and I will compass thine altar, O Lord :' and OH of tenon they are there retained, does not appear ; while the
the altar itself not only are the names of our blessed Lord, upper ends, being roughly adzed oft' to a thin edge, are let
found in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, as they were inscribed into a groove, and which, with the piece of timber in which

by Pilate on his cross, but also the following passages from it is cut, runs the whole
length of the building itself; the
Heb. xiii. 10 Matt. xxvi. 27 1 Peter i. 12 and 1 Cor.
; ; ; door-posts are of square timber, and these are secured in
xi. 24, 25 Habemus altare Ex hoc omnes in qurc desid-
: the above-mentioned groove by small wooden pins, still firm
erant Angel prospicere
i Hoc in mcmoriam mei We have :
'
and strong a truly wonderful example of the durability of
an altar Eat ye all of this Into which the angels desire British oak. At the west end 1 had an opportunity of
to look Do this in remembrance of me.' Even the singular examining the very heart of the timber; to the edge of an
addition of a chimney-piece in this chapel, has its appropriate exceedingly good pocket-knife, it appeared like iron, and has
inscription: Ecce ignis et lignum, ubi est victims holocaust! ? acquired from age a colour approaching to ebony, but of a
'
Behold the lire and the wood, but where is the victim of more beautiful brown ; and if any conclusion may be drawn
the whole burnt offering V Gen. xxii. 7." from the appearance of the building, I see no reason why it
Such was the decoration of the walls of our old churches, should not endure as long as it has already existed. The
nor were the details or furniture neglected, but all enriched outsides of all the trees are furrowed to the depth of about
with colour, and the smaller parts with gilding. The rich- an inch into long stringy ridges by the decay of the softer
ness produced by this treatment, which might otherwise have parts of the timber, but these ridges seem equally hard as the
ap.peared too glaring, was chastened and softened down by heart of the wood itself; the north doorway, which measures
the dim religious light shed through the storied panes of the only four feet five inches in height by two feet five inches
stained windows, which, while they added to the general effect, in width, is at
present closed with masonry ; but the aperture
imparted a chasteness throughout the whole structure. An must have been original. It is generally thought that the
old church in all its glory, must have been truly beautiful. woodwork of the roof is coeval with the walls, and it was
Of (he materials. Our old churches were most generally most likely formerly covered with thatch, as Bede describes,
built of stone, and the majority of them of rough unhewn and as may still be seen on many village churches in the
rag or rubble, built up into the fabric in the same state as county of Norfolk.
brought from the quarry ; the individual stones were small, "The body of the church is lighted by windows in the
and not all of the same size ; they varied likewise in shape, roof, but these are decidedly of a recent date ; what little
not being built up iu regular courses, but fitted together as li^ht it-; interior enjoyed in its primitive state, was probably
ad milted from tlie east end, if any windows existed at all.
neatly as circumstances would permit the longer spaces
;

being filled up with smaller stones, and the lesser ones with
';
How was originally finished, cannot be now
the interior
cement. This masonry was bonded at intervals by longer determined at the present moment it is kept in a very neat
;

stones running through the work, and at the angles by coins and reputable state ; its walls and ceiling are plastered and
of more regular workmanship. The dressings of the building, whitewashed, and its area aflbrds sufficient accommodation
such as the jambs and finishings of windows, doorways, and for the
population of the parish/'
other apertures, as well as the pinnacles, water-tables, string- The nave is the portion of the church here alluded to, for
courses, mouldings, and all other portions of the edifice which the chance.-! is not of the same material, and is of a later date ;
tlie tower is also of wood weather-boarded, with luffer boards
required much labour, were of some more manageable stone,
such as Caen ; and in some of the more highly embellished for the admission of light.

structures, of Purbeek marble. In some localities, flint is Since the above account was written, this unique little
employed instead of rubble, more especially in Norfolk and edifice has been restored, tinder the superintendence of

Suffolk, not unfrequently in Essex and other counties ; in Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon ; and in an article on the sub-
li

many cases of this kind, the walls are made up of flints, ject, to be found iu The Builder," a short period subsequent
inserted in a kind of framework of freestone, which method, to its restoration, the
following remarks occur. The writer,
with the aid of good cement, produces a very durable and in combating Mr. Suckling's opinions as to the timbers being
not unpleasing structure. Nor are these the only materials less than half-trees, says
"
We see no evidence of this,^for
employed in the construction of churches ; we occasionally the timbers were evidently left rough, and the dimensions
'
meet with brick and wood as substitutes for stone, more prove them to have been, as nearly as may be, half-trees.'
frequently than county of Essex. Brick,
elsewhere, in the These uprights," he continues, " were laid on an oak sill,
however, was not used during the best periods of ecclesiastical 8 inches by 8 inches, and tenoned into a groove 1^ inch deep,
architecture, nor does it produce an effect so pleasing to the and secured with oak pins. The sill on the south side was
eye, as either of the before-mentioned materials ; their colour, laid on the actual earth that on the north side had, in two
;

red, is not nearly so agreeable as the more subdued tones of places, some rough flints, without any mortar driven under.
flint or rubble. The walls, hi all the above cases, were The roof-plates averaged 7 inches by 7 inches, and had
 CHU 156 CHU
a groove corresponding with the sill, into which the uprights figures wholly taken from the material fabric. But of all
were tenoned and pinned. The plates were also of oak, but writers on the subject, Durandus is the most copious, and is
they and the sills were very roughly hewn, in some parts held up as the highest authority in such matters. Mr. Lewis,
being 10 inches by 10 inches, and in others 6 inches by 6 in his description of Kilpeck church, Herefordshire, is one

inches, or 7 inches. who has of late brought the subject of symbolism into notice ;
"
There were twenty-five planks or uprights on the north heis one of those,
however, who in our opinion have laboured
side, and twenty-one on the south side. The uprights in to apply the system to a greater extent than is warranted
by
the north side were the least decayed. Those on the south facts he enlists every portion of the fabric, even to the
;

side required an average of 5 inches of rotten wood to be minutest details, to illustrate his views, and makes the
removed, those on the north about 1 inch only, and the arrangement of the sacred edifice to indicate the minutiae of
heights of the uprights, as now refixed, measuring between theological doctrine. Mr. Poole, in his lectures on church
"
plate and sill, are on the north side 4 feet 8 inches, on the arrangement, does not attempt so much ; he maintains that
south side 4 feet 4 inches, the sills being bedded on a few ecclesiastical architecture is a language ; that it has always,
courses of brickwork in cement, to keep them clear of damp. so long as it has deserved its name, aimed at expression;
The uprights were tongucd together at the junction with and not at mere accommodation without splendour, or even
oak strips, and a most effectual means it proved of keeping at splendour without a spirit and a meaning that from the
:

out the wet for although the interior was plastered, there
;
first it was rational ; that it had a soul and a sense which it
was no evidence, in any part, of wet having driven in at the laboured to embody and convey to the beholder that its :

feather-edge junction of the uprights a strange contrast to language was not only expressive, but appropriate ; that it
many of our modern churches, where, with all the adjuncts aimed not only at accommodating a congregation, but at
of stone and mortar, it is found no easy matter to keep out elevating their devotions and informing their minds." He
the driving weather from the south-west. is of
opinion that the greater mysteries of our religion are
"
The roof was heavy, and without any particular character ; symbolized in the fundamental design of the structure, while
it consisted of a tie-beam, at less than six feet from the floor, other Christian verities are set forth in the minor arrange-
with struts. The covering was tile." ments and in the ornamental details. For instance, the
We have given the description of this little church at so mystery of the Trinity is symbolized by the threefold division
great length, because we
think buildings erected after this of our churches into nave and aisles, and perhaps in the
manner would form very good substitutes for those un- longitudinal division into nave, choir, and chancel, otherwise
ecclesiastical-looking structures termed Temporary Churches, the division into nave and chancel is said to point out the
which are become so fashionable now-a-days ; and not only division of clergy and laity but the aesthetic principle is
:

so,but might be even erected as permanent ones, in places more evident in our larger churches ; thus in our cathedrals
where a better could not be provided. we have the form of the cross in the ground-plan, also the
Of symbolism. Although many persons are so far preju- threefold division of body and aisles, as well as of nave,
diced against the system as to deny the existence of symbolical transept, and choir we have likewise the same number of
;

meaning in the peculiar structure and arrangement of churches, divisions vertically in the lower arcade, triforia, and clere-
to the unprejudiced mind there can be little doubt of the fact. storv, as also in the exterior elevation in the central and two
It is true that some of the advocates of the
system have western towers. Mr. Poole concludes " On a review, then,
carried it to too
great a length, and have strained their point of the facts mentioned, we may safely conclude, that, from
to such an extent as to appropriate a deep theological meaning the first, there has been a sufficient degree of uniformity in
to the smallest details, yet this should not hinder us from giving Christian churches, to indicate a unity of design, which could
attention and credit to those who hold themselves within not be accidental; that the origin of that unity is to be
reasonable limits. This idea respecting the aesthetic charac- found in the desire to symbolize the truths of our holy
ter of ecclesiastical buildings, has but
lately been brought religion in every apt manner, and, above all, in the sacred
"
into general notice, but it is no new fancy on the contrary.
;
edifices of the Christians." A Gothic church, in its perfec-
we find mention of it in the writings of the early Christians. tion, is an exposition of the distinctive doctrines of Chris-
The following passage is from the Apostolical Constitutions :
tianitv, clothed upon with a material form; and is, as
"
When
thou callest an assembly of the church, as one that
'
Coleridge has so forcibly expressed it, the petrifaction of
"
is the commander of a our religion.'
great ship, appoint the assemblies to
be made with all possible skill charging the deacons, as
;
As church-architecture is receiving a fair modicum of
mariners, to prepare places for the brethren, as for passengers, attention at the present time, and churches are being multi-
with all care and decency. And first let the church be long, plied to keep pace with the requirements of a vastly-increasing
like a ship, looking towards the east, with its vestries on population, it may not be out of place, in a work which pre-
either side at the east end. In the centre, let the bishop's tends rather to useful and practical information, than to
throne be placed, and let the presbyters be seated on both amusing recreation, to give some rules for the guidance of
sides of him ; and let the deacons stand near at hand, in those who are called upon to prepare plans and designs for
close and small garments, for they are like the mariners and church-buildings.
managers of the ship." As we have before remarked, the In the first place, then, let the architect consider well the
material structure of the church was from the earliest period amount which is to be laid out in the erection, for this must
considered emblematical of the ark of Noah. Similar allusions determine every other consideration if the amount be small,
;

to that just quoted, are constantly

occurring in the patristic do not let him attempt a large or highly-decorative building.
writings ; thus S. Ambrose tells us why baptisteries should He must first take care to ensure soundness and strength in
be octagonal, and Clement of Alexandria gives rules by the construction, and leave the details to be considered after-
which the selection of sacred emblems should be guided ; wards ; if, after calculating the cost of the mere walling and
Eusebius informs us that Constantine surrounded the apsis other necessary parts of the structure, he finds he has suffi-
of the church of S. Cross with twelve pillars, according to cient to construct them in a substantial manner, and money
the number of the twelve apostles ; and Hermas, in his to let him then decide upon the amount of decoration.
spare,
visions, represents the building of the spiritual temple under It is better to erect plain walling, so that it be solid and well-
 CHU 157 CHU
build, than to add enrichment upon enrichment upon walls we have before alluded to, the walls are formed of a sort of
which are scarcely able to support them. Let strength be the frame- work of freestone, the intermediate spaces being filled
mere ostentatious In new work the effect of flint
object sought to be attained, not show ;
in with small squared flints.

display is quite out of character in a sacred edifice. This is not so

good as could be desired, but it improves by age ;
leads us to the next rule :let every material employed be the contrast between it and the freestone being modified in
real if funds are not sufficient for the best materials, use the
; process of time ; old buildings of this material have a very
more common, but do not attempt to hide them, let them pleasing effect.

appear what they are in reality, in their true colours, and If none of the above materials can be procured without
not stain or plaster them to resemble things of a superior much difficulty, brick is not to be discarded, although not to
description the building may not appear so rich, but it will
;
be recommended unless under peculiar circumstances. If you
bear the stamp of reality and truth, which will carry a con- are compelled to use it, do not attempt to disguise it by
viction of its superiority to minds perhaps unwilling to yield stucco, a brick church is better than an imitation stone one ;

to its demands. plaster may be used occasionally to preserve a wall, but, if

Of construction.- The best material for the walling is so, let its nature and its purport be at once evident. Churches
undoubtedly stone, and of this, we suppose, that which of red brick are to be found in Essex, but they are of a late
is dressed and
squared should be preferred we do not speak
; period, and are not to be imitated unless absolutely necessary.
with certainty in this case, for there decidedly are advantages In general cases, rag or rubble is preferable, not only in
attached to undressed, uncoursed masonry the very uneven-
; appearance, but even in economy.
ness imparts a richness and variety of colour to the material, Timber, though by no means a desirable material, may in
and a play of light and shade over the surface, which is not be employed. A church of this description has
special cases
attainable in an even or smooth wall but besides this, there
; already been noticed and described, it will therefore be un-
is another
superiority in the contrast which is afforded necessary here to enter into a consideration of its construction.
between the naked wall and the more finished dressings of While upon this subject we cannot conclude without again
the apertures. But even if this matter be left undecided, it suggesting, whether churches built after the fashion of that
will make but little difference in the present day, for few at Greenstead, above described, would not be more appro-
architects have funds at their disposal to allow them a choice priate structures for temporary churches, than those which at
between the two. The stone best adapted for the purpose, in the present day pass under that denomination.
the practice of the present time, is rag or rubble, which is In all the above cases, let the walls be of considerable

imexpensive, and at the same time durable it may be pro- ; thickness, as this tends not only to the security of the struc-
cured in most localities without much trouble. Whatever be ture, but also, as we have said before, to the preservation of
the nature of the stone, it is not necessary nor desirable that an equable temperature in the interior.
it in large masses, the smaller the better, so far, at
be quarried Of the covering. The, best covering for the roof is lead,
least, as consistent with a due regard to the safety and
is of sufficient thickness 71b. lead is a good quality but it
expense of construction ; when the stones are large, they has its disadvantages in the first place it is expensive, and
;

are apt to catch the eye, and lead it away from the more therefore not suitable for the present time; it also requires
detailed portions of the building, whereas, if the separate great care in laying, and unless pure, and of good quality, is
stones be of small size, and more especially if they be of liable to corrode. Slates are not objectionable if they be of
irregular outline, and random-coursed, they will render the a good colour, but the common blue slate does not harmonize
more important features distinct and effective. For this same well with the masonry ; very fair specimens are to be pro-
reason, the finished stones of the apertures, and such like, cured from the north of England. Tiles and thatch are fre-
should not all be of the same size, either in length or height, quently found on old churches; the former may be employed,
so as to form a regular lino at their junction, with the rubble but the hitter is objectionable, for reasons which will be
masonry, for, if so, they will divert the attention from the obvious to every reader. 1 iag-stones may be used for the pur-
main outline and decoration of the windows, &c., which the pose, as may also shingles; the latter are eligible on account
eye ought to catch at the first glance but besides this, if the
;
of their lightness, and other qualities, but they are not secure
jamb-stones be of different lengths, they will form a more against fire.
efficient bond with the main wall. The latter remarks will internal wood-work.
Of tlie The roof, benches, screens, and
apply to all buildings, whatever be the materials of which other wood-work should be of oak, if expense is no obstacle ;
they are composed. however, fir, walnut, and other inferior timber, are more gene-
With regard to the selection and laying of stones, the best rally employed now-a-days but whatever is used, it should not
;

plan is to use them as they come to hand, studying neither be stained or grained, to resemble wood of a superior quality ;
their shape nor situation too closely a wall, constructed
;
it may be
prepared in any manner which will tend to its pre-
in this manner, will look natural, and therefore far better, servation, and in this way its appearance may sometimes be
than when the stones are broken or placed in a peculiar improved. Deal may be employed when the funds will not
manner for the sake of appearance. In no cases attempt to admit of a better substitute. Varnish is now frequently used,
make the joints over close. The dressings will of course be but we think it better avoided at least, allow it a sufficient
;

formed of a stone which may be easy to work Caen is a : time to dry, before the church is to be used for service.
good stone for the purpose, but if this is not to be obtained, Of the flooring. The best materials for paving the floor
some kind of freestone may be discovered in the neighbour- are encaustic tiles, ornamented in
appropriate-coloured de-
hood, available for such service. The nature of the stone vices ; plain tiles, however, will answer very well for the nave,

required will vary of course with the degree of carved they should be placed diamond-wise, the alternate ones being
enrichment to which it is to be subjected. of the same colour with a differently-coloured one between ;
Where flint is abundant and more readily procurable than red and black are the common colours. The enriched encaus-
other kinds of stone, it may be used with advantage, as is tic tiles may be
judiciously reserved for the chancel ; plain
evidenced by many an old structure. Care should be taken tiles are well introduced even here, for they serve as a con-
that it be well bonded and cemented together, otherwise it trast, as also to throw out the patterns of the richer sort.
will not bo so secure as rubble masoury ; in some cases, which Of metal-work. The metals are used for a variety of pur-
 CHU 158 CHU
poses, the more costly in the furniture of a church, but we such small structures as the above erected at the present day,
shall here confine ourselves to the ornamental iron- work, used when all seem to aim at an edifice of much greater preten-
for hinges, locks, bars, and such like, many beautiful speci- sions, even though they have, it may be, scarcely sufficient
mens of which are preserved to us in our old churches. We funds for the erection of one of the more simple structures
must, at starting, lay down, as a rule, that iron, for these in an efficient manner. Towers placed between the nave and
purposes, should be wrought, not cast ; the latter class of chancel are not unfrequent in some parts of England.
iron-work is always a failure. These ornaments should not be If accommodation for a
larger number of worshippers be
painted, but, to preserve them from rust, it is
recommended required, one or more aisles must be added to the nave. A
that they be dipped when red-hot in grease, and left to coal ; nave with two aisles is the perfect form, but both aisles need
thesame purpose will be answered by coating them with not be built at the same time, unless the number of the con-
some incorrosive metal. gregation require it, and there are ample funds for its erec-
Of style. The best style for adoption in parish-churches tion. At the same time, never build only one aisle for the
isundoubtedly the Decorated, from the middle of the thir- sake of appearing extraordinary, nor unless there is an
teenth to the middle of the fourteenth century. During this intention of erecting a corresponding one at some future
period Christian art was at its perfection, and soon after period R>r this reason, when a single aisle is adopted, let the
;

began to lose its character for genuine simplicity ; the intro- opposite wall of the nave be built with arches of construc-
duction of the depressed arch, and the excessive embellish- tion, so that when the second aisle is added, it may be neces-
ment of the later style, was the commencement of its down- cary only to remove the masonry between the arches. This
ward course. We would not, however, confine the architect last method might be adopted with advantage in the first
to a single style; Early English is well adapted for large class of churches. We
may remark here, once for all, that it
churches, and may occasionally be made available for smaller is
by no means necessary that the opposite sides of a church
ones, while Perpendicular is appropriately employed for should exactly correspond.
churches in cities and large towns, sometimes even with This last is the most eligible form of structure for ordinary
greater advantage than Decorated, which is particularly the churches, to contain, say from two hundred persons and
case when a church, being closely surrounded with other upwards. For churches of this capacity the first-mentioned
buildings, requires large windows on those sides which are form is not adapted, as, when so large accommodation is
more open to the light. For the generality of churches, how- required, you would be compelled to extend the nave to an
ever, the Decorated is by far the most suitable, it is equally inconvenient breadth ; twenty-five feet is the greatest dimen-
adapted for a plain, as for a more highly-finished structure, sion allowable in a small church without aisles ; when aisles
and has a natural grace which ensures its perfection, in what- are added, their breadth, as a general rule, should be to that
ever situation it be placed ; it will admit of the highest elabo- of the nave in the proportion of two to five, but this ratio is
ration, so far at least as is consistent with purity, or of the not fixed, it varies in different examples.
If still greater accommodation be required, it may be
plainest construction, without sacrificing any of its inherent
beauties; on the other hand, the Perpendicular style must be obtained by continuing the aisles on one or both sides of the
highly enriched, or otherwise it will appear meagre, and is chancel, from which they should be shut off by parcloses of
therefore unsuitable, except for an expensive edifice. We have open work but this addition is not a desirable one, and
;

said nothing of Norman, but we must not pass it over in should be adopted only in such places as the architect is
silence;
it is
decidedly not so appropriate as any of the above- cramped for room. A more legitimate method of obtaining
mentioned styles for parish-churches, and yet we should be greater space in general instances is by annexing a tower,
it must not be recom- which should open into the church by a lofty arch. This,
sorry to see it entirely discarded ;

mended, but it has its peculiar beauties, which doubtless will though not essential to a church, forms one of the most
always secure to it some share of public favour. striking and picturesque features, and when the means will
Of the plan. The amount of money at the disposal of the admit of it, should never be omitted ; though, on the other
architect, as it determines the material to be employed, will hand, the essentials should in no case be sacrificed to
likewise, to a certain extent, govern the size, and therefore obtain it.
the plan and arrangement of the building. The ground-plan Of tlie position of the tower. The standard situation of the
will also depend, in a great measure, on the site allotted for tower is at the west end of the nave, although there are very
the building. For very small churches, the best arrangement many exceptions to this position, amongst which are the
is the most simple, viz. ; that of the parallelogram, divided following, instances of which are given by the Ecclesiological
into nave and chancel, which division need not be shown on Society : west end of either aisle middle or east end of
;

the exterior, although it is very desirable that it should be either aisle ; north or south of chancel ; north side of a second
so, and in this case the chancel is marked by its smaller north aisle ; north or south side of nave ; north-west and
dimensions in height and breadth the chancel should always
;
south-west angle of nave ; north-east or south-east of nave ;
be separated from the nave in the interior by an open screen middle of nave and western end of the chancel. All these
of wood-work, as also by being elevated on one or more steps. positions are allowable, when circumstances require the tower
An important and inexpensive addition may be made to this to be so placed ; as a general rule, however, we think it
plan in the shape of a porch, which may be either of wood or advisable to retain it at the west end of the nave. At one
stone, and should be placed, unless there be any strong reason time architects restricted themselves entirely to this rule,
to the contrary, towards the western end of the south side. however more eligible any other situation might have been;
A further improvement will consist in the erection of a bell- now, on the contrary, it is the exception to see the towers in
turret, or gable, either on the western gable, or on that this position. We
think both at fault, the former following one
between the nave and chancel this again need not be expen-
; arrangement too closely, simply it would appear for the sake
sive, in some cases it may be made of wood, in which mate- of preserving an exact correspondence in both sides of the
rial we have a sufficiency of ancient examples but it is best,
; building, even at the risk of losing other advantages ; while
of course, of stone of whichever material it be constructed,
;
the latter seek out extraordinary positions merely for the sake
it always forms a very marked and beautiful feature in a small of their novelty, and for the purpose of exciting surprise.
church. We should be rejoiced to see a larger number of The nature and shape of the ground, as well as the internal
 CHU 159 CHU
arrangement, should decide the question. In cruciform but a small quantity. A
great mistake, in our opinion, is
churches the proper location of the tower is over the inter- very generally made in the present day, in allowing too
section of nave and transept, but in addition to other posi- great an area for lighting a church, either by making the
tions, the following are satisfactory at the north end of the windows too numerous, or too large ; a glare of light is not
north, and the south end of the south transept. Sometimes, desirable in a church, it interferes with people's devotion ;,
though rarely in this country, we find the tower detached from we want a subdued tone, that " dim religious light" which
the church, similarly to the campaniles of the Continent. was admitted of old through the stained windows, and this
Atower can scarcely be said to be perfect without a spire, is to be
procured rather by diminishing than increasing the
and in churches in which the earlier styles are adopted, this fea- area admitting light. With reference to the position of doors,
ture should never be omitted ; in the Perpendicular it is not there should be one small one for the priest in the south side
of so great consequence, though even then desirable. Spires of the chancel, another at the porch, and a third, generally
need not always be carried up to a great height, although the speaking, opposite the last; in transeptal churches, there
loftier the better, nor need they be invariably of stone, those may be one at the west end, and another on the west side
made of shingles are very beautiful objects in rural districts, of one of the transepts.
and those covered with lead or slates are not to be despised ; We have previously hinted, that it is not at all necessary
in some counties we find both tower and spire constructed that the corresponding parts of the building should be in
of weather-boarding. In passing, we cannot help noticing, every respect uniform the same remark holds equally true
:

that in many of our modern churches, the towers have not as to detail, as it does in respect of the main features of
sufficient breadth, which gives them an appearance of poverty construction the windows and other apertures need not be
;

and meagreness. We suggest, whether it would not be placed at exactly the same distances apart, nor is it necessary
better, where towers are deemed necessary, to lay the foun- that the windows on both sides of the church should in every
dation of a more substantial structure, and to leave it incom- particular correspond; a buttress should not
be placed be-
plete until the requisite funds are provided. Our old tween every two windows, or at every corner of the building,
church-builders always went to work on this principle, which merely for the sake of appearance, nor indeed should they
accounts for the single aisle, and many other irregularities, be employed unless requisite.
at all,
The governing prin-
as, for instance, difference of style in the different portions ciple in such matters, shouldbe to uso nothing more than is
of a church. This plan might be carried out with advantage wanted, and place things just where they are required ; if
in the present day, not only in the larger parts of the struc- this rule were attended to, it would save a vast deal of
ture, but also in the finishing of details, &c. The plan of the unnecessary trouble, and produce in the end "a far more
tower is generally square or rectangular, supported at its because more natural, appearance.
satisfactory,
How often
angles by massive buttresses, which add greatly to its appear- do we says a writer fur the Ecclcsiological Society,
sec',"
ance ; not unfrequently a turret, containing a staircase, is "a simple village church, consisting of low
and rough stone
added at one angle, which affords a picturesque irregularity, walls, surmounted, and almost overwhelmed, by an immense
especially if it be carried up above the main building ; this roof, and pierced with some two or
three plain windows,
is
particularly the case in the later styles. between as many bold irregular buttresses on each side or ;

Another addition which will be required, is the sacristy having a short massive tower placed at one angle, or in some
or vestry ; its position should be on the north side of the one
seemingly accidental position, which nevertheless every
chancel, with which it should communicate
by a door it
: confesses to be as picturesque, and beautiful, and church-like
should never be of large dimensions or imposing design. This an edifice as the most critical eye could wish to behold !

is the
only part of a church where a chimney is allowable. while a modern design, with all its would-be elegancies of
Up to this point we have made scarcely any mention of trim regular buttresses, parapet, and pinnacles would cost
cruciform churches, not because we do not think this a twice the money, and will not look like a church after all.
beautifal form, but rather because it is ill adapted to present Here perhaps one half of the money is laid out first in pro-
circumstances. Such a plan is doubtless the most expressive curing, and then in smoothing and squaring great
masses of
of any for a Christian church, but it is not the most economical stone, or in working some extravagant and incongruous
or-
;

it does not economize space. It is true the cross arms whereas the small and rude hammer-dressed ashlar
may nament;
be used for the accommodation of worshippers, but not with- or rubble work of the ancient model, has a far better appear-
it is most
out great inconyenience ; persons placed there will not be, as ance, and allows a larger expenditure where
it were, with the rest of the congregation, they must look in the of the interior."
wanted, arrangements
a different way, and not only so, but must be hid from the This leads us to remark, that the interior should be the
altar and the greater portion of the performance of the ser- main object of consideration, and should never be sacrificed
vices ; in fact, transepts were not intended for this purpose, as to make way for a showy exterior, although this is too fre-
it was far different
is evident
by there being seldom found any seats in this posi- quently the case with modern churches ;
tion, and even when such are seen, they are mostly subsequent with our ancestors. Of the interior, the chancel is that part
additions. Besides all this, the cross form is more expensive on which the architect's best attention should be given. The
in construction. When funds are ample, transepts may well interiors of our old churches, as we have previously stated,
be added, but not otherwise. were enriched in the most splendid manner, all the finest
Of apertures. These consists of doors and windows, and the sculptor
productions of art were lavished upon them,
to both of them one remark will apply : do not make them and painter vied with each other in their decoration and why
too large; for with respect to the former, it may be said that should it not be so now 1 Surely paintings in fresco would
they are seldom made an important feature in English be preferable to yellow-ochre and whitewash, nor do we see
architecture, not even in our cathedrals ; and as regards the any moral objection to pictorial representations in our churches,
latter, small windows are advantageous on many accounts, there can be no fear of people worshipping pictures now-a-
not only are they more unassuming than larger ones, but of
days, the greater fear is for the want, not the excess,
they answer the present times when stained glass through- reverence ; they are the books of the unlearned, and serve
out the building is scarcely to be looked for by admitting not only to instruct the ignorant in matters which they would
less light, and if stained glass is to be inserted, they require not otherwise know, but also bring before the attention of
 CHU 160 CHU
the more
learned, things of which otherwise they might be building. And what is the advantage proposed to be effect-
forgetful. But if objections still be urged against the employ- ed by them ? the economizing of space, that is, the ob-
ment of the painter's highest branch of art, surely there can taining an increase of accommodation at a small expense :

be no exception brought against such decoration as we have but do they effect this object 1 decidedly not ; the additional
described as occurring at Luton Church. The employment space obtained by their adoption is very trifling, for from the
of texts of Scripture delineated on the walls, is sanctioned total area of the gallery must be deducted, not
only the main
by the order of the church, when she enjoins in her eighty- passage leading at the back of the seats throughout its length,
second canon "That the ten commandments be set up on but also the numerous cross passages branching from it to
the east end of every church and chapel, where the people afford convenient access to the different parts of the
gallery,
may best see and read the same and other chosen sentences
: so that, in fact, in the majority of cases, a full third, and in
written upon the walls of the said churches and chapels, in some instances nearly one half of the area obtained, is lost
places convenient.'' Passages of Scripture well selected and in passages of communication ; add to this the space
occupied
appropriately arranged, would form at the same time, a very in the aisles, by the piers or other supports, and it will be
useful and beautiful appendage to the walls of our churches; evident that the advantages in point of accommodation are
though, as we think, scarcely equal to the more
pictorial very small. When, bearing all this in mind, we consider
illustration advocated above. We should be glad to see the that the walling is frequently carried up to a greater height
interior of our places of worship relieved from the coldness than otherwise necessary, for the sake of introducing a gallery,
which ever hangs about bare walls let at least some coloured
;
we shall scarcely be prepared to defend such excrescences on
decorations be introduced into the chancel, if nowhere else. the score of economy.
Of the roof. Open roofs, those in which all the beams Of the principal furniture. The first object which needs
and rafters arc visible, should of course be adopted, the use a few remarks is the font it should invariably be of
; stone,
of ceiling is now almost quite exploded roofs of this kind
; as ordered by the church, and of a size sufficient for the
not only ailbrd an appearance of greater height to the build- immersion of infants; there should be a drain leading from
ing, but also have a perspective effect, by the repetition of the bottom of the bowl down into the earth, to carry oft' the
the same parts, which adds to the apparent length of the water used in the service, and the bowl, when not in use,
church indeed, the same building covered at one time with
;
should be protected by a cover. The situation of the font
an open roof, and at another with a flat ceiling, would must be near the entrance in the nave, and should have
present two such very different aspects, as scarcely to be sufficient space left round it for the priest, sponsors, and

recognized as identical. Various forms may be used, of others immediately concerned in the rite. The pulpit, which
which, whether rich or simple, beautiful ancient examples may be of wood or stone, should be at the south-east or
are to be found in small churches, where the span is incon-
;
north-east end of the nave, either detached or built up with
siderable, the arched form may be used with advantage the ;
the wall or pier, and should not be elevated at too great a
amount of trussing increases of course with the span. Tie- height if there be a choice of situation, the north side of
:

beams are scarcely admissible, as they detract from the the nave is the preferable position. We
need say nothing
aspiring principle developed in church architecture, and in this place respecting the furniture of the chancel, as it has
arrest the eye in its progress upwards they have in a small
; already been described under that title we may only add
;

degree the same effect as a flat ceiling there is, however,

;
that we should be glad to see the whole of it introduced into
seldom occasion fur their employment, they are not requisite our modern churches, even to the rood screen, which is so
in a high-pitched roof, especially where the walls of the much objected to by some, on account of its being, as they
building are of considerable thickness ;
the thrust is rather say, a Romish invention, whereas in fact it has been employed
vertical than horizontal. in the Eastern as well as the Western church, from the very

Of pries. Let all the seats be low open benches with low earliest period.
backs, the lower the better, as far as convenience will allow ; Of the lighting, warming, and ventilation of churches.
for as the height increases, so must the distance from each The best method of lighting a church is by candles, which
other ;if tin's circumstance be not attended to, the high back
may be held either in standards fixed or moveable, or in
will be found to be in the way: a convenient height is two chandeliers made after the pattern of the ancient coronas
feet six, preserving the same measurement between every lucis. Gas is cheaper than wax-lights, we are aware, but a
two scats. The benches must be arranged across the church trifling additional expense should scarcely be a consideration
so as to face the east, and in such a manner as to allow of in such a matter; besides, amongst other disadvantages, the
to the solemnity of a
easy access to every part of the church for this purpose,
; glare of gas-lights is but ill adapted
there should be a main passage running along the centre of church, and the heat emitted from them is oppressive and
the nave, five or six feet wide, and another of the same somniferous. A
fire-place is hardly
admissible into a church,
measurement across the church, connecting the north and and stoves, hot air or water pipes, should never be attempted,
south doors; smaller passages are necessary along the aisles, they are unsafe, as well as unhealthy.
The best method of
and at the east end of the nave. In small churches, the regulating the temperature of a church, is
by building sub-
standards at the ends of the seats should be of a plain stantial walls, and efficient drains, allowing a free circulation
character, but in the larger ones they may be carved and of air, and keeping the whole building in good and proper
finished at the top with poppy heads, &c. repair. If low benches, and high-pitched open roofs be
are at the same time
Of galleries. Galleries should on no account be admitted adopted, while galleries and gas-lights
into a church; they entirely spoil its appearance, cutting up discarded, there will be little difficulty as to ventilation.
windows, and sometimes pillars, into two or more pieces, Of the restoration of churches. Little need be said on this
hiding the roof, marring the proportions, and obstructing a head, the main point to be attended to is, the reducing the
fair view of the interior its original state, in structure,
they arc noisy, ill-ventilated, and
:
building as nearly as possible to
clumsy, and not only are they ill-ventilated themselves, but arrangement and decoration ; it most frequently happens, that
they interfere with a proper circulation of air in the aisles the minutiae of the old structure are not traceable, and in such
beneath them, and by their principle of over-crowding a cases the judgment of the architect is called into action, but
church, assist materially in vitiating the air throughout the where the old arrangement is perceptible, it should always be
 CHU 161 CHU
followed in the restoration. The first thing to be attended since, our ecclesiastical structures were looked upon as rem-
to is the drainage, many old churches being destroyed by nants of by-gone days, to be wondered at for their associations
damp ; in very many cases the earth of the church-yard will and antiquities, but scarcely to be imitated in modern times;
be found to have_ accumulated to a considerable height above but of late a new light has appeared, infusing spirit and
the floor of the church, and this of course should be at once animation into the old buildings, and we no longer look at
removed, and a proper ventilation given, to dry the foun- them as the relics of a barbarous age, but as examples
dations. The interior walls should be carefully cleansed of most fitting to be followed in all sacred structures; they
the many coats of whitewash, so that, in case any vestiges formed once the lore of the antiquarian, they are now the
of painting remain, they may not be destroyed for want of models of the architect. It is a matter of wonder how rapidly
proper caution ; the same care should be taken in removing knowledge, on this subject, has been acquired ; it is as yet
the plaster and whitewash from the ornamental details ; flat imperfect, but is progressing satisfactorily ; fresh discoveries
ceilings likewise should be removed with caution, as they are being made continually, and ere long we shall have a
were frequently added merely to hide existing defects in the goodly number of useful text-books on the subject. We
roof. Structural restoration should be first attended to, must not forget, that the first impulse in the right direction
after that the arrangement, and lastly the decoration. was afforded by the Cambridge Camden Society, to which the
Of the enlargement of churches. Architects are not gratitude of every lover of our old parish-churches will be
unfrcquently called upon to aflbrd increase of accommodation readily accorded. We have now Architectural Societies of
in old churches ; it
may therefore not be out of place to a similar kind established all over the country, to which, in
point out as briefly as possible how this may be best effected. conjunction with the labours and researches of private archi-
The first step is to calculate how much additional accom- tects, we look for a great increase of information. An addi-
modation may be obtained by a proper re-arrangement of tional incitement to this study has been given by the erection
the seats, and a substitution of low benches in the place of so many churches in various parts of the country, in most
of the modern pews, and to regulate for further additions of which a vast improvement may be observed on buildings of
accordingly. Churches in which additions are advisable, a similiar kind erected in previous years ; it is true they are
are the following those which consist only of nave and
: not all, perhaps but few, without faults, many of them are
chancel, which may be enlarged by the addition of one faulty in numerous respects, yet, as a whole, they are very
or more aisles to the nave, and of a tower, if
requisite ; satisfactory ; we cannot do better in concluding this article,
those consisting of nave, chancel, and one aisle, where than repeat the remarks of Mr. Petit on the progress of
accommodation is
naturally increased in completing the church-architecture, and the impediments which the profes-
church by the addition of an aisle on the opposite side of sional man has to encounter in its advancement. "So great,"
the nave, an addition frequently "
contemplated by the says he, are the actual and inherent difficulties of his art,
founders, as is manifested by the existence of arches of and so grievously are they multiplied by external causes, so
construction in the nave-wall ; those again consisting of a limited and restricted is he by the perverseness of others,
nave and chancel, with tower between the two, may be so many conflicting tastes and opinions has he to consult, so
enlarged by adding transepts, which, in cases of necessity, beset is he on every side by the ostentatious views of one, the
may be used for worshippers. Of churches comprising a nave parsimony of another, the private interests of a third, and
with two aisles, a chancel and a tower, increased the overweening ignorance of the greater number, that it is
space may
be obtained by a continuation of the aisles to the extremity, a marvel his work should ever be respectable ; and we cannot
or nearly the extremity, of the chancel, or
by adding another deny that many of our modern churches are extremely
aisle to the nave. Either of these plans may be adopted in creditable to the taste and skill of their designers. Let those
cases of great need, but they are by no means to be recom- who speak of the labours of the architect with flippancy, or
mended ; in both cases the same objection holds, that the censure them with unkindness or severity, reflect upon the dif-
people are packed into situations which are not convenient ficulties he has to encounter; of no other art are the principles
for public worship ; in the first case
they are made to look and beauties more deeply hidden in the treasury of nature,
in a different direction from those in the and to be searched out with greater toil and diligence."
body of the church,
which interferes with the apparent unity of the worshippers, CHURCH-HOUSE, a building in which meetings were
and, in the latter, a great portion of them are excluded held for the transaction of church matters and parish business ;
from a proper view of the chancel. In such cases it would it was sometimes a room situate over the porch.
be much more advisable to erect a new church or chapel, CHURCH- YARD, the space of ground surrounding the
however small or unimposing, but this necessitates other church, used as a cemetery or burial-ground. The entrance
expenses, and is not always practicable; where it is possible, to our old church-yards was frequently through a gate
it should be covered with a projecting roof, called the lych-gate, under
adopted in preference. The Rev. J. L. Petit, in
his Remarks on Church-Architecture, recommends additions which the coffin was rested before entering the ground ; and
to the chancel to be made in almost all cases where
enlarge- opposite the porch, was a lofty stone cross elevated on one
ment is required but we must differ from him in this matter,
;
or more steps, and frequently adorned with the emblems of
for, be it remembered, that in our old churches, these projec- the Evangelists, and other enrichments. Near the cross was
tions were not used by the congregation, but were employed planted a yew-tree, whose boughs were carried in procession
as side-chapels ; in fact, their existence is attributable to the on Palm Sunday, and used at other times to decorate the
corruptions of the church of Rome : such additions may be interior of the church.
used lor the location of the organ, or such like purposes, but The unwholesome practice of interment in towns is being
not, if avoidable, for the accommodation of worshippers. In discontinued,. and consequently the church-yard in such cases
other churches where none of the above methods are available, is in a great measure dispensed with ; where practicable,
it is better not to
attempt enlargement ; the lengthening of however, the church should be contained within a walled
the nave is a poor expedient, which may at once destroy the enclosure. The best model for an extra-mural cemetery,
proportions and mar the unity of the original design. is that lately planned at Oxford :cemeteries are usually
We here take leave of a subject which we are rejoiced to objectionable, on account of being made the subjects of
say is daily receiving increased attention. Some few years speculation and pecuniary profit.
21
 CIR 162 CIR

CIBORIUM, in ecclesiastical antiquity, the covering of of parts of the arc of a circle, described from the
meeting of
an altar; being an insulated edifice, consisting of four columns two lines forming an angle, and comprehended between them,
supporting a dome. The ciborium was used during the lower is the true measure of the
angle; for the number of parts is
and middle ages ; but was afterwards superseded by the still the same, whatever be the radius of the
arc, or of the
baldachin. See BALDACHIN. circle, the parts being greater as the radius is greater. The
The most magnificent ciborium ever known, was that arc of the circle being supposed to be divided into 360
equal
erected by Justinian, in the church of St. Sophia, at Con- parts, the radius will be found to be equal to the chord of 60 ;
stantinople. It consisted of four large red marble columns, because the circle contains six equilateral triangles, whose
supporting a silver dome, surmounted with a globe of massy bases are chords to the circle, whose summits meet in the
gold, weighing 118 pounds, and surrounded with lilies of centre, and whose sides are radii to the circle. And since
gold, falling in festoons, weighing 116 pounds; and in the the sixth part of 360, or of a whole circle, is 60, the chord
middle was a cross of the same metal, weighing 75 pounds, of 60 is therefore equal to the radius. The parts of the arc
covered with the most rare and precious jewels. may be measured by parts of the radii, which are always
CILERY, the drapery or foliage on the heads of columns. supposed to contain the same number for if there be two
:

GILL. See SILL. arcs described from the angular point of an angle, between
C1MA. See SIMA, MOULDINGS. the legs, these arcs may be measured in parts of their
C1MA-INVERSA. See SIMA-!NVERSA, MOULDINGS. respective radii.
LIMA-RECTA. See SIMA-RECTA, MOULDINGS. The circle is the most capacious of all plane figures that ;

C1MBIA, a fillet, string, list, or cincture. is, it contains the greatest area under equal perimeters, or has

C1MELIARCH, in English churches, the room where the least perimeter enclosing the same area.
the plate, vestments, &c. are kept. The area of a circle is equal to the area of a triangle, the
CINCTURE, or CEINCTURE, an annular fillet, of a cylin- base of which is equal to the circumference, and the perpen-
dric surface, at the ends of a column, connected to the shaft dicular equal to the radius, and consequently equal to a
by the apophyge, or scape. The cincture at the top of the rectangle, whose breadth is equal to the radius, and the
column, is named also collarino. length equal to the semi-circumference.
C1NQUEFOIL, an ornament in the pointed style of Circles, like other similar plane figures, are to one another
architecture, consisting of five cuspidated divisions, or curved as the squares of their diameters.
pendants, inscribed in a pointed arch, or in a circular ring, The ratio of the diameter of a circle to its circumference,
applied to windows and panels. The cinquefoil inscribed in has never been exactly ascertained. Archimedes was the
first, in his book De Dimensione Circuit, who gave the ratio
a circle, is a rosette of five equal leaves, with an open space
in the middle; the leaves being formed by the
open spaces, in small numbers, being that of 7 to 22, which is still the
and not by the solids or cusps. most useful for practical purposes. Vieta carried the approxi-
CIPPUS, a small low column, sometimes without a base mation to ten places of figures, by means of circumscribed
or capital, and most frequently bearing an inscription. The and inscribed polygons of 393,216 sides, showing the ratio
cippus was used for various purposes among the ancients : to be as 10,000,000,000 to 31,415,926,536 nearly, the
when placed on a road, it indicated the distances of places : circumference being greater
in other respects, the cippi were employed as memorials of than 31,415,926,535
remarkable events, as landmarks, and for bearing sepulchral but less than 31,415,926,537
epitaphs. Also the prison of a castle. Van Colen carried the approximate ratio to 36 places of
CIRCLE, (from the Latin, circulus), a plane figure con- figures ;
which number was recalculated and confirmed
tained under one line, called the circumference, which is such by Willebrod Snell. Mr. Abraham Sharp extended the
that all lines drawn to it, from a certain point within the ratio to 72 places of figures, which was afterwards extended
figure, are equal ; and the point from which the lines may to 100 places by the ingenious Mr. Machin and, lastly,
;

be thus drawn, is allied the centre of the circle. M. De Lagny, in the Memoires de PAcad., 1719, has carried
A circumference may be thus described: if the end of a this ratio to the amazing extent of 128 places of figures.
right line be placed upon a fixed point, and kept upon that In approximating the circumference or area of a circle
point while the other end is carried progressively forward, from the diameter, the first authors had recourse to inscribed
or round, until it comes to the place whence the motion began, and circumscribed polygons ; since it was found that the
the moveable extremity will thus trace out the circumference circumference of the circle was greater than the perimeter
of a circle. of the inscribed polygon, but less than that of the circum-
contained a great
In order to obtain the measurement of angles, the circum- scribing one ; and, that when the polygon
ferences of all circles are supposed to be divided into 360 equal number of sides, the circumference of the circle did not differ
still more nearly equal to
parts, called degrees ; each degree is supposed to be divided materially from either, it would be
into 60 equal parts, called minutes ; each minute is divided the arithmetical mean of the two. And, to give the reader
into 60 equal parts, called seconds ; each second is supposed an idea how very near the circumference obtained by this
to be divided into 60 equal parts, called thirds ; which are means is to the truth, the circumscribed and inscribed
again divided and subdivided ad infinitum. Any denomi- polygons may be taken of such a
number of sides, as that
nation, whether of degrees, minutes, or seconds, &c. is known their perimeters will be each expressed by any given number
by a peculiar character, written over the right-hand figure of figures of the same value, from unity, either taken indi-
of that denomination ; thus, , written over the right-hand vidually, or as a whole number,
and consequently the circum-
figure of a number, shows that number to represent degrees ; ference of the circle may be expressed, or carried to any
the character thus, ', written over the right-hand figure of degree of accuracy required.
a number, shows the number thus distinguished to represent But the method of obtaining the circumference by this
minutes ; e. g. 136 24' 48" 57'", &c. represents 136 degrees, means, being found extremely laborious, other methods,
24 minutes, 48 so as not only
seconds, 57 thirds, &c. ; and, as similar arcs by a series of fractions, have been invented,
are such as are contained under the same, or equal angles, to be much more easy in the calculation, but also to show
they contain the same number of degrees, &c., the number how the terms may be continued at pleasure, by inspection
 CIR 163 CIR

only. Dr. Wallis was the first who expressed the area of The area of a circle, whose diameter is unity, has been
a terms of the diameter, by an infinite series, and
circle, in
found to be .7854 nearly and since the area of a circle is as
;

the square of its diameter, the areas of all circles will there-

---
showed that, if the square of the diameter was 1, the area
would be fore be ascertained by the following rule Multiply the square :

of the diameter by .7854, and the product will be the area of

3x3x5x5x7x7 9 25 49
the circle.
,
&c. or - X X ,
&c.
2x4x4x6x6x8 8 24 48 But it may sometimes appear, that the circumference only
can be ascertained, the diameter being inaccessible in this :

Other series were also found by Lord Brounker, Sir Isaac

case, also, the areas of circles are as the squares of their cir-
Newton, and Dr. Gregory. The most convenient forms of cumferences. It has been found, that when the circumference
expressing the circumference, are shown in the following of a circle is unity, the area of the circle is .07958. There-
statement, where c represents the circumference, the diameter fore the rule may be thus Multiply the square of the cir-
:

being unity : cumference by .07958, and the product will be the area of the
circle nearly.

Though either the diameter or the circumference is suffi-

cient to find the area of the circle, yet, if the dimension of

each can be easily ascertained, the operation of finding the area
is much shorter. This may be done by multiplying the radius
into the semi-circumference ;
the product will be the area.
By this rule, the standard area, when the diameter or the
circumference is unity, as in the two preceding rules, will be

1 1 1-3 1.3.5 easily ascertained, by halving the ratio of the diameter 1 to

the circumference 3.1416 :
for,
2)3.1416
1.3 1

5 4.2' 4.6.2
3 X 9 1.5708 half the circumference.
.5 half the diameter, or the radius.
1.3.5
'

X TT J_
4
4.6.B.2 78540 the area of the circle by the last

1 1 1 1 1.3 1 1.3.5
c =4 1 j __
i __
a
y
a
__
o A.
_ v>
A __
r
^ _

o A i;
__
A
v^
T y
rule,when the diameter is unity.
2.4 2.4.6 2.4.0.8
Again, when the circumference is unity, the diameter will
be found to be .31830 nearly.
Then, .31830 -H 2 =
.15915 the semi-circumference,
and 1. -r 2 = .5 the radius.
One of theuseful properties of a circle is that when
most Therefore .15915 X .5 =
.079575 or .07958 nearly.
two straight lines, or chords, cut each other, the rectangle To find the area of a sector, when the number of degrees
of the segments of the one line is equal to the rectangle of the in the arc are known ; say, As 300, the number of degrees in

segments of the other line. This property may be very con- the whole circle, is to the number of degrees in the arc of the
veniently applied to finding the centre of the segment of a sector, so is the area of the circle to the area of the sector.
circle, or the length of the radius, the chord and the versed When the radius, and the whole or half the length of the arc
sine of the arc being given. The rule is as follows Divide : are given ; multiply the diameter by the arc of the sector, and
the square of the half chord by the versed sine, add the versed divide the product by 4 ; or multiply the radius by half the
sine to the quotient, and half the sum is the radius of the length of the arc ; in either case, the result will be the area
circle. of the sector.
The diameter of a circle being given, to find the circum- To find the area of a segment. Having found the area of
ference say, As 7 is
: to 22, so is the diameter to the cir- the sector, subtract from it the area of the triangle, when the
cumference nearly. This rule will be sufficiently accurate segment is less than a semi-circle, and add, when greater, or ;
for the most practical purposes ; but if greater Divide the cube of the versed-sine by twice the chord, and
accuracy be
required, multiply the given diameter by 3.1416, and the add the quotient to two-thirds of the product of the chord
product will be the circumference, or very near. When and versed-sine.
the circumference is given to find the diameter, divide the As we must necessarily frequently recur to the subject
circumference by 3.1416, and the quotient will be the dia- of this article hereafter, we think it convenient to refer the
meter. Or, say, As 22 is to 7, so is the circumference to the reader for further information thereon to GEOMETRY, PER-
diameter. SPECTIVE, &c.
To find the length of an arc, the radius and number of CIRCULAR ROOFS, are those roofs whose horizontal sections
degrees being given, say, As 180, the number of degrees in are circular.
a semi-circle, is to the number of degrees in the arc, so is CIRCULAR WINDING STAIRS, are such as have a cylindrical
3.1416 times the radius to the length of the arc. When the case, or walled enclosure, with the planes of the risers of the
chord of the arc, and the chord of half the arc are given ; steps tending to the axis of the cylinder.
Subtract the chord of the arc from eight times the chord of CIRCULAR WORK, a term applied to all work with cylin-
half the arc, and divide the remainder by 3, which will give drical surfaces.
the length nearly. When the chord and versed-sine are CIRCULAR-CIRCULAR, or CTLINDRO-CTLINDRIC WORKS, what-
known ; Firstly, find the diameter, from which subtract the ever work is formed by the intersection of two cylinders,
versed-sine multiplied by .82, and divide the remainder by
$ whose axes are not in the same direction. The line formed
of the versed-sine ; add 1 to this quotient, and multiply by by the intersection of the surfaces, is called by mathema-
the chord, which will give the length of the arc. ticians, a line of double curvaturt.
 CIR 164 CIR

CIRCUMFERENCE, the curve-line by which the area Several of the circi in Rome, were exteriorly surrounded
of a circle is bounded. with magnificent porticos, except on the side where tho
CIRCUMFERENTOR, (Latin, circt/mferre), an instru- career were placed. Others were simply enclosed with
ment used by surveyors in taking angles of;
it consists a wall, pierced with doors and windows, as in the circus of
a brass circle and index, in one piece, commonly about Caracalla. The lower part of the circumference of the circus,
seven inches in diameter, an index about fourteen inches beneath the seats, together with the porticos, formed long
long, and an inch and a half broad. On the circle is a galleries of arcades, or fornices ; serving in part for an access
card, or compass, divided into 360 degrees ; the meridian to the staircases leading to the seats, and in
part for the shops
line of which answers to the middle of the breadth of the of various traders. The staircases of different circi were
index. There is also soldered on the circumference a brass variously distributed, according to the judgment of the archi-
ring, on which screws another ring with a flat glass in it, so tect. The principal staircases led to a number of little doors
as to form a kind of box for the needle, suspended on a pivot inthe podium, which was a long open platform, or passage,
in the centre of the circle. There are also two sights to encompassing the edifice at an elevation of some feet from the
screw on, and slide up and down the index, as also a ball and area of the circus. The persons of the imperial family, the
socket screwed on the under side of the circle, to receive the principal magistrates, and the pontiffs, only were admitted
head of the, tripod or stand. into the podium. Behind the podium there was a little wall
CIRCUMSCRIBE, to draw a figure round another; the with a precinctum, in which small doors were distributed.
one being rectilinear, and the other either rectilinear or The seats rose one above another, their whole height, in the
circular, with the sides of one touching all the angles of the manner of steps, and were supported on the inclined vault of
other. the gallery or portico beneath them, and ascended from the
CIRCUMVALLATION, a round enclosure of trenches, podium to the top of the external wall.
or fortifications. The great circi, as well as the theatres and amphitheatres,
This word, from the Latin valla, or vallum, denotes pro- were divided into several ranges of seats, for the purpose of
perly tho wall, or rampart thrown up, but as the rampart placing the spectators according to their condition. The seats
is formed
by entrenching, and the trench makes a part of the began from the wall at the back of the podium, and after
fortification, the word is applied to both. setting off a sufficient number for persons of the first rank,
CIRCUMVOLUTION, (from the Latin, circwnvolutiis) the staircase of seats was interrupted by the omission of two
the act of rolling round. In architecture, this term is applied or three, which formed an ambulatory, or via, similar to the
to the spirals of the Ionic capital every term of which is
; podium, at every certain number of seats. Separate staircases
called a circumvolution. In the most ancient examples of the led to each via, through doors in the precinctum ; these aper-
Ionic order, the volute has three circumvolutions, or revo- tures were called vomitoria. As the spectators entered by
lutions, as they are otherwise called; but that of the temple these passages at the top of the ranges of seats, they would
of Minerva Polias, at Priene, has four. See VOLUTE, SPIRAL, have to descend to occupy the first rows of each moeniana,
and IONIC ORDER. and since the seats themselves were too high to serve as steps,
CIRCUS, in antiquity, a large enclosed space, adapted for formed by cutting down a seat into
staircases, called scalares,
chariot-races, an amusement to which the Romans were two steps, The scalares were placed opposite
were provided.
passionately attached. The name Circus docs not convey an the vomitoria, beginning from the via, and descending to the
exact idea of the form of this building, which both in its lower seat of each range by this means the ranges were
;

outline and its use resembled the Greek stadium. divided into a number of compartments, called cunei, as in the
There were many circi in Rome, of which the Circus theatres and amphitheatres; in the latter they obtained this
Maxirnns, and the Circus Agonalis, were perhaps the largest. name from their radial direction, and though the sides of the
The former may still be distinctly traced the latter retains
;
circus were straight, and the compartments consequently of
its external form
only in the Piazza Navona of Rome. This a rectangular form, they were called cunci, from usage.
species of edifice appears to have been very early introduced Over the seats was a portico, or covered gallery, for the
among the Romans, and, like many of the first public edifices, accommodation of the lower class of people. The place for
was of a temporary character, and constructed of wood. the emperor was called pulvinar, the situation of which is
The first permanent circus, at Rome, was said to have been not known it is supposed to have been a magnificent logia.
:

built by Tarquinius Priscus, and was situated in a valley To render the seats more comfortable, they were covered
between the Palatine and Aventine hills. On this side was with wood.
afterwards erected the Circus Maximus, which was enlarged The extremity of the circus, opposite to the semicircular
by Julius Ctesar, and rebuilt and richly ornamented by end, was called the oppidum, and consisted of a series of thir-
Augustus. In the time of Nero it was burnt down Trajan ;
tecn arcades. The centre arch, of the same height, but wider
repaired it, and increased its dimensions so much, as to con- than the rest, served as an entrance to the circus. At each
tain the whole Roman people. The exterior of the circus, extremity of the oppidum, was a tower, which surmounted
except at the carcerm, consisted of two stories, adorned with every other part of the edifice. This combination of arches
columns, and finished with a terrace. The ground-floor was and towers, seen at a distance, gave the idea of a castle, whence
occupied by merchants, except on the days appointed for the was derived the name of oppidum. To what purpose these
games. Augustus brought an obelisk from Egypt 126 feet towers were appropriated, is not known. The twelve remain-
high, and placed it in this circus. ing arcades were the carcerse, whence the
Constantine also erected in chariot- race began.
it the obelisk now called the These carcerse were placed six on each side of the entrance,
Lateran, which is the largest of
all the Roman obelisks. which was intended for the use of the processions, and are so
The Flaminian circus was of considerable magnitude. Its disposed, by the inclination of
the chord-line of the segment
only remains are ruins beneath the present, pavement of the on which they may be said to be set off", that the starting of
city. There are several other circi, the ruins of which may the twelve chariots was equalized. The divisions of the
be traced but that which demands our attention most, is the
; arcades within, on the front, were ornamented with Hermes
supporting a cornice, in the manner of Caryatides
circus of Caracalla, as very considerable traces of its ancient the :

form are yet to be seen. carcerae were closed with grated doors, to the height of the
 CIR 165 CIS

springing of the arch, and the semicircular opening above for the purpose from the most remote parts of the empire.
was filled with a marble lattice. Two of these lattices, very The men engaged in such contests, were either forced to
elegantly ornamented, are at present to be found in the court the combat as a punishment, or induced to enter it by sums
of the palace Mattel, which is founded upon a part of the of money. The beasts were kept in inclosures (vivaria)
J? laminian Circus. The top of the carcerse formed a terrace, till the time
appointed for the show. So passionately fond
upon which was placed the tribune of the consul. were the people of these games, that the expression Panem
The spina, as being dedicated to the gods, was the most et Circenses, Bread and the Circensian Games,' was com-
'

sacred place in the circus. It consisted of a

platform, nearly monly used to signify the two prime necessaries of life to the
two-thirds of the length of the circus, and, running down the Roman populace. The splendour of these exhibitions increased
middle of the arena, divided itself nearly into two equal in the latter days of the republic, and the number of rare
parts, resembling the spine of a fish, whence it took its name. wild animals that were exhibited but to be destroyed, is
At the extremities of the spina were placed the metoe, or almost incredible. It is said, that on one occasion, Pompey
goals, which consisted of three cones placed in a triangle. On exhibited five hundred lions, which were all despatched in
the summits of these cones was placed a large egg, in memo- five days.
rial of the
eggs of Castor and Pollux. The metse rested CISOID, or CISSOID, in geometry, a curve line of the
upon the vault of a semicircular temple or chapel, a little second order, invented by Diocles, an ancient Greek geome-
wider than the spina. The circular part of these little chapels trician, for the purpose of finding two mean proportionals
was at the first goal, turned towards the triumphal gate, and between two given lines, of such property, as that if on the
extremity, u, of the diameter, A B, of the circle, A o B, the
their entrances were in passages between them and the spina.
The long extent of the spina was ornamented with columns, indefinite perpendicular, c B D, be erected, and if from this,
statues, and altars. It is remarkable that the spina was not several lines be drawn to the other extremity, A, to cut the
situated in the middle of the arena, nor parallel to the sides circle in i, o, N, and
if upon these lines be set the correspond-
of the circus, but in an inclined direction, so that the course ing equal distances, viz. HM=AI, FO
=AO, CL = AN, &c.,
was wider on the right side of the circus, where it began, then the curve line drawn through all the points, M, o, L, is
than on the left, and diminished gradually all the way. The the cisoid. Other methods of constructing this curve may
reason seems to be this, that the chariots, starting all toge- be seen in Newton's Universal Arithmetic, and Emerson on
ther, required more room in the first course, than when they Curve Linen.
came in separately.
CISTERN, an artificial reservoir or receptacle for holding
In several of the circi, the arena was surrounded at the water, beer, or other liquor, as in domestic uses, breweries,
foot of the podium with a canal, called euripus, which was and distilleries.
10 feet wide, and probably of the same depth, for the defence Cisterns of earth must be lined with good cement, to
of the spectators, in cases where the podium was not suffi- make them retain the water, and the bottoms should be
ciently elevated it does not appear, however, to have been
: covered with sand to keep it sweet.
absolutely necessary, since Nero had that of the Circus Water for the use of a house, may be preserved in the
Maximus covered over, in order to enlarge its area ; neither cellar, where a cistern or cisterns may be constructed in the
is there any
euripus in the circus of Caracalla. following manner: lay a good bed of sound well-tempered
first
The following description of the games exhibited in the clay, for a bottom, on which place a flooring of bricks, or
circus may be interesting.These games, according to tra- impervious stones, cemented with plaster-of-paris, or terras-
dition, were instituted by Romulus, under the name of Con- mortar. The sides should then be built up, leaving a space
sulia, in honour of the god Census (Neptune). They were between them and the walls of the house, which is afterwards
exhibited on various occasions, and for various purposes, to be filled up with clay, well rammed down ; this will keep
sometimes by tho magistrates, sometimes by private citizens. the water from oozing, and effectually preserve the founda-
The games were opened by a grand procession from the tion of the house. As a substitute for plaster-of-paris, or
capital to the circus, in which the images of the gods were terras-mortar, a composition of slacked lime sifted, linseed
borne in carriages, followed by dancers, musicians, combatants oil and tow or cotton, will be found very serviceable.
and others; and, last of all, by the priests, to perform the A cistern of this kind, viz. of clay lined with bricks, will
sacred rites. The exhibition consisted chiefly of chariot and answer in any shady place, as well as in a cellar, provided
horse races ; the charioteers were divided into four classes, it be kept covered.And though the cistern be not always
distinguished by the colours of their dresses. The order in fullof water, the clay will not lose its requisite degree of
which the chariots stood was determined by lot ; and the moisture.
signal for starting was given by dropping a cloth. The When a cistern is to be made above ground, it may be
chariot which first ran seven times round the course, was constructed of planks, plain or straight jointed, put together
victorious, and the driver, after being proclaimed by the with white lead, and pinned to bearers and uprights. If the

herald, was crowned by a palm-wreath, and received a sum cistern be large, suppose 10 feet in altitude, and 20 feet
of money. Besides these races, were contests in running, square, the planks may be 2^-inch yello*w deals, the joists
leaping, boxing, wrestling, and throwing the discus. Wrestlers and uprights may be 4 inches thick, and 6 inches deep, placed
were anointed with ointment by slaves ; boxers used gloves about 2 feet 6 inches distant from each other. There should
strengthened with lead or iron, to give force to their blows; be two pins at each intersection of a board and upright, or
the combatants were almost entirely naked, and all underwent bearer ; every pin may be three-fourths of an inch thick, and
a preparatory training and dieting sometimes sea-fights
wedged again with a small pin at the narrow end, to prevent
(naumachia) were represented, and Julius Caesar revived the possibility of its drawing the pins should all have a
:

the exhibition of mock-fights by young noblemen on horse-

draught, to bring the joists as close as possible. This cistern,
back.
placed upon a firm well-tempered bed of clay, should be
The most attractive of these public entertainments, how- surrounded with a stone or brick wall, at 8 or 12 inches
ever, were the combats of wild beasts, either with one distance, and the cavity filled in with clay, as above described.
another, or with men. Great expense was incurred to This will retain the water, and answer extremely well for
provide the beasts for this exhibition, and they were collected the supply of a city or village.
 CIV 166 CLA
If the cistern be to be raised on high, where walls cannot CLAIR-OBSCURE, or CHIARO-OSCURO (from the Italian
be constructed around, it may be made of timber, in the chiaro, light, and oscuro, dark) the proper distribution of
foregoing manner, and lined with lead but as this lining
:
light and shade in a picture, both with respect to the eye,
tends to contaminate the water, the casing of the exterior with and the effect of the whole composition. The term is also
stone or brick, with puddle between it and the wooden used for a design wherein only two colours are used, most
cistern, should be adopted when practicable. usually black and white.
A cistern may be constructed for watering cattle, by exca- CLAMP, a small piece of wood, fixed to the ends of a
vating the ground where there is a descent, and covering the board, to prevent it from warping, the fibres of the clamp
bottom and sides with two coats of tough clay, each coat about being transverse to those of the board. The manner of
six inches thick, well rammed ; the bottom being covered clamping a board, is either by grooving the edges of the
with flag-stones, the clay will remain moist, and free from clamp, and tonguing the ends of the board into it with brads
cracks, though not covered with water. But this is trouble- and glue, or by grooving the end of the board, and tonguing
some ; for, should the clay happen to crack in any part, it the edge of the clamp. Sometimes the end of the clamp is
would be necessary to go over the work again. mitred to the side of the board, for the sake of neater work-
In a chalky soil, a cistern may be formed by digging manship. In the best clamping, the clamp is fixed to the
a hole, and covering the bottom smoothly with chalk rubbish, board with a mortise and tenon.
which, when wetted by the rain, should be rammed well. The flaps of shutters, small doors, lids, and kitchen-tables,
Afterwards cattle may be turned in to tread it till quite firm, which consist only of boards glued together, are most
and then it will be impervious to the water. frequently clamped.
CITADEL (from the French, ciladelle, a diminutive of CLAMP, in brick-making, a pile of bricks built upon a
the Italian, citta) a small city. rectangular base, for the purpose of burning them.
CITADEL, is also a small fortification, consisting of four, Clamps are built of unbaked bricks, after the manner of
five, or six sides, with bastions, by which it is distinguished a kiln, with a vacuity between the breadths of the bricks,
from a castle, and usually joined to towns, and sometimes for the fire to play through ; but, instead of arching, as in
erected on commanding eminences within them. kilns, the flues are gathered in, by making the layers project
Citadels may be either square, rectangular, pentagonal, one over another. The place for the fuel is carried up
hexagonal, or, indeed, of any figure ; but the pentagonal is straight on both sides, till about three feet high it is then
;

most commonly adopted. The hexagonal is generally con- nearly filled with wood, which is covered with a stratum of
sidered as too large, and requiring too great an expenditure small sea-coal, or breeze, after which the flue is overspanned.
for the advantages to be derived from it; and the quadrangular The sea-coal is also strewed between every row of bricks,
is incapable of
making a sufficient defence. Citadels are also and the top of the clamp covered with a thick layer of it.
sometimes made in the form of a star fort. The wood is then kindled, and the fire is thence communicated
The exterior sides of 'the citadel, when its plan is regular, to the coals. When the fuel is exhausted, the brick-makers
are generally, each about 150 toises, or fathoms; but this conclude that the bricks are sufficiently burned.
extension may be varied according to circumstances. The operation of burning bricks is attended with con-
When the citadel is erected on a hill, or eminence, within siderable difficulty, and requires workmen of experience, to
the fortifications of the place, it is well calculated to keep maintain an equal degree of heat throughout the mass. If the
the inhabitants in awe, if the garrison be sufficiently provided ; heat be too low, the bricks will be weak and crumbly, and
but it is of little use against an enemy, when once in posses- if too strong, they will vitrify and run together. The
operation is much better performed in kilns,
sion of the town itself. than in clamps ;
The citadel will require a stronger fortification than the as in the former, the fire can be kept up, and regulated at
town, to prevent its being attacked first by the enemy, who, discretion ; while in clamps, as the whole of the fuel must
getting possession of it, will soon become masters of the town. be put in at once, the manufacturer is tempted to use too
A citadel has, for the most part, two gates, the one for com- little, and the outside bricks are consequently
under-burnt.
municating with the town, and the other with the country ; These are called samel-bricks, which are sold at an inferior
the gate communicating with the town, is used in case of an price. See BRICK.
insurrection or sedition, or after the town has capitulated, CLAMP NAILS. See NAILS.
for the garrison to retire into the citadel ; the other gate, CLAMPING, in joinery, the act of securing a board with
which communicates with the country, is for receiving clamps. See CLAMP.
assistance and succours when placed under extremities. CLASP NAILS. See NAILS.
The citadel generally takes up two sides of the fortification CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE, such as was practised
of the parts which adjoin to it, and should be so constructed by the Greeks and Romans.
that the ditch of the place may bo defended as directly as CLATHRI, in Roman antiquity, bars of iron, or wood,
possible, either by the faces of its bastions, or by ravelins, used for securing doors and windows.
that the enemy may have no greater advantage in attacking CLAY, in common language, any earth which possesses
in one place than they would have in another. It may be sufficient ductility to admit of being kneaded with water.
farther observed, that in an extensive fortified city, a citadel Common clays may be divided, with regard to their utility,
may be formed by uniting two adjoining bastions, by a good into three classes, viz., unctuous, meagre, and calcareous.
retrenchment, with flanking defences the expense of making
: The unctuous contains, in general, more alumine than the
such is very trifling, compared with that of adding another meagre, and the silicious ingredient is in finer grains. When
burnt, it adheres strongly to the tongue, but its
fortification to the place. texture is
CIVIC CROWN, in Roman antiquity, a garland of oak- not visibly porous. When charged with little or no oxide
leaves and acorns, or ground oak, given as a reward to such of iron, it burns to a very good white colour, and is very
as had saved a citizen's life in battle. infusible ; it is therefore employed in the manufacture of
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE, that which embraces the Staffordshire ware. When it contains oxideof iron, or pyrites,

erection of edifices destined for civil purposes ; the term is sufficient to colour it when baked, it becomes more fusible, and
used in contradistinction to military and naval architecture. can only be employed in the coarser kinds of pottery.
 CLI 167 CLO
Meagre clay does not take a polish with the nail, when a piece of wood or board, of less thickness than the length
dry, by rubbing it feels gritty between the teeth contains
; ;
of the nail, the driving of the point of the nail backw'ards,
sand in visible grains and, when burnt without additions,
;
flat into the wood, while a hammer is pressed against its
has a coarse granular texture. It is employed in the manu- head, is called clinching.
facture of bricks and tiles. CLINKERS, bricks impregnated with a considerable
Calcareous clay effervesces with acids, unctuous to the is quantity of nitre or saltpetre, and placed next to the fire in
touch, and always contains iron enough to give it a red the clamp, or kiln, that they may be more thoroughly burnt.
colour when baked. Being much more fusible than any of CLOACAE, large arched drains, formed under the streets
the preceding, it is only employed in brick-making ; and, of some ancient Roman cities. The most remarkable were
by a judicious burning, may be made to assume a semi-vitre- the cloacce of Rome, large portions of which still remain in
ous texture. Bricks thus made are very durable. excellent repair. These cloacae extended under the whole
CLAYING, the operation of spreading two or three coats city, and were divided into numerous branches the arches,
:

of clay, in order to keep water within a vessel, or to pre- which supported the streets and buildings, were so high and
vent its transmission to some place or apartment where it broad, that a waggon loaded with hay might pass under, or
would be injurious. This c/eration is also called puddling. vessels might sail in them. At proper distances, in the
Claying is necessary in the construction of canals, cisterns, streets, there were openings, for the admission of dirty
vaults, &c. water, &c. These branches ran in the low parts between
CLEAM, a word used in some countries, to signify to the hills, and fell into one large arched drain, constructed
stick, or glue. of solid blocks of stone, called the Cloaca Maxima, said to
CLEAR, in building, the distance between any two bodies have been built by Tarquinius Superbus, and repaired
when no other intervenes ;
or between the nearest surfaces in later times by Cato the Censor, and his colleague in
of two bodies ; as, binding joists may be placed five feet office. The Cloaca Maxima is fifteen feet wide, and thirty
clear of each other, or apart. high, with three arches in contact one within another; in
CLEAR-STORY, the upper story of a church rising clear some parts there were raised paths along the sides of the
above the adjoining parts of the edifice, and containing a cloaca; and in the walls were stone brackets to support
range of windows, thereby affording an increase of light to the ends of the waste pipes of the fountains. In the year
the body of the building some indeed derive the term from
; 1742, a part of the Cloaca Maxima was discovered in the
the French, clair, light, from that circumstance while others ; Forum, at the depth of thirty feet from the surface. See
consider the term to have been applied from this story of the SEWER.
building being clear of joists, rafters, or flooring the deri- : CLOAK-PINS ANDRAIL, a piece of wood attached to
vation, however, implied at the commencement of this article, a wall, furnished with projecting pegs, on which to hang
seems to be the most reasonable. In some cases, this story hats, great-coats, &c. ; the pegs are called cloak-pins, and
is made of
great importance, pierced with windows of greater the board into which they are fixed, and which is fastened
size than those below, in the body of the edifice, as at Exeter to the wall, is called the rail.
and other cathedrals, Henry VII. 's chapel, Westminster, CLOCHARIUM, CLOCHIER (French, docker,) a building,
and some of the larger churches ; in others the windows are more usually a tower, in which the clock and bells were
of very small dimensions, consisting merely of trefoils, contained.
quatrefoils, or small arched foliated apertures. Very small CLOGHEAD, a name applied to the curious round towers
churches seldom have clear-stories, the roof being carried of Ireland. See TOWER.
over the body and aisles in a single span. There is no clear- CLOISTER, (Latin, clausum, enclosed, shut in ;) a covered
story to the choir of Bristol cathedral. range of building attached to a monastic or collegiate estab-
CLEAVING, the act of severing one part of a piece of lishment, forming a passage of communication between the
wood from another, in the direction of the fibres, either by various buildings, more especially between the church and
pressure, or by the percussion of a wedge-formed instrument. chapter-house. Cloisters were employed as places of medi-
CLEETA, an ancient Greek architect and sculptor, who tation and recreation by the inmates of the etablishment ;
built the palaestra, or large court, near Olympus, in which and sometimes of retirement and study, for which purpose
the horse and chariot races were performed at the celebrated we occasionally find them arranged with cells on one side, as
Olympic games. It was magnificently decorated with por- at Gloucester Cathedral, and also at Durham, where such cells
ticos and other ornaments and the author was so vain of
; were termed carrols they appear to have been used likewise as
:

hisperformance, that he introduced the following inscription places of sepulture. Cloisters are invariably
found contiguous
under one of his statues "
Cleeta, the son of Aristocles,
: to the church, ranged round three or four sides of a quad-
who invented the palaestra of Olympus, did this." See rangular area, having on the outer side a series of windows
PALAESTRA. with piers and columns looking into the quadrangle, and in
CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLES, in Egyptian antiquity, the inner side, which was in other respects plain, a number
two obelisks towards the eastern part of the palace of Alex- of doorways communicating with the surrounding buildings,
andria, constructed of Thebaic stone, and covered with hiero- the chapter-house, refectory, schools, and such like. The
glyphics ; one has been thrown down, broken, and lies buried windows in our English cloisters are glazed, and the whole
in the sand the other stands on a pedestal. The dimensions
:
length of the ambulatories arched over with a vaulted ceiling ;
of the two are pretty nearly the same ; the whole height of in some cases, a stone seat or bench is carried round the
the erect one, including the pedestal and three steps, is about wall opposite the windows. Attached to the cloister is
seventy-nine feet. When the French examined the base of usually a lavatory or conduit, at which the monks washed
this obelisk, the accumulation of earth around it was about
previous to entering the refectory ; the
remains of one such
sixteen feet deep. These two obelisks formed the entrance are to be seen in the centre of the quadrangle at Durham,
to the temple or palace of Caesar, as it is called,
though pro- as also at Wells ; lavatories also exist in the cloisters of Nor-
bably they were moved from some of the ancient cities of wich, Gloucester, and Worcester. See LAVATORY.
Egypt by the Ptolemys. In England cloisters seem to have been appended to all
CLINCHING, when a nail is driven to the head through cathedrals, and to the majority of collegiate and
monastic
 CLO 168 CLO
establishments, in short, to all the larger religious houses.
Lilt of Cloisters
Frequent examples are also to be found on the continent, of the English Cathedrals.
in Italy, France, and Germany, and in some cases of great
Length.
magnitude ; they are in the main similar to those in England, Feet
though of different styles, and therefore varying in detail ; CANTERBURY 132
one difference consists in the windows being unglazed, on ( 110
CHESTER Width Height to
account, no doubt, of the difference of climate ; in some
. .

(
108
of avenue, vaulting.
instances are found specimens of painting in fresco on ( 198 S.
CHICHESTER.
the walls. J
121 K Feet Feet.
b
DURHAM . . . 145 . 15
Of the continental cloisters, Mr. Hope says, "Those of frm 12 )
c j
the Latin church are all of them in the Lombard style ; GLOUCESTER. 147 . '
j

j
!frm
to 14 I

some, such as those of San Lorenzo and Santa Sabina at d

HEREFORD.
143
115
Eome, and of San Stephano at Bologna, are small and rude, 118 N. and S. )
and more like the courts of a mean habitation ; others, as LINCOLN. . .
90 E. and W. )'
those of San Giovanni Laterano at Rome, and those of San from 175 I
'
Zeno at Verona, are spacious, and formed of columns of the NORWICH. . ' '
to 177 $
most fantastical shapes ;
some coupled, twisted, and with
* SALISBURY . 181}
spiral flutes; and glittering those at Rome with white marble h WELLS
and with gilt enamel
inlaid with porphyry, with serpentine ;

and those at Verona with the gold-coloured marble of the

Euganean mountains. The cloisters of the cathedral church
of Zurich, and of the monastery of Subiaco, in the papal
states, are amongst the most elegant of continental examples.
The latter was erected in 1235, and that of San Zeno, at
Verona, in 1123."
The following account of the Campo-Santo at Pisa, one
of the most famous cloisters in Europe, is given by Britton :

"Its form is an oblong square, or irregular parallelogram,

measuring 430 and 415 feet in its longest extent, by 136
and 139 feet at its ends. The width of each walk is about
32 feet. It was commenced in 1278 by Giovanni de Pisa,
and a chapel, adjoining its east end, was completed in 1464.
Between the covered walk and the enclosed area, is a series
of sixty-two windows, having semi-circular arches, and
adorned with varied tracery, supported by tall light columns
which divide each space into four lights. Some of these
were formerly glazed, but the others were left open. The
floor is paved with white marble
having bands of blue,
and the inner roof is formed of timber. On the walls are
numerous old paintings of great interest, being some of the
first productions on the revival of that art at the
beginning
of the fourteenth century. There is also a fine collection of
marble sarcophagi, fragments of sculpture, &c."
Amongst many other of the more noted cloisters of the
continent, may be mentioned that belonging to the monastery
of Batalha in Portugal. It is extensive and highly enriched,
the length of each ambulatory being 182 feet, and the
width 17-^ feet ; in the centre of the enclosed quadrangle
is a cistern, and in one of its angles a large fountain.
Attached to the collegiate chapel of St. Stephen, West-
minster, are the remains of one of the most highly enriched
and beautiful cloisters in England, which was erected by
Dean Chambers in the time of King Henry the Eighth.
It is the only example remaining of a cloister of two stories ;
it has two oratories, or chantry-chapels,
projecting into the
quadrangle, and approached respectively from the upper and
lower western avenues. The roof is vaulted, covered with
fan-tracery, and adorned with finely-sculptured bosses and
shields. The dimensions are added to the following table.
The areas at the entrance of some continental churches
partake of the nature of cloisters, but are more particularly
styled atria. See ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.
The annexed is a table giving the dimensions and some
other information relative to the cloisters attached to our
English cathedrals. The particulars are collected from
Brittoa's works, and other similar sources.
 CLU 169 CLU
CLOUGII, or CLOTSB, a kind of sluice for letting off the vertical chambers, and causes it to pass off with consider-
water gently, employed in the agricultural operation of able rapidity through the cowl at the top. The air within
improving soils by flooding the land with muddy water, the the rooms then flowing through the ventilators and horizontal
same with paddle, shuttle, sluice, pen-stock, &c., a contrivance chambers into the vertical ones, supplies the partial vacuum
for retaining or letting out the water of a canal, pond, &c. created by the escape of the rarefied air, and thereby keeps up
CLOUGH ARCHES, or PADDLE-HOLES, in the construction continuous and healthy circulation.
of canals, crooked arches by which the water is conveyed, on The warming of the building is effected by the patent hot-
drawing up the cloughs or paddles, from the upper pond into water apparatus of Mr. H. C. Price, erected under the super-
the chamber of the lock, when it is to be filled. intendence of Mr. Manby. The apparatus is erected on the
CLOUT-NAILS. See NAILS. basement-story, on the north side of the principal staircase ;
CLUB-CHAMBERS. As the building we are about to the hot-air chamber is immediately behind, the top being
describe is the first attempt to provide a superior kind of nearly on a level with the ground-floor; a supply of cold air
accommodation for gentlemen who are accustomed to reside flows through a trunk the mouth of which is furnished with
in chambers, by the erection of an edifice especially planned gauze-wire to filter the air into the vault, where it passes
for, and adapted to the purpose ; we think a notice of the upwards between the vertical iron chambers filled with hot-
extensive and elegant institution known as the Club-chambers water, and becomes heated, the warm air then escaping
in Regent Street, not inappropriate in a work devoted to through apertures in the top of the vault, is distributed
architecture. throughout the principal staircase and corridors. The cor-
In consequence of the scarcity of chambers for residence ridors and water-closets are lighted with gas, the light being
in the vicinity of the Clubs and Houses of Parliament, an enclosed in glazed lanterns, provided with tubes leading to
association was formed purpose of supplying the
for the the external part of the building. On the basement-story,
want. An eligible site having been procured in Regent a well has been sunk, by which the premises are supplied
Street, between Pall Mall and Piccadilly, the association with pure spring water lifted to the top of the building by
engaged Mr. Decimus Burton to make designs for a new means of a small steam-engine, which is also employed for
building. These designs being approved of, contracts were raising coals, furniture, &c., up the well-hole of the back
made, and the result was the present handsome and com- staircase. Every alcove or recess for the bed is provided
modious mansion. with hot and cold water, and pipes trapped, and commu-
The elevation of this edifice is of the Italian stylo of nicating with the drains for a water-closet, if the tenant should
architecture; it occupies a frontage of 70 feet, and consists wish to have one.
of a ground-story, rusticated, and terminated by an enriched We have been thus particular in describing this establish-
lace-band or string-course, enriched with the Vitruvian ment, because the very perfect arrangements made in it for
scroll. This story forms a basement to the upper part, con- the comfort and convenience of its numerous occupants
taining the principal story, and a second and third story, reflect the highest credit on the architect, whose taste and
surmounted by a bold and enriched cornice, the main charac- ingenuity have been so eminently displayed ; and because wo
teristic feature of the Italian style. Between the principal would bespeak for so valuable an association the patronage
story and the ground-floor, an entre-sol is introduced, the and support its liberality so fully deserves.
windows of which are placed between the panelled pilasters CLUB-HOUSE. Under this term are designated the
supporting the consoles of the bold projecting balconies in splendid establishments which have sprung up at the west-
the windows above. The ground-floor is approached in the end of the metropolis within the last few years. Called into
centre by a portico, projecting forward with coupled Doric existence by the requirements of a highly refined state of
columns on each side, and recessed back to give depth this :
society, the clubs of London represent an assemblage of gen-
opens into a grand entrance-hall, the height of the ground- tlemen composed of all that is eminent in rank, wealth, and
story, and entre-sol. The four upper stories are divided in talent;
the elite of the gentry and nobility of the kingdom.
the same way as the ground-floor, except that on all the The clubs of the present day must not be confounded with
stories above the entre-sol there is an apartment over the those of a past age, they are essentially institutions of modern
entrance-hall. creation. Of the clubs of former days, the earliest described
The building contains 77 chambers ; 27 are provided with in our popular literature date about the end of the sixteenth,
alcoves or recesses for the bed, and 50 without ; some of the or the beginning of the seventeenth century. About that time
rooms are so planned, that two or three may be formed into was established the famous club at the Mermaid Tavern in
one suite, if required. The basement-story occupied as Friday Street, amongst whose members were Shakspere,
servants' rooms and domestic offices is arched over with flat Beaumont, Fletcher, Raleigh, Selden, Donne, and others.
brick arches, supported by iron girders. The two staircases Another celebrated club, founded by Jonson, held its meet-
are of stone, all the corridors have stone floors, and every ings at the well-known. Devil Tavern. For this club Jonson
precaution has been taken throughout the building against wrote the " Leges Convi vales," which are printed among his
the extension of fire. works. In the Spectator, Addison describes an association
The ingenuity displayed by the architect in providing for of apolitical character, called "The Club," or rather the Con-
the warming and ventilation of the building deserves a par- federacy of the Kings.
"
This grand alliance," says he, " was
ticular description it is thus effected : On each side of the formed a little after the return of Charles II., and admitted
principal staircase, on the basement-story, is a furnace, with into it men of all qualities and professions, provided they
an iron pipe or flue 12 inches diameter, fixed in the centre of agreed in this surname of king, which, as they imagined,
a vertical brick-chamber, rising through the several stories sufficiently declared the owners of it to be altogether untainted
and where it is terminated by a cowl. On each story
roof, by republican and anti-monarchical principles."
these verticalchambers communicate with horizontal ones, The great age of clubs, political, literary, and of every
formed between the floor and ceiling of the corridors. Each other description, was the early part of the last century.
room being furnished with a ventilator near the ceiling, Amongst the most celebrated of these was the first Beef-
opening into the horizontal chamber; when the fire is lighted steak club, of which Mrs. Woffington, the popular actress,
in the furnaces, it heats the iron flue, rarefies the air within was the president, being the only female member ; and
22
 CLU 170 CLU
Estcourt, the comedian, provisor, wearing in that character Abuilding fund was formed ; a neat edifice, from the
a small gridiron of gold hung round his neck with a green designs of Sir Robert Smirke, was erected at the corner of
silk riband. Still more celebrated, perhaps, was the famous Charles Street, St. James's, and in the year 1819 the first
Kit-Cat club, said to have been instituted at the time of the modern club was opened for the reception of its members.
trial of the seven
bishops in the reign of James II., but in its Candidates for admission, however, increased so rapidly, that
greatest glory in that of Queen Anne. a larger habitation was rendered necessary. A
building, on
In 1735 was established the second Beef-steak club, which a grand scale, from the plans of Mr. Nash, was erected at the
is still in existence, and which has numbered among its mem- east corner of the new entrance to St. James's Park from
bers the most eminent public characters that have appeared Pall Mall, and taken possession of in 1828, while the resi-
since its institution. This club originated with Rich, the dence in Charles Street, vacated by the " United Service
pantomimist, and the Earl of Peterborough, and has con- Club" now generally called the " Senior United Service"
tinued to the present day to maintain its high celebrity, as was taken by a new association, under the title of the
"
the chosen resort of good-fellowship and conviviality. Junior United Service Club."
The modern clubs arc associations of gentlemen of simi- The establishment of the "United Service Club" was
larity of political feeling, literary or professional pursuits speedily followed by that of others, and the number of these
as the Reform, the Carlton, Athenaeum, United Service, &c. institutions, which is daily increasing, now amounts to above
These are, in no other respects, clubs, according to the ancient thirty. The principal club-houses are situated in Pall Mall
English understanding of the term, except that every member and immediate neighbourhood, and a person re-visiting
its
must be balloted for, or admitted by the consent of the rest. London, after an absence of several years, would be surprised

They might perhaps be more correctly described houses as to see here clustered together a number of mansions exhibiting
combining the characters of restaurants and reading-rooms, every order of architecture, from the severest Doric to the
for the use of a selected number of associated persons, who most florid Composite. The following description, subject,
agree to make an annual payment for their support, whether of course, to modification in particular instances, will give
they resort to them little or much ; and pay besides for what- a tolerably correct idea of the general arrangement of a
ever refreshment they may require, at a cost free of profit. modern club-house.
Originating witliiu the present century, and concentrating The visitor, on entering one of these palace-like edifices,
a largo proportion of the men of fortune, station, and poli- finds himself in a lobby, in which are the hall-porter, who is
tical note in the metropolis, those establishments have cer- seated at a desk, and his assistants. The duty of these officials
tainly had a striking effect upon the manners, not only of is to see that none have access to the club but members, to
the departments of society from which the members are receive letters, &c. Close to the hall is a reception-room
drawn, but upon society in general. They have,
indeed, for strangers wishing to seemembers, and beyond this a hall,
given a new direction to the habits of certain classes, and the or vestibule, from which doors open on the various apart-
"
change has been decidedly for the better. ments on the ground-floor. Of these there is, first, a morn-
Although it is our province more especially to describe ing room," which is used for reading newspapers and writing
the buildings in which these institutions are domiciled than letters. And to give some idea of the liberal scale on which
the institutions themselves, a slight account of the origin and these morning-rooms are supplied, and of the profusion of
progress of the latter, abbreviated from an interesting sketch periodicals taken in by the large clubs, it may be stated,
in Chambers' Edinburgh Journal, may not be uninteresting. that at the Athenaeum, in the year 1844, the sum of
appears that to the military we are indebted for the
It 471 2s. 6d. was expended for English and foreign news-
origin of these establishments. The officers of the army, papers and periodicals. Stationery also is supplied to an
whether in camp or quarters, have always experienced the unlimited extent.
advantage and economy of clubbing for their provisions. The " coffee-room" is furnished with rows of small tables
They have found that the pay of each individual, spent projecting from each side, with an avenue up the middle.
would scarcely procure him ordinary necessaries;
separately, These tables are laid for breakfasts and luncheons till four
by adding it to a general fund, to be judiciously dis-
whilst, o'clock in the day, after that hour they are arranged for
bursed by an experienced caterer, he would obtain for his dinners. For the accommodation of members who may feel
subscription not only requisites, but luxuries. inclined to form themselves into parties to dine together,
At the peace of 1815, a reduction of the army withdrew in preference to the detached mode of dining at the small
a number of officers from the " messes" to which they had tables of the coffee-room, a dining-room, handsomely fur-
been accustomed. Thus a great many gentlemen of com- nished, is provided on the ground-floor, in which they can do
" house-
paratively limited means were thrown into private life, sub- so these dinners are termed, in club-parlance,
jected to all the expenses and inconveniences of hotels, dinners."
principal apartment above stairs
The
In many instances long and is the drawing-room,
taverns, and lodging-houses.
continued absence from home had severed these brave men inwhich members take their evening coffee or tea. In some
from domestic ties ; yet having always lived among a con- clubs a great display of luxury and expensiveness is made
genial brotherhood-society, it was essential to their happiness. in this room, and, notwithstanding that it is perhaps less
In these circumstances, the mess-system was naturally thought used than any room in the house, the finest taste of the
of, and the late General Lord Lynedoch, with five brother- decorator and upholsterer is called into requisition to adorn
officers, met for the purpose of devising a plan by which a it. Near to the drawing-room is the library, fitted up with
similar system might be made every convenience for reading, consulting maps, &c.
The
applicable to non-professional
life. So effectual were their deliberations, and so well- books are accumulated by donations, and by a sum set aside
grounded their preliminary measures, that a club was formed from the general funds for their purchase. These libraries
during the same year, (1815,) intended, in the first instance, are generally well supplied with books, and that of the
for military men only, but naval officers, as well as military, Athenseum is said to contain near 30,000 volumes. Five hun-
were afterwards brought within the scope of their design, dred pounds is annually expended by this club for increasing
and an association enrolled, entitled the " United Service its library. Near the library is, in some clubs, a card-room,
but
Club." gaming is as much as possible discouraged in these instil utions.
 CLU 171 CLU
The next story contains at least one billiard-room, some " be
critic, any question as to the possibility of reconciling
club-houses have two ; 'in many clubs also there is a smoking- the seemingly antithetical qualities of richness and simplicity,
room on the upper story are sleeping chambers for the ser-
: this building might be allowed to determine it, since the
vants, who reside on the premises. The basement contains design is no less remarkable for the attention bestowed upon
the usual domestic offices ; and, as may be supposed, every all its details, than for the simplicity of its composition."

detail connected with the important department of the We have many others far more ambitious in decoration, yet
" cuiiine" is most not one so beautifully finished up in every part, or exhibiting
perfect.
The above some idea of the
sketch will give the reader so perfectly that integrity offinish which is displayed in this
general arrangements of a club-house ; we shall now proceed work of Mr. Barry's. For here, indeed, we behold the full
to describe more particularly a few of those splendid edifices beauty of the Italian style purified from its defects, and
which have been, by some, compared to the Palazzi of stamped by a serene kind of dignity that renders it truly
Italian cities. captivating.
The " United In the treatment of his design, Mr. Barry has bestowed
Service," though first in seniority as a club,
deserves a very brief notice on the score of architectural equal pains on both fronts, that towards the garden being
beauty. It is a
plain unpretending building, which may be as carefully studied as the one facing Pall Mall ; and it is
called Italian, because it cannot bo described as being of any well worthy not only of observation, but of imitation, that
other style, but it is of an impoverished and enfeebled
Italian there is more nicety of detail and greater elegance here
character, exhibiting, remarks Mr. Leeds, " incontestable bestowed on parts sometimes considered of very secondary
evidence of insipidity and poverty." importance, than is often expended upon a whole design.
The building consists of two stories, the ground-floor being If, again, we lift our eyes to the upper extremity of the

rusticated, and having windows on each side of the portico. building, we instantly perceive what attention has been
The upper story contains an elegant suite of rooms, having bestowed on that also for it is not the cornice alone, but
;

seven lofty windows, with pediments, over which, and running the cornice and roof together which constitute its decoration ;
through the whole building, is an entablature, the whole the latter being treated as belonging to the elevation itself,
being surmounted by a balustrade. The south front is and the former giving richness and majesty to the whole
similar to the one described, but the north, facing Pall Mall, fupade.
has a portico the whole height of the structure, and is in The interior of the building is arranged with great ability,
two divisions ; that of the ground-floor being composed of both with regard to convenience and picturesque effect, for
eight fluted Doric columns in pairs, having an entablature which latter it is not a little indebted to a small but elegant
with triglyphs. This is surmounted by a balustrade, over internal court, of strictly architectural character.
which are eight Corinthian columns arranged in the same The position of the entrance, which a regard to exact
order as those below, and crowned by an entablature and symmetry would have required to be in the centre, has been
pediment. The internal arrangements are exceedingly well sometimes objected to, but we are of opinion that the architect
contrived, arid furnish every convenience for the accommo- exercised a sound judgment in placing it where ho has, rather
dation of the members. There are some remarkably fine than sacrifice a portion of the interior accommodation.
portraits of distinguished military and naval officers, and the The following description of this elegant structure, is
apartments are furnished with great luxury and elegance. extracted from an excellent work, " The Public Buildings
The " Athenaeum," is situated at the opposite angle of of London," edited by Mr. W. II. Leeds " The
:
hall, which
Carlton Place, and is remarkable for the elaborate sculptured has a screen of two columns in antis, behind which is tho
bas-relief frieze continued along its three sides. This club porter's desk, includes tho window next to the entrance-
ranks as one of the very first in the metropolis, and the door. Although small in itself, it docs not by any means
magnificent mansion belonging to its members, is worthy to look confined, there being a vista from it along the corridor,
occupy a similar prominent position. which is lighted by three windows looking into the court,
The building is from the designs of Mr. Decimus Burton, and to which there is an ascent of four steps through an open
and displays that gentleman's usual ability and good taste. arch. The ceiling of both hall and corridor are arched that
;

The east elevation has a rusticated basement with a portico, of the former coffered, of the other panelled. A door to the
the ends of which are filled up and perforated with windows ; left, immediately after ascending the steps, leads
into the
the angles are finished by a square pilaster and fluted column morning-room, (44 feet by 23 feet 9,) which has three win-
of the Doric order; the space between being divided by four dows towards the street, and a fire-place at each end. From
columns of the same order in pairs. The frieze is ornamented this, a door facing the farthest window, opens into the house
with triglyphs, and the cornice surrounded by a balustrade, dining-room, which is 27 feet by 28 feet 9 inches, and occupies
the space over the centre intercolumniations being filled up all the space to the east of the court. Beyond the principal
and crowned by a pedestal supporting a figure of Minerva. staircase, which is seen at the end of the corridor through
Over the ground-story, and on a line with the cornice of an open arch, is the coffee-room, occupying the whole extent
the portico, is a balcony running through the three elevations, of the garden front. This room is divided by piers and
and terminating at the angles by pedestals. The principal anta; into three compartments, in each of which is a fire-place,
story is lighted by seven lofty windows with sashes, by namely, one at each end, and another facing the windows in
which there is access to the balcony, and which are orna- the centre division.
" The libraries form a
mented with cornice and trusses above this, and continuing
; single apartment, divided by double
through the entire building, is the beautiful frieze we have screens of Corinthian columns on a pedestal stylobate in
already mentioned, the figures, in basso-relievo, being copied, continuation of the dado of the room, leaving a passage
it is said, from the
Elgin frieze deposited in the British through the centre intercolumn six feet clear. Owing to
Museum. Over this is a cornice of very bold projection, the contraction of the opening, to the depth of the screen,
the whole being crowned by a balustrade. and the duplication of the columns one behind another, the
"
Adjoining the Athenaeum, is the Travellers'," of which perspective appearance acquires a high degree of pleasing
it is scarcely possible to
speak in terms of sufficient commen- complexity, and the larger or inner library is not so much
" Could
dation. there," says a talented writer and able exposed to view, on first entering from the staircase. Above
 CLU 172 CLU
the entablature is a deep
frieze, forming a continued subject and the eye dwells with unmixed satisfaction and delight on
in bas-relief. Over
the libraries are billiard and smoking- the harmonious result.
rooms, which are lighted from above in the slope of the roof The entrance to the club-house from Pall Mall, is several
towards the court." steps above the ground, and in the centre of the building.
The drawing-room and card-room are loftier than the On this side, the frontage presents only three floors from the
libraries, and have a deep cove with coffers between the ground, though consisting of six from the basement ; the
ceiling and the top of the cornice. The design of the drawing- basement and mezzanine below ground, and the chambers in
room ceiling is exceedingly tasteful, combining finished sim-
the roof being unseen. There are four windows on each
plicity with richness in a very striking manner, and all the
side of the entrance ; nine windows equidistant on the first
details exhibit proofs of the most refined taste and the most floor,and the same number on the second. The pediments
careful and elaborate design. surmounting the windows in Pall Mall, are supported by
The dimensions of some of the principal apartments are Ionic pilasters and at the back,
; overlooking Carlton Gar
as follows: dens, by Ionic pilasters rusticated. The height of the ground
Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft In.
and first floor is on the same level as the Travellers'.
Coffee-room 68 by 24 9 and 186 high.
An Italian court (34J feet by 29 feet,) is placed in the
Principal Staircase... 45 by 16 centre of the quadrangle. Corridors, on the first and ground
Corridor 27 by 1 1 floors, 9 feet wide, lighted from this court, lead to the
Court 27 by 25 6 Ft In.
39 9 and 24 apartments on these floors ; but on the second floor, the cor-
Drawing-room by 23 high.
Card-room 28 9 by 23 9
ridors leading to the lodgings are contracted to 5 feet. On
Libraries 48 by 24 9 and 17 6 high.
the basement, every sort of culinary office seems provided,
Heading-room 29 9 by 19 6 and located with singular judgment and convenience. The
We cannot close our notice of this elegant building, with- number of apartments here exceeds thirty. In the mezzanine
or entresol, are the butler's, housekeeper's, and still-rooms,
out again expressing our admiration of so great an ornament
to our metropolitan architecture. The Travellers' club-house dressing and bath rooms, and 16 servants' rooms. On the
w-ill bear the most critical and
scrutinizing examination and ;
ground floor is the coffee-room, of noble proportions, having
more a view into the gardens ; writing-room, newspaper or read-
the closely scanned, the more apparent will be its
it is
ing-room, house
beauty nor is it till then that we perceive how carefully
;
dining-room, steward's, waiting, porter's,
and two audience-rooms in all nine rooms on this floor.
every part is elaborated, and yet so subdued to the general
On the first floor, above the coffee-room, is the drawing-
effect, that the eye never rests on particular points thrust
obtrusively forward, but embraces the perfect ensemble, in
room, supported by Corinthian pillars, and so constructed,
that if required, it may be divided into two or three rooms;
a structure replete with chaste and refined simplicity.
two libraries, both supported by Corinthian pillars two
Immediately adjoining the Travellers' is another magnificent ;

"
llcform Club." The billiard-rooms and several other rooms.
example of architectural genius the ;

instructions issued to the competing architects, by the spirited

On the second floor are twenty-six chambers or lodgings,
members of this association, when seeking a design for their the dimensions of each
varying from 22 feet by 14 feet, to
new dwelling, were -to produce a club-house which should 12 feet by 10 feet.
On the attic floor there are about thirty rooms, intended
surpass all others in size and magnificence ; one which should
combine all the attractions of otherclubs, baths, billiard-rooms,
for servants. The following are the dimensions of some of
the principal apartments
smoking-rooms, with the ordinary features, besides the addi-
:

tional novelty of private chambers or dormitories. The Ft Ft.

manner in which Mr. Barry responded to these instructions, Basement Kitchen 29 by 22
Steward's room 26
may be seen in the edifice we are about to describe an ;
by 18J
edificeon which public opinion and professional criticism
Butler's pantry Ifii by 14
Scullery 20 by 14
have united to bestow the highest praise ; pronouncing it Cook's room 17 by 12
unsurpassed in grandeur of design, and perfection of taste. Ground Floor Coffee-room 117 by 28
the metropolis.
in The distinguishing Writing-room 40 by 27
by any building 28 J by 27
characteristic of theReform Club, is its grand and imposing Reading-room
House dining-room ... 29 by 1 8
appearance; produced, not only by its greater extent and First Floor ..Drawing-room 117 by 28 Ft. Ft
loftiness, but by the circumstance of its being detached from Libraries 40 by 27 and 28 J by 27
other buildings on three of sides. These are made to
its Billiard-room 32 by 18 and 23 by 17$
two of which may be beheld Committee-room 33J by 17J
constitute as many fafades,
together from the same point of view, producing, from their In the whole building, there are upwards of 130 several
uniformity in design, a continuous, rich architectural mass ; apartments, arranged with the greatest ingenuity, and with
and thus securing a completeness and fullness of effect which the utmost attention to convenience, and showing that, how-
a mere fapadc on the same scale could never give. ever great may be our admiration of the beautiful exterior,
In the Reform, as in the Travellers', Mr. Barry has avoided the interior is not less deserving of our approval and com-
the too common fault of cutting
up a composition into distinct mendation.
divisions, and then commencing again
finishing, on the ;
The " Carlton" adjoins the Reform, and adds another to the
contrary, the ensemble is made consistent throughout, crowned fine structures we have been describing. The committee
by a magnificent cornicione, proportioned not to a part, but of this club, after examining a number of designs submitted
to the whole ; while sufficient decoration, in other respects, in competition by various architects, none of which seem
is derived from essential features and members, windows, to have met with approval, agreed to elect an architect by
string-courses, &c. These display themselves with a bold- the votes of the members. The ballot resulted in the election
ness and effect hardly attainable where windows are intro- of Mr. Sydney Smirke and Mr. G. Basevi, who had arranged
duced between straggling columns, and other like incon- to act conjointly ; but the death of the latter gentleman
gruities offend the judicious observer. In this
building preventing this being carried into effect, Mr. Smirke was
richness combined with simplicity is diffused retained by the committee to comp'ete the work.
throughout,
-
H
,7 >? o ff E S T n E K T
 CLU 173 CLU
The general design of the building is adopted from that with a plan of the ground-floor, is here given. The architects
of the library of St. Mark, at Venice. The extent of the are Messrs. Parnell and Smith. The following description,
" The
frontage in Pall Mall, is 133 feet, and the height is about principally taken from that very useful publication,
70 feet. The fronts are of Caen stone ; the shafts of all the Builder," gives a good idea of the structure :
"
pillars and pilasters, of polished Aberdeen granite ; and Although the design is based on the Cornaro palace on
the contrast made by the red tint of the latter, has a novel the grand canal at Venice, it differs materially from that
and pleasing effect. The decorations of the interior, building. The palace has three stories above the basement,
furniture, &c., are of the most tasteful and splendid descrip- Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, and shows the roof, terminating
tion, and the coffee-room, 90 feet by 36 feet, is an exceedingly on the modillion cornice of the upper order, as at the Reform
handsome apartment. The whole building presents an club ; the frieze being devoid of sculpture, and having oval
imposing elevation, designed with judgment and good taste. openings to light an attic story. In the club-house, the
The rooms are of good proportion, and arranged with every general arrangement of the ground and first floor elevation
attention to comfort and convenience; and the important of the palazzo has been adopted, but coupled Corinthian
details of domestic and culinary matters, as cellars, kitchens, columns have been substituted for the Ionic of the latter, and
larders, and servants' rooms, have not been neglected. the building terminates with the entablature of the order,
The splendid building belonging to the " Oxford and Cam- highly enriched with sculpture and a balustrade.
bridge University Club," erected from the designs of Sir "The entrance to the building is from George-street, by
Robert and Mr. Sydney Smirk, adjoins the Carlton. The a flight of steps leading to a recessed portico. On the left
front of the University club-house extends 87 feet in width, of the entrance-hall, is a morning-room corresponding to
and the height from the ground line to the top is 57 feet. a coffee-room on the opposite side ; there is also a reception-
An entablature, marking the separation of the ground story room. The coffee-room lighted from each end, and an
is

from the principal floor, and projecting forward in the centre elliptical dome in the centre: the dome has an exterior
of the building over four Corinthian columns, divides the covering of glass, between which it is proposed to light the
front horizontally into two equal parts. The centre space room at night by a gas device encircling the whole circum-
on the ground-floor is occupied by the portico, which projects ference. By this arrangement, the necessity for any gas-
to the front line of the areathe entrance to the hall being
;
burners will be avoided, and a hot-air chamber provided,
formed by the centre intercolumniation, which is wider than which, by the aid of flues, will afford a system of ventilation.
the rest ;
the four columns stand upon pedestals, four feet Between this room and the strangers' coffee-room, lighted
high, with base mouldings and cornice. The upper part of and ventilated in the same manner, and communicating
the building is terminated with a delicate Corinthian entab- with each, is placed the serving-room, connected with the
lature and balustrade, breaking forward with the centre of kitchen by a lift, and the butler's serving-room : from this
the building, which corresponds in width with the portico : last is a direct communication to the dispensing cellars, while
the front being thus vertically divided into three compart- the room will be fitted up with ice-bins, hot and cold water,
ments, the side ones assuming the appearance of wings, and presses for the reception of glass there is also a separate
:

while the effect of a centre, indicated by the projecting entrance from the still-room. At the extremity of the build-
portico on the ground-floor, is maintained throughout the ing is placed the house dining-room, which has a separate
whole height of the building. The angles of the centre communication with the kitchen.
"
division, on the principal story, are formed of rusticated The mezzanine floor is appropriated to the members' bath
pilasters ; the principal window occupying the space between and dressing rooms, and the housekeeper's department.
these pilasters. Similar rusticated pilasters also divide each The first floor is approached by a flight of steps, one branch
wing on the principal floor into three equal oblong recessed of which leads to the secretary's room, and upper floor, the
spaces, containing windows similar to the window above latter containing billiard, card, and smoking rooms the other
described. A balcony, projecting 3 feet, continues throughout to the evening-room, library, and writing-room. The evening
the whole line of front, the parapet being formed of pedestals or drawing-room, is 76 feet by 28 feet ; the library, 40 feet
with intervening panels of richly designed foliage, cast in by 32 feet writing-room, 33 feet by 18 feet. There are
;

metal in high relief, and the landing supported by elaborately besides the rooms we have mentioned, a great number of
enriched consoles. The frieze of the entablature over the others of the usual description in similar establishments."
ground-story is filled with convex panels, enriched with It would be impossible, without occupying more space
laurel leaves, and over each column of the portico are shields than can be allotted to this article, already extended beyond
bearing the arms of the Universities. The whole of the its due limits, to describe in detail the several handsome
ornamental detail throughout, is designed to correspond in mansions in which other clubs, under various designations,
richness of effect with the Corinthian capitals of the columns, have located themselves. The " University" in Suffolk-place
which have their central volutes entwined. Below the the " Union," one of the oldest and most select of London
ground-story are mezzanine and basement stories. clubs the " Conservative," lately erected in S. James' s-street,
In the panels above the windows of the principal floor, on the site of the well-known Thatched House Tavern, and
are bas-reliefs illustrating those exalted labours of the mind, a host of others, are all deserving the study of the architectural
which it is the peculiar province of the Universities to foster. student. In some, beauties of the highest order command
We have not space to describe these beautiful ornaments more his attention ; in others, defects, he should mark, in order

minutely, but they are well worthy a careful examination, and to avoid ; in all, much may be learnt as to arrangement of
reflect credit on the taste of the architects, and on the
liberality apartments, and those details of convenience on which
of their employers. The arrangements of the interior are so much of the comfort and economy of a large establish-
planned with great judgment, and afford every accommoda- ment depends.
tion to the members of the club ; but as a great similarity we would observe only, that whatever may
In conclusion,
must necessarily exist in all establishments devoted to be the of some of these buildings, the formation of the
faults

present club system has been the means

similar purposes, it is unnecessary to describe them. of adorning the
On the opposite side of Pall Mall, is the new building erect- west end of London with a number of splendid houses,
ed for the " Army and Navy Club," an engraving of which, designed by eminent architects, decorated by artists
of repu-
 CCEM 174 COF
tation and taste
;
and completed at an expenditure of the COFFER, a recessed panel, of a square or polygonal figure,
most liberaland extensive character. Nor has this been anciently used in level soffits, and in the intradoses of cylin-
confined to London alone, the example has been followed in drical vaults.
the country ; and in many of the provincial cities and towns, In the remains of Grecian and Roman architecture, the
clubs have been formed, and club-houses built on a scale of coffers sometimes recede in one degree, but more frequently
in several degrees, like inverted steps, around the panel, each
magnitude and splendour rivalling those in the metropolis.
It is scarcely within our province, to remark on the effect internal angle being filled with one or more mouldings. In
the rapid extension of clubs may have on the usages of Roman works, the surface of the panel at the bottom is mostly
society in general ; but we may be permitted to say that any
covered with a rosette. Sometimes the bands between the
system which tends to the adornment of our cities with framing are divided into two equal parts, by a groove or
magnificent structures decorated in the most expensive man- canal of a rectangular section.
ner, and filled with costly furniture, and luxurious productions Coffers are also employed in the soffits of the cornices of
in every department of art, cannot but have a refining influ- the Corinthian and Roman orders, between the modillions.
ence on the taste of the rising generation, while affording For the farther use of coffers, and other matters relating to
employment to professional talent, and to hundreds of skilful them, see CEILINGS and CYLINDRICAL VAULTS.
artisans. COFFER, in inland navigation, a large wooden vessel, open
CLUMP, in ornamental gardening, a detached portion of at the top, with movable ends, of sufficient capacity to receive

ground, raised in the form of a mound, in lawns or other a barge or vessel from the pond of a canal, in order to be
parts of pleasure-grounds, for the reception of trees or raised into a higher, or let down into a lower pond. This
shrubs on the top, while its sides are covered with flowers coffer is a substitute for a lock.
or small plants. Clumps differ from borders, in being COFFER-DAM, a hollow dam, constructed of a double
detached and separate, as well as in being much more range of piles, with clay rammed between, for the security
elevated. and convenience of the workman while digging out and
CLUSELLA (Latin, clusum, enclosed,) a small castle building the foundation of .an entrance-lock to a dock, basin,
within a close or inclosure. or canal, when it cannot otherwise be laid dry.
CLUSTERED, in architecture, denotes the coalition of In bridge-building, the term is applied to a case of piling
two or more members, so as to penetrate each other. fixed in the bed of a river, without any bottom, for the pur-
CLUSTERED COLUMN, in the pointed style of architecture, pose of building a pier dry. Its sides must, therefore, reach
a column composed of a number of slender pillars attached above the level of the water, and, after it is fixed, the water
to each other, but having each a distinct base and capital. must be pumped out by the engines, which, unless the work
Clustered columns were frequently divided in their height is
very carefully done, must be kept constantly at work, to
by moulded bands, which gave them the appearance of being prevent leakage as much as possible. Coffer-dams are made
bound together. They are sometimes attached to the shaft either double, or single. In the double one, the space between
throughout their length, and sometimes only at the capitals the inner and outer rows of piles is rammed with clay or
and bases. chalk ; the piles are driven as closely as practicable to each
CLUSTERED COLUMN, in the Roman style, is said of two, other by means of a pile engine, till fixed firmly into the
or four columns, which seem to intersect or penetrate each earth;
sometimes they are grooved and tongued ; sometimes
other, either at the angle of a building or apartment, that they are grooved in the sides, and fixed at a distance from
they may answer each return ; or under an entablature, each other, with boards let into the grooves.
when a single column would be too weak ; or at the inter- The first writer on the use of coffer-dams was Albert!,
section of two transverse architraves: in the latter case, who, chap, vi., book 2, gives the following directions :

"
there may be four columns. Make
the foundation of your piers in autumn, when the
COATING, in a general sense, denotes the covering of a water is lowes't, having first raised an enclosure to keep off
body in one or several plies or thicknesses; thus, walls are the water, which may be done in this manner drive a double
:

spread over with one, two, or three separate coats of plaster ; row of stakes close to that side of the row which is next to
the interior apartments of houses are covered with several the intended pier, and fill up the hollow between the two
coats of paint ; works in wood are covered with paint, pitch, rows with rushes and mud, ramming them together so hard,
lead, copper, &c. ; baser metals are covered with the richer, that no water can get through ; then, whatever you find
as copper with gold or silver, and silver with gold ; for within the enclosure water, mud, sand, or whatever else is
culinary purposes, copper is covered with tin, as is iron also, an hindrance to you throw them out, and dig till you come
to prevent rust. to a solid foundation." To this we may add, where the river
COB-WALL, a wall built of straw, lime, and earth. is rapid and deep, and the bed of solid earth or clay, the

COCHLEARE, or COOLA, a lofty round tower, ascended coffer-dam must be constructed with three, four, five, or even
by means of a winding staircase ;
from the Latin, cochlea, six rows of piles, according to the rapidity and depth of the

winding stairs. stream. Due care must also be taken to brace the sides well
COCKING, a method of securing beams to wall-plates, from fixed points, as well as to make the whole water-tight,
by notching each beam at the end on the under edge, across by ramming in chalk or clay, as above directed.
its thickness, nearly opposite to the inner edge of the wall- Where the river is rapid and deep, and the bed of a loose
plate, and cutting two reverse notches out of the top of the consistence, though the sides be never so firm, the water will
wall-plate, leaving the part whole which is opposite to ooze through the bottom in too great abundance to be taken
the notch in the beam ;
then laying the beam to its place, it out bythe engines, recourse must therefore be had to a
down, and the corresponding parts will fit into each
will slide caisson. See CAISSON.
other. This method prevents any possibility of the beam The following is a description of the very large coffer-dam

drawing longitudinally out of the wall-plate, even though the made at the New Houses of Parliament, for building the
timbers should afterwards shrink. embankment, or river-wall. This dam was 1,236 feet long,
COCKLE-STAIRS, a winding staircase. See STAIRS. and 10 feet wide, constructed in the following manner:
CCEMETERIUM. See CEMETERY. a trench was first made by dredging in the bed of the river
 COL 175 COL
of the form of a segment of a circle, 27 feet wide, and 8 feet angles between the rafters and the upper edges of the collar-
deep in the centre, to allow the piles to drive more easily ; beams. See TRUSS.
two parallel rows of guide or main piles were then driven COLLARING, or COLAKIN, that part of a column which
about 5 feet apart, leaving a width of 9 feet between them is included between the fillet below the ovolo of the capital,

transversely : to these piles were fixed three tiers of waling and the upper side of the astragal at the top of the shaft.
of whole timbers, cut down and bolted together, one tier The collarino is to be found in the modern Tuscan and Doric
being fixed at the top on a level with high-water mark ; orders, but not in the three Grecian orders, except in the
another level with the bed of the river : and the third mid- Ionic of the temple of Erechtheus, at Athens, and in some
way. The piles and waling were then bolted across with fragments of Ionic columns found in Asia.
iron bolts 12 feet long, forming a carcase for the inner or The" collarino, or colarin, is otherwise denominated the
sheet-piling ; the inner main piles being also firmly braced to neck, gorgerin, or hypotrachelion.
resist the pressure at high water. Horizontal struts of whole COLLEGE, a public building, endowed with revenues for
timber, also, at the back of the brace piles abutted against the education of youth and their instruction in the various
other piles driven just within the inner edge of the foundation branches of science and literature. An assembly of colleges
of the wall. constitute a university.
The piles were 36 feet long, driven through the gravel, and Our colleges consist, for the most part, of one or more
2 feet into the clay, the top of which is 28 feet below high- quadrangular areas, surrounded by ranges of buildings, which
water mark. Within the waling were two parallel rows of comprise a house for the superior, and rooms or lodgings for
sheet-piling ; the outer or river-side of whole timbers the the fellows, scholars, &c. ; besides which there is always a
inner or land-side of half-timbers. After all the piles were chapel and refectory, or dining hall. Amongst our finest
driven, the gravel forming the bed of the river between the buildings of this class are those of Christ Church and Merton
piling was dug out down to the clay, and the space filled in Colleges, Oxford, which, with many others at the same
with clay, and puddled. For the purpose of pumping out the university, as also at the sister institution at Cambridge, are
water, a ten-Korse power stearn-cngine was erected, which magnificent specimens of the architecture of their respective
was kept at work night and day ; and considering the great dates.
extent of the dam, it is remarkably free from leakage. It In writing on this subject, we must not pass over in silence
occupied fourteen months in construction.
its the foundation and erection of St. Augustine's College, Can-
COFFIN, (Greek a basket.) the chest or box in
Ko<f>ivo^, terbury, a building which may vie with many an older struc-
which dead bodies are deposited for burial. la ancient times ture of the same kind, as well in its architectural, as its
coflins were usually constructed of stone, and sometimes highly educational features.
ornamented, as is evidenced by the remains of Egyptian and This college comprises only one area, which is of a quad-
other sarcophagi which have been brought to light. In rangular form, three of its sides only being occupied with
England likewise stone coflins were anciently used, frequently buildings, the fourth at present consists but of a wall ; but
formed of a single block hollowed out to receive the body ; the space is intended to be built upon as occasion demands.
the shape was that of a trapezium, having the end where the The three sides already occupied are the north, east, and west,
head lay slightly wider than the other extremity they were
;
the cortilc on the southern side being enclosed by the wall ;
covered with a lid, which was either flat or coped, and often of these, the buildings on the two first, the northern and
sculptured with crosses and other emblems. They were eastern sides, are elevated on a raised terrace, while those on
sometimes buried in the ground, though not deeply, sometimes the south are on a level with the entrance. The materials
only up to the lid, which was visible above ground, and some- employed for the walling are for the most part flint, with
times placed entirely above ground. dressings of rag-stone, and, in other cases, rag with Caen
COGGING, the same as COCKING, which see. stone dressings. The style adopted is the Decorated of the
COIN, or QUOIN, (from the French coin, a corner,) the fourteenth century ; in the chapel are some parts of an earlier
angle made by two surfaces of a stone or brick building, date, but in other respects the architecture of Edward the
whether external or internal ; as the corner of two walls, Third's reign predominates.
the corner of an arch and a wall, the corner made by two On entering under the fine old gateway on the southern
sides of a room, &c. side, the object which probably first attracts our attention is
COIN, Rustic. See RUSTIC. the long range of beautiful windows on our left. The long
COIN, (from the Latin, cuneus, a wedge,) a block cut pile of buildings on this side of the quadrangle
is raised, as

obliquely at the bottom, but level at the top, to rest we before mentioned, on a broad paved walk, or terrace, and
upon an inclined plane, for supporting a column, or consist besides of two stories, the lower presenting, on the
pilaster. exterior, a series of large, closely-set windows, with interve-
COLARIN. See COLLABINO. ning buttresses ; and the upper a row of nearly double the
COLLAR, a ring, or cincture. number of windows, but of much smaller dimensions, and
COLLAR-BEAM, a beam of a roof,
in the construction with larger intervening spaces. The lower windows are
above the lower ends of the or base of the roof. The
rafters, divided by mullions into five lights, and their arched heads
tie-beam is always in a state of extension, but the collar-beam are filled with tracery of good design ; while the windows of
may either be in a state of compression or extension, according the upper story are of the most simple description, being but
as the principals are with or without tie-beams. This length of building is judi-
In trussed plain lancets of one light.
beams are framed into queen posts and in common
roofs collar ; ciously broken up into three parts by two stair-turrets, which
roofs, into the rafters themselves. Though trusses in general give access to the apartments above ; and by a door at the
have no more than one collar-beam,very large roofs may have side, entrance is obtained to the lower story ; one of the tur-
two or three collar-beams, besides the tie-beam. Collar-beams rets is used likewise for a belfry. The doors on the terrace
give entrance to a long covered ambulatory, 151 feet in
will support or truss sides of the rafters, so as to
up the keep
them from sagging, without but then the
any other support
; length, lighted by eight fine windows, which we have noticed
tie-beam would only bo supported at its extremities. In above, and covered with a flat roof showing the timbers, with
common purlin roofing, the purlins are laid in the acute arches spanning across at intervals where required. Out of
 COL 176 COL
this cloisteropen twenty apartments for the students, of which and a porter's lodge extend under the common room
offices
above thirty more open into a corridor in the upper story. to the entrance gate. A
steep and narrow flight of stairs
The arrangement of these apartments is the same throughout: between the chapel and refectory, the kitchen door being at
they measure 15 feet by 8 feet 6 inches, and are divided by a their feet, reaches a small landing, from the right or north of
partition into two rooms. The furniture of the rooms con- which you enter the hall, while immediately opposite, on the
sists of an iron bedstead, a fixed and compact washhand-stand, left the entrance to the chapel.
hand, is
" The chapel
a fixed table, having on one side drawers for clothes, and on i entered at the north-west, through a small
the other a drawer for writing materials, and above the table ante-chapel lighted by the restored western triplet of the
shelves for books fixed against the wall ; an elbow-chair and ancient fabric, and parted from the body of the chapel by a
two others complete the furniture. The rooms are well ven- bold arch, sustaining a double bellcote externally, and filled
tilated, and heated by hot water, one of the few arrangements with a proper screen. Within the screen extends the solemn
which we have to find fault with. length of the chapel, the small dimensions being quite for
Level with these buildings, but at right angles to them, on gotten in the beauty of the proportions returned stalls, with
:

the eastern side of the area, and detached, stands the library, miserere seats and back panelling of unexceptional style and
perhaps the most dignified building of the whole group. taste, with subselte to match, mark the choir. Eastwards
Raised upon a crypt, the proportions of which are old, and the sanctuary, though small, is beautifully treated and suffi-
the details copied and of great simplicity, is a vast apartment ciently dignified. The measurements are as follows length, :

78 feet long by 39 feet broad, with massy buttressed walls, 60 width, 18 feet; height from floor to wall-plate,
feet;
and large traceried and transomed windows, surmounted by 14 feet 6 inches ; from floor to ridge, 30 feet 6 inches. The
a magnificent open roof of oak, the ridge of which is 63 feet lighting of the chapel is peculiarly effective a five-light :

high from the level of the terrace. A noble flight of fifteen middle-pointed east window, and two adjacent couplets north
steps, approached by an ample arch, and contained within a and south of the sanctuary, concentrate the light on the altar.
porched roof at right angles to the main pile, and lighted by The side-walls are unpierced, and the choir is consequently
four windows, affords a means of entrance at the southern religiously sombre, the windows of the
ante-chapel, however,
extremity. This library is well lighted by thirteen large win- sufficiently from gloom. There is no colour on
removing it

dows, six on each side, and one at the north end ; they are the walls or roof; in fact, none but the stained glass with
each of four lights, being divided vertically by a mullion, and which all the windows are filled. The whole effect is one of
horizontally by a transom, and have trefoiled heads. The real, unpretending, earnest effectiveness, and austere and
disposition of the windows naturally divides the interior into unworldly beauty. The stained glass chosen throughout, with
six compartments. a depth of meaning, itself a homily, betrays a world of thought
The crypt upon which this building is erected, is raised on in its distribution.
" we
the foundation of the great refectory belonging to the ancient Mr. Butterfield is
peculiarly successful, think, in his
establishment, and is to serve the purpose of a museum. It treatment of encaustic tiles. Those used in the chapel
is
lighted from the exterior by small lancets, and is divided appeared to us most judiciously chosen and arranged. The
internally by ten pillars into three aisles of equal width ; the footpace of the altar in particular was a beautiful mosaic of
ceiling is groined, and the floor paved with red tiles. bright colours and intricate design.
The roof of this building, as also that of the last, is tiled "The ante-chapel is furnished with a few open seats
and crested with ridge tiles;
the materials of the walling, intended for the use of the family of the warden and of the
however, vary, the library being built of uncoursed rag, with servants of the college. The choir is thus appropriated
dressings of Caen, while that of the northern range is of exclusively to the use of the foundation and the students.
flint.
" Werejoice to add, that there are no fixed altar-rails,
Descending from the terrace, the most important building though there is movable railing for the use of the communi-
of the western range is the chapel, but it will be well to leave cants. A litany-stool occupies the middle of the choir. The
this for the present, and starting from the southern
extremity lessons will be read from letterns fixed one on each side in
of the library, follow out the lucid description afforded to us the upper ranges of stalls. A
rather large hole, furnished
in the Ecdesiologist : with a shutter, near the wall-plate on the north side, for
"
Going from this point in a south-west direction, we come ventilation, deserves notice for the boldness and simplicity
to a range of buildings containing the apartments for the of the idea.
fellows, each of whom
will have two rooms and a gyp room, " We should mention that the chapel is raised on a crypt
and the warden's lodge, a spacious and commodious family vaulted and designed to serve as a sacristy. The bells are
residence. These are of flint, in good middle-pointed, and in rung from a western bay, open and vaulted, occupying the
many respects show great ability. Still we confess we think space under the ante-chapel, the ropes passing through
the
them the admirable parts of the design. Northward of
least floor by the screen, and so reaching the bells in the bellcote
these, and projecting considerably from their level eastward before noticed, which is by the way one of the less successful
into the court, is the chapel to which we shall recur after
parts of the design.
speaking of the refectory and kitchen, which range northward "It is with unfeigned pleasure we again congratulate
of the chapel between it and the ancient
gateway at the Mr. Butterfield on his success in this most interesting work,
north-west corner of the quadrangle. The refectory is a fine which will, we really think, ensure him enduring and most
room, with a roof the humbleness of which is redeemed by deserved fame amongst English church-architects."
its being
mainly original no oriel, (the shell of the walls COLLEGIATE CHURCH, a church to which is attached
being ancient,) but with a dais and tables, and a cleverly an ecclesiastical establishment of deans,wardens, and fellows,
contrived range of closets at its south
extremity. Northwards which, before the Reformation, consisted of a number of secu-
it communicates with a common under the government of a dean,
room, and a beautiful room, lar canons living togather
intended, we believe, for a muniment-room, or, for the pre- warden, provost, or master.
sent, a lecture-room, occupying the upper story of the ancient COLOGNE EARTH, a substance used by painters as a
gateway. Below the refectory is the kitchen, with a fine water-colour, approaching to amber in its structure, and of
chimney projecting eastwards into the quadrangle, while a deep brownish tinge.
 COL 177 COL
COLONELLI (from the Italian) truss-posts, or the posts The moderns seldom employ more than one row of columns,
of a truss-frame. either in external or internal colonnades, for the back range
COLONNADE, (from the Italian colonna,) a range of destroys the perspective regularity of the front range ; the
attached or insulated columns, supporting an entablature. visual rays coming from both ranges produce nothing but
The interval between the columns, measured by the inferior indistinct vision to the spectator. This confusion, in a cer-
diameter of the column, is called (he intercolt/mniation, and tain degree also attends pilasters behind a row of insulated
the whole area between every two columns is called an inter- columns; but in this the relief is stronger, owing to the
column. When the intercolumniation is one diameter and a rotundity of the column and the flat surfaces of the pilasters.
half, it is called pycnostyle, or columns thick set; when two When buildings are executed on a small scale, as is frequently
diameters, systyle; when two and a quarter, eustyle ; when the case in temples, and other designs, used for the ornaments
three, diastyle and when four, arccostyle, or columns thin
; of gardens, it will be found necessary to make the inter-
set. G>lumnsare sometimes set two and two together, having columniations, or at least the central one, broader than usual,
half a diameter for the smaller interval, and three and a half in proportion to the diameter of the columns ;
for when the
diameters for the larger; this disposition is termed ara<w(/styfc. columns are placed nearer each other than three feet, the
A colonnade is also named according to the number of columns space becomes too narrow to admit more than one person
which support the entablature, or fastigium as, when there ; conveniently.
are four columns, it is called tctraslyle ; when six, liexaslyln ; COLISEUM, or COLOSSEUM, the amphitheatre at Rome,
when and when ten, derastyle. The inter-
eight, octastyle ; built by the emperors Vespasian and Titus. See AMPHI-
columniutiona of the Doric order are regulated by the number THEATKE.
of triglyphs, placing one over every intermediate column ;
COLOSSEUM. Although it scarcely falls within our pro-
when there is one triglyph over the interval, it is called mono- vince to describe places of amusement considered merely
triglyph ; when there are two, it is called ditriglyph ; and so as such, the structure known under the name at the head of
on, according to the progressive order of the Grecian nume- this article, deserves, from its peculiar form, and the extreme
rals. The intercolumniation of (he Grecian Doric is almost taste displayed in its interior decorations, something more

constantly the monotriglyph, for there are only two deviations than a passing notice. The Colosseum, designed by Mr. Deei-
from this to be met with at Athens ; the one in the Doric mus Burton, is, in external form, a polygon of sixteen sides,
portico, and the other in the portico forming the entrance of which the diameter is 130 feet. In the attic, all the faces of
to the Acropolis, or citadel ; but these intervals only belong the polygon are shown but below, three of them are occupied
;

to themiddle intercolumniations, which are both ditriglyphs, by the portico, a Doric hexastyle of about 70 feet in width.
and became necessary on account of their being opposite to This order is here exhibited upon a much larger scale than
the principal entrances. As the character of the Grecian had previously been done in any building in the metropolis,
Doric is more massive and dignified than that of the Roman, with the advantage of an effect not attainable with fewer
the monotriglyph succeeds best; but in the Human it is not columns, and with the still greater advantage of its character
so convenient, for the passage through the intercolumns not being impaired by the introduction of features irrecon-
would be too narrow, particularly in small buildings; the cilable with any aim at a strictly Grecian style, there being
n other within the portico than a single lofty doorway. " In
"

ditriglyph is therefore more generally adopted. The aneo-

its general form," observes Mr. W. II. Leeds, whose criticisms
style is only applied to rustic structures of the Tuscan order,
where the intercolumns are lintelled over with architraves. are always entitled to attention, " this edifice must be referred
When the solid parts of the masonry of a range of arcades to a Roman, rather than a Grecian prototype, namely, the
are decorated with the orders, the intercolumns necessarily Pantheon, which circumstance it probably was that led one
become wide, and the intercolumniation is regulated by the writer, who has attempted to describe the building, into a
breadth of the arcades and of the piers. ludicrous blunder, for he has not scrupled to assure his
Buildings with a colonnade projecting at one end are readers, that its portico is copied from that of the Pantheon
'
termed prostyle ; with a colonnade at both and opposite ends, at Rome, which, in the harmony of its proportions, and the
amphiprostyle ; with the same on all sides of the building, exquisite beauty of its columns, surpasses every temple on
peristyle and with a double range of columns, poly style. the earth !' Had he said that it was copied from Canova's
It does not
appear that coupled, grouped, or clustered church at Possagno, he would have been some degrees nearer
columns ever prevailed in the works of the ancients; though, the mark, at least as far as resemblance in regard to the order
on many occasions, they would have been much more useful ; adopted, and the application of a Grecian style to the plan of
we indeed find, in the Temple of Bacchus, at Rome, columns the Roman Pantheon."
standing as it were in pairs; but as each pair is only placed Mr. Hosking, in his "Treatise on Architecture," objects to
in the thickness of the wall, and not in the front, they may the combination of the square and circle in the plan ; observ-
"
rather be said to be two rows of columns, one almost imme- ing, Irregular and intricate forms in works of architecture,
diately behind the other. In the baths of Diocletian, and in whether internally or externally, will be found unpleasing.
the Temple of Peace, at Rome, we find groined ceilings sus- Few can admire the external effect of the Pantheon, or of
tained by single Corinthian columns ; but such a support is the structure in London called the Colosseum, which has
both meagre and inadequate. Vignola uses the same inter- been subjected same arrangement, though certain fea-
to the
columniation in all his orders. This practice, though con- tures in both be good." Yet, with due deference to the
may
demned by some, is founded upon a good principle, for it opinion of such an authority, we should be inclined to demur
preserves a constant ratio between the columns and the inter- to it, even had we not Canova's own example to oppose to it.
vals. Of all the kinds of intercolumniation, the eustyle was In itself irregularity is a fault; but then the question is,
in the most general request among the ancients ; and though, whether the slight degree of it thus produced can be fairly
in modern architecture, both the eustyle and diastyle are termed so besides which, by pushing the doctrine a little
;

employed, the former is still preferred in most cases as to :

further, we may contend that a parallelogram is an irregular
the pycnostyle interval, it is frequently rejected for want square, consequently faulty, and the flank and front of a
of room, and the ancostyle for want of giving sufficient sup- Grecian temple do not exhibit that uniformity which they
port to the entablature. might and ought to be made to do. But we need not resort
23
 COL 178 COL
to any argument of that kind, because, were it not for the as many pilasters, dividing and supporting arched recesses,
irregularity censured by that writer, and caused by the addi- in each of which, as well as between the columns, are placed
tion of a portico to the circular part of their plan, both the works of art from the studios of many eminent sculptors. In
buildings he mentions would appear heavy, lumpish masses, the centre of the apartment is the circular frame- work
whatever decoration might be bestowed upon them. enclosing the staircase leading to the panorama ;
this is hung
The Colosseum was built for the purpose of exhibiting a with drapery tastefully disposed, from the summit of the
panorama of London, on a scale of magnitude hitherto un- arched dome to the floor, concealing the stairs, and harmoniz-
attempted. The projector made his sketches from an obser- ing with the prevailing tints of the architectural decorations.
vatory placed on scaffolding several feet above the top of Around this are seats covered with rich Utrecht velvet,
St. Paul's cross ; these sketches were afterwards transferred raised on a dais, and divided by groups of Cupid and Psyche
to the canvass, and in their finished state display the whole supporting candelabra in the form of palm-trees ; the figures
of this vast metropolis and its environs, as it would appear on being white, and the draperies, leaves, plumes, &c., gilded.
the clearest day, and aided by the most powerful vision. To From this hall, the visitor ascends to the panorama by the
use the somewhat magniloquent language of a contemporary, staircase, or is raised in a small room, called the Ascending
the spectator " sees beneath the summer sunshine of a serene Room, which is elevated by means of machinery to the re-
sky, divested of the usual canopy of smoke and vapour, this quired height.
great metropolis, with its countless multitude of streets and A panorama of Paris by moonlight has now succeeded to
squares, its churches, palaces, mansions, hospitals, theatres, the panorama of London before mentioned, and seems to
public offices, institutions scientific and literary ; its noble attract as much as the former picture.
river, with its numerous bridges and in
;
the distance a rich Since the creation of what may be termed the original
and varied expanse of rural and sylvan scenery, extending structure, a considerable addition has been made to it on the
from the woodlands of Kent and Essex in the east, to the eastern side towards Albany Street. Here is a second
forestand castle of Windsor on the western horizon. Recover- entrance, leading by large folding doors into a square vesti-
ing from the wonder created by this first view of the picture bule, and thence into an arched corridor, lighted during the
as a whole, he finds new cause of astonishment in
examining day from above by circles of cut glass and at night by
;

it in detail for not only may the prominent structures be

; numerous bronze tripods. Descending to the basement story
discerned and known, but every private residence in town by three nights of steps, the visitor enters a spacious saloon,
or country, which is visible from St. Paul's itself, be
recog- supported by columns and pilasters, appropriated to the sale
nized in the representation ; and the various objects in the of refreshments ; from this room ornamented glass doors lead
foreground, as well as in the distance, will bear the test of to conservatories, aviaries, and other objects of interest. In
the telescope. To increase the effect, improve the conve- the upper story of this part of the building a handsome little
nience for inspection, and, at the same time, to augment the theatre has been formed, the decorations of which are of the
means of judging of the merits of the performance as a work most gorgeous character. In this theatre is exhibited a
of art, there is a succession of galleries, the highest of which
moving picture called the "Cyclorama," in which a represen-
is constructed for the
purpose of giving a more satisfactory tation is given of the great earthquake at Lisbon in the year
view of the distant country ; an easy ascent from the galleries 1755. As a work of art, the panorama is deserving of high
leads to an esplanade, on the circle that crowns the exterior
praise, and aided by the labours of the machinist, and the
of the Colosseum, from which is beheld a real inventive ability of Mr. Bradwell, the presiding genius of
panorama
formed by the Regent's Park and its elegant vicinity." the establishment, a scenic illusion has been produced, which
Since the above description was written, the Colosseum, Altogether the Colos-
is
really well worthy of admiration.
as a place of amusement, has suffered many vicissitudes, and seum is deserving the attention of the architectural student,
at one time had fallen very low in public estimation in the;
as something beyond a mere place of amusement. In it he
year 1844, however, it fell into the hands of the present pro- may learn how much may be done in the way of decorative
prietor, who has expended very large sums in completely art, by a tasteful arrangement of those materials which the
remodelling the whole establishment. sister arts place at his disposal.
The alterations considered desirable were made from the COLOSSUS, at Rhodes, a celebrated statue of Apollo,
designs and under the direction of Mr. William Bradwell, made of brass, popularly supposed to have been erected over
whose taste, skill, and judgment have, in this instance, as in the entrance of the harbour in such manner that a foot stood on
many others, produced the most admirable results. The each pier, and ships passed through its extended legs. This
ability he has displayed has been seconded by the proprietor statue, of which Pliny has left an account, was begun by Chares,
with the greatest liberality, and the unhesitating a pupil of Lysippus, and completed by Laches ; twelve years
appropria-
tion of whatever amount of capital might be were employed in making it. Its height was 105 feet ; the
required to carry
out the conceptions of the talented artist. thumb was so large that few men could span it, and its fingers
There are two entrances, one in the Regent's Park under were much larger than those of ordinary statues. It was
the portico, the other in cast hollow, and filled with large stones to counterbalance ita
Albany Street, at the back of the
building. Entering by the former, the visitor proceeds down weight, and keep it steady on its supporters. Within was a
a handsome staircase to a vestibule, is said, was
leading to a large saloon, winding staircase ascending to the top, where it
called the Glyptotheca, or Museum of The roof a vast in which the of and ships
Sculpture. hung mirror, country Syria,
of this apartment presents to the
eye a lofty dome, of several entering the ports of Egypt, might be
discerned. The notion
thousand feet of richly cut glass, springing from an entablature that its legs rested one on each side of the harbour does not,
and cornice supported by numerous columns. The frieze is
however, seem to be supported by any good authority, and
enriched with the whole of the Panathenaic modern travellers do not agree as to its site.
procession from
the Elgin Marbles, and is continued -without
interruption After standing upwards of sixty years, the Colossus was
around the entire circumference of the hall, above which are overthrown by an earthquake in the year 224 B. c., by which
twenty fresco paintings of allegorical subjects on panels, the also the buildings of the city suffered greatly. So great at that
mouldings, cornices, capitals of columns, and enrichments time was the commercial importance of Rhodes, that the great
being in gold. Beyond the circle of columns is another of princes of the day vied with each other
in the munificence of
 COL 179 COL
their presents to repair its losses. The inhabitants of Rhodes of the portico of Ashmounein not found, we believe, elsewhere
sent ambassadors to all the states of Grecian origin, to solicit in Egypt. Instead of being formed of large masses placed
their assistance for repairing and re-erecting their statue, and one above another, they consist of irregular pieces fitted
obtained a sum more than five times equal to the damage. together with such nicety, that it is difficult to detect the
The principal contributors were the kings of Macedon, Syria, lines of junction; and this illusion is aided also by the form
Egypt, Pontus, and Bithynia. But, instead of appropriating of the columns. The bottom is like the lowest leaves of the
the money to the purpose for which it was given, the Rhodian lotus, after which we see a number of concentric rings, bind-
priests pretended that the oracle of Delphi had forbidden it ; ing the column just like the hoops of a cask ; and again above
and the money was converted to other uses. The Colossus, them the column is worked in such a way by vertical cuttings,
therefore, lay neglected on the ground for 894 years, when to present the appearance of a bundle of rods held together
the Saracens, becoming masters of the island, sold it to a by hoops ; the whole has the appearance of a barrel ; the
Jewish merchant, who broke it up, and loaded 900 camels columns are about 40 feet high, including the capitals. Their
with the metal the weight of the brass, therefore, allowing
:
greatest circumference is about 28 feet, at the height of 5
800 pounds for each load, after the diminution it had sustained feet from the ground, for the column diminishes in thickness
by rust, and probably by theft, amounted to 720,000 pounds both towards the base and capital. These columns were
weight. painted yellow, red, and blue. Similar pillars are found in
This enormous figure was not the only colossal statue that the temple of Gournon."
attracted notice in the city of Rhodes, for Pliny reckons near Reeded columns, which bear the appearance of a bundle of
100 others. From the Rhodian Apollo, it is supposed, that reeds bound together at intervals and set on end, are not
every statue exceeding in magnitude the size of a man, has uncommon, and are often surmounted with a bulging capi-
been called a colossal statue. tal, which is of similar formation to the shaft, with a cincture
COLUMBARIA, the holes left in walls for the insertion at its lowest part, and square flat abacus on the top, bearing
of timbers ; also the recesses in ancient tombs, in which the the entablature ; the swell* or bulging would appear to be
urns containing the ashes of the deceased were deposited. caused by the pressure of the entablature. Square columns
COLUMELL/E, the same as balusters. See BALUSTRADE. are to be found in the excavations at Thebes, and triangular
COLUMN (Latin, columna, derived from columen, a post, ones are spoken of by Pococke ; at Ypsambool are square
or supporter) in a general sense, a vertical support of a body, columns or piers with caryatid figures in front of them.
or portion of a building. The forms of columns found in India vary considerably.
The use of columns is of very early date, as we hear of In the subterraneous temples, which are excavated out of
their application both in the Temple of Solomon, and in the the solid rock, they are generally of a massive character, and
Palace of Ulysses ; they do not seem to have been employed in proportions stunted ;they are rather grand than graceful.
in the primaeval erections of Babylon, where their
place was The bases are frequently cubical, and of great height in pro-
supplied by piers, but are to be found in universal application portion to the shaft, sometimes equal to it ; they are at other
in the ancient structures of
Egypt, India, and Persia. The times octangular : the shafts are circular, or multangular,
column is so important a feature in the construction of and sometimes consist of both forms one above the other,
buildings, that its value must have been early known, and surmounted by low, compressed capitals. Columns of a
when known, must soon have formed a subject for ornamen- balustral form are to be seen at the Temple of Elephanta ;
tation ; its origin is to be found doubtless in the simple pier, they are about 9 feet high, supported on cubical bases about
and a very good specimen of its progress in improvement of 6 feet in height; the capitals, of a semicircular profile,
form and in application of ornament, is to be seen at Amada, exhibit the appearance of compressed cushions, and with the
in Nubia, where, amongst other columns or
piers in the form shafts, are ribbed or reeded : the whole is surmounted by
of a simple parallelepiped, with base and capital of a similar an abacus of the form of an inverted truncated pyramid.
form, but projecting a little beyond the surface of the shaft, Some very curious columns are to be seen in a cave at Ellora,
those at the corners of the building are both cylindrical and which consist of elephants bearing castles, and surmounted at
fluted, leaving, however, a square abacus or capital, and square the top by a capital or abacus.
base, similar to the others. The former is undoubtedly the In the pagodas, or constructed temples of the Indians, the
primitive shape; the latter, previously of the same form, columns are of an entirely different appearance, they are by
whether for convenience or otherwise, has been rounded off no means so stunted, and are often of quite an opposite cha-
at the corners and somewhat ornamented. Such improve- racter, slender ; such are those in that part of the pagoda of
ments both in form and decoration, gradually progress, until Chillambaram called the Nerta Chaboei; they are, in all
we arrive at the well-proportioned and tastefully enriched cases, profusely enriched with sculpture. The capitals of
columns of the classic orders, or the still more beautiful the columns are frequently made more effective to the sup-
pillars of the Gothic styles. port of the entablature by extending them out in the shape
The columns of Egypt exhibit a great variety, both in of brackets, so as to leave but a small portion of the entabla-
form and decoration the capital in the shape of a vase or
: ture unsupported. Sometimes a succession of brackets pro-
inverted bell, is usually decorated with foliage, frequently jectfrom the adjacent columns one above another, and meet
with the leaves of the lotus, but is of less elegant form than no portion unsupported.
in the centre, so as to leave
similar capitals of Greece and Rome; the shaft is generally Of Persian columns we have but few examples remaining,
circular, but sometimes square or polygonal, and varies in but from these we may conclude that they were of slendeir
diameter at different heights, the thickness, in some cases, proportions, the height of some of the existing specimens
diminishing both towards the capital and base ; this last being as much as 70 feet, while their diameter is but 5| feet.
member, the base, is frequently absent in Egyptian exam- Some of the shafts are fluted with fillets intervening, and are
ples, and when present is of the simplest kind, consisting raised upon a base 4 or 5 feet in height, finished with sculp-
of a square slab or plinth. The columns were of stone, tured mouldings. We have specimens of two kinds of
capitals, the one consisting of small scrolls, somewhat
not unfrequently of a single block, and, at other times, of similar
" There is
gigantic masses placed one upon the other. a to the volutes of the Ionic capital, placed in rows one above
Mr. " in the columns the other on the sides at the top of the shaft ; the others
peculiarity, however," says Hamilton,
 COL 180 COL

projecting from two opposite sides of the shaft, after the stunted, and of all degrees of decoration, some with simple
manner of brackets or corbels, and sculptured into the shape mouldings, others with foliated capitals ; some with single
of the fore-part of an animal, which in some degree resembles shafts, others clustered ; some circular, others polygonal.
a horse. These columns must have possessed a considerable These, as is
necessary, will be considered in detail, for which
share of simplicity and elegance. we refer to the various subdivisions into which the Gothic
Of the columns of the Grecian or Roman orders we need style usually distributed.
is

say nothing in this place, not only because their forms are COLUMN, in the orders of classic architecture, consists of a
so well known, but also because they are so fully and minutely conic or conoidal frustum, called the shaft, tapering upwards
described in other parts of this book, and amply delineated in in the manner of a tree, with an assemblage of parts at the
its illustrations. Some few remarks as to their form, &c. is upper extremity, termed the capital, and with sometimes
appended to this article. another assemblage of parts at the lower extremity, called
In those styles of architecture which immediately succeeded the base. The capital finishes with a horizontal table, either
the Roman, and were indeed but debased copies of it, the square on the plan, or capable of being inscribed in a square,
column followed the general form and character of the called the abacus. The base, also, when there is one, most
original ;
some were formed of portions of columns taken frequently stands on a table, square on the plan, and hori-
from Romanbuildings, and piled together indiscriminately in zontal on the upper and lower sides, called the plinth.
the new structures, which destroyed their proportions, while Vitruvius directs the columns at the angles to be made
it
preserved their form and details. Out of this chaos arose thicker than the intermediate ones; the diameter of columns
the styles afterwards prevalent in Italy and that portion of to be proportioned to the intcrcolumns that the higher they
;

the continent, and we may add in Greece, for doubtless are, their diminution should be less; that those on the flanks
Byz:intine architecture, although in a certain sense a distinct and angles have their inner faces toward the walls perpen-
style, lion-owed largely, both in its general features and its dicular, but those of the pronaos and posticum to be set
details, from the edifices of the 'deserted capital; indeed a perpendicular on their axes that those in theatres and other
;

debased imitation of the Corinthian column was very preva- works of gaiety, should not have the same proportion as those
lent in the buildings of Constantinople. The copy was more in sacred edifices;and that the two middle columns, opposite
successful in some
instances than others, the foliage being the entry, should have a wider interval than any two of the
frequently of very inferior design, and only carved out others.
slightly iu relief .above the surface. The more characteristic The Greeks seldom employed attached columns ; the only
capitals of the Byzantine style consisted of mere truncated instances of the kind in Attica, and indeed in all Greece, are
pyramids inverted and ornamented with a kind of basket- the monument of Lysicratcs and the temple of Minerva
work in low relief. Polias, where the columns present something more than half
In Loiubardic columns the base is frequently but a simple their diameter. In thetemples of Agrigentum and jEscula-
square block, rounded off at the top, though it sometimes pius, in Sicily, the columns are also attached. The remains
consists of a carved lion or other monster supporting the of Roman edifices show many instances of attached columns,
shaft on its back such bases are frequent in porches and in
;
as in the temple of Fortune, the triumphal arch of Titus, the
smaller structures, as tombs, &c. The shafts, especially of Coliseum, and the theatre of Marccllus, at Rome, where the
the larger columns, are circular, and of the same diameter columns project only half their diameter and this rule was
;

from top to bottom the proportion between the height and

; strictlyobserved the ancients, who generally tapered the
by
diameter varies very considerably, according to the purpose shafts from the base.
of the column and its material ; when the weight to be sup- The Grecian Doric is without a base, which is peculiar to

ported is great, or the material used but little compacted, the the Ionic and Corinthian orders. Much has been said con-
shaft is low and massive ; but when the weight is inconsider- cerning the proportion of columns ; but it must chiefly
able, it becomes tall and slender, and is sometimes divided depend upon their situation, whether disposed on the exterior
in its height by moulded bands. Columns are sometimes or interior, attached or insulated, on a level with the eye or
coupled together, standing either side by side, or one in raised above it ; circumstances which will affect the propor-
front of the other, of both which arrangements we have tion, and render all canonical rules uncertain. We
also judge

examples in the cloisters of S. Lorenzo and Santa Sabina, at of the proportion of columns from the materials whereof they
Rome, where either arrangement is copied in the alternate are constructed, as a column of iron will require a different
piers quadrupled columns arc to be met with in the church
; proportion from one of stone.
of Boppart. When columns are attached to walls or piers, Some columns have the lower third quite cylindrical, and
they not unfrequently have smaller shafts either before or the upper two-thirds only diminished, but the most beautiful
beside them, somewhat similar to the clustered columns of diminish from the bottom.
later date these smaller shafts, however, are never prolonged
;
In the preface to Stewart's third volume of Antiquities,
at Athens,
in the shape of ribs of a vault. The shafts of the smaller speaking of the temple of Jupiter Olympus,
columns are not unfrequently polygonal, fluted, or reeded, Mr. Reveley, who conducted that volume, observes, that
" the columns diminish from the bottom a beautiful curve
and are sometimes formed of small shafts twisted together in by
a spiral line. The capitals are, for the most part, barbarous line." In another part of the same preface, he farther
more usually Corinthian, and
imitations of the classic orders, observes, generally, that " the columns rise, with consider-
are sometimes ornamented with spear-heads, and scroll or able diminution, in the most graceful sweeping lines." It is
fret-work, while some again are formed of animals real and much be regretted, that Mr. Stewart, who has, in general,
to
monstrous, and ornamented with grotesque designs of all been so particular in the measures of Grecian architecture,
descriptions. should have neglected a thing so important as the dimensions
We have now arrived at the period of Gothic art, when of the shafts of columns.
the forms, proportions, and ornamentation of columns became The columns of the Pantheon, of the temples of Vesta, of
of Concord, of the
of infinite variety, subject to no law save that of beauty and Jupiter Stator, of Antoninus and Faustina,
utility ; so that to attempt to describe them in
this place arch of Titus, of the portico of Septimius, and of the theatre
would be futile. We
have them of all proportions save the of Marcellus, at Rome, are all diminished from the bottom.
COLUMN. PLATE I
 COL 181 COL
Columns may be diminished by a curve, according to any been produced to a point, K ; the supposed line, c K, to have
of the following methods : been equal to c D ; and an angle, having been made upon the
METHOD I. Figure 1. Take the semi-diameter, A B, at edge of a thin board, equal to A c K ; then the contour, AFC,
the top of the shaft, and apply it from o to D on the semi- would have been, described in the same manner, between the
diameter, c E, at the bottom ; with the radius, o E, describe points A and c, as each of the former parts
shown by the
an arc, E F. Draw D F perpendicular to E o, divide the arc It is obvious, that by this last method, it would be
figure.
E F into any number of equal parts (as four, in this example) requisite to have the machine
twice the length of that in the
E n, n n, n n, n F ; also divide the representative axis, c B, first method ; from -which it would become more unmanage-

into the same number of equal parts, c m, m m, m m, m B ; able in the formation of the curve, and inconvenient in many
through the points m, m, &c. and also through the points n, situations, for want of space to extend
H to the necessary
draw lines m t and v n, parallel to E c, of which the lines v n distance.
cut the representative axis at v; make all the lines t
equal m METHOD Figure 7. Let A B be the representative
VII.
to all the lines v n, beginning next to the base in succession, axis of. thecolumn; A D, B c, the semi-diameters of the top
towards A n ; then through all the points, t, draw a curve, and bottom of the shaft produce o B to F ; on the point D,
;

which is the contour of the column. The edge of the with a radius, c B, describe an arc, cutting A B at E draw ;

diminishing rule H, shown upon the other side, is just DBF; in A B, take any number of points, m, and draw the
the reverse, that is to say, it is concave, the contour of the lines F mn; make each line m equal to B c ; then draw
,

column being convex. D nn . . which will be the curve required.

.
c,
METHOD II. Figure 2. The points D and F, being found, METHOD VIII. Figure 8. The points E and F being found
as in Figure 1, instead of dividing the arc, E F, as in Figure 1, as in Method VII. place a rule with a canal, or groove, on
into equal parts, divide the straight line D F into the equal the axis A B, and put a pin in F ; take another rule, D F,
parts, D x, x x, x x, x r, and the representative axis c B, into having a groove on the under side, and lay this groove on
the same number, and complete the other parts of the the pin at F put another pin through the rod at E, into the
;

operation, as in Figure 1. The same letters of refer- groove A B then, with a pencil, through D, and moving
;

ence being fixed to the like parts, show the process to be the ruler D F, while the pin E slides in the groove A B, and
similar. the groove on the under side of D F on the pin F, the contour
METHOD III. Figure 3. B c being the altitude of the D c, will be described with one movement.
shaft, and D A, at right angles to it, the quantity of diminu- METHOD IX. Figure 9, A B being the axis of the column ;
tion upon one side of it divide c B into equal parts, at the
: A D and B c the lower and upper diameters draw D E parallel;

points D, E, F;
also divide A B into the same number of equal to A B ; find the point F, as in Methods VII. and VIII., and
parts, at the points </, e, f; draw the lines D o, E n, F i, draw EOF; divide A F into any number of equal parts, by
parallel to A B ; again from the points d, e, f, to the point c, the points rj ; also divide D E into the same number of equal
draw lines, d o c, e u c, / i c and through the points A, o,
:
parts, by the points h ; join
each corresponding g h ; make
n, i, c, draw a curve, which will give the contour required. i
every g equal to A D, and the curve drawn through all the
METHOD IV. Figure 4. A n and B c, being the same as points i, will be that required. This mode is practised when
in Figure 3 :
now, suppose it were required to give less room cannot be found for Figures 7 and 8, with which it is
curvature to the contour of the column ; between A and B the same in principle.
take any iuterinediate point, g, nearer towards A, or B, as the Observations on the several methods. By the First Method,
curvature is intended to be flatter or quicker (in this example the curvature of the shaft becomes continually less towards
it is in the middle of A
B) draw the line g c, divide A g into
; the superior diameter, and if the contour were extended
any number of equal parts, A </, d e, t f, f g, (as here into beyond the shaft, it would meet in a point, of which its
four) ; divide B c into the same number of equal parts, B D, distance from B would be a fourth proportional to the length
D E, E F, F c ; draw D o, E n, F i, parallel to B A, draw d o c, of the arcs E F, F o, Figure 1, and the axis c B ; the semi-axal
e H c,/i c, then through the
points A, o, H, i, c, draw A G H i c, section of the whole thus produced, is a figure of the same
which is the curve required. nature as the figure of the sines.
METHOD V. Figure 5. Join A c, and draw A L at right By the Second Method, the curvature of the shaft is con-
angles to it, meeting c B produced at L draw A D parallel to ; tinually increased towards
the superior diameter, and if the
c L, and c D perpendicular to it divide L o and A D, each into
; contour were extended above A B, Figure 2, it would termi-
the same number of equal parts, the former at the points E, F, o, nate at a distance from c, which would be a fourth propor
and the latter at n, i, K also, divide A B into the same num-
; tional to D F, c w, c B ; the contour thus produced, would be
ber of equal parts, A e, ef,fff, g B ; join EMH, FWI, QOK; an elongated semi-ellipsis.
also e M c, /N c, g o c, and draw A M N o c, which is the the Third Method, the curvature of the shaft is con-
By
curve required. tinually less towards the superior diameter,
and if the contour
METHOD VI. Figure 6. Join A o c, and bisect it by a were extended, the two sides would meet in a point, whose
perpendicular, F a ; on the centre, c, with the radius, c A, distance from the lower end of the shaft would be the second
describe the arc A D divide A D into two equal parts in K ;
; root of a fourth proportional to the quantity of diminution,
draw K F c, and parallel to o A draw F i ; make an angle, c FI, the semi-diameter at the bottom, and the square of the altitude
upon the edge of a board or rule, put in pins at the points o of the shaft. The shaft and the part thus produced, forms
and F, and with a pencil, upon the angular point F, while the the half of a parabolic spindle ; and the axal section is two
rule is moved from F to c, keeping the side F i of it upon
equal semi-parabolas, joined together by
a common ordinate,
the pin at F, and the same side F c, upon the pin at c, the which forms the axis of the column.
angular point F will describe the contour of the column By the Fourth Method, the curvature is likewise parabolic ;
between F and c. In like manner, by removing the but the axal section is two equal portions of a parabola, less
pin out of c, and putting it in A, the part F A may be than semi-parabolas.
described. By Methods V. and VI., the curvature is everywhere the
The same curve might have been found by one continued same, and is consequently the arc of a circle this contour :

motion from A to c, as follows :

suppose the line D o to have would therefore meet in a point, which would be distant from
 COL 182 COL
the lower end of the shaft, by a quantity equal to the value of masonry ; as are likewise those made in courses of stone,
jointed, and cemented in the best manner, with a rubbed or
smoothed surface. See STONE COLUMN.
/c M I +AB c nl in which B c is the height of the When the shaft of a column is constructed of wooden
staves, glued together, and the interior angles strengthened
shaft, A B the quantity of diminution, and c M the semi- with blockings, the column is said to be a joinery column.
diameter at the bottom. See the articles BASE, CAPITAL, and WOODEN COLUMN.
By Methods VII., VIII., and IX., the contour of the shaft 2. Columns, according to their construction, are columns
never terminates when continued. The curve is concave to in bands or tambours, columns in trencheons, or banded
the axis at the bottom, and after a certain distance, it changes columns.
into a convexity. The curve is called the conchoid of When the shafts of columns are formed of courses of stone
Nicomedes, who
the reputed inventor ; the straight line,
is of a less height than the diameter of the column, they are
in which the moving point runs, is an assymptote ; and the called columns in bands or tambours. This method is only
point over which the moveable rule passes, is called practised in large columns.
the pole. When shafts of columns are formed in courses of greater
As the curve may either fall upon one side or the other height than the diameter of the column, they are said to con-
of the distinguished accordingly: when it falls on
axis, it is sist of trencheons ; this is
practised in small columns, when
the side of the axis opposite to that in which the pole is the fewer the pieces, the more beautiful will the column be ;
situated, it is called the first conchoid ; and when the but the difficulty of raising them from the quarry is greater,
describing point is made to move on the same side of the and the carriage more expensive.
axis with the pole, the curve so formed is called the second When the shafts of columns consist of plain or ornamented
conchoid. cinctures, projecting beyond the general line of the shaft, the
This last method of describing a column by continued column is said to be banded, and is therefore called a banded
motion, has been much praised in architectural works but ;
column. Columns of this description were first introduced
though the method be simple, the instrument is very cum- by De Lorme, in the chapel do Villers-Coherets, and at the
bersome. It may be observed, that as all curves are nearly Tuileries, who by this means supposed the joints would be
the same at the vertex, so small a portion as is required for concealed.
a column, will be the same in practice, by any of the fore- 3. Columns, according to their formation, are attic, conical,

going forms. The most useful method, therefore, of describ- conoidal, cylindrical, cylindroidal, or polygonal.
ing the contour of the shaft, is that of Figure 6 ; the instru- The attic column is an insulated pilaster, having four equal
ment is much more simple, and takes less room, which, in faces, of the highest proportion. Though this is commonly
many cases, would not admit of that for describing the con- inserted among the number of columns, it should not be so
choid and even that of forming tho curve by one motion, as
; deemed, but rather what we have already denominated it, an
shown at the end of Method VI., is much more convenient, insulated pilaster. To prevent confusion,
the use of the term
as length or extension in one direction only, is required. column, in architecture, should be restrained to a body of
But where space is wanting, Methods III. and IV. are circular horizontal sections.
recommended. A conical column has the superior diameter of its shaft less
COLUMNS are variously named, according to their mate- than the inferior, with its sides straight in every plane
rials, construction, formation, decoration, disposition, and passing through the axis.
destination. A conoidal column also has the superior diameter of the
1. Columns, according to their materials, are, moulded, shaft less than the inferior, but its exterior sides are convex

fusible, transparent, scagliola, masonic, or wooden. in any plane passing through the axis. This practice of
When a column is made by cementing gravel and flints of making the shaft swell is ancient, being mentioned obscurely
different colours, it is called a moulded column. by Vitruvius, and has been generally followed by modern
The art of moulding columns was known to the ancients, architects.
as would appear by some lately discovered near Algiers, in Cylindrical columns have the extreme diameters of the
the ruins of the ancient city of Ctesarea ; where the same shafts of equal circles.

inscriptions in antique characters, and even the same defects, Cylindroidal columns are those whose sections are all
are to be found repeated on every shaft, which is certainly a similar and equal ellipses, alike situated. These are other-
proof of their being moulded: the cement employed in the wise called elliptic columns. Instances of this form are rarely
emplastation of columns, grows perfectly hard, and receives to be met with in the remains of antiquity ; a few examples,
a polish like marble. of modern date, are to be seen at Rome.
Columns of fusible matter, as metals, glass, &c., are called Polygonal columns have the horizontal sections of their
fusible columns ; the secret of making them is said to have shafts similar to polygons, alike situated. The lower parts
been known to the ancients, who are also said to have fused of the shafts of the columns of the portico on the Island of
and cast columns of stone. Columns of this description may Delos and of the temple of Cora, are of this form ; as are
also be called moulded columns. likewise the columns of several Egyptian buildings.
When the material of which a column is made is transpa- 4. Columns, according to the decorations of their shafts,
rent, the column is called a transparent column. The are bark-formed, cabled, carolytic, fluted, or twisted.
columns of the theatre of Scaurus, mentioned by Pliny, were Abark-formed column represents the trunk of a tree, with
of crystal, and those in the church of St. Mark, at Venice, are the bark and knots. This is otherwise denominated a pas-
of transparent alabaster. toral column.
When columns are constructed with a kind of plaster, so Cabled or rudented columns have the flutings of the shaft
as j;o imitate marble in polish and colour, they are called filledwith astragals, to about one-third of their height.
decorated with
scagliola columns. Carolytic columns have foliated shafts,
Columns built of rough stone, or compass bricks, and leaves and branches winding spirally around them, or dis-
were used by
cased with stucco, are called masonic columns, or columns of posed in form of crowns and festoons. They
 COL 183 COL
the ancients for supporting statues, whence the name. They an armillary sphere at the top, for observing the motions of
are suitable in theatres, triumphal arches, &c. the heavenly bodies. Such is the Doric order, erected at
Fluted columns have flutes cut in their sides, in planes the Hotel de Soissons, at Paris.
passing through their axes, and are otherwise called chan- Boundary or limetrophus column showed the limits of a
neled or striated columns. kingdom, or conquered country. Such was that erected by
Twisted columns make several circumvolutions in the Alexander the Great at the extremities of the Indies, men-
height of the shad, after the manner of a screw, and have tioned by Pliny.
sometimes several threads or screws following one another in A chronological column bears an inscription of historical
the same circumference ; they are otherwise called spiral events, arranged in order of time. There were two columns
columns. Vignola is said to be the first who discovered the of this kind at Athens, whereon was inscribed the history of
method of drawing this kind of column by rule ; but what Greece, digested into Olympiads.
has been presented to us by this author, is only an incorrect A funeral column is placed over a tomb, supporting an
method of drawing the contour of the column on paper, by urn, or bearing some inscription relative to the deceased. Its

segments of circles, diminishing in altitude as they become shaft is frequently covered with symbols of grief and mor-
more elevated in their regular succession but the true
:
tality.
principles of forming the shaft ought to be shown from the A gnomonic column is a cylinder, on which the hour of the
principles of the spiral, and described upon the conoidal day is represented by the shadow of a style. There are
surface. The barbarous practice of twisting columns has two kinds of gnomonic columns in the one the style is fixed,
:

been much used by modern architects, particularly in the and the hour-lines are projected on the cylindric surface ; in
screens and altar-pieces of churches. The most celebrated the other, the style is moveable, and the hour-lines are drawn
example is the baldachin of St. Peter's. to the several heights of the sun in different seasons of the
Columns spirally formed may be seen in the temple of year.
Spoleto, and are not unfrequent in sarcophagi and other orna- An historical or triumphal column is usually adorned with
mental works. basso-relievos, winding spirally upwards around the shaft,
5. Columns, according to their disposition, are angular, and showing the history of some great personage. The most
cantoned, coupled, doubled, engaged, flanked, grouped, inserted, celebrated ancient triumphal columns are those of Trajan and
insulated, median, or niched. Antoninus Pius at Rome, and Pompey's Pillar, near Alex-
Angular columns are insulated in the corners of a portico, andria, Egypt of modern ones we have three in London
;

or upon the corners of a building, (even though

attached.)
the Monument erected in memory of the Great Fire, that
whether the angle be right, acute, or obtuse. erected in honour of the Duke of York, and another in
Cantoned columns are placed one at each corner of a memory of Lord Nelson, in whose honour there is an earlier
square pier, for supporting the angular springings of groins, one at Edinburgh there is likewise a celebrated column
;

or intersecting vaults. termed Buonaparte's Column, in Paris.

Coupled columns are disposed in pairs, in the same range Trajan's Column is of the Doric order, and constructed of
or line, so as almost to touch at their bases; as those in the marble the face throughout its length is covered with
;

western portico of St. Paul's, and the peristyle of the sculptures arranged in a spiral line, running up the shaft,
Louvre. representing his martial exploits ; its total height, including
Doubled columns, in any range of columns, or in peri- a base or pedestal of 19 feet, is 132 feet, and the diameter
styles,seem to have their shafts penetrating each other to of the shaft at its junction with the base 13 feet.
about one-third of their diameter as in the peristyle of the
;
The column of Antoninus is similar to that of
Trajan both
Louvre. in its style and general character, though not equal to it in
Engaged columns seem to penetrate a wall from between execution. Its height is 122 feet, including a pedestal of
one-fourth to one-half of their diameter. 26 feet, and the diameter of the shaft 11 feet 6 inches.
A flanked column has a semi-pilaster on each side of it, Pompey's Pillar at Alexandria is of the Corinthian order,
and is engaged from one-fourth to one-half its diameter, within and is 92 feet in total height. The shaft, which is 66 feet
the plane of the faces of the semi-pilasters. in height, is of a single block of granite, and polished.
Grouped columns stand in threes or fours on the same Of the columns in London, the Monument is the most
pedestal. celebrated. It is of the Doric order, and has a fluted shaft ;
An inserted column is let into a wall. its total height is 202 feet, and the diameter of the shaft at
An insulated column is free or detached on all sides. its base 15 feet.
Median columns are those two columns of a portico, which At Constantinople were two triumphal columns, similar to
are placed in the middle of the range, at a wider interval those of Trajan and Antoninus; that of Constantino is
than any other two of the same range, for giving a freer entirely destroyed, and of the other, erected to Arcadius, by
access to the principal entrance. The term is derived from Theodosius, only the pedestal and the first course of the
columnar media;, the name given by Vitruvius to the two shaft remain. Historical columns may also be called memo-
columns in the middle of the colonnade. rial, honorary, or triumphal columns.
A nicked column is placed in a niche, with the axis of the An indicative column is placed on the sea-coast, for show-
column in the plane of the wall. ing the rise and fall of the waters. Of this kind is the Nilo-
6. Columns, according to their destination, are agricultural, metre, at Grand Cairo, which shows the rise and fall of the
astronomical, boundary or limetrophus, chronological, funeral, Nile.
gnomonic, historical, indicative, itinerary, lactary, legal, Itinerary columns are constructed with several faces, and
manubiary, menian, miliary, military, phosphorical, rostral, placed at the intersection of two or more roads, to point out
statuary, symbolical, or zoophoric. the different routes by an inscription placed on each face.
Agricultural columns are raised for explaining the rules The lactary column was erected in the herb-market at
of agriculture. Rome, on a hollow pedestal, wherein young children, aban-
An astronomical column is a cylindrical or conical obser- doned by their parents, out of poverty or inhumanity, were
vatory, built hollow, with a winding staircase ascending to exposed to be brought up at the public expense.
 COM 184 COM
A legal column, among the Lacedaemonians, was raised in COMMON CENTERING, a centering without trusses, having a
a public place, inscribed with the fundamental laws of the tie-beam at the bottom ;
or otherwise, that which is employed
state. in straight vaults.
A manubiary column is built in imitation of a tree, and COMMON JOISTS, those beams in single naked flooring to
adorned with trophies taken from an enemy. which the joists are fixed they might be properly called
;

Menian columns support a balcony or meniana. This kind boarding -joists, and should never exceed one foot clear of
of column takes its name from one Menias, who having sold each other.
his house to Cato and Flaccus, when consuls, to be converted COMMON PITCH, a term applied to a roof which has the
into a public edifice, reserved to himself the right of raising length of the sides about three-fourths of the span.
a column on the outside, to bear a balcony, whence he might COMMON RAFTERS, those timbers in a roof to which the
see the public shows. We
are informed of this circumstance boarding or lathing for slating is attached. Common roofing
consists entirely of common rafters, which, in the strongest-
by Suetonius and Ascanius.
Military columns were raised equidistantly on the high- framed roofs, bridge over the purlins.
ways from Home to the several cities of the empire, and COMMUNICATING-DOORS, or DOORS OF COMMUNI-
described their distance from the middle of the Roman CATION, those which open or throw two apartments into one.
Forum, as a centre, where the first military column was COMPARTED (from the French, compartir, to divide)
raised by order of Augustus. This column was of white a line, surface, or solid, divided into several parts ; or a hol-
marble, of a cylindrical form, and massive proportions, sup- low space partitioned into several smaller spaces.
porting a globe, the same as is now seen
on the balustrade of COMPARTITION, the distribution of the ground-plot of
the staircase of the Capitol at Rome. This column was called an apartments and passages.
edifice into
miliarium aureum, as having been gilt, or at least the ball, COMPARTMENT (from the French, compartiment) a
by order of Augustus. It was restored by the Emperors division of a picture, design, &c.

Vespasian and Adrian, as appears from the inscriptions. COMPARTMENT CEILING, a name given to all ceilings
A military column, among the Romans, was engraven with divided into panels, surrounded with mouldings. There are
a list of the forces in the Roman army, ranged in order by many beautiful ancient compositions of this kind applied to

legions, and intended to preserve

the memory of the number the intradoses of cylindrical and spherical vaulting, and to
of soldiers, and of the order observed, in any military expe- the soffits of the porticos of temples ; as may be seen in the
dition. Another kind of military column, used by the Pantheon and the Temple of Peace. The compartment ceil-
Romans, stood before the temple of Janus, at the foot ings of the last century were extremely heavy, which has
whereof the consul declared war, by throwing a javelin occasioned the epithet pondrous to be applied to them, in
towards the enemy's country. This column was called order to distinguish them from those in present use. These
columna bellica. weighty compositions took their rise in Italy, under the first
A phosphorical column is a hollow column, built
on a rock, masters, who seem to have been led into that idea, from
or the tip of a mole, or other eminence, to serve as a light- observations on the soffits of the porticos of antique temples.
house, or lantern, to a port. The ancients, with their usual skill, kept up a bold and mas-
A rostral column was a triumphal column, adorned with sive style, proportioning their coffers to the
strength, magni-
the beaks and prows of galleys, in memory of a naval victory. tude, and height of the building, and at the same time making
The first rostral column was erected in the Capitol, on occa- an allowance for their being on the exterior part,adjoining to
sion of the defeat of the Carthaginians by C. Duilius. other great objects ; all which served to diminish and lighten

Augustus constructed four columns with the prows of

the the effect of the compartments. From this mistake of the
first modern restorers in Italy, all
ships taken from Cleopatra. Europe has been misled.
A statuary column supports a statue. Michael Angelo, Raphael, Pyrro, Ligerio, Dominichino,
Symbolical columns represent some particular country, by Georgio Vasari, and Algerdi, with great taste and knowledge,
threw off those prejudices, and boldly aimed at restoring the
appropriate attributes.
A zoophoric column is a kind of statuary column, bearing antique in due proportion. But at this time, the rage for
the figure of some animal. painting became so prevalent in Italy, that, instead of fol-
There are also other columns, denominated hydraulic, or lowing these great examples, every ceiling was covered with
water-columns, used as fountains. large fresco compositions, which, -though extremely fine and
COLUMNIATED WINDING-STAIRS. See STAIRS. well painted, were much misplaced, and would, from the
COMA (from the Greek K.S>fia, sleep) in antiquity, a mound attitude in which they were beheld, tire the patience of
every
of earth over a grave. spectator. Great compositions should be placed so as to be
COMITIUM (Latin, an assembly)
in Roman
antiquity, a viewed with ease. Grotesque ornaments and figures are
large hall in the forum, in which
comitia were ordinarily held. perceived with a glance of the eye, and require little exami-
Prior to the period of the second Punic war, it was open at nation. The heavy compartment ceilings were afterwards
the top ; but on account of the assemblies being often inter- adopted in France ; and Le Potre adorned them with all the
rupted by bad weather, it was then covered over. trappings of his luxuriant imagination. Inigo Jones intro-
COMMANDERY; a religious house belonging to the duced them into England, with as much weight, but less
Knights Hospitallers, the same as a preceptory with the fancy and embellishment. Vanbourgh, Campbell, and Gibbs
Knights' Templars. Previous to their dissolution in the time followed too implicitly the authority of this great name.
of Henry VIII., there were no less than fifty such buildings Kent has the merit of being the first who began to introduce
subject to the priory of St. John of Jerusalem. grotesque paintings in ornaments of stucco, and to lighten
COMMISSURE (from the Latin, commissura) the joint the coffers of compartment ceilings. Mr. Stewart, with his
between two stones, or the application of the surface of one good taste in the antique, has contributed greatly towards
stone to that of the other. introducing the true style of decoration ; but the completion
COMMON (from the Latin, communis) in geometry, a seems to have been reserved to the present times, in which
line, angle, surface, or solid, which belongs equally to two or not only these, but every other kind, are executed in the
1
more objects. highest degree of perfection.
 COM 185 COM
COMPARTMENT TILES, an arrangement of white and red given radius within the greatest extension of the compasses.
tiles,varnished, for the decoration of the covering of a roof. The other leg is graduated in a similar manner, one side into
COMPASS-HEADED, having a semicircular head. divisions, showing the proportion between the areas of similar
COMPASS ROOF, that which extends from one wall to the plane figures, the other into parts showing the proportion
other the whole width of the building, having a ridge in between the contents of similar solid figures. This instru-
its centre ; the term is used in contradistinction to lean-to ment is employed in the reduction of figures, and is extremely
roof, and is peculiarly applied to the ancient open timher useful in the projection of dome departments, and in
roofs. The term is applied by some to roofs with cylindrical perspective.
or barrel vaults. Examples of the use of compound proportional compasses.
COMPASS SAW. See SAW. Let be required to divide a straight line into four equal
it

COMPASS WINDOW, a window which has a circular plan ; parts ; push the cursor till the index be just on the figure 4,
a bow or oriel window. and fix it there ; then take the length of the given line with
COMPASSES, (from the French, compos) a mathematical the longer legs, and the distance between the points of the
instrument for describing circles and ellipses, or their arcs; other legs will be one-fourth of the length of the line.
also for measuring and proportioning distances. Again, let it be required to inscribe a heptagon in a
Compasses for drawing are of four kinds those with
: two circle push the cursor till the index or zero be on 7 ; then,
:

legs, moveable on a by which the extremities can be

joint, with the longer legs take the radius of the circle, and the
extended to any distance, not exceeding the sum of both legs, distance between the two other points will be the side of the
are called common compasses. Those with a beam having a heptagon. See PROJECTION.
fixed point at one of its ends, and a moveable collar carrying To find a regular plane figure whose area shall equal one-
another point, which may be fixed at any distance from the fourth of that of a given similar figure ; set the zero on the
fixed point by means of a screw, are called beam compasses. cursor to the line marked 4, take the length of one of the sides
Those with three legs, so as to be set to any three points, of of the given figure with the longer legs, and the distance
which the distance between any two may not be greater than between the points of the shorter ones will give the side of
the sum of any two legs of the com pass, are called triangular a similar figure which shall contain an area equal to one-
compasses. Those for drawing ellipses, are called elliptic fourth of the area of the given figure.
compasses. By means of the same scale of divisions, may be found the
Common compasses are of several kinds, and are furnished square root of any given number, thus Set the zero of the
:

with fixed or moveable points, for carrying a pencil or ink foot. cursor to the given number; open the longer li'gs so as to
Common compasses with sharp points, used for taking contain the same number from any scale of equal parts, then
distances, are called dividers. Dividers, which have the lower apply the points of the shorter legs to the same scale, and
point of one of the legs fastened to the upper part by a stiff the distance measured between them will give the square root
spring, and by means of a screw will allow of slow motion in of the given number.
the legs, so as to extend or shorten the distance of the points to To find a sphere or cube whose solid contents shall be eqiial
the smallest degree, are called hair compasses. Those with to one-fourth of those of a given square or cube Set the zero:

moveable ink and pencil describing circular lines, are

feet, for to the division marked 4, measure the diameter of tlw given
called, in contradistinction, compasses ; the ink or pencil foot is sphere, or the side of the given cube, with the points
of the
fitted into a socket in one of the
legs of the compass. Besides longer legs, and the points of the shorter ones will give
the ink and pencil feet, there is sometimes another foot for the diameter of a sphere or side of a cube such as required.
dotting circular lines, but it is seldom used, as being apt to The cube root of any number may be found by this scale
run two or more dots into one. Compasses for describing in a similar manner to that by which the square root is found
small circles with ink or pencil, and which shut into a bow, by the opposite one.
are called bow compasses. Compasses used in the description of ellipses, are called

Triangular compasses have two legs, which revolve on a elliptic compasses, or ellipsographs. See ELLIPSOGRAPH and
folding joint, like common compasses, and the third leg is PENTAORAPH.
fixed to the bulb by means of a projection, with a joint, so COMPASSING (from the French, compasscr, to encircle)
as to be moveable in every direction. The three points of in naval architecture, the act of bringing any piece of timber
the compasses may be made almost to coincide with any three into the form of an arch.
assumed points, to any distance within the reach of their COMPLEMENT (from the Latin, complementum, perfec-
extension. tion) in a general sense,
the full quantity, or completion of
Compasses with a joint between the extremities, and two anything.
sharp points at each end, forming a double compass, so that COMPLEMENT, in geometry, whatever is wanting of any
the two ends may always preserve the same ratio, however angle tomake a right angle, or 90 degrees.
extended, are called proportional compasses. When the joint COMPLEMENT OF A PARALLELOGRAM, two lesser parallelo-
grams, made by drawing two right lines parallel
to the sides
is fixed, the
compass is said to be simple ; but when moveable,
called a compound proportional compass.
it is of the greater parallelogram, through a given point in the
The simple proportional compasses, in most general use, diagonal.
have the two legs on one side of the centre always double COMPLUVIUM (Latin) in ancient Roman buildings, is
those on the other, and are denominated wholes-and-halves, supposed by Newton to be the gutter of a roof; but by
or bisecting compasses. Dr. Adam (Roman Antiquities) to be the aperture at the top
Compound proportional compasses have each branch cut of the cavaedium. See CAV^EDIUM.
with a long slit for a cursor to slide in ; in the middle of the COMPOSITE ARCH, the pointed or lancet arch.
cursor is a screw, by which the ends may be set in any pro- COMPOSITE BASE, )

portion to each other. One leg is generally graduated on COMPOSITE CAPITAL, > Set ROMAN ORDER.
either side of the slit, one side for the division of right lines COMPOSITE ORDER, )
into any number of equal parts from 2 to 10, and the other COMPOSITION, the distribution and arrangement of the
for inscribing polygons from 6 to 20 sides in a circle of any component parts of an architectural design.
24
 CON 186 CON
COMPOSITION, in plastering. See PLASTERING. the Forum the remains consist of a hexastyle portico, with
:

COMPOUND ARCH, a term applied by Willis to those two columns at the back, of the Ionic order ; the entablature
arches made up of a series of receding concentric arches, the is very
nearly entire : a large portion of the tympanum, and
dimensions contracting with each successive arch ; or in a small part of the pediment, remain at the spring of the level
other words, to those arches which may be resolved into cornice. The weight of the tympanum is discharged from
a number of concentric archways, successively placed within the entablature with arches. The columns are of granite, of
and behind each other. one piece each, being 40 feet high, and 4 feet 2 inches
COMPOUND MASONRY. See MASONRY. diameter. The bases are without plinths, except those of the
COMPOUND PIER, the same as CLUSTERED COLUMN. angular columns. The capitals are of a singular construction,
COMPOUND PROPORTIONAL COMPASSES. See COMPASSES. and differ from all ancient examples of the same order, in
CONCAMERATE (from the Latin, concamero) to arch having the four faces alike. The volutes are insignificantly
over. diminutive, and the mouldings too large, compared with the
CONCATENATE (from the Latin, catena) to chain or other parts of the column. The architrave and frieze make
link together. only one course in height and on the front, and at one return
;

CONCAVE (from the Latin, concavus, hollow) an epithet of the portico, are entirely plain, without any separation by
applied to the interior side of a figure, or to the interior sur- mouldings. The cornice has both modillions and dentils.
tiice of a body. This is perhaps the only ancient example of the Ionic order,
CONCAVITY OF A CURVE LINE, the side next to a straight in which modillions are used they are in number twenty-two
:

.hie, extended between the two points of a curve. in the front of the
portico. An interval is placed over the
CONCAVITY OF A SOLID, the curved surface of a solid, such axis of each column, and not a modillion ; and the columns
that if any two points be taken in that surface, the straight are very high, being above nine diameters and a half. This
line between them will be entirely in a void
space, or will temple is
supposed to have been pseudo-peripteral. The
coincide with the surface in one direction only. This defini- column on the the mid-
right angle is less than the rest, and
spheres, and all other solids
liou applies to cylinders, cones, dle intercolumniation greater than the others, by about
generated by the rotation of conic sections about an axis. one-third part of a module.
When the surface of a solid is such, that two straight lines CONCRETE, the name given to a composition, variously
may bo drawn from any point in that surface to two other made, but in general use among architects as an artificial
points, so that theone line may be entirely in the void, and foundation for buildings.
the other pass through the substance or solid, the surface The convenience of obtaining a firm and solid bottom by
may be distinguished by the epithet concavo-convex; of which the formation of a compact mass of concrete ; and the facility
description are the surfaces of solids formed like a trumpet- with which this composition is made and used, have led to its
mouth. almost universal adoption in all situations where the requisite
CONCENTRIC (from the Latin, concentricus) in geometry, materials can be procured. The proportions, and the species
A term applied to such objects as have a common centre. It of material vary, of course, in different localities, and in the
is
principally used in speaking of round bodies, or figures practice of different architects, but the principal ingredients,
hat have a circular or elliptic circumference; and may also
I
good lime, clean sharp river-sand, and pebbles well mixed,
be applied to polygons that have the same centre, and their will not fail to make a good concrete.
sides parallel to each other, about the same 80 parts of pebbles each
diagonals, radi- Semple recommends to take
ating from the centre. about 7 or 8 ounces in weight 40 parts of sharp river-sand,
CONCHA, the concave surface of a semicircular vault, more and 10 of good lime; the last to be mixed with water to a
especially applied to that of a semi-dome, or hemisphere. thinnish consistence, and grouted in. The concrete used by
CONCHOID (resembling a shell.) This name was given builders in the neighbourhood of London, is made of Thames
by the inventor, Nicornedes, to a curve, by which he proposed ballast, as taken from the bed of the river; this is found to
the finding of two mean consist nearly of 2 parts of pebbles to 1 of sand, and from
proportionals, and the duplication of
the cube. It
may be described as a curve line which always one-seventh to one-eighth part of lime. Mr. Godwin says
approaches to a straight line but never meets it, though the the best method of making concrete is to mix the lime, pre-
straight line and the curve be ever so far produced. It is viously ground, with the ballast in a dry state ;
sufficient
thus generated :If A p and B D be two
right lines intersect- water being thrown over it to effect a perfect mixture ; it
ing each other at right angles and if from a fixed point, p,
;
should then be turned over two or three times with shovels,
a number of other lines, p F D E, p F D E, &c. be also drawn,
put into barrows, and wheeled away for instant use. It is
and if D E be taken equal to A B, the curve drawn through all advisable to employ two sets of men to perform this operation,
the points E, E, E, &c. will be the first
conchoid, or that of with three men in each set, one man fetching the water, &c.
Nicomedes. In like manner, if D F, D r, &c. be taken each while the other two turn over the mixture to the second set,
equal to B c, the curve passing through all the points, F, is and they, repeating the process, turn over the concrete to the
called the second conchoid. The straight line, D D, &c. by barrow-men. After being put into the barrows, it should be
which the description of these curves is regulated, is called wheeled up planks, so raised as to give it a fall of some yards,
the asymptote. The
inventor, Nicomedes, contrived an instru- and thrown into the foundation, by which means the particles
ment for describing his conchoid by a mechanical motion, of are driven closer together, and greater solidity is given to the
which the description will be found under COLUMN. whole mass. Soon after being thrown in, the mixture is
CONCLAVE (from the Latin) a room in the Vatican, observed usually to be in commotion, and much heat is evolved
wherein the cardinals used to meet to choose a with a copious emission of vapour.
pope. This
room was, in fact, a range of small cells or The concrete should be thrown on in layers, the first being
apartments, stand-
ing in a line along the galleries and hall of the Vatican. allowed to set, before a second is thrown down. A barrow-
The word was also used by the ancient load spreading over the ground in its fall, will form generally
Romans, to denote,
generally, a room under lock and key. a stratum of from 7 to 9 inches thick, and a cubical yard of
CONCORD, Temple of, in Roman antiquities, a temple, concrete will take about 30 feet cube of ballast, and 3^ feet
built by Camillus at the foot of the
Capitol, and seen from cube of ground lime, with a sufficient quantity of water.
 CON 187 CON
Of the latter no more should be used than is absolutely tolerably hard ; occasionally portions of the fine facing sepa-
necessary to effect a perfect mixture of the ingredients. rated from the rest of the block, owing, it was said, some-
Hot water accelerates the induration. times to want of care in the original construction, sometimes
The expediency of using concrete as a substitute for stone, to injuries caused by boats or vessels striking the wall ; in
brick, and other materials for building, or constructions above these cases, however, a new facing of cement was applied, and
ground, has been much discussed, and a great variety of before the winter, the general appearance of the wall was to
" Prize
opinion has prevailed on the subject. In the Essay a certain extent satisfactory.
upon the Nature and Properties of Concrete and its Applica-
During a hard frost, however, evidences of failure began to
tion to Construction" Mr. Godwin has given much valuable show themselves ; and as soon as the thaw allowed a thorough
information, but we think the opinions he has there ventured inspection of the face of the wall to be made, it was found that
as to the use of concrete for walls, &c., will hardly be adopted hardly a single block had escaped damage ; in many instances,
" A the whole face had peeled ofT to the depth of half an inch at
by architects generally. prudent man," says Mr. Bar- ;
" will not one spot, where a drain discharged itself into the river from
tholomew, heap up walls a second time, altogether
oV concrete. He will not exchange masonry of good strong a height of about six or eight feet, the back action of the
mortar, and good strong stone or brick, for a heap entirely water after its fall, had worn away the lower courses to the
of mortar, and that " tres maiyre." A
careful examination depth of some inches. These were the evidences of the action
will discover that in every instance in which concrete walls of frost and water combined, upon the best constructed wall
have been used, more or less of instant ruin has occurred, at Woolwich. At Chatham, they were of the same character,
the lintels over the apertures of the first story giving but the damage done to the wall was much greater.
way before even those of the second story have boon laid ; The portion of river- wall at Woolwich, which was built with
and when those breaches have been repaired, they have re- rough concrete, was severely injured by the common action
appeared ; and even through the solid walls, rents have of the water before frost, and the same result was observed
in the walls of a school near Blackheath, which were built of
instantly occurred experience proves that gravel lying in a
:

bed, and there growing, as it were, without the means of flow concrete some years ago at the ground-line, where the drip
:

or escape, is sufficient to support the most enormous weight of the water had acted, the concrete was soft, and yielded easily
of fabric ; but the same gravel detached, cannot bo piled up, to any force applied, while the walls above were very fairly
so as to form either solid upright walls, or horizontal hard, and seemed to have stood very well. The results of the
beams." observations made at that time, on the use of concrete in con-
Concrete has been also used both as " rough concrete," and structions of a kind similar to those above mentioned, are
in blocks, in extensive works, as river-walls, breakwaters, &c., summed up by Captain Denison in the opinion " that in
and has been recommended for such purposes by engineers climates like ours, in situations exposed to the alternate action
" Professional of water and air, concrete cannot be advantageously used as
of eminence. In the Papers of the Corps of
Royal Engineers," Captain Denison describes some works a building material, the apparent economy, caused by the
of this kind, and, in the experiments he had the opportunity of cheapness of the material employed, being more than compen-
witnessing, some very instructive results are obtained as to the sated for by the frequency of repairs."
practical application of concrete to the construction of river- In the report (dated 184(5) and evidence of the "Committee
walls at Woolwich and Chatham. In one instance at Wool- on the Harbour of Refuge to be constructed in Dover Bay,"
wich, it has been applied in mass, the wall having been con- a great deal of valuable information is aflorded on the use of
structed in the same manner as the Brighton sea-wall ; in concrete. Amongst the various plans submitted to the com-
both the other instances at Woolwich and Chatham, the con- mittee. Captain Denison, Colonel Jones, and Mr. Vignoles
crete was formed into blocks, which were allowed ample time proposed to construct breakwaters of blocks of concrete.
to set and harden before they were built into the face of the The first of these gentlemen recommended that the blocks

wall. AtWoolwich, the river-wall is for the most part founded should be manufactured at Dungeness, and thence floated to
upon piles its height above the piles is about 24 feet the
; ;
Dover by means of camels. The French adopted a similar
thickness at bottom 9 feet, at top 5 feet, with a slope or batter plan in their works at Algiers, where large blocks of beton,
in front of 3 feet in 22. The face of the wall is
composed of or hydraulic concrete, were floated out to the required spot,
the blocks laid in cement, in courses 18 inches in height ; and then allowed to drop into their places from slings. These
the headers and stretchers in the course being each 2 feet blocks were rectangular in form, and measured 324 cubic
6 inches long the former having a bed of 2 feet, while the
: feet. At the works at St. Joilette, at Marseilles, also,
latter have only 1 foot ; behind the facing, the rough concrete immense blocks of concrete, 13 yards cubic measure in size,
was thrown complete the thickness of the wall and
in to have been sunk for the foundation. The form suggested by
counter-forts.Both the blocks and the rough concrete were Captain Denison was that of an hexagonal prism, and it was
composed of lime and gravel, in the proportion of 1 to 7 and considered each block would weigh from 20 to 30 tons. The
brought to the proper consistence with boiling water but ;
concrete would be made in the following manner the :

the blocks were, or ought to have been, made with Aberthaw gravel of sea-beach to be mixed with the best hydraulic lime
lime, Dorking lime being used for the rest of the work. The in the proportion of ten or twelve parts of gravel to one of
blocks were cast in moulds, and were submitted to pressure lime and with the view of causing it to set more speedily
;

while setting a coating of finer stuff being given to the face

;
under water, a proportion of puzzolana should be added,
for the sake of appearance. The whole of the wall was built varying in quantity according to its quality ; half the quan-
tity of puzzolana to that of lime
would make very hard,
by tide- work, and in the lower part therefore the backing of
rough concrete had hardly time to set before it was covered sound concrete, which would set rapidly but if desirable to
;

with the tide ; the water, however, in this instance, appeared make it set very quick, the quantity of puzzolana might be
to affect the surface of the mass only, the interior at the depth increased till it equalled that of the lime. The concrete used
of a few inches appearing dry, and of a moderate degree of by Mr. Ranger at Woolwich was nearly the same, except that
hardness, when examined after the retiring of the tide. he used no puzzolana.
In the course of Captain Denison's evidence he refers to
During the summer months, the action of the water from
day to day was not perceptible ; the surface still remained the works at Chatham and Woolwich, to which we have
 CON 1S8 CON
already alluded, and states that he had again examined the The earth is full of natural conduits, for the passage of
wall at Woolwich, and found the interior as hard as could be waters, which give rise to springs, and of vapours which
wished. Those parts, however, of the concrete facing, which generate metals and minerals.
were exposed to the mechanical action of the water, were Artificial conduits for water are made of lead, cast
iron,
injured by it; and therefore, though recommending concrete stone, potters' earth, &c. See PLUMBERY.
below low-water mark, he was bound to admit that it was Also the reservoir or erection where the waters are con-
not adapted to those situations where it must be exposed to ducted and distributed for use. Previous to the formation of
such action. the present water-companies, these conduits were
frequent in
The specific gravity of concrete, as compared with that of the different parts of London, and were the
only means by
other materials, is as follows : which the inhabitants were supplied with water; the first
Concrete weighs about 140 Ibs. to the cubic foot. conduit erected was one near Bow Church, Cheapside, in the
Brick- work . . . 110 reign of Henry III. ; and among the latest was one of large
Granite . . . . 160 to 170 dimensions, erected in ]655, at Leadenhall, which served
Portland stone . . 150. likewise for an ornamental fountain. Conduits of this kiifd
We mustrefer to the report itself for more detailed infor- of an early date were usual in our large ecclesiastical estab-
mation on this subject, only adding the conclusion come to lishments, and where cloisters existed, there was frequently
"
by the committee, that there is not sufficient experience of one in the centre of the quadrangle ; which custom has been
the use of concrete to warrant its for the faces observed in the quadrangle of S. Augustine's, Canterbury,
adoption
of works to be constructed the sea." lately erected, where the conduit, of excellent design, forms
in
The French engineers have made
use of beton in many of an imposing feature.
the extensive works on the beton sets very
continent; The first attempt to carry water into the houses of London
rapidly under water, and attains, after a time, a very con- was made by Peter Morris, A. D. 1582, who established the
siderable degree of hardness. M. Milet do Montville having waterworks constructed under two of the arches of old Lon-
filled a chest
containing 27 cubic feet of beton, sunk it in don Bridge, but their supply extended only as far as Grace-
the sea, where it remained during two months, after which church-street; soon after, in 1594, similar works were erected
it was drawn up, to ascertain the consolidation it had near Broken Wharf, which supplied the houses in Westcheap
acquired. On inspection it was found to be converted into and around S. Paul's, as far as Fleet-street. It was not until
so compact a body, that more difficulty was the reign of James, that any enterprise of this kind on a
experienced in
separating its parts, than those of a block of hard stone. large scale was undertaken, when the formation of the New
The best manner of compounding the beton, according to River was commenced by Sir Hugh Middleton in 1608, and
M. de Montville, is as follows "
Take twelve parts of
:
completed in 1613.
puzzolana, (temisse de Jlollamle, or Cendre de Tourney,) CONE (from the Greek, <3voc) a solid, bounded by two
of which form a circular wall of five or six feet in diameter, surfaces,one of which is a circle, called the base, and the oiher
on which place six parts of sand, well sifted, free from a convexity, ending in a point, called the vertex ; and of such a
earthy matter, and evenly spread. Fill the interior of this nature, that a straight line applied to any point in the cir-
circle with nine parts of cumference of the base and to the vertex, will coincide with
quick-lime, well calcined, and pul-
verized with an iron beetle; and to cause it to slack more the convex surface.
quickly, (in maritime works) throw on sea-water in small The straight line drawn from the centre of the base to the
quantities, stirring it from time to time with an iron spatula. vertex of the cone, is called the axis.
As soon as it is reduced to a
paste, incorporate the pnzzolana When the axis of the cone is perpendicular to the base,
and the sand. The whole being well mixed, throw in thir- the cone is called a right cone, but when otherwise, it is
teen parts of unhewn stone, and three an oblique cone.
parts of iron dross, called
well pounded. If this latter
ingredient cannot be obtained, If a cone be cut by a plane through its vertex, the section
sixteen parts of rough stones or
pebbles must be added, of a will be a triangle.
size not larger than a Let this composition be If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to its base, the section
pullet's egg.
well amalgamated for the
space of an hour, after which it will be a circle, or similar to the base.
must be left in
heaps to coagulate ; for this purpose the space If a cone be cut by a plane, so as to make the portion cut
of twenty-four hours will be sufficient in summer or in warm off similar to the whole cone, the section will be a circle, or
climates, but in winter it often requires the space of three or similar to the base.
four days. Observe to keep it protected from the rain, and If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to a plane passing
not to use
through the vertex, meeting the plane of the base produced
it untilhas sufficiently hardened to require
it

breaking with a pickaxe." without, the section is an ellipsis, except the part cut off be
The method of using the beton is either in blocks, or similar to the whole cone, as in the last position.
by
means of a coffer or chest filled with the If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to a plane in contact
composition, lowered
to the required
depth, and there emptied. with its side, the section will be a parabola.
CONCRETION (from the Latin, concresco) the act of If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to a section of the
concreting ; the process by which soft or fluid bodies become cone passing through the vertex, the section will be an
thick, consistent, solid, or hard; the act of uniting,
by hyperbola.
natural process, the small
particles of matter into a mass. Every cone is one-third part of a cylinder of the same base
The word is used and altitude (Euclid., b. xii., prop. 10.), and cones of equal
indifferently for induration, condensation,
congelation, or coagulation. altitudes are to each other as their bases (Euclid., b. xii.,
CONCURRING, or CONGRUENT FIGURES, or SOLIDS,
prop. 11) ; therefore any cone whatever is the third part of
such as will cover each other a cylinder of equal base and altitude with the cone.
exactly, or will fill the same
All plane figures will do The curved surface of a cone is equal to the sector of a
space. this, when their correspond-
ing angles and sides are equal. circle, the radius of which
is equal to the slanting side of the
CONDUIT (from the French) a canal, or pipe, for the cone ; and the arc-line of the sector is equal to the circum-
conveyance of water, or other fluid matter ; an aqueduct. ference of the base of the cone.
 CON 189 CON
To find the solidity of a cone, multiply the area of the base tory of mathematics and physics, as that of conic sections in
by the altitude, and one-third of the product will give the their results and consequences.

solidity. Or, multiply one-third of the area of the base, Some sections of a cone are considered in elementary geo-
which the mean area, by the altitude of the cone, and the
is metry, for a plane may meet a cone in a point, or in a single
straight line, in two intersecting straight lines,
or in a circle.
product will giw the solidity. See CIRCLE.
To find the curved surface of a cone, multiply the slanting But the curves, which are peculiarly conic sections, are the
side of the cone by the semi-circumference of the base, and oval made by a plane which cuts the cone entirely on one
the product will be the area of the curved surface. side of the vertex, called the ELLIPSE; the indefinitely
If the diameter of the base be given, the circumference extended modification of this when the plane becomes parallel
must be found as directed under the article CIRCLE. to any one slant side of the cone, called the PARABOLA ; and
If the perpendicular altitude be given, the slanting side of the curve, which is partly on one side, and partly on the
the cone will be ascertained by the 47th prop., Book i., Euclid. other of the vertex, formed by a plane which cuts both sur-
I5ut if the cone be given, it will be much easier to take the faces of the cone, called the HYPERBOLA.
slanting side and the circumference of the base, than its alti- Below is appended some convenient methods of forming the
tude and diameter; the operation will also be much shorter sections upon a plane, without any reference to the cone.
by taking the former dimensions than the latter. See CONIC If each end of a string of greater length than the distance

SECTION, ELLIPSIS, ENVELOPE, HYPERBOLA, and PARA- E F, Plate 1, Figure 1, to be tied to the points E and F, and
BOLA. any intermediate point B, be taken in the string, then the
CONFESSIONAL, or CONFESSIONARY, in churches, a point B being carried round the line E F, so as to keep
place usually under the main altar, wherein the bones of the parts, E B, B F, always stretched till it come to the point
deceased saints, martyrs, and confessors were deposited. whence it began to move, the point B will trace out a curve,
CONFESSIONAL is also usued in the Romish church, to A B c D, which will be an ellipsis.
designate a little box, or desk, in the church, in which the If the end of a straight inflexible line, or rod, of a greater

priest receives the confessions of the penitents. length than the distance E F, Fir/tire 2, be fixed to one
Few confessionals, if any, are to be found in England, extremity, E, of the line, and one end of a string of greater
although it is a common practice to set down all niches, length than the difference between E F and the length of the
for which no other use can be immediately discovered, under rod, be fixed to F, and the other end to the other end of
this title. the rod at N ; then, if any point, B, be taken in the string,
CONFIGURATION, (from the French) the exterior and the rod moved round the point E, so as to keep the parts
superficies of a body, from which it receives its particular N B, B F always stretched, the point B will trace out a curve,
figure. which will be an hyperbola.
CONGE, a concavity at the extremity of a vertical sur- And if the end of the rod be moved from E, and fixed at
F, and one end of the string moved from F, and fixed
face, where it bends off in a tangent, and projects forward at E,
until it meets a fillet, or other vertical surface, at an external the curve described after the same manner, is called an appo-
angle. Thus the shaft of a column bends forward at the site hyperbola.
upper and lower ends, until it meets the fillet. The conge, when In the ellipsis and hyperbola, the points E and F are called
applied to a column, is part of the interior surface of a cylin- the foci; the line, A c, passing through the foci, joining the
drical ring, and its section is generally a quarter of a circle. opposite parts of the curve, or curves, is called the transverse
The term is derived from the French, conge, a curve the ;
axis ; and the point, c, in the middle of the transverse axis,
Greek appellation is apophyge ; and the Latin, scapus, from is called the centre.
which the English word scape is derived. See APOPIIYOE. In the ellipsis, any line drawn through the centre, and
CONGERIES, a collection or heap of several bodies, terminated by the opposite parts of the curve, is called
united in one mass or aggregate. a diameter ; if another right line, terminated by the curve,
CONGRUITY, in geometry, a term applied to lines, be drawn parallel to a tangent at one extremity of the other
angles, figures, and solids, which exactly cover each other, diameter, such line is called a double ordinate ; and if it pass
or coincide. Figures that are equal and similar have a con- through the centre, it becomes a diameter ; then the two dia-
gruity;
as have solids, the figures of whose sides are con- meters, thus situated, are called conjugate diameters.
gruous with the planes of the corresponding side at the When the conjugate diameters are at right angles to each
same inclination. other, they are called the axis of the curve.
CONIC, relating to a cone. See CONE. If there be a diameter, and a double ordinate to that
CONIC SECTIONS, the curves formed by the intersection of diameter, the two segments of the diameter are called the
a circular cone and a plane, the former being either oblique abscissa.
or right. The works of Apollouius and Archimedes are the Concentric ellipses are such as arc similar, and have the
first in which these sections were treated of and their history
;
same centre with the greater axis of the one upon the greater
is nothing but that of the addition of a few remarkable pro- axis of the other, and the less upon the less.
perties, till the discovery that the path of a projected body Most of the above definitions apply also to the hyperbola.
in an unresisting space is a parabola, and that of a planet If the side, A B, Figure 3, of a right angle or square, ABC,
round the sun an ellipse. Though the name, therefore, of be applied to the straight-edge, AD, of a rule, and a thread,
conic sections still remains, the interest which attaches to equal in length to B c, be fastened to the end, c, of the right
these curves, and the method of treating them, has no longer angle, with the other end to the fixed point, F; and if any
any reference to the accident from which they derive their point, E, be taken in the line, then if the edge, A B, of the
name. The Greek geometers, in pure speculation, occupied square be moved along the straight-edge, A D, keeping the
themselves with the different methods in which a cone may variable point, E, upon the side, B c, of the square, and
be cut, simply because the conical (with the cylindrical and the two portions c E and E F stretched, the point E will trace
spherical) came within the restrictive definitions under which out a curve, which is a parabola.
they had placed geometry ; but since the discovery to which The point F is called the focus.
we have alluded, we might as well attempt to write the his- The line A D is Me directrix.
 CON 190 CON
The line L K passing through the focus perpendicular to the hyperbola. If K o be parallel to A c, the curve is a parabola.

directrix, is the axis. A diameter, A B, and an ordinate, c D, being thus ascertained,

The point i, where the axis cuts the curve, is the vertex. the curve will be described as in Figures 1,2, 3. Other par-
Any terminated at one extremity
line parallel to the axis, ticulars relating to these curves will be found under the arti-

by the curve, and on the concave side of it, is called, a cles ELLIPSIS, HYPERBOLA, and PABABOLA.
diameter. CONICAL ROOF, a roof whose exterior surface is
shaped
a tangent at the limited end of a dia-
line parallel to like a cone.
Any
meter, is called a double ordinate to that diameter. CONICS. See CONIC SECTION.
The limited part of a diameter, contained by the curve CONISTRA, the pit of a theatre.
and a double ordinate, is called the abscissa of that double CONJUGATE DIAMETERS, of an ellipsis or hyperbola,
ordinate. any two diameters that are parallel to tangents at the extre-
Figures 4, 5, 6. An abscissa, the ordinate, and the diameter mities of each other.
being given, to describe the ellipsis or hyperbola. CONOID, (from the Greek, nuvoddrjs, partaking of the
Let A B be the diameter, A c the abscissa, and o D the ordi- figure of a cone), a figure generated by the revolution of a
nate. Draw A E parallel to c D, and D K parallel to c A. In conic section round one of its axes. There are three kinds of
D c take any number of points, F, o, H, and divide D E in the conoids, viz., the elliptical, the hyperbolical, and the para-
same proportion at/ g, h. Draw B F i, B o K, B H L ; likewise bolical ; which are sometimes otherwise denominated, ellip-
/i A, $TK A, A LA, and through the points D, i, K, L, A, draw soid, or spheroid, hyperboloid, and paraboloid.
a curve. In the same manner may the curve for the opposite Now because the solid is generated by the revolution of
ordinate be drawn. the section of a cone upon its axis, the axis will then also be
When the extremities of the diameter are on different that of the solid. In this case, since, in the generation of the
sides of the ordinate, the curve is an ellipsis ; but when the solid, every point of the curve will describe a circle, every
extremities of the diameter are on the same side of the ordi- section of the solid parallel to the base will be a circle.
nate, the curve is an
hyperbola. When the diameter A D, is If a conoid be cut
by a plane meeting the base, or the plane
of infinite length, the ordinates, F i, o K, H L, will be parallel, of the base produced, the section will be either an ellipsis, or
then the curve is a parabola. Therefore, in Figure 4, the an hyperbola, or a parabola.
lines drawn from the points F, o, H, parallel to the transverse Every section of an ellipsoid oblique to its axis, is an
axis, or abscissa, A n, instead of being drawn to the point D, ellipsis ; and if a paraboloid or hy pcrboloid be cut by a plane
as in Figures 1, 2, 3, make the only difference. meeting the plane of the base, produced on the outside of the
It is hardly possible to conceive more convenient or easier be an ellipsis. In the paraboloid,
figure, the section will also
modes of description than these their correctness may be ;
ifthe cutting plane be parallel to the axis, the section will
proved by showing that their common properties are similar be an equal parabola. In the hyperboloid, if the solid be cut
to those demonstrated of conic sections. by a plane parallel to a section of the cone, made by a plane
Figures 7, 8, 9. Let A B be the diameter, c D the ordinate, passing through the point where the asymptote of the
and A c the abscissa, as before. In c D take any point, o, generating section meets the axis of the solid produced, the
and divide D E by g, in the same ratio as D c is by the point, section will be an hyperbola; but if the cutting plane be
G draw g K A, B o K, Figure 7, and B K G, Figure 8 then,
; ; parallel to the plane in which is the asymptote, and at right
because of the similar triangles, B N K and B c o, B N B c : : :
angles with the generating section, the section will be a
N K c G ; and also, because of the similar triangles A N K and
:
parabola.
A M G, A N A M or </ E : N K M G or c D. By construction
: : : Thus the ellipsoid has only two sections, viz. the circle
we have <7E:DEorEA::co:cD; and therefore by mul- and the ellipsis the paraboloid, three sections, viz. the
:

tiplication we have BN NA:B c-fiJA :;NKS CD*, + :

circle, the ellipsis, and the parabola the hyperboloid, four
:

which property is known to be that of the ellipsis and sections, viz. the circle, the ellipsis, the hyperbola, and the
hyperbola. parabola and the cone itself has five sections, viz. the triangle,
:

Corollary.Since, in the parabola, B N and B c are of infi- the circle, the ellipsis,'the hyperbola, and the parabola. The
nite length, and may therefore be said to be equal, B N and triangle is a section peculiar to the cone alone ; the hyperbola,
B c may therefore be expunged from the first two terms of the to the cone and hyperboloid ; the parabola, to the cone and
analogy in the above general property ; then we shall have parabolical and hyperbolical conoids ; and the circle and
NA c A : N K 2 c D".
: : :
ellipsis are common not only to the cone, but also to each of
Or the truth of the operation may be shown by a particular the three conoids.
demonstration for the parabola thus See Figure 9. : All parallel sections of conoids areof similar figures; though
Because of the similar triangles A N K and A M^, A N : it
may seem singular that this should be a general property,
AE::NK:M^orcD; by construction we have A M A c : : : when it is considered that, in a cone, a section through the
co or N K CD; and consequently, by multiplication, AN :
:
apex, or point, is a triangle, and a section parallel thereto is
Ac :N K 9 c D*, which is the property of the parabola.
: : an hyperbola ; so that if the property existed generally, the
Figures 7, 8, 9. In a conic section, are given the abscissa, triangular and hyperbolic sections of the cone so posited
A c, an ordinate, c D, and a point, K, in the curve : to deter- ought also to be similar. To reconcile this paradox, let us
mine the species, and thence to describe the curve. consider, that in all hyperbolical parallel sections of a cone,
Draw
E g D parallel to A c, and A E parallel to c D ;
through the asymptotes make equal angles, and the sections which
the points A and K draw A K g, cutting E D at# ; make D G : are nearer to that passing through the apex of the cone, have
G c Dg g E, and through the points K and G draw KGB
: : :
a greater degree of curvature at the vertex of these curves,
or G K B, which, if not parallel to A c, produce it until it than those which are more remote, though both figures be
meet AC or c A in B ; then A B will be a diameter. In this similar. the legs of the hyperbola be infinitely
Farther, if
case the curve is an ellipsis or hyperbola. It is an extended, they will be infinitely near a straight line, as they
ellipsis
when the extremities of the diameter are on different sides of will fall in with the asymptotes nearly, and the curved por-
the ordinate, as in Figure 5 but when the extremities of the
; tion will bear no sensible magnitude, compared with the part
diameter are on the same side of the ordinate, the curve is an which is comparatively straight, as the legs of the hyperbola
 ('!<) :-' .1 '(' SlKfTJION! 1'1.1'IU I.

tiff..'*.

B B B

/>//. tf.

c n o K D

n n n B F,
 CON 191 CON
become straighterand straighten as they are more and more finished in a superior style. The sides, ends, and roofs
produced. Thus the curved portion may be considered as a should be of glass, in order to admit light freely, and to
mere point to the whole figure, in a section through the protect the plants. It should likewise be so situated as to be

vertex, the ideas of the general property seeming to vanish, quite dry, receiving as much of the heat of the sun as possible
or not apply ; but if we allow a parallel section, though ever during the day, and provided with flues to communicate heat
so little distant, it can very easily be compared with any when found necessary, and valves and other conveniences
remote parallel section, and their difference will be this, that, for the introduction of fresh air, when required, for the pur-
in like portions of the two curves, the similar figures inscribed pose of ventilation. In summer-time, the glass roofs are
in the section nearer to the apex will be small sometimes taken off, and the plants exposed to the open air,
incomparably
to those of the sections more remote, and
in a parallel section but on the approach of the autumnal frosts, they must be
passing through the vertex, the similar figures of comparison restored.
will be lost, as being of infinitely small magnitude. There is much diversity of opinion amongst practical men
The section through the axis, which is the generating as to the comparative merits of wood and iron in the con-
plane, is, in the spheroid, the greatest of all the parallel sec- struction of conservatories. Mr. J. Thompson, a man of
tions ; but in the hyperboloid, it is the least ; and in the " Practical
great experience, in his Treatise," gives the pre-
paraboloid, it is equal to any other parallel section. ference to wood, although acknowledging the advantages of
If an hyperbola be supposed to revolve with its
asymptote iron in lightness of appearance. " Any persons," he observes,
"
upon its axis, the curve will generate a conoid, and the having a knowledge of the expansion and contraction of
asymptote a cone ; and if these two solids be imagined to be metals, may form some idea of the expansion of a large iron
cut by a plane in any position, then the two sections will be roof on a hot day during the months of July and August,
similar and concentric figures, of the same species in each and of the contraction on a severe frosty night ; so great have
I witnessed the action of the sun's
solid. rays in expanding the iron
To find the solidity of a conoid. To the area of the base, rafters and lights upon a hot day, that it has required two or
add four times the area of the middle section, multiply one- three men to draw down the sliding-lights ; and in an equal
sixth of the sum by the height, and the product will give the proportion have I seen the contraction during the intensity
solidity. In the spheroid, one-sixth of four times the middle of winter, so much so, that large apertures have appeared
section -only, multiplied by the height, gives the
solidity; between the rafters and lights, which admitted the external
that is, two-thirds of the circumscribing cylinder. air to such an extent, that it required the strength of two
Other particular rules and properties will be found under fires, and the flues heated to the greatest excess, before the
ELLIPSOID, PARABOLOID, and HYPERBOLOID. house could be raised three degrees of heat, and this in a house
CONOPEUM, in antiquity, a sort of canopy of net-work, of not very largo dimensions." This gentleman also objects
hung about beds, to keep away gnats and flies. to the iron-roofed houses, that they require double the quan-
CONSERVATORY (from the Latin, conservo, to keep) tity of fuel that
is
necessary in houses otherwise constructed.
may be defined generally as a place for preserving anything Notwithstanding some admitted disadvantages, the great
in a state desired, as from loss, decay or injury ; in this convenience of iron, the readiness with which it is manufac-
sense, granaries for keeping corn, ice-houses, &c., may be tured, and the extreme lightness and elegance of its appear-
called conservatories. ance, will always give it a great advantage. Some of the
In gardening, the word conservatory is so most mugnificent conservatories in this country, have been
frequently con-
founded with GREEN-HOUSE, and the terms are applied with constructed of iron, amongst which we may especially notice
so little precision to buildings used for preserving plants in that in the Botanic Garden, Regent's Park.
an artificial climate, that it is difficult to define what is prop- This building was erected under the direction of Mr.
" The
erly a conservatory. term," says a writer in the Decimus Burton, and forms the half of the centre part of the
" " Winter
Penny Cyclopaedia, which, as its meaning shows, was proposed Garden," in which, when completed, the
originally intended for buildings in which plants were pre- subscribers to these beautiful gardens will be able to enjoy
served during winter, has come to be used, firstlv, for glass the luxury of the parterre at all seasons of tho year.
houses in which plants are cultivated by growing them in It is constructed of iron, principally wrought, the pillars
the open border, and subsequently for all such glazed build- and guttering only being cast. The water from the roof is
ings whatsoever. A
conservatory, properly so called, is a conducted by the internal pillars, to large tanks under ground,
brick building heated by artificial means, having its whole from whence it is pumped up for the supply of the house.
southern part closed by large fiazed sashes, which may be The building is heated by warm water conveyed through
opened or shut at pleasure. Its floor is generally of stone, pipes arranged beneath the surface, in brick channels, having
and a part of it is occupied by a stage on which plants in large outlets for the hot air, with air-ducts at intervals to
pots can be placed. Such a conservatory was intended to create a current, and give increased action to the hot air in
preserve during the winter, orange-trees, myrtles, American the drains. The boiler-house is beneath the ground, at some
aloes, and similar plants, which during the summer will distance from the building.
flourish in the open air, but which require during the winter The structure is ventilated by sliding-lights in the roof,
to be protected." acted on by a simple contrivance, which opens and shuts the
The modern or popular meaning of the word, is now whole simultaneously, and is glazed with sheet-glass in long
almost the opposite of the original one, and a conservatory lengths.
is said to differ from a
green-house principally in this, that The whole building contains above eleven thousand super-
in the latter the plants and trees stand in pots, placed upon ficial feet.It was erected by Mr. Turner, of the Hammer-

stages; and in the former are regularly planted in beds of the smith Ironworks, Dublin, at a cost of about 6,000.
finest composts, on being removed from the green-house, The conservatories at Sion House, the Duke of Northum-
and taken out of the tubs or pots. By introducing stages, berland's, Alton Towers, the Earl of Shrewsbury's, and the
instead of beds, however, one may serve for the other. Duke of Devonshire's at Chatsworth, are on the most mag-
The construction of a conservatory is similar to that of a nificent scale, and are especially worthy the study of the

green-house; but it should be more spacious, elevated, and young architect who may be called on for designs for a build-
 CON 192 CON
ing of this description. He
will also find much valuable ticalweight presses upon any horizontal beam, as in the case
practical information in Mr. J. W.
Thompson's work on the of brest-summers ; it happens likewise, when heavy untrussed
"
Construction of Stoves, and other Horticultural Buildings." horizontal beams have too great a bearing, the effect in this
The conveniences which may be attached to conservatories, case is termed sagging, and is counteracted
by cambering or
consist of retiring-rooms, seed-rooms, aviaries, &c. If there trussing the beam.
be no sheds behind, the walls should not be less than three Analogous, and arising out of these operations of gravity,
bricks thick. are the three great principles in construction repose,
equi-
CONSISTORY (from the Latin, consistorium) a large poise, and tie. The first of these is the simplest, and is the prin-
hall, at Rome, in which the college of cardinals meet to plead ciple most usually adopted in very ancient buildings ; it is used
judiciary causes. where the materials are merely piled up perpendicularly, so
CONSOLE (from the Trench) a bracket, or projecting as to form piers or columns with cross-beams, architraves, or
body, formed like a curve of contrary flexure, scrolled at the lintels, laid horizontally upon the piers or columns, pressing
ends, used for supporting a cornice, bust, or vase. downwards merely with the gravity of these materials,
Consoles have been used for supporting an entire order of without any thrust or other inclination to destroy the position
"
columns, as in the barbarous architecture of the palace of any part of the arrangement. Buildings constructed on
of Diocletian, at Spalatro. this principle, need only tenacity of material and
unflinching
Consoles are otherwise denominated ancones, or trusses. foundations to be altogether perfect in construction; but
CONSPIRING POWERS, in mechanics, such powers as buildings of this kind, owing nothing to geometrical science,
act in directions not opposite to each other. lead to an enormousconsumption of materials ; all the materials
CONSTRUCTION (Latin, construct, to heap up into one) of the horizontal spanning masses, of even a small building,
the erection or disposition of several
separate parts in such must be huge, and are thence immensely expensive to procure,
a manner, as to form a perfect and compact whole. and to raise to their destined places ; if these spanning masses
A good knowledge of the principles of construction, forms be either so long or so brittle as to yield by their own weight,
an essential item in the qualification of an architect. The or by that which may be put upon them, the principle of
principles of construction arise out of and are entirely depen- simple repose becomes destroyed ; the horizontal masses sink,
dent upon those of gravitation. " Gravity," says an excellent and the piers or sustaining masses are thrust outwardly."
" is The disadvantages attending this mode of construction, led
authority on this subject, the source of all the principles,
inventions, and ingenuity, called into action in the structure to the invention of others, yet at the same time they all aimed
of architectural works. The weight or downward
tendency of at attaining the same end, namely, simple repose throughout
their materials, is the cause of
buildings holding together, the materials and different members of a building. The prin-
or falling, or being thrust apart. Gravity, in its various ciple of equipoise in construction
is this, that all tendencies

dynamic modifications, is the sole acting power which operates to disturb or produce motion amongst the parts of a structure,
in a
building. All the mechanical perfections of scientific should be counterbalanced by an equal and opposite tendency,
building result from a clear knowledge of the operation of and the most perfect exhibition of its powers is to be seen in
gravity, and from the ability to direct their course: all the thearch. This principle of building allows of the employment
mechanical defects of buildings, result from an ignorance of of the smallest materials, and ensures stability with the least
the laws of gravity, and from inattention or possible quantity of matter; it is therefore far preferable to
inability to counter-
balance their effect. A
judicious architect enslaves to his pur- the first method or principle. The third principle, of tying,
pose the active force of gravity, and compels it to exert all its is of modern invention, and by it the quiescent state of a
force in holding together more firmly his structure ; an structure is maintained, not by resisting the power as in the
igno-
rant or careless architect or workman, allows that force to last case, by external opposition or abutments, but by con-
exert itself in wracking, straining, distorting, breaking, and finingthe power by internal restraint. The principle is
destroying his work." embodied in the structure termed a truss.
The methods in which gravity acts upon materials, are by The most perfect specimens of constructive science are to
compression, by tension, and by cross-strain. The first of be found in the wonderful erections of the Gothic architects :

these modes of operation is the simplest and least destructive, "The mediaeval Christian builders arrived to such a delicate
unless exerted to too great an extent, and is that which forms and intimate acquaintance with architectural dynamics, that
the basis of the most sound construction ; its tendency is to by the discovery of the way in which all the particles of their
bring the particles of matter more closely together ; instances materials were affected by gravity, they were enabled, by
of application occur in all simple constructions, such as
its
merely subjecting them to ^he frangibility caused by com-
pression, so to economize them, and
upright piers, arches, &c. The second method, that of ten- reduce their quantity,
sion, has a directly opposite tendency to the last, and exerts that many members of Gothic edifices, after five hundred
its influence in
disengaging the atoms from each other, it is by time, are more sound than corresponding
years' devastation
of course not naturally favourable to construction, but the members of our modern builders, which have not subsisted
contrary, nevertheless it is made a very efficient and useful fifty years, and
which contain five times their proportion of
agent ; its influence is never exerted but upon materials which materials. So admirable in general is the skill displayed in
have a strong counteracting tendency, and it is made avail- the dynamic disposition of the material of a Gothic cathedral,
able to produce the first effect of gravity, or compression. so shrewdly are the forces of its gravitation reduced to simple
is like a wonderful piece of
Examples of its operation are to be met with in suspension- compression, that the whole
and imitated in stone.''
bridges, and in the tie-beams and king or queen-posts of shoring, sublimely permanently
trusses. The third method by which materials are affected CONSTRUCTION, the art of describing a diagram or scheme
by gravity, is cross-strain, which is a combination of the two from given data.
last, as it is tension effected by pressure, and its result is to In geometrical constructions, the accuracy of the diagram
the points by which the lines constitut
tear or wrench the particles of matter asunder ; it is in prin- depends upon that of
It is, therefore, of the utmost
ciple totally inimical to construction, and must be avoided or ing the figure are found.
counteracted. Cross-strain occurs in unscientifically formed to ascertain the situation of points correctly by
consequence
roofs, where struts rest I'pon a tie-beam, also when any ver- lines crossing at right angles, or as nearly so as possible.
 CON 193 CON .

The choice of this is not at all times in the power of the construction, shorten the language, and give accuracy to tho
geometer, but when it is, he ought to avail himself of it. description.
The situation of a point must be ascertained by the intersec- CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY shows the method of
tion of two lines, and since a line cannot be without breadth, reducing wood into forms, and joining the parts, as directed
it will be an oblong, and the intersection of two lines will be by the rules of DESCRIPTIVE CARPENTRY, or the laws of
by
a parallelogram ; when the lines cross at right angles, the strength, and thereby forming a complete design.
parallelogram will form a square and when at oblique
;
It is much to be regretted that the first principles of this
angles it will be a rhombus. In all those cases, the point department of the art are frequently so little understood by
required is in the intersection of the diagonals of the paral- those who are called upon to put them into practice. Tho
lelogram. Now the least of all the parallelograms formed by young carpenter too often follows blindly in the track of
the intersection of two lines of equal breadth, is a square ; those who have gone before him, without inquiry, and with-
but the greater the obliquity of the lines of intersection, the out even attempting to understand the mechanical construc-
longer will be the rhombus; and as the drawing of the tion of the work he has just put together. We
do not mean
figure depends upon vision, the more indistinct will the angles that the practical builder must necessarily make himself
of the figure so formed become, and consequently the situa- master of the higher branches of science, but that it would
tion of the point must be almost guessed at. In some cases, obviously be of advantage to him that he should acquire that
the obliquity of the intersection is of little consequence ; as, general knowledge of the elementary principles of the art,
in finding a curve by points, where the lines, which form which would enable him to select the best materials, and
the intersection, fall very nearly in with the curve itself, or employ them in the best manner.
make very acute angles with the tangent, unless it be Every species of construction should be characterized by
required to find the points in the curve in a given ratio; stability, and a careful regard to economy of materials.
but if, a point, through which a line is to pass
in finding These objects can only be obtained by judicious combinations
from another given point, to meet a line, of which some of the substances used, so that the greatest amount of
parts are either given or found, or to be found, it will bo of strength be secured with the smallest expenditure of mate-
the utmost consequence to determine with accuracy the situ- rial. Unless tho builder possess a considerable knowledge of
ation of the intermediate point; for the point asertained in the principles of mechanics, unless he be acquainted with
the other line will vary from its true place, more or less, the effect of pressure, and the resisting powers of different
according to the distance of the intermediate point found by materials, he cannot comprehend, much less design, such
the intersection. combination but becomes a mere labourer putting together
;

Another source of error arising from the intersection of the several parts of a work, without knowing their relative
oblique lines, which will also be more or less accurate, as the dependence on each other, or the strength, or want of
obliquity is less or greater, is, when one or both the lines strength, of the whole. He is, indeed, from the want of such
are not exactly drawn through their extremities; even the knowledge as we have described, incapable of judging what
deviation of a line being drawn its own breadth, will make are the best forms of construction, or which of several
the intersection fall its own length (which is the diagonal of modes of uniting timbers it is most advisable to make use of.
the rhombus) to the end of the true intersection. Let it It is the
province of constructive carpentry to show this, and
also be considered, that the longer diagonal of the rhombus the carpenter who is desirous to make himself thoroughly
may be of any length whatever, depending upon the obliquity acquainted with his business, should study to acquire not
of angles formed by the two intersecting lines. In the only a practical knowledge of its details, but also some insight
description of a diagram, when different points are ascertained into the principles on which it is founded.
in a line, in pointing out the line to the reader, it would be Constructive carpentry, it has been observed, is the method
better to name all the letters in the order as they stand, of reducing wood into forms, and the combining of several
instead of pointing out the line by two of the letters, par- parts into a complete, firm whole. In most works, especially

ticularly in a complicated diagram, where many other lines those of magnitude, it will frequently be necessary to join
are concerned. This is still more necessary when several one or more pieces of timber, in order to obtain beams, &c.,
lines meet at the same point, as the use of all the letters not of sufficient size, and in order to economize material. The
only gives a more immediate clue to identify the lines from processes by which these objects are effected is a subject of
others, but also shortens the description, as the same letters the greatest importance, as on their being properly and sub-
must be used again, in pointing out the other lines which stantiallyperformed depends the stability of the structure in
cross the former line, and will thus supersede the necessity which they are used. Under this article then we propose to
of the frequent repetition, after a line has been drawn in the describe some of the most approved methods of uniting tim-
"
required position to cut a former, of saying, cutting such ber, and to treat of the following operations, viz., the length-
" A or
a line in the point B, or whatever it may be ; as the ening of beams, either by scarfing or joining them in pieces ;
same letter cannot be in two lines, except at their inter- the strengthening of beams by trussing; the methods of join-
section. ing two timbers at angles, in any given direction ; and lastly,
In tracing the boundaries of angular figures, it will only the mode of connecting several timbers, in order to perform
be necessary to name the letters progressively, as they stand certain functions required by the design.
at the extremities of the sides, that is, at the angles ; but to To lengthen a piece of timber, is to join or fasten two
trace out the whole enclosure or perimeter, it would be neces- separate pieces, so that a portion of the end of the one
sary to name the again, at the end of the series of
first letter piece shall lap upon a portion of the end of the other, the
letters. It isthat a triangle, a quadrilateral, &c.,
true, sides of both making but one continued surface, and forming
will easily be understood, without naming the first letter a close joint, called a scarf.
again, by naming the figure at the same time, or the number It is evident, that in the formation of a continued straight
of its sides, as in polygons the last side will always be timber, if the joint consist of a plane, or planes, at right
wanting. angles to two opposite sides of the compound piece,
but not
Though these enumerations and repetitions of letters may at right angles to the plane of the other two opposite sides,
appear clumsy, they lead sooner to an understanding of the tho plane, or several planes, forming the scarf, will make the
25
 CON 194 CON
oblique angles, constituted by the surface of each piece on longitudinally across their abutting parts, the cohesive force
the same side, supplements to each other : or whatever will be considerably assisted thereby.

oblique angle or angles the one piece makes with a side, the There is no part of carpentry which requires greater cor-
corresponding angle or angles formed by the joint or joints rectness in workmanship than scarfing ; as all the indents
with the same continued surface of the other, will, together, should bear equally, otherwise the greater part of the strength
form two right angles, and thus the solid part of the one jvill will be lost Hence we see how very unfit some of the
be equal and similar to the void of the other. complicated forms shown in the old works on carpentry were
There are several methods of lengthening timber, either for the
purpose.
It is certainly the
height of absurdity to
by joining whole pieces of the same transverse sections, and render the parts difficult to be fitted, when the whole of the
" But
forming their ends, which are to come in contact in one or strength depends on their fitting well. many," says
several planes, or by forming the connection by means of a Professor " seem to aim at the beam
Robison, making
third piece, or by building the piece to be lengthened in stronger than if it were of one piece ; and this inconsiderate
several thicknesses, making the joints abutting upon each project has given rise to many whimsical modes of tabling
other on the solid of the piece with which they come in con- and scarfing."
tact on the parallel joint. It is evident, that two bodies of scarrings under
Having already shown many varieties
united, and intended to act as one in a state of tension, can the general head of CARPENTRY, we shall here only point out
never be so strong as either piece taken separately. the most approved forms for practical purposes, by way of
Tabling is a mode of indenting the ends of the pieces illustrating the preceding observations.
which form the scarf, so as to resist a longitudinal strain ; Figure 1. Two pieces of timber connected by a single
the pieces, therefore, require to be held together, or otherwise
step on each piece. Here more than half the power is lost ;
the notches and the tables which fit into them would require neither is the scarf so capable of resisting the force of tension
to be dovetailed. In this construction, the tables between as a single piece of timber would be, were it sawed half
the notches would be a very feeble support, as they are apt through its thickness from the opposite side, at a distance
to split away. It must also be observed, that one
single equal to the length of the scarf: however, if assisted by
table, or one abutting part of resistance, is stronger, and straps, it a much greater
may perhaps be capable of resisting
much more easy to execute, than two or four ; and that the force, particularly ifeach opposite surface be bolted on the
resisting part should have as little projection as possible, sides of the transverse joints through the straps.
because such projection diminishes the cohesive force, by a Figure 2. An oblique scarf, bolted in three places. Allow-
quantity of the timber equal in section to the abutting parts. ing the utmost cohesion of the part of the joint A B, to be the
Two pieces of timber may be very firmly fixed, by making same as whole timber, and that the transverse parts, A D or
the ends of the tables, instead of abutting, to form a tapering B c, are one-fourth of the breadth, D E, the compound
mortise, so that when the two pieces are brought close at the timber will possess three-fourths of the strength of a solid
connecting surfaces, a wedge driven into the cavity will piece.
bring all the parts of the joint into contact. Figure 3. A scarf
with parallel joints and a single table
Every two pieces of timber require to be held together by upon each Here
the cohesive strength is diminished
piece.
some force compressing them equally on each side, particularly in an additional degree to that of Figure 1, by the projection
when the pieces are light ; for which purpose iron bolts are of the table; but this gives an opportunity of driving a
very convenient, they acting as a tie, and having the same wedge through the joint, between the ends of the tables and
effect as two equal and opposite forces would have in com-
thereby forcing the abutting parts to a joint. This mode
pressing the beam on each side of the scarf; and as iron is of requires the scarf to be longer than those which have no
great strength, the bore made to receive the bolt will not be tables ; and the transverse parts of the scarf must also be.
so large as to diminish the section, and consequently the
strapped and bolted.
firmness of the timber at the scarf, in any considerable Figure Allows of the same opportunity of wedging as
4.
degree ; whereas, when wooden pins are used, they require before : if we would suppose
the parts A B and c D to be com-
a large bore, which weakens the timber, and the two pieces
pressed by bolts as firmly together as if they were but one
thus connected are not so firmly compressed, or, indeed,
piece they would be, by the continuity of the fibres, and if
compressed at all, but are held together almost solely by the projection of the tables be equal to the transverse parts
friction. of the joints at A and D the loss of strength, compared with
;

No limited distance can be specified for the length of that of a solid piece, will be no more than what it would be
the scarf; though it may be observed,
generally, that a long at A and D.
scarf has no effect in diminishing the cohesive strength of a Let it be here observed, once for all, that the strapping
compound piece of timber. On the contrary, a long scarf across the transverse part of the joint is the most effectual
gives an opportunity of increasing the number of bolts, mode of preventing the pieces from being drawn from each
which are the only ties when no tablings are used, as is the other, by the sliding of the longitudinal parts of the scarf,
case where the abutting parts unite only by compression. It and thereby giving the bolts an oblique position.
must here be understood, that all such abutting parts diminish Figure 5. A scarf formed by several steps. In this, if all
the cohesive force in the proportion of their the transverse parts of the steps be equal, and the longitudinal
abutting surface
to that of the whole section at
any one of the abutments ; so parts as strongly compressed by bolts as the fibres of whole
that should a scarf consist of a series of timber would adhere laterally, the loss of strength would only
steps, formed by
planes parallel and perpendicular to two of the opposite sides, be a fourth, compared to that of a solid piece; there being
the transverse sides of these four transverse parts, that is, the part which the end of a step
steps to those of the piece
should be all equal ; and the greater the number of is of the whole.
steps,
the less will the strength be
impaired ; but if they be Figure 6. The end of each piece is formed by three steps,
unequal, the timber will be weakest at the greatest section and the abutting parts of the middle step being greater than
or compressed abutment, and if few, the section will be that at either extremity, the loss of strength in the compound
large,
and the piece consequently deprived of a proportional timber is the part which the middle abutting surfaces are of
degree
of strength. We may also add, if the two pieces be strapped the whole section.
 (' TCTSTEWTIVE rA~.RP:E;T[' RY,
PUTK I
/},/ I tiff.
2

I.
/'i'y.

l-'i'll.li

/;. ;..

Dm*n by M /I .\'"-
 Fy.ll.

Fly.l'l X'l.

Fig 12. N 4.
Fyll.i-lZ
N5. N" 6. Fig 12. Nl

Tu/13 Nl .

Drann by MA A'icfjolfo
 CON 105 CON
Figure 7. A
scarf consisting of six steps, the abutting Figure 11. A
section of a girder with two braces and
parts being equal, and the longitudinal parts inclined in a a king-bolt.
small degree to the sides ; so that when the two parts come Figure 12. The section of a girder with a straining piece,
to be bolted together, the pieces will dovetail each other, and two braces, and two truss-bolts, of the best principle. No. 1
thereby prevent their being drawn ; but as all timber is liable represents the girder laid open, in order to show the core.
to shrink in proportion to the dimensions of its section, no No. 2, the two parts bolted together. No. 3, the edge of a
dependence can be put in dovetailing, for the shrinking may washer. No. 4, the face of the same. No. 5, the side of the
be so great, that the thickest parts of the solids at the abut cut metal bolts, in the transverse direction of the girder.
ment of the joint may pass through the narrower cavities, No. fl, the side of the same, in the longitudinal direction.
and render the dovetails useless. We
may also observe, in No. 7, the transverse direction of the truss-bolt, or king-bolt.
the case of bolting, that when the longitudinal parts shrink
Figure 13. The section of a girder, calculated from its
from each other, the bolts will be drawn obliquely, unless rise to sustain very heavy weights. If the tie-beam be very
the transverse parts on the sides be stripped and bolted, both
strong, the abutments may be wedged ; but then the wedges
opposite to the scarf and through the solid at each end of it. ought to be very long, the tapper very small, that there may
The strength of the compound beam may likewise be assisted be no inclination to rise. The excess of length may be cut
by the iron the dovetailing therefore can only give greater
; off* afterwards. The bolts represented at No. 5, and No. 6,
adhesion at first; at the same time, it occasions a small loss Figure 12, are nevertheless to be preferred.
of strength, equal to the difference of the extreme end of the Two timbers may be joined, either by making both planes
outer step and the nearer end of the whole section. of contact parallel with or at right angles to the fibres, or by
8. The method of forming a compound timber,
Figure making the joint parallel with the fibres of the one piece, and
when two pieces are not of sufficient length to allow them
the at right or oblique angles to those of the other, or at oblique
to lap, by means of a third piece, connected with both by a angles to the fibres of both piece*. When two pieci's of
double scarf, formed of several degrees, or steps the pieces
; timber are joined so that the common seam runs parallel with
abutting upon each other, with the middle of the connecting the fibres of both, the joint is called a longitudinal joint ; but
piece over their abutment. when the plane of the joint is at right angles to the fibres, it
When girders are extended beyond a certain length, they is an abutting, or butt-joint; this position brings the fibres
bend under their own weight in the middle, and the degree of both pieces in the same straight line. If the joint be at
of curvature will increase in a much greater degree than their right angles to the fibres of one piece, and parallel with those
lengths. An excellent method to prevent this sagging, with- of the other, it is called a square joint ; if the joint be parallel
out the assistance of uprights or posts from the ground or with the fibres of one piece and oblique to those of the other,
floor below, is, to make the beam in two equal lengths, and it is a bevel joint ; and lastly, if the joint be at oblique angles
insert a truss, so that when the two pieces are bolted, the with the fibres of both pieces, the fibres forming an angle
truss may be included between them, they forming its tie. with each other double to that formed by the fibres of one
To prevent any bad effects from shrinking, the truss-posts
piece and the joint, it is a mitre joint.
are generally constructed of iron, screwed and nutted at the These are the general positions of simple joints in respect
ends ; and to give a firmer abutment, the braces are let in to the fibres of one or both pieces ; those which may be com-
with grooves into the side of each flitch. The abutments at
pounded by the position of different planes, are of infinite
the ends are also made of iron, and either screwed and nutted or no practical appli-
variety, but as they seem to have little
at each of the ends, and bolted through the thickness of both cation, we shall not detain the reader longer on the subject.
pieces, with a broad part in the middle, that the braces may In fixing two pieces of timber together with longitudinal
abut upon the whole dimension of their section ; or, the joints, the pieces arc generally bolted,
and sometimes pinned.
abutments are made in the form of an inverted wedge at As to butting and mitre joints, they are seldom or never
the bottom, and rise cylindrically to the top, where they are used in carpentry.
screwed and nutted. These modes may be either constructed When two pieces of timber are joined together at one or
with one king-bolt in the middle, or with a truss-bolt at one- more angles, the one piece will either meet the other and form
third of the length from each end. When there are two one angle, or by crossing it form two angles or the two
;

bolts, they include a straining place in the middle. The timbers will cross each other, and form four angles.
two braces may either be constructed of oak, or cast or wrought In all the following cases of connecting two timbers, it is
supposed that the sides of the pieces are parallel with
iron ; the latter material is, however, very s*eldom employed. the
As wood contracts less in length than most metals, oak is be crooked, as nearly so as possible
fibres, or, if the fibres ;

better for the purpose than cast iron, but then the parts of and that each piece has at least one of its surfaces in the
the core must be so much stronger. As to the bolts, wrought same plane with those of one of the other ; the four sides
iron is indispensable. It is obvious, that the higher the girder,
being at right angles to each other.
the less will the parts be affected by the stress, and conse- The angle or angles so formed will either be right or obtuse.
quently there will be less risk of their giving way under Notching is the most common and simple form, in permanent
heavy weights, or through long bearings. works, and in some cases the strongest, for joining two tim-
Figure 9. A
beam of two thicknesses bolted together, bers at one or more angles, particularly when bolted at the
the scarfing of each length of timber alternating in the joint. The form of the joint may be varied according to the
two thicknesses, so as to have the junction of two lengths position of the sides of the pieces, the number
of angles,
in the one thickness opposite the centre of a length in the quantity and direction of the stress on the one or both
the other thickness: the scarfing is similar to that of pieces, or any combination of these circumstances.
Figure 3. In the notching of timbers upon each other, the notch is
Figure 10. A beam of three thicknesses bolted together, generally supposed to be formed by planes, at right angles
each thickness consisting of a number of short timbers so is made ;
to, and parallel with the side in which the excavation
disposed, that the joints in no thickness come opposite the therefore the part of the corresponding piece must have its
joints in either of the other thicknesses a bolt occurs between
; planes in a similar situation, the solid being contained between
every two joints. these planes, instead of the empty space, or notch, as in the
 CON 196 CON
other. It may also here be remarked, that the notch is the middle of the sides of its respective timber this : mode
generally supposed to consist of three planes, unless it be is
particularly used in letting down bridging joists upon
otherwise specified. binding joists, and small rafters upon purlins.
Notching admits of the two pieces being joined at from If it be required to join two pieces of timber, to form two
one to lour angles ; but joining by mortise and tenon admits right angles, so as to be immovable when the transverse is
only from one to two angles. held or fixed fast, and the standing piece pulled in a direc-
In mortise and tenon joining, four sides of the mortise are tion of its length;
cut a dovetail notch across the breadth of
always supposed to be at right angles to each other and to the transverse piece, and notch out the vertical sides of the
the surface whence it is recessed, and two of these sides to be standing piece at the end, so as to form a corresponding
parallel with each of the sides, which form a right angle with similar and equal solid. In some pieces of work, besides the
the side from which the mortise is made ; the fifth plane, dovetail, an additional notch is cut, to receive the shoulder
which is the bottom of the mortise, is parallel with the other. of the lower piece. If the position of these pieces be hori-
With respect to the tenon, four of its sides are parallel with zontal, and the upper of sufficient weight, or pressed down
the four sides of the piece. by any considerable force, when the pieces are put together
In the application of timbers to buildings, it is here sup- in their place,the dovetail will be sufficiently strong without
posed that all pieces cut for use have a rectangular section, the assistance of pins, spikes, or bolts. This construction
and when laid horizontally have their sides perpendicular to, requires the timbers to be well seasoned, for otherwise the
and parallel with, the horizon. shrinking will permit the standing piece to be drawn out of
If two pieces of timber are to be joined at four angles, cut the transverse, and thus defeat the purpose which the con-
a notch in one piece equal to the breadth of the other, so as struction was intended to answer. The following method of
to leave the remaining part of the. thickness sufficiently strong, remedying this defect will be found effectual Cut the
:

a very small excavation being sufficient; then insert the other transverse piece in two excavations from the upper side, so
piece in the notch or if the work be required to be very
: that if the breadth be supposed to be divided into five equal
lirm, notch each piece reciprocally to each other's breadth, parts, and a notch equal in breadth to three parts be cut next
and fasten them together by pins, spikes, or bolts, as the case to the outer vertical side, and the other notch be made equal
may require this form is applicable where the pieces are
: to the breadth of one part, and each notch depressed from the

equally exposed to a strain. upper face about one-third the thickness of the piece, so as
W
hen one piece has to sustain another over it, transversely, to leave the second part on the upper surface next to the
and ifonly the upper be required to support a weight, cut inner vertical side, and the two-thirds of the depth of each
a notch from its lower side, equal in breadth to about three- vertical side next to the lower side entire then the corres-
:

fourths of that of the lower piece, and as deep as the vertical ponding single notch being made on the standing piece to the
distance that it is to be let down then the lower piece must
;
solid left on the upper surface of the transverse piece, the two
have a notch cut in its vertical side, leaving the middle of pieces will reciprocally receive each other.
the upper face entire to three-quarters of its breadth, and When binding joints arc framed into girders, as they have
tl>e lower parts of the vertical side entire, so that the vertical to support the bridging joists and boarding of the floor, there
depth of each notch may be the same as that of the upper will be a considerable strain at their extremities in order ;

notch by this means the strength of the supporting or lower

: to make the tenons sufficiently strong to resist the weight,
pieces is diminished in a much less degree than if the notch they should be framed with a shorter bearing tenon attached
wero cut out the whole breadth. This method is applicable to the principal tenon and a sloping shoulder above, called
to roofing and naked flooring. a tusk ; tenons thus formed are called tusk tenons.
The framing of timber by dovetail notching is chiefly When two parallel pieces, quite immovable, are to have
applicable to horizontal framing, where the lower timber is another piece framed between them, proceed thus Insert :

sufficiently supported but where the lower timber is unsup-

;
the one end of the tenon of the connecting piece into a shal-
ported, it is common to use mortise and tenon, which does low mortise, and make a long mortise in the opposite side of
not weaken the timber in any considerable degree; where the other timber, so that when the cross piece is moved
the timber is notched from the upper side, the operation round the shoulder of the other extremity, as a centre, it
reduces its thickness, and consequently impairs its strength ; may slide home to its situation : thus if the tenon at the
though it may be said, if the solid of one piece fill the exca- movable end fit the mortise closely, the bottom of the mor-
vation of the other, and both be tightly driven or forced tise would be the arc of a circle, of which the shoulder of

together (if wo can place implicit confidence in the experi- the tenon first formed would be the centre but the bottom
:

ments of Dii Ilamel) and if the pieces be not cut more than of the long mortise may be straight instead of circular, pro-
one-third through, there will be rather an accession than vided it be sufficiently recessed to clear the end of the piece.
This mode of framing a
a loss of strength. It may be observed, however, that in
transver^pk^ between two others
large works, where heavy timbers are employed, it is difficult, is employed in
trimming in ceiling joists the binding joists
:

or almost impossible, to fit them with due accuracy ; and even are always previously mortised before they are disposed in
where the joints closely fitted at first, the shrinking would a situation to receive them, and the ceiling joists are seldom
occasion cavities on the sides, that would render the tenons or never cut to their lengths and fitted in before the building
of no avail, because the axis of fracture would be nearer to is covered over.
the breaking, or under side of the supporting piece. When a transverse piece of timber is to be framed between
What has been observed with regard to horizontal pieces two parallel joists, of which the vertical surfaces are not
of timber, applies to framing in every position, where the parallel, turn the upper edge
of the transverse piece down-
force is to fall on the plane of the sides and if a number of
;
wards upon the upper horizontal surface of the joists ; mark
pieces thus liable to lateral pressure on either side, are to be the interval or distance between them upon the surface of
framed into two other stiff" pieces, the mortise and tenon will the transverse piece now under ; then turn the transverse
prove best for the purpose.
piece in the way it is intended to be framed, placing the
When joists areframed into trimmers, the usual method edge over the places where it is to be let down ; then apply
is to make the mortise on the tenon with a plain shoulder, in a straight-edge to the oblique surface of the joist, and slide
 CON 197 CON
the transverse piece so as to bring the mark upon the upper under the longitudinaltruss, and fixed to the opposite rafters,
side of it in a line with the straight-edge. This being done, they would act as straining pieces, and prevent the exterior
proceed in the same manner with the other end, and the two sides of the roof from getting hollow. If the whole space
lines drawn on the vertical sides of the intermediate piece within, under the rafters, were required, that is, to have no
will mark the shoulders of the tenons. This process is called intermediate work of trussing, the sides of the roof may be
by workmen tumbling-in joists, and is particularly useful prevented from descending by arching them with cast iron,
when the timber is warped or twisted. or trussing them with wood in the inclined planes of their
Having shown the principles of lengthening timber and sides; and to restrain the pressure of the rafters, which
strengthening of beams, also the methods of joining timbers would be discharged at the extremities of the building, a strong
at angles, we shall now proceed to construction in general. wall-plate, well connected in all its parts, must be introduced,
In groin centering, the boarding which forms the exterior which, acting as a tie, would prevent the lateral pressure
surface for building upon is supported by transverse ribs of forcing out the walls.
timber, which are either constructed simply, or with trusses, In this construction, as well as in the former, the rafters
according to the magnitude of the work ; and as a groin con- would have a tendency, from their gravity, to become hollow ;
sists generally of two vaults crossing each other, one of them in this case straining beams should be introduced at a con-
is
always boarded over, the same as a plain vault, without venient height, which would have a good effect in counter-
having any respect to the other, which is afterwards ribbed acting that tendency. If it be required to occupy very little
and boarded, so as to make out the regular surface. space by the wood-work, cast-iron arches, abutting upon each
Timbers disposed in walls and at returns or angles, are other, and screwed with their planes upon the upper sides
joined together where the magnitude of the building, or of the rafters, will answer the purpose best.
exposure to strain, may require. These are of three denomi- The idea of trussing roofs upon these principles was
nations, as bond-timber, lintels, and wall-plates. discovered, many years ago, by Mr. P. Nicholson, in con-
Flooring is supported by one or more rows of parallel sequence of a dispute concerning a roof which had been
beams, called naked or carcase-flooring, and is denominated constructed upon a chapel, and which had pushed out the
either single or double, accordingly. The manner of joining walls to such an alarming degree as to threaten the demo-
the timbers we have already spoken of. lition of the whole fabric: Mr. Nicholson was chosen as

During the construction of the building, the flooring of arbiter, but the principle which the architect adopted was
carpentry, if not supported by brick or stone partitions, is so incompatible with the nature of the design, that, though
either supported by the partitioning of timber or by shores. chosen by the architect himself, he was under the disagree-
The construction of the flooring, whether single or double, able necessity of giving judgment in favour of the constructor.
depends upon the magnitude of the building, the horizontal This roof was truncated, or flat, and the ceiling within
dimensions of the apartments, or the weight which the board- cylindrical, extending horizontally the whole clear of the
ing may be required to support. When the flooring is walls, and in height to the under sides of the camber-beams,
required to be very stiff", it becomes necessary to use truss so that there were no ties between opposite rafters. The
girders. principle consisted, therefore, of two sloping sides and a
Naked flooring for dancing upon should be made very camber-beam, which were only tied together by angle-braces,
strong, and so contrived that the upper part of it may spring, and as the ceiling came in contact with the under side of the
so as to bend to the impression of the force, while the lower rafters and the under sides of the camber-beams, the braces
part, sustaining the ceiling, remains immovable. were also disposed so that the middle of their under sides
Partitions are constructed of a row of timbers, or
if the came in contact with the ceiling, and thus, to maintain the
length of the bearing require very great stiffness, they are roof in its position, depended entirely upon the resistance of
made of framed truss-work, and afterwards filled in with the walls, or upon the inflexibility of the timbers, or both ;
parallel timbers. The trussing of partitions may be made all of which were of unusual strength.
to assist in giving support to the floors, where they are The lesson which every architect ought to learn from this,
unsupported below. The framing ought to be so managed is, always to construct his roof in such a manner as to make
as to discharge the office of hanging up the floor, in what- it
entirely dependent on itself.
ever situation the doors are placed. Truss partitions are In the year 1802, two years subsequent to the above dis-
also of the utmost use in supporting the superior floor. pute, a model of a roof was exhibited before a numerous
The covering of the roof is sustained by one or several meeting of the Philosophical Society at Glasgow, wherein
rows of parallel timbers, each row being in a plane parallel the timbers consisted simply of rafters abutting at the top
to the covering. The force of the timbers, which would act upon a ridge-piece, leaving the whole space under the rafters
laterally upon the walls, is generally restrained by tie-beams clear, and, of course, forming a triangular hollow prism, with
placed upon wall-plates on the top of the walls, and fixed to the two upper sides parallel to the inclined planes of the
the lower ends of the rafters. In roofing, many ingenious exterior. The wall-plates were unsupported, except at
contrivances may be resorted to, their application depending the four corners, which were sustained by uprights or posts ;
upon the pitch of the roof, the number of compartments into the pieces let in upon the upper sides of the rafters consisted
which it may be divided, or whether there are to be tie-beams of small arcs, almost straight, forming on each inclined plane
or not. If an apartment is required to be coved into the a parabolic curve, and extending from post to post. From
roof, a longitudinal truss, supported at the ends, may be the ridge-piece equal and very considerable weights were
placed in a vertical plane under the ridge, by which the suspended, one from the meeting of every pair of rafters,
rafters may be hung ; for it is evident, that if the upper ends without producing any visible effect upon the wall-plates.
of the rafters were held in their situation, their lower ends The form of a parabolic curve is best adapted to that of
would descend by their gravity, and would describe ares of equal weights suspended at equal distances. Instead of arcs,
circles in vertical planes, and in their descent would approach simple trusses may be used, and the rafters may bridge
nearer together, and, consequently, instead of pushing out over them.
the walls, would have a tendency to draw them towards each In many cases, where space is required, we cannot help
other, And if beams were placed transversely immediately thinking, that the disposition and fixing of the boarding in
 CON 198 CON
the form of a truss, is
vastly superior to placing them with case, be strutted between the ribs, and their outer sides
their joints parallel to the horizon, and would be a very formed with the spherical surface. A dome constructed in
proper substitute for arching or trussing the sides in "all this manner, might also be made to
support a heavy lantern,
roofs of moderate dimensions. It must, however, be observed, provided the strutting-pieces were strapped together. In
that the meeting of every two boards ought to be as nearly the above manner was the timber dome of the Halle du Bled,
as possible upon the middle of a rafter, and not over the at Paris, constructed by Moulineau,
supposed to be the first
hollow. To which we may add, that as all the joists are of the kind.
abutting in such disposition, the boards forming trussed If the boarding of the dome is
required to be bent, with
work may be made thicker, and let into the rafters, which the joints in horizontal planes, and the dome have no lantern,
will give greater security to the abutments ; but for this a very good method is, to construct it with several vertical
purpose they ought to be firmly fixed at their meeting, to ribs, their planes being disposed at equal angles round the
prevent them from starting. axis as their common vertex, and constructed
according to
The principle of arching the inclined sides of a roof, and the above method ; between every pair of such ribs,
place
making the wall-plates act as ties, is exhibited in the archi- other ribs, the curvature of which will be portions of less
tectural plates of Rees' Cyclopedia, published in 1805. circles of the sphere, unless one stand in each interval, and
Circular roofs may be executed without ties, or without its plane bisect the inclination of the vertical
planes of the
any precaution of trussing, as in rectangular buildings, but two adjacent principal ribs dispose of these ribs in equidis-
:

the wall-plate ought to be one continued mass. There are tant parallel planes, and fit their upper ends upon the sides
two methods of covering circular roofs with boards one is, : of the principal ribs. This disposition of the ribs will be
to bend the boards with their joints in horizontal a considerable saving of timber, besides what it would have
planes ;

and the other is, to bend them in planes passing through the been, had the planes of all the ribs tended to the axis.
axis. As that species of circular roofs called domes lavs In the construction of plaster groins, two methods are
considerable claim to our attention, it will here bo proper to employed in the disposition and fixing of the ribs. By both
say something on their construction. methods, ribs are made to answer the intersections at the
If the dome be and have no lantern to support,
spherical, angles by one method, ribs are formed to the transverse
:

the ribs may be constructed of boards in two or three thick- sections of the vault, and disposed in vertical planes accord-
nesses, with the longitudinal joints of the boards tending to ingly ; but by the other, the ribs are prepared straight, and
the axis of the dome, and intersecting the spherical edges, fixed parallel to the axis of each vault.
and the butting joints intersecting the sides of the ribs, which The lathing for plaster is sustained upon walls, by a
tend to the said axis. number of parallel posts of very small scantlings, called
Let us now suppose the thickness of a rib to consist of battening, and ranged according to the figure they are
three boards, and suppose the circular pieces which are intended to form.
to compose the ribs, to be all prepared of equal lengths and CONTABULATE, to floor with boards.
breadths. Take one of the lengths, suppose for the left-hand CONTACT (from the Latin, contactus, touch) the mutual
piece at the bottom, and lap the next higher length, which is touching, or meeting, of two things.
the middle piece, two-thirds upon the lower piece; take CONTACT, in is when a line or plane meets a
geometry,
another length for the right-hand piece, next higher, and figure or solid, without cutting it, though the line or plane
lap this two-thirds on the middle piece ; so that the right- be produced. Thus, a line and a circle are in contact when
hand piece will lap one-third upon the left-hand piece ; the line a tangent to the circle and two circles are in
is ;

between the ends of this third, bolt or pin the three pieces mutual contact, when they touch each other without cutting:
together; the middle board will want a third, the right-hand the like is to be understood of a plane and a convex body, as
board two-thirds, to make it complete at the bottom these ;
a cylinder, cone, conoid, &c.
parts being supplied and fixed, lay another board at the CONTENT (from the Latin, conlentus) that which is
higher end of the right-hand board, the end of another to contained, the thing held, included, or comprehended within
abut upon the higher end of the middle board, and the end a limit or line. In geometry, the area or quantity of
of a third board to abut upon the upper end of the left-hand matter or space included in certain lines. Linear content,
board, then there will be three piles of boards, which must length simply ; superficial content, area or surface ; solid
be fastened together between each pair of heading joints, content, the number of cubic inches, feet, yards, &c. con-
which are three in number. Proceed in like manner with tained in a given space.
every succeeding three boards, as with the last three, until CONTEXTURE (from the Latin, contexo, woven) the
you arrive at the top, and the deficiency must be supplied disposition or union of the constituent parts of a body in
as at the bottom. In this manner, every rib in succession respect of each other.
must be constructed, until they are all finished. Each rib CONTIGNATION (from the Latin, contignatio, con and
ought to befitted to the curvature of the axal section of the lignum, a beam), a frame of beams, in ancient Roman car-
dome, drawn on a floor, and the three thicknesses fixed pentry, the same as we now understand by naked flooring.
together throughout the whole length, before it is removed. CONTIGUITY (from the Latin, contiguus, to meet) the
If, in addition to the fixing, the joints be strapped, it will add relation of surfaces or solids whereby their sides join each
considerably to the strength, and will not be much inferior other.
to that of a solid piece. In large domes of this construction, CONTIGUOUS ANGLES, in geometry. See ANGLES.
it becomes
necessary to discontinue the ribs, otherwise an CONTINUED, a term applied to whatever is not inter-
unnecessary quantity of timber would be employed ; and rupted, but proceeds in the same course.
it must be observed, that the
greatest intervals must be so CONTINUED ATTIC, an attic not broken into pilasters.
regulated in their dimensions, as not to be greater than what CONTINUED PEDESTAL, a pedestal with its mouldings and
would make the horizontal ribs for the boarding, when fixed, dado, or die, continued both through the column and inter-
sufficiently strong. column, without being broken.
As all domes are best boarded with their joints in vertical CONTINUED PROPORTION, is when there is a series of lines
planes tending to the axis, horizontal pieces must, in this or quantities, such that the first is to the second as the second
 CON 199 COP
is and the second to the third as the third to the
to the third, CONVEXITY (from the Latin, convexus) the same as
fourth, and so on. convex surface.
CONTINUED SOCLE, the same as a continued plinth. See CONVOLUTION (from the Latin, convolutio) a winding
PLINTH. or turning motion.
CONTINUOUS BEARINGS, balks of timber laid under COOPER (from the Dutch, kype, a barrel) a person whose
the rails of a railway for their support, in place of stone business it is to make vessels of wooden boards, hooped toge-
sleepers, or blocks fixed at certain intervals. These balks, ther around a circular or elliptic circumference.
or longitudinal sleepers, as they are generally termed, are COOPERY, the art of making vessels of boards, by join-
secured to cross transoms fixed to piles. ing them edge to edge, and binding them round the exterior
CONTINUOUS IMPOST, in mediaeval architecture, the mould- sides with hoops, so as to form a hollow body of circular or
ings of an arch carried down to the ground without inter- elliptic sections, and so as to contain a liquid, with one
ruption, or anything to mark the impost-point. or two ends.
CONTORTED, wreathed. See WREATHED. The boards of which vessels are made, are called, in the
CONTOUR (from the French; synonymous with con- rough state, clap-boards ; but when wrought up in the ves-
torno, Italian) the outline of a body ; to have which correct, sels, they are called staves.
is one of the greatest requisites in
drawing and painting. Theart of coopery is a curious branch of mechanism ; it
CONTRAMURE. See COUNTERMURE. requires a knowledge of geometry, as well as of the covering
CONTRAMURE (from the French, contre, against, and mur, of solids, to be able to construct a vessel or cask of a rotative
a wall) in fortification, an external wall built about the walls figure, agreeably to a given section through the axis ; the
of a city. edges of the staves require to be of a particular curvature,
CONTRARY FLEXURE, Point of, or POINT OF RETRO- so that, when joined together, they may form the required
GRESSION, the point in which two curves meet that have the contour of the vessel. This, though not a branch of architec-
convexity of the one and the concavity of the other on the ture, is founded upon the same common principles.
same side of the line. CO-ORDINATE (from the Latin, con, with, and ordi-
CONTRACT (from the French, contraste) to avoid the nalus, order) a term expressive of two objects holding the
repetition of the same thing, by introducing variety ; as is same rank.
done in antique edifices, where rectangular and cylindrical CO-ORDINATE PILLARS, such pillars as stand in equal order.
niches with spherical heads are alternately introduced ; also, COPED TOMB, one which has its top or covering sloping
in the dressings of niches, as in the Pantheon, tabernacles down towards both sides.
are introduced with circular and triangular pediments alter- COPESTONE, head or top-stone.
nately. COPING (from the Dutch, kop, the head) in masonry,
CONTRAVALLATION, (in fortification), a trench the stones laid on the top of a wall, to strengthen and defend
it from the
guarded with a parapet, thrown round a besieged place by injuries of the weather.
the besiegers, to protect themselves, and check sallies of the COPING of equal thickness, is called parallel coping, and
garrison. is
only used upon inclined surfaces, as on a gable end, or in
CONVENIENCE (from the Latin, convenientia) an easy situations sheltered from the rain ; as on the top of a level
or accessible distribution of apartments in respect to the wall intended to be covered by the roof.
intention of the design. COPING thinner on one edge than on the other, for throw-
CONVENT (from the Latin, conventus, an assembly). ing off the water on one side of the wall, is called feather-
See MONASTERY. edged coping.
CONVENT, a religious edifice, in which lived assemblies of COPING thick in the middle and thin at each edge, whether
persons devoted to a religious life, under the authority of a the back be formed of two planes meeting in an angle over
superior. Convents for males are termed monasteries, those the middle of the wall, or whether forming the arch of
for females, nunneries ; when under the jurisdiction of an a circle in its transverse section, is called saddle-backed
abbot, or abbess, they are named abbeys, and under that coping. This kind of coping throws the water on both sides,
of a prior, or prioress, priories. and used over the walls of sunk areas, or of a dwarf
may be
CONVENTUAL CHURCH, a church belonging to a wall, which is to have an iron-railing, and in the best-con-

convent, and consisting of regular clerks, professing some structed fence-walls.

order of religion, or of a dean and chapter, or other societies COPING upon the gable end of a house, is called faclabling,
of spiritual men. in Liverpool.
CONVERGENT CURVE. See CURVE. COPING, in the pointed styles of architecture, is either
CONVERGENT LINES, such lines as if produced would inclined upon the faces, or plumb. When inclined upon
meet. the faces, the sides of the vertical section are the sides of an
CONVEX LINE, that side of a curve which has no con- equilateral triangle, whose base
is horizontal. This sort of
with
trary flexure, and on which a tangent may by drawn. coping is sometimes in one inclined plane, terminated
CONVEX RECTILINEAR SURFACE, a curved surface, such, an astragal at the top, while at the bottom it changes its
that if any point be taken, a straight line passing through direction into a narrow vertical plane, which projects with
the point can only be drawn in one direction, and if another a level soffit before the parapet. Sometimes it is in two
point be taken out of the straight line so drawn, another inclined planes, parallel to each other, the upper terminated
straight line passing through this and the former point, will with an astragal at the summit, and projecting before the
lower, and the lower before the vertical face of the wall,
Bodies having this property are cones, in
pass within the solid.
cylinders, and many others. the same manner as that which has only one inclined plane.
CONVEX SURFACE OF A SOLID, a curved surface, in which, This coping is used in plain parapets, or in battlements.
if
any two points be taken, the straight line joining them When used in battlements, it is either returned on the
will pass through thebody : all the solids generated by the vertical sides of the embrasures or notches, or only crowns
revolutions of conic sections, except the triangle, have this the top of the ascendants, and bottom of the notches.
property. The coping of battlements with vertical faces, has u small
 COB 200 COR
projection beyond the face of the wall, and the coping is The termis also used for the vase of the Corinthian

returned on the sides of the notches. being in form of a basket.

capital, it
Inclined coping is sometimes made without the astragal at CORBEL-BOLE, a moulding, in Norman architecture, em-
the top, and the soffit before the vertical face of the parapet ployed frequently to support a blocking course. It consists
perpendicular to the inclined face of the coping. of two rows of "billets or cubical blocks of stone disposed at
COPING OVER, is said of the soffit of a projecture from the and so arranged, that the blocks alternate in the
intervals,
naked of a wall, when the soffit is inclined so as to make an two rows, a block coming under a space, and vice versa. See
acute angle with the vertical face of the wall below it ; that BlLLET-MoULDING.
is, when the edge CORBEL-STEPS, sometimes called corbie-slops, a term
of the soffit in the surface of the wall, or
next to it, is higher than the outer edge. applied to steps up the sides of a gable ; when the parapet
CORBEILS (from the Latin, corbis, a basket) a piece of is formed into a kind of battlement, broken into
steps or
carved work, representing baskets filled with flowers or fruit, ledges, which converge from the eaves to the apex. Speci-
to finish some ornament. mens are to be seen in many old houses, especially in Scot-
COEBEL, a term used by some for a niche or hollow in land, Flanders, Holland, and Germany. They may have been
a wall, to contain a statue, bust, &c. used perhaps for extinguishing fire, or escaping from it, or
CORBEL, a block of stone or other material projecting from merely for ornament.
the face of a wall, and used to support a superincumbent CORBEL-TABLE, a series of corbels disposed at regular
weight, such as the beams of a roof, ribs of vaulting, columns, intervals projecting from a wall, to support a parapet or other
and such like. The term is confined chiefly to such supports continuous projection, and frequently seen under the eaves
employed in Gothic architecture, in the buildings of which of a roof. The corbels are occasionally plain, but often carved
styles corbels occur very frequently ; they perform somewhat in the shape of grotesque heads, and other devices, as above-
of a similar office to the modillions or consoles used in Classical mentioned. Sometimes the corbels are connected by small
buildings, but their more perfect prototype is to be seen in arches which intervene between them and the superstructure,
the projecting figures and heads supporting consoles, in the and form its immediate support these arches vary in shape,
;

remains of the baths of Dioclesian, at Rome. according to the style of architecture of the building in which
Corbels are usually carved in grotesque heads, animals, they are employed, as do also the corbels in the Romanesque
;

flowers, &c. ; in the Romanesque style they are either simple structures they are circular, during the next period inter-
square blocks with the face occasionally rounded, or carved secting, and lastly, pointed and trefoiled. Corbel-tables were
in the shape of grotesque heads ; in the Early-pointed, the more frequent in the Romanesque styles than in any others,
corbels are sometimes moulded, and in the richer specimens in which they form a bold and effective feature. They
carved into knops of foliage; when heads or masks are used, are found in a peculiar situation in many Lombardic struc-
they are not of such grotesque appearance as during the pre- tures, running up the raking sides of the wall beneath
ceding period ; in the next style they are more frequently the gable ; a singular instance of this position is to be seen
foliaged, and in the Perpendicular carved in the form of in the west gable of Adel Church, Yorkshire.
angels sometimes bearing shields and other devices ; in the CORBETT, a word used by Harris, in his Lexicon, for
later styles, the corbel is usually terminated above a corbel.
by a Corbetts, niches for images.
moulding, or series of mouldings, forming a kind of capital. CORBETTIS, a word used by Chaucer, for stones upon
Corbels of large dimensions, such as those supporting a group which images stand.
of clustered columns, are generally very elaborately orna- CORBS, a Spanish word for architectural ornaments.
mented in combinations of masses, or groups of foliage CORD, in geometry. See CHORD.
springing from one or more points underneath, and clustered CORDON, the edge of a stone on the outside of a
together under the cap ; sometimes groups of figures are building.
introduced, as in the beautiful specimens to be seen in Exeter CORE, the interior part of anything. Every masonic
Cathedral. wall should have thorough-stones at regular intervals, in order
Corbels are not unfrequent in castellated architecture, and to strengthen the core, which is generally made of rubble-
when so employed are of a very massive character. They stones or, otherwise, when thorough-stones are only to be
:

have usually two of their sides vertical planes, perpendicular had with difficulty, two bond-stones lapped upon each other,
to tho surface or face of the wall ; and their other surfaces, one from each face of the wall, may be used or, instead of
:

which are their edges or fronts, quarters of cylindroids, with each thorough-stone lay two stones level on the upper bed,
the greater axis of their section perpendicular. and one large stone in the core, lapped upon both, observing
The edge of each corbel generally consists of one, two, that the tails of the two lower stones be right-angled ; by this
and sometimes three convex rectilinear surfaces when the
: means the two sides of the wall will be completely tied
edge of each bracket consists of two or three convex recti- together.
linear surfaces, these surfaces are
generally separated by CORICEUM (from Kupticeiov) in Grecian antiquity, the
fillets, which have vertical sides parallel to the face of the undressing-room belonging to the Gymnasium.
building, and horizontal soffits. CORINTHIAN ORDER, the third of the orders of
CORBELS are also a horizontal row of stones or timber, Classical architecture, and the first of the foliaged, under
fixed in a wall, or in the side of a which title we include the Corinthian and Composite. These
vault, for sustaining the
timbers of a floor, or those of a roof. two orders might conveniently be classified together, and
Many of the timber
floors, or contignations, in old buildings, were thus supported ; reasonably too, if we consider their general resemblance,
the timbers of the domic roof of St. Paul's are tied to the and also that some examples of the former class differ as much
conic vault by means of corbels. The ends of the corbels from that which is considered their most perfect type or
are generally cut into a convex or
ogee form. model, as do those which are included under the Composite
CORBELS, in the Caryatic order, are those parts upon the or Roman order ; if both styles were comprised under one
heads of the Caryatides, under the soffit of the architrave
division, it would form a very distinct and marked style,
cornice, that represent baskets, or rather cushions, and have which might be entitled the Roman or Foliaged order.
an abacus, as in the Grecian orders. How this particular class of examples obtained theappella-
 COR 201 COR
tion of Corinthian, is not very readily accounted for ; one ruins and even in the present day, this capital exhibits the
;

would naturally suppose this name was assigned on account utmost elegance, beauty, and richness, that have ever been
of the origin of the style, or the prevalence of examples in attained in architectural composition, though many attempts
Corinth or its neighbourhood, but such is by no means the have been made to exceed it.
case. In the first place, the origin has never been attributed Some writers suppose that the Corinthian arose naturally
to that locality by any author except Vitruvius, and even if out of the Doric order, and cite in favour of their hypothesis,
we give credit to his account, the merit of the first idea the absence of bases, the simple capital, and the square
ought in fairness to be given to the Athenians; but at best abacus, in the Tower of the Winds, the use of mutules in
the story told by this author rests on a very insecure foun- the shape of modillions, and such like ; but we think those
dation, as we shall prt'sently attempt to show. No other who maintain its Egyptian origin, have the better evidence
writer has alluded to any buildings of this order as existing on their side.
at Corinth; and if the style ever did prevail in that city, we The Corinthian order, like the other two, after being in-
have now not a single example remaining to testify to the fact. troduced, continued to be the fashionable order in Greece,
Vitruvius's account of the invention of the capital, is as Italy, and Asia and was the only order well understood,
;

follows: Cullimachus, an Athenian sculptor, passing the and happily executed, by the Romans. Among the superb
tomb of a young lady, observed an acanthus growing round ruins of Balbec and Palmyra, excepting the lower Ionic order
the sides of a basket, covered with a tile, and placed upon in the circular temple, and a Doric column at the former
the tomb, and seeing that the tops of the leaves were bent place, it is, we believe, the only order to be found.
downwards, in the form of volutes, by the resistance of the Vitruvius says, the shafts of Corinthian columns have the
tile, he took tlie hint, and executed some columns with folia- same symmetry as the Ionic, and that the difference between
ted capitals, near Corinth, of a more slender proportion the entire columns arises only from that of the heights of
than those of the Ionic, imitative of the figure arid delicacy their capitals ; the Ionic being one-third, anrl the Corinthian
of virgins. the whole diameter of the shaft, which, therefore, makes the
This story, though bearing no marks of improbability in height of the Corinthian two-thirds of a diameter more than
itself, when compared with facts, loses a considerable amount that of the Ionic hence, as he has allowed the Ionic to be
:

of its credibility, and stands upon the same level as the other eight diameters, the Corinthian will be eight and two-thirds.
fanciful tales related by the same author. As regards the The average height of the column, inclusive of capital and
one more immediately before us, it need only be remarked, base, taking a mean proportional between those of the Pan-
that the earliest specimens of this order have but little in theon and of the temple of Jupiter Stator, is ten diameters,
agreement with the idea which one would suppose to have the shaft containing eight, and the remainder made up in the
presented itself to the mind of an artist under the circum- capital and base.
stances related the foihige of what seems to be the earliest
; The shaft in the ancient examples was almost invariably
specimen extant, does not consist of acanthus leaves at all, fluted, and the about one-third of
flutes occasionally filled to
but of what have from their shape been termed water-leaves ;
their height with cabling; the number of the flutes is generally
it is in tlie Roman examples we
see the best illustration of twenty-four, the same number as in the Ionic order, and ar-
the basket and acanthus in short, the earlier the
; example, ranged in the same manner, having a fillet between every
the less the resemblance, a fact which throws discredit upon two channels. The onlv ancient examples in which the flutes
the whole story, and would lead us to believe that the latter were omitted, were cases in which the shafts were composed
was invented by Vitruvius, not the order by Callimachus. of polished granite or some variegated marble, in which
Moreover, there reason to doubt of the antiquity of the
is there was sufficient richness and play of colour, \vithout fur-
order being so great as Vitruvius would have us believe ; ther decoration.
for Callimachus flourished about the 60th Olympiad, or 540 The capital is separated from the shaft by an astragal and
years before the Christian aera. We are informed by Pau- cincture, or fillet, and is in the shape of an inverted bell, the or-
sanias, lib. viii., that the ancient temple of Minerva, at Tega;a, namentation of which may be described as follows: Imme-
in Arcadia, having been destroyed, a second edifice was
diately above the astragal, are two rows of acanthus or olive
erected, under the direction of Scopas, far exceeding in splen- leaves one above the other, each row consisting of eight
dour and magnificence every building of the kind in the leaves; the upper row is arranged in such a manner as to
Peloponnesus. In this structure, all the three Grecian or- have one leaf immediately in the centre of each side of and
ders were employed ; the outside was embellished with beneath the abacus, and one other under each corner of the
colonnades of the Ionic order ; and the hypaethral area of the abacus, which altogether, one in the centre of each side, and
interior was surrounded with porticos and galleries above, one at each angle of the capital, will make up the eight leaves.
formed by the Doric and Corinthian orders. This oera of The leaves of the lower range are disposed so as to alternate
building may be placed in the fourth century before Christ, with those of the upper; that is to say, the spaces left be-
and is the first in which a distinct account of the Corinthian tween the lower leaves are occupied by the lower portions
order being introduced in any regular building, is to be found. or stalks of the upper leaves, or, in other words, the upper
It was not in general leaves rise between the divisions of the lower ones. Between
request till the third age of Rome, under
the emperors. The examples which are to be found in Greece, every two of the leaves of the upper or second series, rises
are but few, and some of them seem of a date posterior to a stalk, out of which springs a bunch of foliage, consisting of
the period of the Romans two leaves, one of which branches towards the centre of the
getting possession of that country ;
such as the temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens. abacus, and the other towards the angle. We
have therefore
Most modern writers are of opinion that the Corinthian eight of these stalks, termed catilicoles, each giving out two
capital was invented by the Egyptians, and with good reason ; branches or leaves, of which therefore there are sixteen, and
yet, although many bell-forrned capitals are to be found among if we consider their direction as above described, we shall find
the ruins of Egypt, the taste, the delicacy of the foliage, the that we have two of them tending to meet at each angle, one
beautiful form and elegance of the leaves, caulicoli, and vo- from each contiguous side of the capital, and two likewise
lutes, with the symmetrical and easy disposition of the whole, tending towards the centre of each side above the central leaf
are superior to anything yet discovered among the Egyptian of the second range. Out of each of the leaves at the angles,
20
 COB 202 COB
proceeds in a diagonal line, a spiral horn or volute, the
two "The Corinthian," says he, "has no cornice, or other orna-
at each angle meeting under the abacus, which they support ;
ments peculiar to itself, but has either triglyphs, mutules in
two similar though smaller ones emerging from the central the cornice, and guttoe in the epistylium, as in the Doric or-
leaves, meet under the centre of the abacus, and are sur- der or otherwise, the zophoras is ornamented, and dentils
;

mounted by a small flower, called the flower of the capital. are disposed in the cornice, as in the Ionic."
The abacus is square in its general plan, or rather is of This observation of Vitruvius regarding the use of the
such form as may be inscribed in a square the sides are
;
Doric entablature, is no less extraordinary in itself, than that
concave, curving out towards the angles, but the points which it is
unsupported by any ancient examples ; but his remark,
would be formed by the intersection of the curves, are most concerning the Ionic, is verified in many instances ; as in the
usually cut off; sometimes the corners are pointed, but rarely. temple at Jackly near Mylasa, the temple of Vesta near
This shape of the abacus arises out of the form of the capital, Tivoli, and that of Antoninus and Faustina at Rome; the
which recedes in the centre of each side, and projects at the arch of Adrian at Athens, the Incantada at Salonica, and the
angles the abacus does not overhang the capital.
;
The portico of Septimius Severus at Rome. However, in the
mouldings consist of a cavetto, fillet, and echinus, the first remains of antiquity, we more generally find Corinthian col-
and last of which are sometimes enriched. umns supporting an entablature of a peculiar species. This
The proper Corinthian base differs from the Ionic or Attic, consists of architrave, frieze, and cornice, the first of which
in having two smaller scotia; separated by two astragals; is divided into three faces, the lowest one much narrower

both bases, however, are used indiscriminately, and perhaps than the upper two, with mouldings between each ; the up-
the Attic is more generally employed it was
preferred both per surmounted by an astragal, ogee, and fillet, the middle
by Palladio and Scamozzi. by a small ogee, and the lower by a bead ; these mouldings
The above may be considered as a description of the stand- were frequently plain, but sometimes enriched, more espe-
ard form, for the details of the order vary to a very con- cially the two last mentioned. The frieze was sometimes
siderable extent in the different examples, to such an extent, plain, sometimes enriched with sculptured figures, foliage, or
indeed, that there are scarcely two ancient examples alike. other ornamentation. The most striking peculiarities are to
The ornamentation of the capital differs very greatly in the be observed in the cornice, which consists of the denticulated
Greek and Roman examples; in the former, the leaves have band of the Ionic, supported by an ogee and astragal enrich-
angular points, and are almost straight on the sides, while in ed, and surmounted by an enriched astragal and echinus ; over
the latter they are altogether of a more rounded form, in fact these are the mutules of the Doric, but their proportion is
the Greek leaves were more harsh and stiff, and have the changed, and their figure converted into a console, which
natural character of the acanthus, whereas the Roman are shows upon the ends and sides of each, the bottom being
more artificial. In the Temple of the Winds, which is a covered with a foliated leaf. The consoles in this application,
very early, if not the earliest specimen remaining, the upper are called modillions, and support the corona which consists
row of leaves, if it may be said to have more than one row, of the same mouldings as the Ionic, with occasionally a
is
merely carved upon the vase, and consists of broad flat greater amount of enrichment ; the cymatium is often deco-
leaves, which have been named from their appearance, water- rated with lions' heads, to serve as spouts or gurgoyles.
leaves there are no volutes, and in consequence the abacus
;
This entablature does not appear to have been in use in the
is not curved, but is
merely a square block; add to this the time of Vitruvius, since he takes no notice of it; though very
absence of a base, and you will perceive at once that this particular in many other points less worthy of attention.
specimen disagrees almost entirely from the description The cornice here specified, is not only to be found in most
above given. In the temple of Vesta at Rome, which is of the ancient buildings of Italy, but is observed in all the
probably copied from that at Jackly near Mylasa, the lower celebrated works of Balbec and Palmyra.
range of leaves, instead of following the line of the shaft as Thus the Romans, and other contemporary nations, affected
usual, project beyond it. The monument of Lysicrates is a to give the Corinthian order an appropriate entablature, though
beautiful though small specimen, and differs materially from the Ionic was sometimes employed. We find also another

any of the above in short, every example, whether Greek

;
form of cornice introduced occasionally, with modillions con-
or Roman, has its peculiarity. sisting of two plain faces, instead of consoles, without any
The height of the abacus is one-seventh, the lower and band below, either plain or denticulated. Examples of this
upper tier of leaves each two-sevenths ; and the caulicoli are only to be found in the frontispiece of Nero, at Rome,
and volutes, which spring from the stalks between every two and the Poicile, or Portico, at Athens. In some instances,
leaves in the upper row, the remaining two-sevenths of the an uncut dentil band is substituted in place of dentils, and in
diameter the breadth of the capital at the bottom is one,
: the temple of Antoninus and Faustina, both dentils and mo-
and each diagonal of the abacus two diameters of the column. dillions are omitted.
Vitruviua makes no mention of obtundhig the corners of The above disposition inverts the order of the original hut,
the abacus, as is generally practised by the ancients as well as well as the description given by Vitruvius. The only ex-
as the moderns : we are therefore led to suppose, that each ample where dentils are placed above modillions, is in the
pair of the four faces of the abacus were continued till they second cornice of the Tower of the Winds, at Athens ; al-
met in an acute angle at each corner, as in the temple of though Vitruvius seems to assert that the contrary practice
Vesta, at Rome, and in the Stoa, or Portico, at Athens. of placing the modillions uppermost, was never resorted to
The division of the capital is the same as is frequently used by the Greeks. It is certain that the Romans employed
by the moderns ; but the entire height is generally made modillions in the latter position, as is evidenced in the tem-
one-sixth more than the diameter of the column, while that ples of Jupiter Tonans
and Jupiter Stator, as also in the
of the column is ten diameters. Forum of Nerva.
This order does not appear to have had any appropriate If the entablature be enriched, the shaft should be fluted,
entablature in the time of Vitruvius; for, in book iii. chap. i. unless it be composed of variegated marble ; for a diversity
he informs us, that both Doric and Ionic entablatures were of colours confuses even a smooth surface ; and if decorated,
supported by Corinthian columns ; whence it appears that the ornament increases the confusion in a much greater
the columns constituted the order, and not the entablature. degree.
 COR 203 COR
When the columns are within reach, the lower part of the is
simply that the proportions are regulated in a different
flutes, toabout one-third of their height, is sometimes filled with manner ;
in the Ionic the breadth is in excess, in the Corin-
cables, as in the case of the interior order of the Pantheon, with thian the height. But there is another reason for the com-
a view to strengthen the edges. In rich work of some modern parative lightness of the Corinthian capital ; it is much more
buildings, the cables are composed of reeds, husks, spirally- highly enriched than the Ionic, and this enrichment tends to
twisted ribbands, flowers, and various other ornaments but : make it a vast deal lighter in appearance ; the difference
these trifles, which are of French origin, would be much better between the unshapen block of stone and the finished capital,
withheld, as their cost would be employed to greateradvantage will be evident to any one who will picture the two in his
in giving majesty or grandeur to the other mind's eye. Now, all these arguments apply with equal truth
parts of the fabric.
As the cornice, which has obtained the name of Corinthian, in the comparison of the two entablatures for our own parts,
;

consists of so many members, it will be

necessary to increase we think the larger the more elegant and the more imposing,
the whole height of the entableture more than two diameters, and certainly its cornice gives the more complete finish to the
so as to make the members distinct, and, at the same time, whole order.
to preserve a just proportion between the cornice, frieze, and " The "
symmetry of the capital," says Vitruvius, is as fol-
architrave, making the height of the entablature two-ninths lows: the height of the capital, including the abacus, is
of that of the column : but where the Ionic cornice, which is equal to the thickness of the column at its lower end. The
very appropriate, is to be employed, or the dentils and their breadth of the abacus is so regulated, that its diagonal, from
cymatium omitted, two diameters, or a fifth of the height of angle to angle, may be twice as great as the height of the
the column, will be sufficient. capital;
for this gives a proper dimension to each face ; the
It is by some considered ridiculous to give so many mem- fronts of the capital are bowed, or curved inwardly, from
bers to the cornice, since, say they, it is evident that these the extreme angles, a ninth part of its breadth. The bottom
slight columns are incapable of bearing an entablature of of the capital is as thick as the
top of the column, without
the same part of their height, as columns of fewer dia- the apothesis and astragal. The thickness of the abacus is the
meters are. Notwithstanding this, however, we cannot but seventh part of the height of the capital. The remainder,
think that the richer and deeper cornice is more in keeping when the thickness of the abacus is deducted, is divided into
with the character of the order, on account of the increased three equal portions, of which one is given to the lower
height and enrichment of the capital. The apparent weight leaves; the second is for the height of the middle leaves; and
does not depend so much upon the real bulk, as upon the to the caulicoles, or stalks, from which the leaves project to
arrangement and proportions of the different dimensions, for support the abacus, the same height is given. The flowers
were this the case, we might successfully employ the argu- on the four sides are in size equal to the thickness of the
ment produced by those who object to the loftier entablature, abacus." From a comparison of ancient examples, the
to disparage the beauty of the entire order. We
might rea- height of the capital varies in height from CO minutes, or
son thus the Corinthian shaft is of the same proportions
: 1 diameter, the measurement of those belonging to the temple
as the Ionic, and therefore equally light in appearance, how of Tivoli, to 87 minutes, the height of the Lysicrates example;
contrary to sound taste, is it, therefore, to load it with a the capital in the temple of Jupiter Stator measures 66
capital of so much greater bulk, how much heavier the minutes. In the first case, the diagonal of the abacus is
column will appear Our objectors will readily see that this
! 81 minutes, in the last 97, and in the monument of Lysicrates,
reasoning is false, because it is evident to the senses, that the 04 minutes.
Corinthian column, although surmounted by a capital of Thus much for proportions; how greatly they vary in
much greater bulk than the Ionic, has a much lighter and different examples, will be readily seen in the subjoined table
more elegant appearance ; and what is the cause of this ? It taken from Knight's Cyclopaedia :
 COR 204 COR
the jutting points, stems, and breadths of the leaves, are
Although the Romans in all probability borrowed the idea
of this order from the Greeks, and cannot therefore rightfully the only guides in the formation of the outline. This process

lay claim to its invention, they are fully entitled

to the praise being only a preliminary, though necessary step to the raffling
duii t<> perfection; the order, as for as we
its know it, is of the leaves, the general contours, thus found, must be rubbed
rather Roman
than Greek. We cannot be said to know of out, after inking the subdivisions, in order to make the
more than three examples in Greece, and these are the Tower foliage appear.
of the Winds, the Monument of Lysicrates, and the Tem- Figure 2, is the profile of the modillions; No. 1, being the
ple of Jupiter at Olympia ; there
are others, it is true, as the plan, showing soffit inverted; and No. 2, the elevation
temple of Jupiter Olympus, at Athens, but this was erected of the same.
long after the order had been practised by the
Romans. The Figure 3, is a leaf completely raffled to a large scale ;
principal Italian specimens are the temple
of Jupiter Stator, No. 1, is the front view ; No. 2, the profile or side view.
three columns of which remain in the Campo, Rome, and Figure 4, shows the finished flower of the capital on a
have been imitated at the office of the Board of Trade, large scale.
London ; the Pantheon, copied in the portico of S. Martin's Plate II. Some few of the more noted examples of Greece
Church the temple of Vesta, or tho Sibyl, at Tivoli, copied
;
and Rome.
at the Bank; the temples of Mars Ultor, Jupiter, Capi- Plate III. A finished elevation of the Corinthian base,
tolimis, Vesta, at Rome, Antoninus and Faustina, and of capital,and entablature. The example here chosen, is from
Copies of the columns of Choragic monu- the three famed columns in the Campo Vacclno, at Rome,
Jupiter Tonans.
ment are to be seen at S. Philip's Chapel, S. James's and at supposed to be the remains of the temple of Jupiter Stator,
the entrance to Exeter Hall; original fragments may be seen and certainly one of the most perfect and elegant remains of
in the Elgin collection at the British Museum, where there this order, that antiquity can produce.
are also casts from the Pantheon, and the temples of Jupiter Plate IV. Ageneral outline of the same, with the propor-
Stator and Mars Ultor. Amongst all the specimens which tions of the members figured in minutes.
have come to our knowledge, there are not two alike, they all CORINTHIAN OZcus, an cecus decorated with the Corinthian
vary in detail, and some very much so ; some fragments bear order. See OZcus.
evidence of the introduction of figures of animals, &c. CORNICE (from the Latin, corona, a crowning) any
The Corinthian order is appropriate for all buildings in moulded projection which crowns or finishes the part to
which magnificence, elegance, and gaiety are requisite. Its which it is affixed ; thus we have the cornice of an order, of
splendour also recommends it in the decorations of palaces, a pedestal, of a house, of a pier, of a door, of a window, &c.
galleries, theatres, banquetlng-rooms, and other places con-
CORNICE OF AN ORDER, a secondary member of the order
secrated to festive mirth, or convivial recreation. itself, or a primary member of the entablature. The enta-
The Romans, in borrowing their architecture from the blature is divided into three principal parts, the upper one
'

Greeks, appear to have indiscriminately employed the Corin- being the cornice. The forms of the particular cornices
thian order, which they found possessed of an ornamental belonging to the orders, will be found under the heads DORIC,
character, adapted to the splendour and magnificence of their IONIC, CORINTHIAN, TUSCAN, and ROMAN.
taste, in the same manner that the early Greeks used the According to Vitruvius, the application of cornices to stone
Doric, and the lonians the order which bear their name. buildings originated in the juttings of the eaves of the first
Thus the Romans erected temples to Jupiter, Neptune, and wooden structures, the cornice representing the uppermost
Mars; and the Greeks to the same deities, of the Doric beams of the roof, which are described by this author as
order. Thus the temples of Minerva, at Athens and at assers, templates, and canthers, of which the last is supposed
Sliniiim, are Doric, and the temple of Minerva, at Priene, to apply to the common rafters, the first to the timbers
is Ionic. The temple of Jupiter Olympus, at Elis, was immediately beneath the tiles, and the templates to the cross
Doric; but that erected to the same idol, by Adrian, at pieces between the two. The mutules represent the ends
Athens, is Corinthian. of rafters, and dentils the ends of laths for supporting the
The orders of architecture appear to be altogether national ; tiles, or covering; but as the lath is more lofty in situation
thus the numerous temples of Greece, and its Sicilian colo- than the rafters, so ought the dentils to be more lofty than
nies, are Doric, and bear one general character: the Ionian the mutules this, however, is not tho case in the joint
:

cities present the best, the most elegant, and chaste examples application of^hese members in modern cornices.
of the Ionic order: while Italy, Balbec, and Palmyra exhibit Our present practice of architecture was borrowed from
the Corinthian order, almost to the exclusion of any other. the Romans, who, in all their works, inverted the natural
Plate I. F/yiire 1. Nos. 1 and 2 show the method of pro- disposition of these members. Vitruvius remarks, "as the
jecting the plan and elevation of the capital thus, beginning
:
mutules represent the projectures of the canthers (rafters),
with the plan, divide the semi-circumference of the top of the the dentils of the Ionic order are in imitation of the projecture
shaft into four equal parts, commencing and terminating with of the assers (laths). For this reason, in Grecian buildings,
half a part, which will give the stems of the lower range of dentils are never placed under the mutules; for assers cannot

leaves, then complete the contour of the leaves, both in the be under canthers. As, therefore, they should be above the
elevation and plan, as shown under the article PROJECTION ; canthers and templates, if they are represented below them,
divide each of the parts into halves on the said semi-circum- the work is on false principles. The ancients, likewise, did
ference, and the points of bisection will mark the stems of not approve of placing mutules or dentils in the fastigium,
the second or superior range of leaves. But if the true forms, but in the corona only ; because neither canthers nor assers
are laid towards the front of the fastigium, nor can they there
projection, be impressed
as ascertained by the principles of
on the mind of the delineator, and if great nicety be not project, for they are laid inclining
towards the eaves. As,
requisite, after dividing as above, and completing the outlines therefore, it could not be done in reality, they judged it not
of the leaves on the plan by his eye, he
may then draw lines proper to be done in representation, for the propriety of all
in works of perfection, they
from the bottom of each stem, and from the tips of each on things, which they introduced
the plan, to their respective places on the elevation, and there derived from truth and nature, and approved only those
complete the two ranges of leaves entirely by the eye ; here which could bear the test of rational argument."
(' O U I X 'IMI I A v OK I) K K ,
I' I , A T K 1
 CORINTHIAN ORDER PLATE II.

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 COR 205 COT
We have no example, in the remains of well-authenticated CORONA (from the Latin) a member of the cornice, with
Grecian antiquity, of cornices, where both modillions and a broad vertical face, and a bold projection. The solid, out
dentils are employed, except in the inner cornice of the Tower of which it is formed, is generally recessed upwards from its
of the Winds, at Athens in this instance, the assertion of
: soffit hence the Italians call itdgocciolatios and layrimalios,
;

Vitruvius completely verified ; for there the dentils are

is the French, larmier, and the English workmen, drip, from
placed above the mutules but in every Roman example,
: the circumstance of its discharging the rain-water in drops
where both are employed in the same cornice, the very re- from its edge, and by this means sheltering the subordinate
verse takes place ; yet, with respect to pediments, we have
parts below.
an example in the frontispiece of the doors of the said Tower The corona is one of the principal members of the cornice,
of the Winds, where dentils are employed in the inclined and that which marks its distinctive character, by the massive
cornices of the pediments, contrary to the observations of shadow which it produces on the plain surface of the frieze.
Vitruvius, and to the original principles whence, according to This member, from being the principal feature of the cornice,
his theory, these members derived their existence.
ought never to be omitted.
In the cornices of all Grecian edifices,
particularly those of Grecian antiquity affords no instances of an order without
the Doric order, we always one very bold member,
find a corona ; nor, indeed, are there many examples among the
with a broad vertical face, called the corona, which is one of Romans.
the most distinguished members of the whole cornice but : There is nothing in architecture better supported by reason,
in some of the Roman buildings, the corona is reduced to a and by the general example of antiquity, than the necessary
mere fillet. See CORONA. use of the corona. It is, however, omitted in the temple of
CORNICES are divided into several kinds : Peace at Rome, the third order of the Coliseum, and the arch
An architrave cornice rests upon the architrave, and the of Lyons, at Verona. It is singular, that in the arch of Con-
frieze is omitted. An instance of this may be seen in the stantino, the cornice finishes with the corona, surmounted
famous Caryatic portico, at Athens. Cornices of this descrip- with a fillet only and in several other examples the corona
:

tion are adapted to situations where a regular entablature has almost dwindled into a mere fillet. The frontispiece of
would be out of proportion to the body which it crowns. Nero presents one of the boldest coronas of all the. Roman
A mutule cornice is appropriate to the Doric order, the works, being very nearly 16 minutes in height; the three
mutules having inclined soffits. columns in the Campo Vaccino is another example of an
A dentil cornice has a denticulated band, and is usually elegant and bold corona. In the temples of Minerva and
employed in the Ionic order, though very appropriate also Theseus, at Athens, it is divided into two faces. The term
for the Corinthian. corona is sometimes applied by Vitruvius to the whole cor-
A modillion cornice is one with modillions, which are a nice, the word originally signifying a crown.
kind of mutules carved into consoles. It has been
chiefly CORONA Lucis, a kind of chandelier anciently employed
applied to the Corinthian order. in churches, of beautiful and appropriate design, and admit-
Ablock cornice is that where plain rectangular prisms with ting of delicate elaboration.
level soffits are employed to support the corona, instead of COROSTROTA, according to Pliny, a kind of inlaid
mutules. work.
Acantaliver cornice is constructed of a horizontal row of CORPS, (from the French) any part that projects or ad-
timbers, projecting at right angles from the naked part of a vances beyond the naked of the wall, to be used as a ground
wall, for sustaining the superior parts of the cornice. Some- for some decoration.
times the cantalivers are placed on the soffits and vertical CORPSE-GATE, the same as LICH-GATE, which see.
sides, and sometimes they are cased with joinery. CORRIDOR, (from the French) a long gallery or passage
A coved cornice is one with a large cove, and generally around a building, leading to the several apartments;
lathed and plastered upon brackets. Cornices of this kind sometimes open one side, and sometimes enclosed on both
are hardly used at this time, but are frequently found upon sides.
old houses. CORSA, the same as PLATBAND, which see.
Amutilated cornice has some, or the whole of its mem- CORTILE, a small enclosed court.
bers interrupted by another object, as the projection of a COSSUTIUS, a Roman citizen, who was architect to the
tablet, &c. temple of Jupiter Olympus, at Athens.
CORNUCOPIA, or CORNUCOPIA, the horn of plenty. COST, in building," the expense of any design, a knowledge
Ovid tells us in his " Fasti," that one of the goats of Amal- of which is to be obtained by analyzing the whole, and ma-
thea, who nursed the infant Jupiter in Crete, broke off" its king separate calculations of the quantity
and expense of
horn against a tree, when the nymph having wreathed it with each part. In buildings of a similar description, the expense
flowers, and filled it with fruit, presented it to the god. When of the whole can be roughly ascertained, by taking the num-
Jupitercame into power, he called Amalthea to the skies, ber of cubic feet at an average rate ; but when the price of
and made the horn the emblem of fertility. In the " Meta- materials or labour, or of both, is subject to variation, this
morphoses," the poet derives the origin of the Cornucopia method will be liable to mislead.
from a different fable. He speaks of it as the horn of the COTTAGE, a name mostly applied to a small house,
river-god Achelous, broken off by Hercules, and consecrated erected for the use and accommodation either of the farm
by the Naiads. The real meaning of the fable is this, that labourer, or those engaged in some other occupation, but
inLibya there is a little territory, shaped something like a more generally of those employed in agriculture.
bullock's horn, exceedingly fertile, given by king Ammon
to The word cottage is also used in modern parlance to
his daughter Amalthea, whom the designate a small elegant residence,
more properly a villa,
poets feign to have been
Jupiter's nurse. or, as sometimes called, a cottage orne.
Houses of this
In architecture and sculpture, the cornucopia, or horn of description,however, do not belong to our present subject,
plenty, represented under the figure of a large horn, out
is which must be understood as treating of the cottage in the
of which issue fruits, flowers, &c. On medals, F. Joubcrt ob- acceptation of the term explained in the preceding para-
serves, the cornucopia is given to all deities, genii, and heroes. graph.
 COT 206 COT
Cottages were formerly constructed of rude and perishable 5 inches by 2 inches at bottom, are sufficiently capacious
materials ; as, earthy substances mixed with straw and to carry off the drainage from a
;
cottage ; they are not so
cottages of this consistence were denominated mud collages costly as brick-drains, and are more efficient.
in some districts, and cab and dab in others but these have All drains should be trapped with a
; syphon trap, so as
now given way to a more durable kind, which, though per- to prevent the escape of foul air, and the admission of vermin
haps as expensive in the erection, are much more comforta- to the dwelling. The drains should communicate with a
ble, and cheaper in the end, as they require little or no re- cesspool sunk in the garden, domed over with brick, having
pairs for many years. a stone man-hole or flap to eanable the
cottager to repair or
In the construction of cottages, economy, convenience, cleanse it ; or to avail himself of its contents for
manuring
cleanliness, comfort, and decency, must be the chief points his garden. A drain should also lead from the sink in the
in view, and these ought to be united with as much
pictu- scullery to the cesspool (trapped as before described), and
resque beauty as circumstances will admit. this should be so
arranged as to carry off the water used
" The accommodation
required," observes Mr. Dean, in for washing the floors, when they are of stone,
brick, or
his very interesting work, "Essays on The cheapest and best form for the cesspool
Agricultural Build- composition.
" is
ings," not such as would be looked for by persons moving is that of a
parallelogram about 5 feet long, 2 feet 6 inches
in a higher sphere of life, and who are accustomed, compara- wide, and 3 feet 6 inches deep.
tively, to luxuries; the labourer belongs to a totally distinct Cottages may be divided into several classes, or sizes one :

class of society. Let the dwellings of the poor be scientifi- of the smallest size for the common labourer ; the second size
cally constructed, and much illness and misery will be pre- for the labourer, who, by his frugality and industry, in earn-
In effecting this, the whole
vented. community is interested, ing more than ordinary wages, deserves a more comfortable
dwelling than that of the most common labourer ; the third
as parochial expenses are increased or diminished
according
to the healthy state of the labouring size, for the village shopkeeper, shoemaker, tailor, butcher,
" population.
Cottages should be warm and substantial ; judgment baker, &c. ; the fourth size, for the small farmer, maltster, ale-
will also be
displayed when the architectural character of the house, or other trades, requiring room ; the fifth size, for the
building is in
harmony with its use. Their exteriors may large opulent farmer. Every cottage should have at least two
be made exceedingly ornate by the application of a correct apartments, and in many cases three, or even four. If the
taste, which does not necessarily create much expense and ; apartments be two in number, and in two floors, one roof will
although ornament is not a necessary appendage to stability cover both ; but then there must be the expense of an addi-
or comfort, it frequently happens that ornamental buildings tional floor, and a stair to get up to it, besides a loss of room
are preferred, and when judiciously disposed, will materially in both floors, for the space occupied by the stairs ; however,
assist in heightening the
landscape. It then becomes a ques- with respect to a sleeping apartment, a room in an upper
tion with the owner of an estate, whether he will, in the erec- story is more healthy than in a lower. In cottages which are
tion of cottages, incur a small additional built singly, the families are less liable to contention than in
outlay for this pur-
pose. those which are joined : but in those which are built toge-
"
England has justly been designated a cultivated garden, ther, a considerable expense of walling will be saved, as the
and perhaps in no particular possesses a greater pre-eminence flues may be carried up in one common stalk, and in case of
of appearance over other countries, than in the sudden trouble, one family may assist another.
beauty of her
rural scenery; which, it is submitted,
may be greatly en- Where a cottage consists of two stories, with a sleeping-
hanced by the substitution of cottages erected in accordance room in the upper one, it would tend much to the comfort of
with architectural principles, in lieu of the clumsy-looking the cottager, if the upper story were warmed by means of a
and comfortless buildings existing in many districts." flue from the fire below ;
for this purpose, the vent ought to
We fully agree with Mr. Dean in those observations, and be carried up the middle, with its sides as thin as possible.
we trust that noblemen and gentlemen in the management Another mode, suggested by Mr. Beatson, is to permit the
of their estates, will not only provide for the comfort of the heated air, which always ascends from theceiling of the lower
poor in the erection of warm, well-constructed cottages, but story, to ascend through an aperture in the floor of the upper
that they will add some little in the way of ornament also. story ; this may be done by means of gratings, or turning-
How much may the picturesque appearance of the cottage be plates, in the least frequented part
of the floor.
increased by entrance-porches, overhanging roofs, and stacks With respect to economy, Mr. Loudon, in his treatises on
of chimney-shafts, having ornamental summits. The porch, country-residences, has suggested a plan, by which he thinks
independent of its architectural effect, affords both warmth much more heat may be thrown out from a given quantity of
and shelter, as does also the overhanging roof. The lofty fuel, than by any other method yet proposed, and even by
chimney clustered shafts, besides assisting to prevent a smoky more simple means. The grate which contains the fuel being
room, have a very pleasing appearance. placed on a level with the surface of the floor, makes the
In the erection of cottages, it is
preferable to build them smoke ascend slowly, and thus in its passage allows it time to
in pairs if possible, as the cost is
considerably less than when give out its heat. In small cottages, the staircase ought to be
singly placed, and they are much warmer. The site also is so constructed, as to take up as little room as possible.
a most important consideration, as houses placed on low The chief conveniences of a single square cottage, are an
over this a sleeping-
marshy soils, are liable to be damp. Independently of the eating-room of about 12 feet square ;
miasma arising from the surface of the ground in such situa- apartment, which may be partitioned in such a way, as will
tions, there is a continual humidity in the atmosphere, which best accommodate the decency to be preserved in the family ;
communicates itself to all objects surrounded by it. This an idea of this construction may easily be formed without a
vapour is a deadly poison, acting on the human system through plan. If the dimensions of the buildings
be two or even three
the medium of the lungs, and producing fevers and other feet more, it will give much more advantage in point of con-

epidemics. venience. For cottages built in rows, the accommodations may

Good drainage is the next important consideration, and be as follow: a room below, of 16 feet square, with the
this may generally be obtained at small cost. The common entrance-door and one window in front ; the fire-place with
earthenware pipes, of an oval or egg-shaped form, about an oven opening into it by means of a flue ; a door opening
 COT 207 COT
into*a lean-to, at the back, for covering fuel, the tools of the tures from the English, not only in being generally con-
labourer, and sheltering for a pig, &c. ; a pantry,fitted up structed of stone, which is the material most easily procured
with shelves, may be made under the stairs, in the lower in the country, but from their being so wide as to admit of two
room. apartments ; and being commonly one story only in height.
To accommodate a large family, with children of different One of these circumstances is sufficient to occasion a great
sexes, the necessary separation may be effected, by placing dissimilarity when compared with the proportion of the Eng-
one bed over the other, and the entrance to each of the beds lish cottage, in making the roof top-heavy, and the
general
on alternate or different sides. appearance of the building squat and when both are united,
;

There are two kinds of cottages, English and Scottish, used this effect will be still more apparent.
in Great Britain, of very distinct characters. In the Scottish cottage, the roof has only a very small pro-
The old English cottages were constructed of clay, turf, and jection over the walls; the windows and doors are generally
other similar materials, supported and strengthened by posts plain ;
the gables most frequently surmount the roof; the
and wooden braces, with a roof of very steep pitch, in order apertures of doors and windows are therefore not so well pro-
to lessen its pressure upon the walls, and to discharge the tected from rain as in the English cottage ; but this want of
rain. The eaves of the roof were continued downwards, so projection is counterbalanced by the great thickness of the
that the projection might throw the water from the surface walls, and by the narrowness of the windows, which are
of the walls, and by this means prevent not only the waste of made to slide in a vertical position, in grooves on the sides of
materials, but the dampness which the interior would other- a surrounding frame.
wise be liable to; the rain-water is also thus kept from the An inducement to make the windows narrow, was the length
windows and door. The chimneys were generally carried up of the stones, which would not have been easily obtained
singly, in one or both ends of the building, most commonly otherwise. In order to procure the greatest quantity of light,
on the outside of the wall. The covering of the roof con- the sashes were glazed with planes of glass comparatively much
sisted principally of straw, reeds, or slate-stone. Garrets larger than those used in English cottages, and the sides of
were sometimes formed in the roof, with a window, either in the windows were splayed from the glass-frame, so as to form
the sloping sides, or in one of the gables. In consequence very obtuse angles with the interior surface of the wall. The
of the lowness of the side-wall, and to give sufficient light, windows of the Scottish cottage are thus not only very dif-
the horizontal dimension of the window was much greater ferent from those of the English, in being without dressings,
than the height. The long bearing of the lintel, or head of and of a different proportion, but also in their manner of
the window, was supported in the middle by an upright piece glazing and shutting them. The chimneys are either carried
of timber, called a munnion. The glass-frames were made to up in one or both gables, or in a partition-wall, which sepa-
revolve upon hinges with a vertical axis, glazed with small rates the two apartments in the length when carried up in
:

squares of glass, inserted in lead, and stiffened by cross pieces the ends, as the walls are always made sufficiently thick to
of wood, or frequently iron, called saddle-bars ; the form of receive the flues, the walls are not recessed upon the flanks of
the squares sometimes rectangular, but frequently rhornboidal, the stalk of chimneys, in order to save materials. These, con-
and the lead into which they were inserted fixed to an iron sisting of crude stone cemented with mortar, being of little
frame. To this construction the cottager frequently added a value. The chimney shafts, or the turrets surmounting the
small shed, for keeping a cow, and sometimes one or more roof, are generally plain, finished on the top with a coping of"
hovels to the end of the side, which might be used as a pan- hewn-stone.
try, or as a place wherein to deposit his tools, or other arti- In many old constructions of Scottish cottages, the chimney
cles of convenience. It is probable that cottages were at first is
placed in the front-wall, with a large recess all round the
fire, which gave great advantage, in admitting more
built of a single story only ; but, in course of time, they were than
constructed two stories in height, and as the lower story could double the number which the modern construction admits
not then be protected by the roof, a projection of wood or of, and was therefore useful in times when the
master and his
slate-stone was introduced over the lower apertures, to pre- servants sat in common with each other. In the old construc-
vent the rain-water from falling upon the wall. To make tions, the roof was covered with thatch, turf, or heath, as
these projections ornamental, they were formed into labels of being the most ready materials ; but these, as in England,
hewn-stone, after the manner of those in Gothic edifices. have generally given place to the more durable coverings of
The width of the English cottage does not admit of more slate and tile, for similar reasons.
than one room : the chimneys are variously ornamented, some- Few appendages are used in Scottish cottages ; and in days
times several flues are united in one shaft, which is built in of old, so little attention was paid to cleanliness, that the cot-
the beast to lodge
a variety of fanciful forms, and sometimes several shafts are tager who was blessed with a cow, admitted
carried up separately, and united under one cope. at night in the same house with himself, without any other
The best English cottages, of late, have been generally partition than the back
of a bed or press, to separate his
constructed of brick, and covered with slate and the use of
:
apartment from that of the animal. We
are, however, happy
these materials has changed the external features very con- to find, that among many other improvements in the north,
siderably, though the general disposition of the parts remains comfort and cleanliness are now as much objects of the wishes
much the same. of the inhabitants, as in other parts of the United Kingdom ;
The roofs of many English cottages are partly gabled and but even in the present time, from the impression of ancient
partly hipped ; and in general the roof is extended at both forms, though the cow-house be separated from the cottage,
ends, so as to oversail the gables : the projection thus afford- they are still in one continued formal line, and want that
picturesque beauty which an appendage would give,
ing protection to the walls in the same manner as the eaves as in the
over the front and rear walls ; by this means the gable-tops, English cottage.
oeing under cover, are less liable to want repair. The walls The common kind of the present cottages in the north, are
of English cottages are generally adorned, either by white- made very wide, either to receive a framed bedstead and
press, or to form recesses, by means of a partition, for
or with creepers of vari- the
washing or colouring the walls ;

ous kinds. reception of the bed and cupboard, on the side of the apart-
The Scottish cottages differ considerably in form and fea- ment opposed to the window.
 COT 208 COT
The gables on some old cottages in North Britain, are sur- The general conditions are as usual, and it is unnec ..
.iry
mounted with steps, following the sides of the roof, instead of to occupy space by transcribing them.
the plain coping, which formed the thatch-way. "
SPECIFICATION.
Scottish cottages are frequently decorated by training "Excavator. Dig out
the earth for the foundations to the
honeysuckles or ivy upon the walls, and a row of house-leek several walls, drains, and cesspools, as shown in the draw-
is
disposed along the ridge, and not unfrequently upon the ings, or herein described. The cesspools to privies to be
sloping sides, in case of a thatched roof. sunk outside the building. Fill up the trenches to the
The materials to be used in the erection of cottages will depth and width shown in drawings with concrete com-
necessarily depend in a great measure on the locality in which posed of one part of ground-stone lime to six of gravel,
they are to be built. Cottages are built of clay, or turf, broken stone, or clean ballast. Fill in and well ram the
bricks with wood, crude stone, flint, large pebbles, cab, &c. ; ground-work to the ^trenches and walls, so as to prevent
those used for the covering are turf, straw, tiles, slate, tarred the rain soaking down to, or standing against, the walls
paper, tessera, &c. When fir abounds, as in the north of Scot- and foundations."
" The footings to the walls to be formed with
land, this timber may be used both for boarding and scant- Bricklayer.
ling ; in places yielding stone that material with flag-stones sound, hard, well-burnt stock-bricks or burs from the brick-
for roofing. field, filled in solid, and well flushed with mortar. On the
In some parts of Lancashire, houses are built with a frame-
footings spread a layer of gas-tar and sand, and over this
work of wood, filled up with wattled shed-work, and after- a course of slate is to be laid, should there be the slightest
wards covered with a composition of clay and wet straw, chance of daiiipness arising from the foundation. The
"
locally termed clot and clay ;" this, when
plastered and lime- cesspools to be built in 4 inch brickwork, steened and
whited, has a neat appearance. In Devonshire, walls of a domed over, having stone man-holes let in. The drains
similar character are called "cob-walls;" in France, from the sinks to be 3 inches diameter, of glazed earthenware,
pis'e.
Houses in the
departement of the Isere, Rhone, and Din, the with syphon traps. The cesspools and drains to be com-
walls of which are formed with this material, have existed Carry up the
pleted previous to the walls being erected.
for upwards of a
century, and effectually resist the inclemency walls and chimneys in old English bond, leaving a space
of the weather. of about 2 inches in the centre of the thickness of the
Clay may be used with advantage in a similar manner in walls, and insert air-bricks where required. Carry up
thiscountry if properly prepared, and applied with judgment. from the ceiling of each room, on corbel-stones, a ventila-
It should by well tempered, and mixed with a All the flues to be well pargetted
portion of fine ting flue 6 by 9 inches.
gravel, or sand ; this facilitates the drying, and prevents the and cored out at the completion of the works. The chim-
composition from cracking. In forming the walls, fix tem- ney flues not to be gathered over sharply, and twisted as
porarily in the ground two parallel rows of poles, planked on much as possible.
the inner sides a space of 20 inches between being left for "The external walls are to be faced with best red stock-
the thickness of the wall ram the bricks, white Suffolk bricks being used for plinths, quoins,
:
prepared clay well into
this space, raising the planks as the work and dressings to windows and chimney-shafts ; all of which
proceeds, care being
taken that the walls are carried up perpendicular. Iron- are to be carried up in the manner shown in drawings.
hooping should be laid diagonally in the substance of the No wall to be, at any time during the progress of the works,
wall, as bond. Over all the openings, stout lintel should be more than 4 feet higher than any other wall. No indents
laid ; and the door and window-frames fixed as the work or toothings will be allowed, and no four course of bricks
pro-
gresses. "When the walls have set, remove the planks and to exceed 11 inches in height.
" All the brickwork must be worked in sound
poles, which may serve as timber for joists and rafters. After regular bond,
the walls are completed and thoroughly dry, the exterior with a close joint neatly struck ; every course well flushed
may
be rough-cast, and a coating of plaster laid on the interior. inwith mortar, and the whole made perfectly level, straight,
A good method of keeping such walls dry, is to build in, and perpendicular. The chimney openings to have chim-
at intervals, small perforated
drain-pipes. These should be ney bars to turn up at each end. The quarter partitions
laid in the substance of the walls, the bottom
resting upon a to be brick-nogged with bricks, laid flat, and well bonded.
framed opening defended by a cast-iron air-brick the top "
;
All openings to have arches turned over them, with
having a small orifice under the eaves leading outward. The proper skew backs, and left neatly pointed. The chimney
current of air passing through these
pipes will carry off" all and jambs are to be chamfered, to have plinths, and two
moisture exuding from the walls. The improvement of the shown in drawing, to support
projecting bricks, cut, as
dwellings of the industrial classes is now occupying, in a con- mantel shelf. The be lined with fire-
fire-places are to
siderable degree, the attention of
philanthropists. Several bricks, and an oven built at back. The bottom, sides, and
societies have been formed the
expressly to carry out so bene- top of oven to be of fire tiles, with flues for carrying
volent an object, and their attention has been
especially fire under and up the sides of the oven. The smoke-flue
directed to the erection of a better
description of cottage for to be provided with dampers, and a door provided with
the agricultural labourer. The young architect, in the outset damper leading to the oven, which is to be fixed in chim-
of his professional career, round
may possibly be called upon to ney jamb. Fire-grates are to be formed by letting
furnish designs for such iron bars into the brickwork of fire-places.
buildings, and with a view to assist
him, we have subjoined the following specification principally "The privies to be provided
with Boulton and Watt's
taken from a work we have before " and glazed earthenware pipes leading to cess-
quoted, Mr. Dean's Essay closet-pans,
on Farm Buildings." Mr. Dean is a and is The boilers to be set with rounded bricks, and the
practical architect, pools.
thoroughly master of the subject on which he has written ; inside work, where exposed to the fire, lined with fire-
and his
"Essays" may be consulted with advantage by those brick. The mortar to be composed of one part of good
who are about to erect agricultural buildings. lime to three of sharp sand, or fine-sifted gravel the whole ;

The specification is for a pair of labourer's to be well tempered. Properly bed all lintels, plates,
cottages, semi-
detached, but may be altered as to materials, &c.,
according frames, and sills point round all frames and sills stop
; ;

to locality and circumstances. all putlock holes, and leave the works in a complete state/
 COT 209 COU
"
Mason and Ptiviour. Provide and fix 4 inch tooled York where directed an iron pump, with double handle fix ;

stone steps to porches and entrance-doors. Provide and No. 4, stacks of 4 inch descending pipes, with cistern
fix 3 inch York stones over cesspools ; 4 inch stones for heads and shoes, the bottom length to be of cast iron.
corbels, to carry brickwork to air-flues ; a circular space Provide and fix No. 12 cast iron air bricks, to be fixed
about 4 inches diameter, to be cut in these stones, and where directed fix No. 8 Arnott's valves where directed.
;

a ventilating valve inserted in each. Inch hare-hill hearths, Fix perforated zinc-plates to doors of rooms not having
and back-hearths to all chimney openings, with stone-kirbs chimney openings in them. Provide No. 10 chimney
round to act as fenders. The kitchens to have ash-pits bars, to turn up at each end."
"
with iron movable gratings over. Sink-stones to wash- Plumber. Inch lead waste pipes from sinks to drains
houses 2 feet 6 inches by 1 foot 9 inches, out of 7 inch curved round so as to form stink-traps, and provided with
stone, properly dished (or wood lined with zinc may be bell-traps. Lead flashings to chimneys, 5 pound to the
used), each sink to be provided with a bell-trap. Pave foot super. Provide and fix 15 feet of 1^ suction-pipe
the porches and pantries with 10 inch tiles, well bedded, from well to pump."
"
the ground being previously well rammed. The rest of the Glazier and Painter. Glaze the several sashes with 3d
ground-floors to be made with concrete. Two-inch York Newcastle crown glass. Stain the whole of the wood-
stone treads, and risers to stairs, properly cramped, and work of the exterior with a composition of gas-tar and
supported by dwarf brick walls. The floors of privies to Roman ochre, laid on when boiling hot. The interior
Stephen's stain,' and afterwards
'
be paved with 1 inch York stone." to be stained with
" The timber to be free from sap, large knots,
fir varnished."
Carpenter.
and shakes. The oak to be English, die-square. The The above Specification is so carefully drawn, that we
framing to be executed in the most approved manner, and have thought it expedient to extract it entire, as a useful
to be of the following scantlings: Wall-plates 4^ by guide to the young architect. It
may, of course, be altered
lintels over all openings, 4 by 4 ; chamber-joists 7 by 1 according to circumstances, and it may not always be
12 inches apart, with bays of herring-bone struts 2 feet desirable to incur so large an outlay. The estimate fur
apart, thin iron hooping being nailed to the under side of a pair of cottages similar to those specified, would range
the joists, and the space between the joists to be filled up from 200 to i300, according to the amount of ornament
solid with broken stone or clay and mortar. Trimming- bestowed on them.
joists 7 by 3 ; struts 4 by 2 ; partitions to have heads and COUCH, in general, the lay of any mucilaginous substance
sills 4
by 3 ; uprights and braces 4 by 2. Door-frames on any material, as wood or plaster, in order to protect the
chamfered on the edges 4 by 3 ; rafters 4 j by 2J purlins ;
surface of that material from the weather, and thereby
4 by 3; collars to every sixth pair of rafters, (5 by 2; render it more durable, or less vulnerable to the corroding
ridge, 7 by lj; f yellow deal battens to carry slates. influence of the atmosphere.
Provide and fix 2 inch cut and splayed barge-boards, with COUCH, in painting, denotes a lay or impression of colour,
pinnacles, &c., as shown on drawings." whether in oil or water, with which the painter covers his
"
Joiner. External doors to be square-framed and battened, canvass, wall, wainscot, or other material to be painted.
hung with 4 inch butts, with 7 inch drawback locks, Paintings are first covered with a couch of varnish.
6 inch round each door,) and Norfolk thumb-
bolts, (3 to A canvass, to be painted, must first have two couches
latches ; % lodged doors, and ^ lodged privy,
internal of size before the colours are laid two or three couches of
:

pantry, and coal-closet doors, with bolts and latches. The whitelead are laid on wood before the couch of gold is
doors to have inch jamb-linings and stops." applied.
" the pieces of wood which hold the
Windows. Solid deal frames. 4y by 3, with oak-sunk sills ; COULISSE, French ;

1^ ovolo sashes, suspended by pivots ; those in the pantries floodgates in a sluice ;

also any timbers having grooves in
to be filled with perforated zinc." them.
11
Fittings. Inch deal seats and risers to privies, on fir COUNTER, COMPTER, (from the Latin, compulare) the
carriages. The seats to have flaps hung with 2j inch name of two prisons in London, for the use of the city, to
butt hinges ; 1 shelf to be fixed round each cupboard confine debtors, breakers of the peace, &c.
closet in bed-rooms, and 3 in those in kitchens 1^ inch :
COUNTER, a term formerly used among engineers to denote
dresser-tops, and 3 shelves to pantries. Angle staves to the superintendent of a canal, or other great work, under the
be provided and fixed to all angles; ^ clamped shutters resident-engineer. His business was to keep an account of
to dwelling-rooms, hung as flaps, with deal framed brackets, the time of the men employed, not only in different depart-
to be turned on pivots, the flaps forming tables. Fir ments of the work, but in diflerent soils also, as a check on
mantel-shelves, G by 2 inches, over each opening." the charge of the men ; and thereby to enable the resident-
'''Plasterer. The walls of the dwelling-rooms and bed-rooms engineer, who received his accounts, to ascertain the rate of
to be rendered and set. The ceilings and rafters lathed any quantity of common measure in similar operations. The
with iron hooping the space between the joists and rafters
;
counter seems to have been the same as what we now call
filled up solid with broken stone, or earth and lime. The clerk of the works.

ceilings to be plastered, set, and whited.

The chamber COUNTER DRAIN, a ditch or channel parallel to a canal or
floors to be laid with floor plaster, and trowelled to a smooth embanked water-course, for collecting the soakage-water by
surface. The walls of the sculleries, pantries, coal-closets, the side of the canal or embankment, to a culvert or arched
and privies, to be twice lime-whited cement skirting,
;
drain under the canal, by which it is conveyed away to
6 inches high, to be run round all the kitchens and lower ground.
bed-rooms." COUNTER DRAWING, the copying of a design by means of
" Slater. Cover the roofs with countess on the drawing ; the
slates, laid hollow a fine linen cloth, oiled paper, &c., laid
to a proper guage. The ridges to be of slate, bedded in strokes of the drawing appearing through the transparent
cement." cover, being traced and marked with the pencil.
" Fix No. 8 \\ round iron bars to all the fire- Sometimes drawings are copied on glass, or with frames
Ironmonger.
places, to form stove. Fix iron pans in sculleries. Fix or nets divided into squares. The pentagraph is not only
27
 cou 210 COU
useful in making fac-similcs, but for without either principals or purlins. The rafters called
reducing or enlarging spars,
drawings in any proportion but of all instruments employed
;
are most commonly notched, and the tie which
couples them
in copying rectilinear or
regular curved-lined drawings, or is also notceed with a dovetail. In a building about 25 feet
mixed of the two, the proportional compass is the most accu- wide, the spars may be 7 inches at bottom, Q inches at top,
rate, the most expeditious and convenient instrument ever yet 2^ inches thick, and about 2 feet 2 inches apart, for boarding
invented and if the parts of the drawing stand at different
; covered with slate.
oblique angles, a pair of triangular compasses will be neces- COUPLES, Main, or MAIN COUPLES, the same as trusses
sary to assist in taking the angles. Although the penta- for roofs, which support the roof in different
bays this term
:

graph will of itself enlarge or reduce, or make equal, and is also used in the north.
find the quantity of the angle, it
requires much room, and COURSE, a continued level range of stones or bricks in a
for drawing straight lines and curves, the tracer to be drawn wall, as far as the solid part runs. It sometimes
happens,
along a straight-edge. In retrograding or retracing a line that a course of masonry is only laid to a certain
length, and
in the same path, towards the contrary
extremity to which it the other part or complement divided into two courses, in
was drawn, the representative line is liable to be doubled. the same height as the single course ; but this ought not to
The pentagraph is therefore a cumbersome and inaccurate be admissible, and should be specified against, in countries
instrument for such purposes, and should only be used in where the contractors are ready to take every advantage in
reducing for rough or sketch-maps, &c., where great accu- order to save the expense of larger stones, or to accommo-
racymay not be absolutely necessary. date themselves with those already at hand.
COUNTERFORTS, projections of masonry or brickwork from COURSE OF THE FACE OF AN ARCH, the arch-stones, whose
a wall, built at regular intervals, in order to strengthen the In stone work, the arch-stones
joints radiate to the centre.
wall, or to resist a pressure of earth behind it, the counterforts are called voussoirs or ring-stones, in the face of the arch, and
increasing the breadth of its base, and thereby aiding the each radiating part consists of one stone only. In brick-
resistance against the power which tends to overturn it.
work, each part, of one thickness of brick, sometimes consists
COUNTER GUAGE, in carpentry, a method used to measure of several bricks in length but whether one or several
:

the joints by transferring, e. g. the breadth of a mortise to the bricks be contained between two adjacent radiating joints,
place of the other timber where the tenon is to be made, in the quantity thus disposed is called a course.
order to adapt them to each other. COURSE, in slating and tiling, a row of slates or tiles, dis-
COUNTER LATH, in tiling, a lath placed between every two posed with their lower ends in the same level, which line
guaged ones, so as to divide every interval, as near as can be may either be a straight line or a circle.
judged by the eye, into two equal intervals. COURSE OF PLINTHS, the continuity of a plinth in the face
COUNTER LIGHT, a window opposite to anything which of a wall, to mark the separation of the stones. The course
makes it appear to a disadvantage a single counter light is
: of plinths is otherwise called string course, which is most
sufficient to take away all the
beauty of a fine painting. frequently executed with stone, but sometimes also with
COUNTER PARTS, of a building, are the similar and equal plaster, to save expense.
parts of the design on each side of the middle of the COURSE, Barge. See BARGE-COURSE.
edifice ; they are
absolutely necessary to the character COURSE, Blocking. See BLOCKING-COURSE.
of a Grecian or Roman edifice, but in Gothic COURSE, Bonding, that which is farther inserted into the
buildings
a duplicature of parts is not requisite. wall than either of the adjacent courses, for the purpose of
COUNTRY-HOUSE, as its name implies, one erected in binding the wall together. Two bonding-courses lapping
the country. In the erection of these, under a liberal em-
upon each other, one from the face, and the other from the
ployer, the architect has the greatest scope for his fancy, back, make excellent work: these courses should be placed
ingenuity, and skill in contrivance. He is not confined to so as to leave regular intervals for stretching courses between
space, as in town-houses, and therefore has it in his power them, on each side of the wall.
to extend in any direction consistent with the nature of his
COURSE, Heading, the same as BONDING-COURSE. See the
design. For farther information, see VILLA, and HOUSE. last article.
COUPLE-CLOSE, a pair of spars of a roof. COURSE, Springing. See SpRiNoiNo-CouRSE.
COUPLED COLUMNS, those which are disposed in COURSE, Stretching. See STRETCHING-COURSE.
pairs, making a narrow and wide interval succeed each COURSED MASONRY, that in which the stones run in
other alternately. Of this disposition of columns, ancient courses.
architecture affords no instance for, although in the temple
; COURSING JOINT, the joint between two courses.
of Bacchus at Rome, the columns are coupled, or stand in an hypsethral, or uncovered area, either in front
COURT,
pairs, still the intervals between are all equal. The only use of a house, or surrounded entirely by the walls. As it is
of coupled columns is in low colonnades, or
porticos of edi- impossible on the same floor to light apartments surrounded
fices which have
large piers, where the employment of single with other apartments on all sides, and these again com-
columns would have a meagre appearance. The ancient dis-
pletely covered with other apartments, it will be impossible
position of columns in the same range was always beautiful, to execute an extensive building, which may have more than
on account of the proportion of the intercolumn three rooms in length and breadth, and more than one story
being always
narrow. In the application of columns to modern architec- rooms being entirely
in height, without the intermediate
dark, or receiving their light by secondary windows from the
ture, the intercolumniations must be regulated by the aper-
tures of our domestic edifices, but the ancients were under no exterior rooms ; hence the necessity of introducing as many
such restrictions. The perspective succession or intermediate courts as the extension of the building, with
gradation of
coupled columns, is not so harmonious as when columns stand in length and breadth,
regard to the number of rooms, both
single. If a design be well suggested, there will be little occa- will be obvious. Mr. has made advan-
may require, Barry
sion for their employment. See COLUMN, COLONNADE. in the Travellers'
tageous use of a court of this description
COUPLES, rafters framed
together in pairs, with a tie, Club-house. See CLUB-HOUSE. It is true, that a building
which is generally fixed above the feet of the rafters. This can be executed without courts, and that it may contain any
mode of framing is used in the
ordinary houses of Scotland, number of rooms ; but it must have only two rooms in
 cov 211 CRA
breadth, or otherwise the plan cannot be a simple rectan- very narrow, the upper rooms were made in part to jut over
gular figure. Courts may be ornamented in the most the wall, in order to give room.
elegant manner, and being more confined than the external COVINGS OF A FIREPLACE, the inclined vertical parts on
parts of the edifice, the ornaments may be of a more delicate the sides, for contracting the opening, and throwing out the
nature ; and if any parts of the building can admit of arcades, heat.
or of two or more orders, one above the other, a court is COW-HOUSE, a building where cows or other cattle are
certainly the most susceptible of such decoration. are We kept, in order to protect them from the severities of the
informed by Vitruvius (book vi. chap, iii.) that the ancients weather. See CATTLE SHED.
had five kinds of courts, called caacedii, distinguished by the COW-YARD, the enclosure in which cows are kept, to shel-
denominations of Tuscan, Corinthian, tetrastyle, ditpluvi- ter them from the weather.
nated, and testudinated. For the description of each, see CRAB, an instrument used in masonry for raising large
CAV^EDIUM. stones.
COUS1NET, COUSSINET, a CUSHION, a stone placed upon CRACKING OF BUILDINGS, those fissures occasioned
the impost of a pier or pedroit, for receiving the first stone of by improper management in the foundation, or in carrying
an arch. If the arch be the segment of a circle, the cousinet up the work. Cracks, so frequent in modern buildings, will
may be an isosceles triangle, with the base upon the impost, for the most part be found to arise from unequal settlement,
and the two sloping sides radiating to the centre or if the
;
caused by insufficient foundations, from inadequate coverings
arch be a semicircle, the cousinet will be the first arch-stone to apertures, such as what are called French arches, or from
itself, or otherwise the arch must spring above the impost. the employment of improper or inferior materials, soft bricks,
COUSINET is also employed to denote that part in the front unseasoned timber and such like.
of the Ionic capital, contained between the abacus and the CRACKING, in plastering, the fissures occasioned by an
echinus, or quarter-round. It is this which forms the hori- undue tempering or mixing of the materials, or by an un-
zontal fillet, or band, in common volutes, or the band and seasonable application.
festoons in the Grecian Ionic, from which the volutes on each CRADLE, or COFFER, in engineering, a large wooden
side of the column depend. trunk, open at top, with movable ends, large enough to
COVE, any kind of concave moulding, or the concavity of receive a barge or vessel when floating on a canal, for the
a vault. purpose of raising or lowering it to a higher or lower pond
COVE BRACKETING, is the bracketing of any cove, but more of the canal, by cranes or other means, without the use of a
generally understood to be that of the quadrantal cove, which pond lock.
is sometimes
employed between the flat ceiling and the wall. The term is also applied to the segment of a hollow cylin-
See BRACKETING. der formed of ribs and lattice, similar to centering, used by
COVED AND FLAT CEILING, one whose section is a bricklayers and masons, for turning culverts and arches; the
portion or quadrant of a circle, springing from the walls of inside is smooth, and the exterior rough, for supporting and
the room, and rising to a flat surface in the middle. retaining the shape of the inverted arch of the lower half of
Coved and flat seem to be altogether of modern
ceilings the culvert in soft ground, particularly in quicksands and
invention, and admit of some beauty in the decoration. It is peaty places. A
very slight cradle of this kind, will some-
a sort of compromise between the flat or horizontal ceiling, times prevent the distortion or ultimate fall of a barrel cul-
and the various forms of arched ones practised by the vert. This precaution should never be omitted in laying
ancients. It does not require so much height as the latter culverts under canals or roads, in soft grounds, as the falling
mode, and has therefore been of considerable use in the of the culvert may prove of the greatest inconvenience.
finishing of modern apartments; but as its form is a com- CRADLE- VAULT, a word improperly applied to cylindric
pound, it wants both elegance of figure, and grandeur of vaults.
design nor does it admit of that beauty in decoration, that
; CRADLING, the mass of timber-work disposed in
entire arched ceilings are susceptible of. The ancient forms arched or vaulted ceilings, for sustaining the lath and
were of three kinds, the cylindric arch, the dome, and the plaster. For the application of the various species of
groin. Wefind no arches of any description in Grecian
cradling, see the words CYLINDRIC-VAULT, COVE-BRACKET-
antiquity ; but in the Roman edifices all the three varieties ING, DOME, GROIN, and NICHE. The compound term, dish-
are to be found and among other ceilings in the ruins of
; ing-out, is sometimes used by workmen, instead of cradling.
Balbec, the quadrantal coved ceiling, with the flat in the CRADLING is also used for the rough timber-work for sus-
middle, may be distinctly traced, at least in length, if not in taining an entablature for a shop-front.
breadth. See CEILING. CRAMP, an iron instrument, about 4 feet long, with a
COVER, in slating, the part of the slate that is hid or screw at one end, and a movable shoulder or arm at the
covered ; the other part exposed to view, is termed the mar- other, by which mortise and tenon work is forced together.
gin of the slate. CRAMPERN, or CRAMP-!RON, an iron bent at each
COVER WAY, in roofing, the recess or internal angle left in extremity, towards the same side of the middle part, used to
brickwork or masonry to receive the covering. fasten stones together in a building.
COVERED WAY, a passage covered over. The term Cov- When stones are required to be bound together with
ered Way, or COVERT Way, is also used in fortification to greater strength than that of mortar, a chain, or bar of iron,
denote the piece of ground level with the field on the edge of with different projecting nobs, is inserted in a cavity cut in
the ditch, three or four fathoms broad, extending quite round the upper side of the course of stones across the joints,
the works towards the country. It has a parapet raised on instead of single cramps across the joints of each two stones.
a level, together with its banquettes and glacis. It is some- Cramps are generally,employed in works which require great
solidity, as in the piers and abutments of bridges, and
times called the counterscarp.- the
COVERINO. See ROOFING. voussoirs of large arches. They are also employed in uniting
COVING, the exterior projecture over the ground-plan the stones of copings, and cornices, and generally any external
of buildings, made in an arched form with lath and plaster : work upon the upper surface, or between the beds of the
it is not now in use. In former times, when the streets were stone. External work liable to the injuries of the weather,
 CRE 212 CRO
ought to be cramped. The most secure manner of fixing enriched with flowers, it is fixed in a corner so that
only two
cramps is to let ,,hem into the stones their whole thickness, sides are exposed ; at
Fyfield, Berks, is another specimen,
and run them nith lead but in slight works, it is sufficient
; semi-octagonal in plan, supported on a stem of similar plan,
to bed them in plaster, as is the practice in chimney-pieces. but of smaller dimensions ; the sides are panelled all the
Iron is used in modern buildings, but the Romans, who were way up.
accustomed to employ cramps in the greatest profusion, used CRENELLE, the embrasure of a battlement, sometimes
bronze, a material much more durable than iron, as it is not applied to the whole battlement, as also to the loopholes and
so liable to rust. other small apertures in the wall of a fortress,
through which
Bronze or copper is preferable to iron, not only on account missiles were discharged.
of its own durability, but likewise because it is not so liable CRESCENT, an ornament used by the Mahometans in
to destroy the masonry which it connects the rust which : their mosques.
accumulates round iron cramps, tends to rupture the masonry CRESCENT, a series of buildings, disposed in the arc of
to a much greater extent, than the cramps to keep it a circle, which is either the half circumference, or the arc
together ; besides this, if placed near the surface, iron is sure of a segment less than the half.
to discolour it. In general work, if the masonry be well put CRESILLA, a Grecian sculptrix, who chiselled seven
together, there will be but littlu need of cramps, especially statues of the Amazons, for the temple of Diana at
Ephesus,
if the
separate masses be of moderate size ; nor even if they and was accounted the third in merit among the numerous
be of small dimensions, is there any absolute necessity for competitors who vied in decorating that famed edifice being
their employment, as we may gather from the works of the
only inferior to Polycletus and Phidias.
ancients. Mr. Murphy instances the spires of Salisbury CRESSET, an open metal frame or cage, used to contain
cathedral, and of the church of Batalha, Portugal, which a light or beacon-fire.
though not more than seven inches in thickness, are for the CREST, the ornamental finishing at the summit of a
most part connected without the aid of iron cramps. These structure, consisting of battlements, open tracery, finials and
observations apply with greater emphasis to wrought than crockets, or even plain coping.
to cast iron. CREST-TILES, tiles placed along the ridge of a roof over-
Sir Christopher Wren used a large cramp or chain below on both sides like a saddle ; they are sometimes
lapping
the springing of the dome of St. Paul's, in order to distribute
plain, and at others ornamented, moulded in the form of
the pressure equally. This architect, however, seems to battlements, Tudor-flowers, crockets, leaves, &c.
have been fully aware of the caution requisite in the use of CREUX (from the French) a term in sculpture, implying
iron in stone buildings, for he observes in his Parentalia, a hollow, out of which anything has been scooped and
;
"It has been observed removing cramps from masonry
in hence it has been used to denote that kind of sculpture
at least four hundred years old, which were so bedded in and graving, where the lines and figures are cut and formed
mortar that all air was perfectly excluded, that the iron within the surface carved or engraved upon.
appeared as fresh as when it came from the forge. In There is no word in the English language that answers
cramping stones therefore, no iron should lie within nine to this idea, and hence the necessity of
adopting the term.
inches of air if possible ;
for air is the menstruum that It is opposed to the word relievo, where the lines and
figures
consumes all materials. When for want of large stones are prominent, and project without the surface.
the use of iron is requisite, care should be taken to exclude CRIB, the rack or manger of a stable, or the stall or
the air from it." cabin of an ox. It is also used for
any small habitation,
Copper, bronze, or gun-metal, form excellent and incorro- as a cottage.
sive substitutes for iron in cramping masonry ; they are CROCKET (from the French, croc, a hook, or fork) an
more expensive at the first outlay, but will be found in ornament used to decorate or finish the raking arrises of
reality more economical the first material may be mixed
; parts of Gothic buildings, such as spires, pinnacles, gables,
with a small portion of tin, which imparts to it
greater canopies, &c. ; consisting of projecting leaves, flowers,
durability. or knops of foliage, and terminating usually in a larger
The above objections to iron, do not hold good as regards ornament or bunch of flowers or leaves at the summit, called
brickwork the only inconvenience in this case arises from
; a finial. Sometimes they are used in vertical lines, as at
the stain with which the rust is apt to disfigure the work, the cathadra], Lincoln, where they run up the mullions of
if the iron be placed too near the the tower window. Crockets of the Early English style are
facing.
CRAMPOONS, pieces of iron hooked at the ends, for often simple trefoil leaves, and sometimes bunches of such
drawing or pulling up timber, stones, &c. leaves, placed at considerable intervals, and curled backwards,
CRANE-HOUSE, a house to shelter a crane it should ;
in a similar manner to the head of a bishop's pastoral staff":
be constructed of brick. early specimens are to be seen at Salisbury and Wells
CREALS, a sort of jetties, or weir hedges, sometimes cathedrals, but the simplest example exists at Lincoln, which
erected on the shores of rivers or the sea, for checking the exhibits a simple curve, curling round downwards. In the
force of the tide in particular places, and occasioning a Decorated period, the leaves were usually continued for some
deposit of filth or mud in place of the constant wear and distance attached to the moulding, and curled upwards
encroachment of the water upon the land. Smeaton's towards the extremity, sometimes the extreme point was
Reports, \.
p. 4. turned up a similar form prevailed in the Perpendicular
;

CREASING, See TILE-CREASING.

Tile.
style, but they are
sometimes merely flat square leaves united
CREDENCE, a shelf or small table by the side of a to the moulding by the stalk and one edge. In some cases
Christian altar, on which the sacred elements are we meet with animals in the place of crockets, as on the
placed
previous to consecration. Sometimes the credence is simply flying buttresses of Henry VIl.'s chapel, Westminster, and
a shelf in the niche above the piscina, but at other times a the gables of the hall at Hampton Court; on the tomb of
separate table. At the church of S. Cross is a beautiful Archbishop Kempe, Canterbury, we find swans, and on that
specimen, rectangular in plan, having its front decorated of Bishop Bingham, Salisbury, angels are used for the same
with panels, and the stone slab supported above a cornice
purpose.
 CRO 213 CRO
CRO1SSANTE CROIX, having a crescent or halfmoon, under this head, but if so, they are of a very different descrip-
fixed to each end thereof. tion to the majority. Out of fifteen of these originally existing,
CROKET. See CROCKET. only three now remain, at Geddington, Northampton, and
CRONACA, SIMONE, a Florentine architect, born in Waltham : of those now destroyed, five are known to have
the year 1454. This artist travelled to Rome, and other been erected at the following places, Lincoln, Stamford,
cities of Italy, in order to take accurate admeasurements of Dunstable, St. Alban's, and Charing. They were very ela-
the ancient edifices. When he returned to Florence, he borate structures, consisting of several stories of multangular
acquired considerable reputation, and was employed to finish plans, each story being somewhat smaller than the one below
the Palazzo Strozzi, which was begun by Benedetto da it, so as to give
the erection a pyramidal form, having the
Maiano. Among his other works in this city, are the sacristy apex surmounted by a cross, and the whole enriched with
sculpture, statuary, &c ; that at Waltham consists
of the church of Santo Spirito, and the church of S. Fran- of three
cesco del Offervanza, at S. Miniato, in the suburbs of the stories, and is hexagonal in plan, the lower story is richly
city. lie died in the year 1509, and was buried in the church panelled, the second canopied, containing statues of the
of S. Ambrozio Vasari. queen, the third panelled, similarly to the lowest, and the
CROOKED LINE, one that cannot have a tangent on whole finished at the top with a decorative cross.
any point to the two adjacent parts of the line ou each side The preaching-cross was a covered pulpit usually erected in
of the point of contact. the vicinity of a church, the most noted is that of St. Paul, Lon-
CROSETTES, in the decorations of apertures, the trusses don, which was an erection of wood raised on steps, and covered
or consoles on the flanks of the architrave, under the cor- with a canopy ; it was octagonal in plan, closed in on all sides,
nice; they are otherwise named ears, elbows, ancones, or with the exception of the entrance and the aperture, through
prothyrides. which the preacher addressed the people. Specimens of this
CROSIER, a bishop's staff; it was originally a plain rod class exist at Hereford, Iron Acton, Gloucestershire, and
with a cross-head at its summit, and subsequently with a Holbeach, Lincolnshire.
curved top similar to a shepherd's crook. Crosiers were Market-crosses seem to have been originally of a similar
sometimes of a very costly description, being formed of gold form to those of Queen Eleanor, but having open arches at
or silver, engraved, enamelled, and inlaid with jewels and the sides in the lowest story. In the later and more general
precious stones. A good specimen is that of William of form, the plan of the basement was considerably extended,
Wykeham, preserved at New College, Oxford. The crosier so as to present a space of considerable size covered with a
of an archbishop is surmounted by a cross, and that of a vaulted roof, and having a central pillar or pier to support
primate or patriarch by a double cross. the superstructure, which at the same time was much reduced
CROSS, a figure consisting of four branches, at right in height; the shape of the original plan was preserved, the

angles to each other; or a geometrical figure, consisting of only difference being in its size ; thus the markekcross at
five rectangles, each side of one angle being common with Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire, is pentagonal, that at Salis-
one side of each the other four. bury, hexagonal, and that at Malmsbury, which is a beautiful
The cross, as the most prevalent symbol of the Christian specimen, hexagonal. Other market-crosses exist at Win-
religion, was often introduced into their architecture. Their chester, Cheddar, and Chichester, and there were two excel-
churches, more especially the larger ones, were frequently lent ones at Coventry and Glastonbury. They served to
built on a cross plan, and were decorated internally and exter- shelter the people attending market from heat and rain.
nally with this symbol ; crosses ot a highly decorative cha- The cross at Chichester is the most beautiful specimen of
racter and beautiful design were often affixed to the apex of the kind. It is supported on eight buttresses and a central

gables, and in the interior were depicted on the walls ; column, from which issue a number of ribs dividing the vaulted
a large ornamental cross, usually of wood, called the rood, was roof: between the buttresses are eight arches moulded,
set above the screen, which separates nave and chancel, and a and surmounted by an ogee canopy, which is crocketed,

small one of metal, enriched with jewels, &c., on the altar. the finial supporting a pinnacle ; the spandrels of the canopy
There are two kinds of cruciform plans used in ecclesiastical are richly panelled, as are also the walls above, the whole
buildings ; one, in which all the five rectangles are equal ; or, being finished by a panelled parapet. The buttresses termi-
in which each of the four wings is equal to the middle
part nate in crocketed pinnacles. The structure is covered exter-
formed by the intersection, is called a Greek cross. The an crocketed ribs springing from each
nally by ogee cupola,
other, in which only two opposite wings are equal, and in of the buttresses at the angles, and the whole is surmounted
which the other two are unequal, and the three rectangles by a small octangular turret pierced with eight arches, and
in the direction of the unequal parts of greater length than otherwise elaborately ornamented.
thu three parts in the direction of the equal parts, is called Crosses of a simple character were originally erected at the
a Latin, cross, the middle part in each direction being entrance of towns and villages, at the intersection of cross-
common. roads and sides of highways, to arrest the attention of tra-
Stone crosses were erected in front of the entrance to the vellers, and excite their devotion.
church, and these consisted of a tall shaft raised on one or CROSS-BANDED, in hand-railing, is when a veneer is laid
more steps, and surmounted by an ornamental cross ; the shaft upon the upper side of the rail, with the grain of the wood
was usually of a simple character, but sometimes enriched crossing that of the rail, and the extension of the veneer in
with sculpture. Besides these, there were boundary, memo- the direction of its fibres less than the breadth of the rail.
rial, sepulchral, preaching, and market crosses. CROSS GARNETS, hinges, with a long strap, which is fixed
Boundary-crosses were of a very simple character, being to the closure of the aperture, and with a cross part on the
usually merely upright stones ornamented with some simple other side of the knuckle, which is fastened to the joint.
sculpture; memorial crosses were of a like plain description, CROSS-GRAINED STUFF, wood with its fibres in contrary
there is a specimen at Blore-heath, Staffordshire. The crosses directions to the surface, and which therefore cannot be made
erected by king Edward I. at the places where the corpse of perfectly smooth by the operation of the plane, without either
his queen Eleanor was rested during its progress from Lin- turning the plane or the stuff. This most frequently arises
colnshire to Westminster for interment, would probably come from a twisted disposition of the fibres in, the act of growing.
 CRO 214 CRO
CROSS MULTIPLICATION, a term used by artificers for the are required to complete the whole
product. shall take We
peculiar arithmetical process employed in the mensuration of the two former examples, and the one method will be the best
their work. Cross multiplication and duodecimals are gene- proof of the truth of the other.
rally confounded together as being synonymous expressions ;
but the order of performing their operations is materially First Example, Second Example,
different. In cross multiplication, the parts are actually mul- ft. in. ft. in.
tiplied crosswise, as well as in direct order, and the terms of 25 11 58 9
each factor are confined to feet and inches; whereas, in 23 7 36 6
duodecimals, the terms of each of the factors are not confined
to number, and the parts are multiplied in the order of com- 6 5
mon multiplication. 175
The rule in cross multiplication is as follows Write the :
253
given numbers, as in addition. The sum of the products of
the alternate parts, and the product of each pair of parts in
12)434 12)676
each denomination, will be the product of the whole. It

must be remembered, that 36 2 56

Feet multiplied by feet give feet. 75 348
Feet multiplied by inches give inches. 50 174
Feet multiplied by seconds give seconds.
611 2 5 2144 4 6
Inches multiplied by inches give seconds.
The method of performing the operation will be seen in
By this means, the whole is performed in one operation,
the following examples. Whatis the area of a board, the without laying any stress on the memory, and will therefore
length of which is 25 feet 11 inches, and the breadth 23 feet be particularly useful to those who have not sufficient prac-
7 inches? tice to fix the products and quotients of small numbers on
ft. in. their memory and it is the shortest method of the two, if
:

25 11 the number of marginal figures be counted into the work

23 7 of the former method of operation.
In duodecimals the process is as follows beginning with
005
:

7 X 11 the last term, or the farthest from the left-hand in the multi-
it each term of the
14 7 7 X 25 plier, multiply by multiplicand from the
21 1 23 X 11 right-hand to the left, carrying one for every twelve to each
575 23 X 25 successive product, but the denominations must not be car-
ried farther than the place of feet ; again, multiply all the
611 2 5 terms of the multiplicand, by each successive term towards
the left of the multiplier ; then place the products one under
Required the product of 58 feet 9 inches, by 36 feet 6 inches,
the other, with the first term of every product on the left,
ft. in. under the second term of the product of the horizontal row
58 9 immediately above ; then add the similar denominations of
36 6 each product the sum will be the whole product.
:
Observe,
in the first put the highest denomination, viz.,
place, to
46 = 6X9 the feet, under the first term on the left of the multiplicand,
and the terms of the product under each respective term of
29 58 X 6
27 36 X 9 the multiplicand will be of the same denomination with
2088 58 X 36 each other.
.Example. Suppose, again, it were required to multiply
2144 4 6 25 feet 11 inches by 23 feet 7 inches, by duodecimals.

The following method is another form of cross multipli- 11 x 7 = 77

cation, discovered by Mr. P. Nicholson, in which side oper-
ations are unnecessary, and consequently, as a part of the 25 11 6 5
work, must either be wrought on the margin, as above, or in 23 7 25 X 7 = 175
the mind the work, by the method proposed, will be shorter
:

than the above, or less liable to mistake, if the side operations 15 1 5 181
be not used. The rule is thus : 596 1

Multiply the inches together, and the product is seconds ; 15 1 = Ti-

divide the product by 12, if so divisible, the quotient is 611 2 5
inches, and the remainder seconds ; then, placing the feet ll X 23 = 253
and the inches in their respective order, one after the other,
set the products of the two cross parts in inches, under the
=
21 1 ==
inches of the former quotient ; add the throe numbers toge- 25 X 3 75
ther, and divide their sum by 12, the quotient will be feet, 25 X 20 = 500
and the remainder inches ; multiply the feet of the multiplier
596
by the feet of the multiplicand, and place the products under
the feet of the last division, then the sum of these products
will be the number of feet in the whole contents, and the Cross multiplication is much better adapted to finding the
remainders of inches and seconds, if any, the parts which superficial contents
of a piece of work, where there are only
 CRO 215 CRY
two terms in each factor, and where the feet of the multiplier placed alternately in a straight line, and the sides in conti-
run to a high number, as well as the feet of the multipli- guity with each other, the whole will form a rectangle, whose
cand, and more particularly the second mode of cross multi- length is equal to the half sum of the two circumferences,
plication as in duodecimals, the calculator must either
; and the breadth that of the ring; for all the middle breadths
have a very good memory to require no marginal work, or are in one straight line, equal to the length of the
rectangle.
otherwise the quantity of marginal operations will exceed JSxample. Suppose the greater circumference of a crown
that of the principal work. Artificers and measurers never to be 24 feet 8 inches, and the lesser 21 feet 6 inches, and the
take any account of denominations less than inches, except breadth 2 feet 9 inches, required the superficial content?
in glazier's work, and hence cross multiplication is almost the

only useful method of finding the contents ; but where more By cross multiplication. By decimals.
denominations are concerned, recourse must be had to duode-
cimals or decimals, as when the terms of each factor are more ft. in.

than two, cross multiplication cannot be applied. 24 8 24.666 = 24$

When the terms of the multiplier are under 10, the 21 6 21.5 = 21$
operation will be exceedingly easy, as the following example
will show. 2)46 2 2)46.166
Example. Multiply 8 feet, 3 inches, 5 seconds, and 7 thirds,
23 1 23.083
by 5 feet, 4 inches, 9 seconds, and 6 thirds.
2 9 2.75 = 2f
in.
83575496
ft. ii iii

207
9 115415
161581
2 46166
41896
62723 12)209 63.47825 content in ft. & dec.
2 9 1 10 4 12
41 5 3 11 17 5
46 5.73900 inches
44 9 6 3 6 12
63 5 9
It willbe perceived that there is a great difference between 8.868 seconds.
cross multiplication and duodecimals, and the purposes to
which each may be most advantageously applied but the ;
CROWN GLASS, the finest sort of window-glass. See
reader who wishes for farther information on this subject, GLASS.
may have recourse to the articles DECIMALS, DUODECIMALS, CROWN-POST, in truss-roofing, the truss-post, which is
and PRACTICE. placed between a pair of principal rafters, or depending from
CROSS SPRINGERS, in groins of the pointed style, are the the summit of the principals, in order to support braces or
ribs that spring from one diagonal pier to the other. struts for sustaining the intermediate bearing of the princi-
CROSS VAULTING, a vault formed by the intersection of pals, or keeping them from being bent by the weight of the
two or more simple vaults. When each of the simple vaults covering. It is otherwise called king-post and joyyle-post. See
rises from the same level to the same height, the cross vault- POST and TRUSS-POST.
ing denominated a groin; but when one of two simple
is CROWNING, in general, the part that terminates any

vaults, in cross vaulting, is below the other, the intersection piece of architecture. Thus the cornice, a pediment, acroteria,
is
simply demominated an arch of that particular species &c., are called crownings.
which expresses both the simple arches ; thus if one cylinder CRUCIFIX, a cross with a figure or representation of
pierce another of greater altitude, the arch so formed is called S. Saviour crucified, affixed to it.
a cylindro-cylindric arch ; and if the portion of a cylinder CRYPT, according to Vitruvius, the under part of a build-
pierce a sphere of greater altitude than the cylinder, the arch ing, answering nearly to our cellar.
is denominated a sphero-cylindric arch : and thus, for any The term is more particularly applied to a vaulted apart-
other species of arch whatever, the part of the qualifying ment beneath a church, either entirely, or partly under
word which ends in o, denominates the simple vault which ground. Crypts owe their origin to the circumstance of the
has the greater altitude, and the succeeding part the other of early Christians being compelled, for the sake of secresy and
less altitude. concealment, to perform their sacred services in caves and
CROUDE, a subterraneous vault or crypt. subterraneous places, some of which are still pointed out at
CROW, a bar of iron, used in bricklaying and quarrying. Rome. Crypts are not unfrequent, especially under large
CROWN, in architecture, the uppermost member of a cor- churches, they seldom, however, extend the whole length of
nice, comprehending the corona and its superior members. the church, being usually confined to the choir or chancel,
CROWN OF AN ARCII, the most elevated line or point that and sometimes not extending so far as this: they are usually
can be taken on its surface. low and massive, of an earlier and plainer style than the
CROWN, in geometry, a plane ring, the surface being con- superstructure. Many crypts are claimed as belonging to the
tained between the circumferences of two concentric circles. Saxon style, as those of Lastinghatn Church, Yorkshire ;
The area will be found by multiplying half the sum of the S. Peter's, Oxford ; Repton Church, Derbyshire ; and portions
two circumferences by its breadth; for it is easy to conceive, of those of many of our cathedrals.
that if radiating lines be equidistantly drawn indefinitely near Crypts were formerly used for service, and accordingly are
each other, the whole will be divided into truncated isosceles provided with altars and other furniture requisite for the pur-
triangles, or trapezoids, whose opposite angles are equal to pose. The most extensive building of this kind is that under
two right angles ; then the broad and narrow ends being Canterbury Cathedral, which is thus described by Mr. Britton
 CUB 216 CUB
"
Like those at Winchester, the crypts of Canterbury Cathe- distance between the ends, and the product will give the
dral appear to have been built at different times. Their content of the solid."
eastern termination is semicircular ; which form has been This rule has been applied to three particular cases, viz.,
also observed in the small lateral chapels. The interior length in the prismoid, cask measuring, and the frustum of the
of the Canterbury crypts is 286 feet 6 inches. The age of the hyperboloid; it has also been demonstrated rather as a
oldest part has long been the subject of controversy ; but from theoretical curiosity, than as a practical rule, at the end of
its
similarity to the crypt at Oxford, it may be regarded as Dr. Hutton's Mensuration, applied to solids generated from
contemporaneous with that ; it was most probably the work conic sections.
of Lafranc, about A.D. 1080. The larger, or western crypt, This rule, however, applies to solids in general, and com-
is divided into a nave and four aisles, by two rows of massive prehends the whole of mensuration in its principle though ;

piers, and by a double range of small columns ; whilst the

such an extension has never been noticed by any writer
piers and walls of the aisles have semi-columns to support the on the subject, yet it cannot fail to be of the utmost use in
vaulting. Branching laterally from each aisle is a vault or assisting the memory for when particular rules
;
are forgotten,
chapel ; that on the south side, the vaulting of which is this general one may be easily remembered. It will
apply
adorned with many ribs, bears evident marks of innovation, with accuracy to prisms, pyramids, prismoids, cones, conoids,
and is supposed to have been converted into a chantry chapel cuneoids, spheres, spheroids, and to all their segments and
by Edward the Black Prince, whose arms are seen among its frustums, cut by planes parallel to their axes.
ornaments. Towards the eastern end of this crypt was a Some may object, however, by saying it is not easy to
chapel, inclosed with screen-work, and dedicated to the Holy come at the dimensions of the middle section ; but in straight
Virgin. The crypt under the Trinity Chapel, or east end solids these will be very readily ascertained, by taking half
of the cathedral, is singular in form and character. Its plan the sum of the two ends ; in complete spheres and spharoids,
assumes the figure of an horse shoe ; and is divided into a the middle dimension is
absolutely given. In the hyperboloid
nave and aisles by a series of eight piers, each formed of two and itsfrustums, the dimensions of the middle section is
columns, engaged about one-quarter of their diameter, sup- much easier obtained than either the transverse or conjugate
porting four semicircular and five pointed arches, their diameters, one of which, or both, it would otherwise be
respective forms being influenced by the width of the inter- necessary to have. In the paraboloid and its frustums, the
columniations. In its central division, or nave, are two small middle area is half the sum of the areas of the two ends. The
insulated shafts, with large capitals and bases to support the reader who is desirous of seeing the application of this
ribbed groining, which is distinguished from that of the general rule, may consult the article SOLID.
western crypt by cross-springers and bold mouldings. At the CUBE (from Kv[3o$, tessera, die) a solid, bounded by six
eastern extremity is a small vaulted chamber, forming the ter- squares ; it is otherwise called a hexahedron, from its six sides.
mination of these interesting apartments." Its simple properties are, that its sides are all equal and at

Amongst the smaller examples, may be noticed that of right angles with each other: it has also its opposite sides
Hythe, Kent, and those of Repton, and St. Peter's in the parallel to each other. The cube may be conceived to be
East, Oxford, before-mentioned. generated by a square figure along a right line, of equal length
CRYPTO-PORTICUS, a subterraneous passage, as the original to the side of the square, and perpendicular to the plane.
word implies. If we may judge (says Winckelman) from the From, its construction, it is evident that all sections of the
remains of antique edifices, particularly those of the Villa solid, parallel to any side, are equal.
Adrian!, at Tivoli, we might be led to believe that the an- The envelope, rete, or net, may be thus constructed Draw :

cients preferred darkness to light for, in fact, we find scarcely

: two lines, A D and A B, at a right angle with each other ;

any chamber or vault among these ruined edifices, which has make A B equal to the side of one of the squares, and A D
to four times A B, marking the points of division,
any appearance of windows. It seems probable, that in some, equal
the, light was only admitted through an opening in the middle E o i ; draw B c parallel to A D, and D c parallel to A B,
of the vault, but as the vaults are generally fallen, this point parallel to which also draw KF, GH,IK, cutting
BC at F, H, K:
cannot be ascertained. The inhabitants of Italy are naturally produce E F and o n on both sides, to L and M on the one side,
attached to the shade and coolness of half-lighted apartments. and N and o on the other, making E L, G M, F N, H o, each equal
The long galleries of the Villa Adriani, which are undoubtedly to E F, and join L M and N o this will complete the envelope
;

crypto-porticos, receive a feeble light at each end, from em- required.

Hence the superficies of a cube found by multiplying
bracing near the ceiling.
is

The term crypto-porticus was, however, applied, in course the area of one of its sides by 6.
of time, to apartments similar to our galleries. The cube is found by multiplying the area of
solidity of a
We find, in Pliny's description of his house at Laurentium, one of squares by one of the lineal sides
its of a square.
that the crypto-porticus had windows on each side, looking Hence if one lineal side be 10, the solidity will be 1,000 ;
towards the sea, and upon his garden ; also other windows and if 12, it will be 1728 ; wherefore a cubic perch contains
over these. When the weather was cold, they were shut on 1,000 cubic feet, and a cubic foot of 1728 cubic inches.
the side that sheltered them from the wind, but in warm and Cubes are to one another in the triplicate ratio of their
serene weather they were all set wide open. lineal sides.
CUB ATURE, or CUBATION, of a solid, the solid contents CUBIC NUMBER, one which arises by multiplying two
another equal
according to any common measure, as a solid inch, foot, yard, equal numbers, and the product again by
&c., which is called the measuring unit. The cubature is the number: thus, 12 X 12 =
144, and 144 X 12 1728. -
same in respect to the contents of a solid, as the quadrature CUBICLE, a bed-chamber. See CHAMBER, and the next
is in
respect of a superficies. word.
There is one general rule that will apply to finding the CUBICULUM, among the Romans, a bed-chamber. This
cubatton of nearly all the regular solids as entire bodies, or name was also given to the balcony or logia, in which the
to their frustums or segments, viz. " to four times the area emperors were placed at the public games.
of the middle section add the area of each end ; multiply CUBIT, a lineal measure used by the ancients, particularly
one-sixth of this sum (which is the mean area) by the by the Hebrews, taken from that part of a man's arm between
 CUR 217 CUB
the elbow and tip of the hand. The English cubit may be by the upper ends of the lower rafters, for receiving the feet
calculated at 18 inches, the Roman at 17.406, and the Hebrew of the upper rafters, in a curb roof.
at 21.888 inches. CURB RAFTERS, the upper rafters on both sides of a curb roof.
CUL-DE-FOUR, or CU-DE-FOUR, a sort of low spherical CURB ROOF, a roof formed of four contiguous planes, of
vault, ovenlike. This is the definition generally given ; but which each two have an external inclination, the ridge being
this term, as also the following, are altogether void of specific the line of concourse of the two middle planes, and the highest
meaning. As they define nothing, we have only retained of the three lines of concourse. This construction is frequently
them as being found in all large encyclopaedias and builder's denominated a Mansard roof, Mansard being the name of its
dictionaries, in order that our architectural nomenclature inventor. It is very well adapted to a house surmounted by
should not be thought deficient. What is meant by a low a parapet, so high as to cover the lower plane of the roof, as
spherical roof ? Is it a segment less than a hemisphere ? it
gives a free or uninterrupted space from the level of its
Where is the similarity between an oven and a spherical base to that of the summit of each lower plane, or to the
surface ? Is not the latter definite, but the former indefinite ? base of the two upper planes. In curb roofing, there is no
CUL-DE-FOUR OF A NICHE, denotes the arched roofs of a danger of springing the walls by lateral pressure, for the
niche on a circular plan. These two definitions are of French distance between the base of the lower sides and the base of
origin. the upper sides, being sufficiently high for head-room, ties
There may be many forms of arched roofs or heads, on a can always be fixed in these two situations, which will prevent
circular plan ; however, the probability is, that it is either all
danger. Indeed, if the four sides of the roof be properly
spherical or spheroidal, terms perfectly specific, unless it be balanced, the space may be made a complete void to the very
in the quantity or portion of the surface employed. ridge, or the upper part may be thrown into a cylindric arch.
CULMEN, ancient Roman carpentry, answers to what
in A curb roof has great advantages over a common roof, on
we denominate the ridge-piece of a reof. account of the lower rafters pitching almost perpendicularly
CULVERT, an arched drain for conveying rills and brooks to their bases, and forming very nearly a continuation of tho
of water under canals or roads, from the higher level on one walls : whereas, in common roofs, the great inclination of
side, to the lower level on the other side of the canal or road. the sides, and the quantity of head-room required, diminishes
They are employed for discharging the rain-water out of
also the space for lodging, in the breadth of the building in most
;

hollows on the upper side of a canal. When such a drain cases there will be a loss of about 15 or 16 feet at least, and
or water-passage has a descent, so as to make it lower in the consequently, in small houses, no lodging-room whatever.
middle, it is be broken-backed.
said to Curb roofs are generally lighted from dormer windows in
CUNEUS, one of the mechanical powers. See WEDGE. the lower side.
CUNEUS, in Roman antiquity, that part of the theatre where The following contains the theory and practice of curb
the spectators sat, which was so named on account of its roofing, which is perhaps one of the most interesting parts
resemblance to a wedge. This form became necessary on in the science of carpentry :

account of the elliptic figure of the edifice, and of the stair- Proposition I. Fi'jure 1. The position of several rafters,
cases and doors, which were fixed in radial directions, and A B, B c, c D, D E, &c., being given in a vertical plane, and
divided the seats into wedge-form compartments. movable about the angular points B, c, D, E, &c., while the
CUPBOARD, a recess in a wall, fitted up with shelves, points A and o remain stationary it is required
;
to find
to contain articles when not in use. the proportion of the forces at the angles, so that the rafters
CUPOLA, a roof or vault, rising in a circular or may be kept in equilibrio.

elliptic curve, from a circular, elliptic, or polygonal plan, to Through the points B, c, D, &c., draw the vertical lines B f,
its summit, with its
concavity towards the plan, the interior c m, D p, &c., the direction of the forces; make B i of any
or exterior surfaces being such, that every horizontal section, indefinite length, and complete the parallelogram B h i k ;
whether the one or the other, are similar figures. cupola A make c I equal B k, and complete the parallelogram c / n. m
is otherwise termed See the latter word for Proceed in this manner with all the remaining parallelograms,
tholus, or dome.
its
history and properties. making the two opposite forces in the direction of each rafter
CURB, in a general sense, signifies a check or restraint. c m, D p, &c., will represent the
equal, and the diagonals B i',

CURB FOR BRICK STEPS, a timber nosing generally of oak, forces required, as is evident from the construction. Then,
employed not only to prevent the steps from wearing, but also to find the proportion of the weights upon any two angles,
from being dislocated or put out of their places. When the the sine of any angle is the same with the sine of its supple-
steps are made to return, the curb also returns, but when ment; therefore, the sine of the angle A B c is the same as
they profile against a wall, the ends of the curb or nosing- the sine of B A; i, and the sine of B c D tho same as the sine
pieces, house at each end into the wall. of c mn; likewise, the sine of the angle c I is m
equal to the
CURB PLATE, a continued plate, either scarfed
circular sine of the alternate angle men, and the sine of the angle
together, or made in two or more thicknesses. The wall- D p o is equal to the sine of the angle p D q ; moreover, the
plate of a circular or elliptically ribbed dome, is termed a curb sine of the angle i B k is equal to the sine of the angle mc I,
plate, as also the horizontal rib at the top, on which the and the sine of the angle m
c n is equal to the siue of the
vertical ribs terminate ; likewise the plate of a skylight or a angle poo, and so on then, because the sides of the triangle
:

circular frame for a well. are the same as the sines of their opposite angles, it will be,
CURB PLATE, also the horizontal piece of timber supported by trigonometry,
B t B k,or o / k
or A B o
S.B i,
S.B i k, or i B h.
c/ I TO, or DO s.c ml, or men
B.m cl, or f B k.
DO o p, or K r S.D p o, or p D q B.p DO, or c n. m
Er s r, or FM B.E s r, or v F M
;
S.E a r, or p D q.
FW VV S.F v , or v F to s.v u F, or K F o.
Therefore, B v 8.A B O X 8.V F W X S.V F W e.i B h X 8 i B k S.E F o. X
S.A710 8.EFO
Therefore, B t : F v
s.vfit X
28
 CUR 218 CUR
That is, the weights on any two angles are
as the sines make A E equal to A B, and join E r ; let BE represent the
of these angles directly, and reciprocally as the product of weight on the vertical angle E B, B c, c D, to one another
:

the sines of the two parts of these angles formed by the as 4, 5, 7 ; join F D, F c, F E ; from any scale of
equal parts
vertical lines. make F o=7 ; draw o H parallel to F c, equal to 5 parts, and
Corollary 1. Hence the weights on any two angles are as H i parallel to F B, equal to 4 parts, and the contiguousl ines
the sines of the angles directly, and as the produce of the F o, a B, H i, will be similar to the half roof. The other half
co-sines of the angles of elevation reciprocally. For, draw will be found by drawing the vertical line i N, and ordinates
B H perpendicular to B i, and produce i B and A B to i and K, perpendicular thereto, from the points o H, to L and K, and
then will the angle K B i, equal the angle h B i, be the com- making the distances on both sides of i N equal. This figure
plement of the angle H B K, viz., the complement of
the angle may be reduced or enlarged to any given width, by making
of elevation of the rafter A B above the horizon ; and because a similar figure upon a given line.
c B i is the supplement of c B i, the angles c B i and c B i have Proposition III. Figure 3. The angular points at the meet-
the same sine, and the angle c B i is the complement of the ing of every two rafters of a roof in equilibrio, by equal weights
angle n B c, viz. the angle of elevation
of the rafter B c. hung at the angles, in directions equidistant from each other,
Corollary 2. Hence also the weights on any two angles are in the curve of a parabola.
are as the sines of the angles directly, and as the products Let ABODE, &c. be kept in equilibrio, by equal weights
of the secants of elevation jointly ; for the secants of any two suspended at the angular points B, c, D, E, &c., in the equi-
angles are reciprocally as the co-sines of these angles. distant directions B F, c o, D H, E i, &c., the points A, B, c, D,
Corollary 3. The force which any rafter makes in its E, &c., are in the curve of a parabola.
own direction, is as the secant of its elevation. For, make For, let the lines B F, c o, D H, and E i, meet A N at F, o,
A p equal to B /(, draw the lines p N, k n, n L, &c., parallel n, i : draw A K
parallel to D E, A L parallel to c D, and A M
to the vertical lines B i, c TO, &c., and draw A N, B H, c L, &c., parallel to B c, cutting F B at K, L, M. Draw B Q, c p, D o,
parallel to the horizon ; then because the angles N A p, n B k, parallel to A N, cutting the middle line i E at Q, P, o.
L c &c., are the angles of elevation, and A N, B H, c L, &c.,
., Then, because that the weights on the angles are equal,
are all equal, if A N, B H, c L, &c., be considered as radii, A p, F K, K L, L M, M B, are as the numbers 1, 2, 2, 2, therefore,
s k, c M, &c., arc the secants of elevation, and also represent F K, F L, F M, F B, are as the odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7 ; but
the forces on the rafters. because of the equidistant lines B F, c G, D H, and parallels
Corollary 4. Hence the horizontal pressures at A and c D o, c p, B Q, the triangles A.F K, A F L, A F M, are respectively
are equal ; for all the perpendiculars drawn from the opposite equal and similar to the triangles DOE, CSD, BRC; there-
angles of each parallelogram to meet the vertical diagonal, fore F K is equal to o E, F L equal to s D equal to o P, F M equal
are all equal. to R c equal to p Q, and lastly, B F is equal to Q i ; therefore
Corollary 5. Hence, if the position of any two rafters, E o, o P, p Q, Q i, are to one another as the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7,
and the proportion of the weights be given, the position of and E o, E p, E Q, E i, are as the square numbers 1, 4, 8, 16,
the remaining rafters may be determined. but the lines o D, p c, Q B, are to one another as 1, 2, 3, 4 ;
Corollary 6. If the vertical line s D v be drawn, the hori- therefore the abscissas E o, E p, E Q, E i, are as the squares of
zontal line A v o and the lines A s, A R, A Q, A T, &c. be drawn the ordinates o D, p c, Q B, and the points A, B, c, D, E, are in
parallel to the rafters A B, -D c, c D, D E, &c. meeting
the the curve of a parabola.
vertical lines in s, B, Q, T then will A s, A R, A Q, A T, repre-
;
In the same manner it may be shown that this is the case,
sent the forces, and s R, R Q, Q T, the forces upon the angles ; whatever be the number of ordinates.
for A s, A R, A Q, A T, &c. are the secants of the elevation, and Corollary. Hence a roof of this construction may be
the triangles A s R, A R Q, A Q T, are all similar to the triangles described to any given height and vertical angle, or to a given
h B i, I c TO, o D p, &c. width and height with any number of rafters on each side.
Corollary 7. In every roof kept in equilibrio by the weight Example. To describe a roof with any given number of
of the rafters, if u, v, w, &c. be the centres of gravity of the rafters on each side, of a given width and height, so that all
rafters, and also represent their weights, then the weight the weights suspended from the angular points of the rafters
pressing vertically on B, will be in vertical equidistant lines, may keep the rafters in equi-
librio.
XEXl, and the weight on c=
Figure S. Let there be four rafters on each side, let i N be
half the width, and i E, the height. Draw N T and E T parallel
and so on.
TT
Hence
AUXU --
-- VCXV to i E and i N ; divide N T into four equal parts, N/,/e, e d,
-j
CD
, 1
d T, and draw tig E, eh E,/i E likewise divide i N into four
:

equal parts, i c, c b, b a, a s, and draw c g, b h, a i, parallel

to
vnxv wnXw S.ABC
'
i E. Join E g, g A, h i, i N, and these lines will be the rafters
BC CD
S./iBJXS-JBK of half the roof required. For the demonstration, see the
Corollary 8. Hence, if the rafters be prismatic figures, article CONIC SECTIONS.
the weights on the angles B, c, D, &c. will be respectively Proposition IV. Figure 4. Suppose it were required
to
as A B+B c, B c c D, c +
E, and so on. D+D construct a curb roof to have the bottom rafter to the upper
Proposition 2. Given, the vertical angle of a
II. Figure rafter as 2 to 3, to a given vertical angle at the top, and a

roof,and the proportion of the rafters on each side to describe ; given width A B.
the roof of a given width, so that it shall be equilibrio. Now the weight on the upper angle is to the weight on
Let the proportion of the rafters from the bottom, upwards, ., ,
the lower angle, as
, 2 H
-
i.
is
,
to
HI+I A that
3+3 =3 is
be as 4, 3, 2 :
2 2
Then 4+3=7 represents the weight on G.
3+2=5 represents the weight on H. to 9-fr,
this is in the proportion of 6 to 5, or the half
and =
2+2 4 represents the weight on i.
at i, as 3 to 5.
Now let F B E be half the given angle, produce E B through weight at H is to the bottom weight
c to D, draw JAM perpendicular to E D cutting E D at A ; Bisect A B by the perpendicular c D, and make the angle
 CURB ROOT.

c
 CUR 219 CUR
ABC equal to half the vertical angle, or the angle E A c, equal and ediles, who were from this circumstance called curules.
to its complement. Make E D to E c as 5 to c ; join D A and Curnle chairs were of various shapes, but the one generally
D B ; in AD, take any point, F ; draw F a parallel to A E, used was a stool without a back, so made as to be folded up,
making A F to F o as 2 to 3 ; draw A o H, cutting CD at H, and opened again in the manner of a camp stool.
and HI parallel to F o or E A, cutting AD at i; make UK CURVATURE, that degree in a curve, in which the
equal to A i, and join K H, then A i H K B is the contour of the curve recedes in a perpendicular from a tangent, at a given
roof required. This is so evident from its construction, that distance from the point of contact and consequently if two
;

its does not require demonstration. curves, or two parts of the same curve, have each a tangent,
Proposition V. Figure 5. To describe a roof with four and if any equal distance from each point of contact be taken,
equal rafters, that shall be in equilibrio by the weight of the and a perpendicular be drawn from each point of distance to
rafters, of a given width A E, and height F c. the curve then, in each of these curves, or portions of the
;

Join o E, and bisect it in H by a perpendicular, D H o, same curve, the intercepted perpendicular being greater or
meeting A E in o ; on o, as a centre, with the distance o E or less, the curvature will also be greater or^ess.
o c, describe the circle CEO. Draw K H i parallel to FE, to CURVE, a line, such that only one straight line can be
meet the vertical line o c in K, and the circle in i. Draw made to touch, without cutting it, when the straight line is
IDC, and join D E, than make the side c B A similar to c D E, extended on both sides of the point of contact; or a curve is
and A B, B c, c D, D E, will be the rafters of the roof required. a line in which, if a point be taken, only one straight line
For, in Figure 0, complete the parallelogram c D Q B, and can pass that point without cutting the line in which the
join B D, i F, and draw o L perpendicular to c F,and equal to point is taken. The straight line so drawn is called a tangent
F o ; on L, with the distance o E describe the circle N i F, to the curve.
meeting the vertical line at N and F ; produce B D to meet it The circle is the most simple of all curves, depending only
also in M, and B c to p. upon the arbitrary extension of its radius, which, if given,
Then because K F is equal to K c, and R c equal B Q, the the circle is determined in magnitude. Its circumference is

triangles o i F and c D Q, are similar ; therefore i F is parallel one uniform curve, or has its curvature everywhere equal,
to D Q, and because the two segments N i F and CEO are and equally distant from the centre.
equal to one another, the angle N i F is equal to the angle In every curve line whatever, it is evident that a very
o E o, equal to twice the angle c K F, or twice the alternate small portion may be taken as a circular arc at any point ; or
angle E c L, equal to ECD + DCL; but E c D is equal to that there is a certain circular arc at that point which has
half the external angle M D o, and DCL is half the angle the same curvature as an indefinitely small portion of the
D c p ; equal to D c Q. Therefore the angle N i F is equal curve, but a greater curvature than an indefinitely small
to the angles M D c + c D Q, equal to the angle M D Q, conse- portion of the curve upon the one side of the point, and
quently, CF:CN::CQ:CM, but c F and c N are equal, there- also a less curvature than the nearest indefinitely small
fore c Q and c M are equal ; but c Q is to c M as the weight on portion on the other side of the point. The radius of a
c is to the weight on B or D, therefore the weights on c and circle of equal curvature to the curve at any proposed
B are equal, and the rafters A B, B c, c D, D E, are in equilibrio. point, is called the radius of curvature at that point, and
CURB STONES, (sometimes written Kerb or Kirb,) those is the measure of the curvature of all curves. The circle of
common to the foot and carriage pavements in a street. equal curvature with the curve, is called the eguicurve circle,
CURIA, a court of justice. See BASILICA. or the osculating circle. Hence, if the osculating circle and
CURLING STUFF, that which is occasioned by the the curve have a common tangent, no other circle whatever
winding or coiling of the fibres round the boughs of the tree, can be drawn between the two curves ; and when the curve
where they begin to shoot out of the trunk. is continually upon the increase or decrease in its curvature,
The double-iron plane, now in use, is a most complete the arc of the osculating circle will be on the concave side
remedy against cross-grained and curling stuff; this plane, if of the curve on one side of the point of contact, and on the
well set, will work nearly as smooth against the grain as convex side on the other side of the said point; or the curve
with it. will be between the tangent and the circumference of the
CURRENT, the necessary slope of a piece of ground or osculating circle on the one side of the point of contact, but
pavement, for discharging the water from the surface. the circumference of the osculating circle will be between
CURSOR, a point screwed on a beam-compass, and which the tangent and the curve on the other side of the point of
may be moved or slid along the beam, for striking greater or contact.
less arcs of circles. It is also that
part of a proportional The principal curves that are useful in architecture, are
compass which holds the two legs together, and by which the the conic sections, namely, the circle, the ellipsis, the parabola,
points are set in any given ratio. The sliding parts of the and the hyperbola ; also, the cycloid, the conchoid, the spiral
trammel, rood, or ellipsograph, are also called cursors. See of Archimedes, and the logarithmic spiral. The definitions
COMPASSES. and the most useful properties, will be found under each
CURTAIL STEP, the first step by which a stair is word.
ascended, finishing at the end in the form of a scroll, follow- CURVK OF DOUBLE CURVATURE, a curve, of which all its
ing the plan of the hand-rail. See the article STAIR. parts are not in the same plane.
CURTAIN, (from the French courtine,) in fortification, Thus, if the surfaces of two cylinders of the same diameter
that part of the rampart which is between the flanks of two intersect each other, and their axes also intersect each other,
bastions, bordered with a rampart five feet high, behind the common intersection will be a curve, of which its parts
which the soldiers stand to fire on the covered way, and into are all in the same plane ; or if the surface of a cylinder and
the moat. cylindroid intersect each other, and their axes also intersect
CURTICONE. See FRUSTUM and TRUNCATED CONB. each other; and if the semidiameter of the cylindroid be
CURULE, a sort of raised, embellished chair or seat of perpendicular to a plane passing through the two axes, and
ivory, gold, &c., placed in a chariot, wherein the chief officers equal to the radius of the cylinder, then the parts of the
of Rome were wont to be carried into council. It was also curve formed by the two surfaces, are likewise in one plane :

a mark of distinction for dictators, consuls, praetors, censors, or if the surface of one cylindroid meet that of another
 CUT 220 CYC

cylindroid, and their axes intersect each other ; and if the CUT-WATER, the lower portion of the pier of a bridge,
semi-diameters of both cylindroids, perpendicular to a plane where the two sides meet at a point, so disposed to meet the
passing through the two axes be equal to each other, the current, and offer as little resistance as possible to the force
curve formed by the intersection of the cylindroidic surfaces exerted by it
against the pier.
will have all its parts in one plane : not any of these CUTTING PLANE, a plane supposed to cut or divide a
thus defined, are curves of double curvature. But if the solid into two parts, in any position.
surfaces of two cylinders of unequal diameters meet in a CUVILLER, FRANCOIS, an architect, born in the
common line, this line is a line of double curvature of this
:
year 1698, at Soissons, in France. He was employed by
description are cylindro cylindric groins.
-
Many other the elector of Munich in many public buildings, and con-
instances of two geometrical solids meeting each other, pro- tinued in the service of that court till his death, which
hap-
ducing lines of double curvature, may be laid before the pened in the year 1760, leaving behind him many plans and
will be
reader, but perhaps what has already been adduced designs, which were afterwards engraved by different artists,
sufficient. and published by his son, Francois Cuviller, who was bora
CURVED SURFACE OF A SOLID, that in which, if any point at Munich, and succeeded his father as architect to the
be taken, and if the solid can be cut by a plane through the court.

point, and thence

form a section, such section is terminated CYCLOGRAPH, (from the Greek, KVK^, a circle, and
by a curve Thus a cylinder or a cone may be cut by a
:
ypa0v, to describe) in practical
geometry, an instrument for
so as to make the common describing the arc of a circle to any chord and versed sine ;
plane, through any given point,
section of the cylinder or cone with the plane, a curve, or a but chiefly used in flat segments, or those whose curvatures
straight line ; but if a sphere, spheroid, or any of the conoids approach to straight lines. There are several constructions
be cut by a plane through any point, the common section of cyclographs, of which the following is one. The principle
of the plane, and the surface of any such solid will be a consists of two rules, A B, and c D, connected by a folding
curve. joint, E, the pin, k, of which projects upwards, and is mortised
CURVILINEAR, (from the Latin curvus, a curve, and to receive a bar, h 17, which is fastened, but movable round
linea, a line) or CURVILINEAR FIGURE, a superficies bounded the centre of the folding joints; upon the connected rules,
by curve lines, or by a curve and straight line, when the A B and c D, at equal distances, from the centre of the
properties of the curve depend upon the straight line. folding joint, arc fastened the ends i and K, of two other
The circle and ellipsis are entire curves, or such as have equal bars ci, CK, connected by a movable joint, c, so
no straight line in their boundary but the parabola and
;
as to form a rhombus, h K c i, movable round each of the
hyperbola are both bounded by a curve and a straight line. joints, c i h K ; then the bar, h g, which passes through
CURVILINEAR ANGLE. See ANGLE. the centre, h, of the two first rules, being made also to pass
CURVILINEAR ROOF, that which is erected upon a cur- through a projection of the pin, c, of the opposite angle of
vilinear plan, as a circular, or elliptical, or portions of these the rhombus, is made to slide into the mortise as at c. The
curves. use of the bar is to fasten the instrument in any position by
CURVILINEAR SUPERFICIES OF A SOLID. See CURVED SUR- means of a screw inserted from the middle of the top of the
FACE OF A SOLID. upright pillar at c, which receives the sliding end of
CURVILINEAR TRIANGLE, one whose sides are curves. the bar.
CUSHION RAFTER. See PRINCIPAL BRACE. The instrument being supposed to be placed upon a level
CUSP, (from the Latin cuspis,) one of the pendants of a plane, and the pin, A, of the folding joint being made to

pointed arch, or one of several pendants forming

what may project upwards ; another bar, L M N, bent to a right angle
be denominated a polyfoil ; two cusps form a trefoil, three a with a longitudinal slit, OP, is fitted upon it, so as to have
In other words, the term
quatrefoil, four a cinquefoil, &c. a motion upon the pin h, in the section of the slit, but may
may be explained as the points generated by the intersection be fastened at any required point, by means of a screw from
of the small arcs or segments of circles, forming the foliations the top. The other end, N, of this bar is mortised in the
which frequently terminate the internal curves of Gothic direction of the slit, to receive the lower bar, hg, so as to
arches, more especially window arches, in the shape of tre- have a longitudinal motion. The middle line of the upper
foils and other polyfoils. bar stands in the same vertical plane with the middle line of
This name was first given by Sir James Hall, of Dunglass, the lower bar, and these two lines are parallel in all positions
in an Essay on the Origin of Gothic Architecture. He says, of the instrument.
"
in a note at the bottom of page 23, that assemblages of The end of the bar, LM, at the external side of the
these cusps are spoken of in the descriptions of Gothic folding joint, has a deep socket for holding a pin or pencil,
works, by the means of trefoil, quatrefoil, semitrefoil, &c. ; perpendicular to the plane of the instrument. The advan-
but no proper word has been used to describe the form, tage of the upper bar being movable, to which the pin or
wherever it occurs, or however combined." pencil is attached, is to admit the point of the pin or pencil
CUSTOM-HOUSE, an edifice in some chief city, or port, to be brought into the intersection of the sides B A, CD, of
for the receipt of the customs and duties of importation and the instrument.
exportation imposed on merchandise, by the authority of the To describe the segment of a circle by means of the cyclo-
The custom-house in Dublin is a very elegant or steel edges made on
sovereign. graph, fasten two pins in the plane,
the instrument ; place the
edifice. purpose, and adjust the angle of
CUT, in inland navigation, the same with canal, branch, outer edges upon the pins, and the angle close upon one of
or arm. them ; move the instrument laterally close to the pins, and a
CUT BRACKETS, such as are modelled on the edge. pen or pencil will describe the curve.
CUT ROOF, a truncated roof. The principle of this instrument is founded upon the
CUT STANDARDS, for shelves, are those whose front edge twenty-first proposition
of the third Book of Euclid's
"
is cut into mouldings. Elements, in which it is announced and proved that the
CUT STONE, hewn stone, or that which is brought into angles in the same segment of
a circle, are equal to one
shape by the mallet and chisel. another."
 CYL 221 CYL
This instrument may also be applied to the drawing of Figure 1. Let A M L B be a section of the cylinder through
any inaccessible points, by means of the middle bar,
lines to the axis, cutting the section proposed, and let the cutting
which always bisects the angle, and therefore will be indis- plane meet the plane of the base AFEBNoinRs: through
of perspective. the centre D of the base, draw the diameter A B, at right angles
pensably useful in the practice
to R s. Let the plane be drawn through A B and the axis D n
CYCLOID, (from the Greek HVK^OC;, a circle, and eidog,
of the cylinder, meeting the cutting plane in the line M n o L T,
form) a figure describedby rolling a circle upon a plane,
and the surface of the cylinder, in A M and B L. Through
along a straight edge ; then the moving point will trace the
curve called a cycloid, or trochoid. The middle portion of
H and any other point, o, in M L draw Q K and I P parallel to
this figure is very appropriate for the arch of a bridge, which
R 8 ; through K Q and D n, draw the plane K Q o F, and through
i p draw the plane i p N E,
parallel to the plane K Q o F, cutting
requires to have its roadway raised on the top, as
the extrados
of this curve has a gentle convexity.
A B at c ; and because K Q and i p are parallel to R 8, the
planes K Q o F and i p N E, are also parallel to R s ; therefore
CYCLOPEAN ARCHITECTURE, that practised by F o and E N, are respectively parallel to K Q and i p ; conse-
the early colonists of Greece, more remarkable for its massive
quently, the figures K Q o r and i p N E, are parallelograms,
construction than any other feature, whence also its name.
and therefore K Q is equal to F o, and i p equal to E N : because
See PELASOIAN ARCHITECTURE.
EN is parallel to R s, it is at
right angles to A B, and hence it
CYCLOSTYLAR, a term applied to those erections which isplain that i p is bisected by M L. Now
the triangle A M T,
consist of a circular range of columns, without a central
has the side A T cut into several parts by the intermediate
points D, c, B, and M T cut into other parts at the intermediate
building.
CYLINDER, (from the Greek nvXivSeiv, to roll) a solid
points H, o, L, by lines parallel to the side A M, and therefore
formed by moving a straight line in the periphery of a circle, the parts A D, D c, c B, are respectively in the same ratio
parallel to another straight line,
which passes through the
with the parts M H, H o, G L ; these being premised, we have
centre, and which makes any given angle with the plane of therefore
the circle, until the line come again into its first position.
Ac AD MG M II
The surface described by the moving line from the circle to
C B AD O L M II
any indefinite extension, is called a cylindric surface
; the
straight line which passes through the centre of the
circle is Therefore ACXCB:AD'::MGXGL : M n'
called the axis of the cylinder, and the circle the base of the but AC X C B = E C* = GI 8 & A D1 = H K*
cylinder. consequently o i* : n KS : : MG X GL : M H*
If the axis be atright angles to the plane of the base, the therefore the section is an ellipsis.
cylinder is called a right cylinder ; but if at oblique angles, Butthis demonstration, which is in principle that com-
then it is called an oblique cylinder. monly given, only shows the general property in respect of
Euclid confines his definition only to a right cylinder, and the axis, or at most in respect of only two conjugate dia-
defines it to be a solid formed by revolving a rectangle round meters, of which one must be parallel to the base ; and as we
one of its sides. have never seen a general proof of this valuable property
It isevident from this definition, that all sections passing for any two conjugate diameters drawn from simple princi-

through the axis, or parallel to the axis, have their opposite ples, without being under the disagreeable necessity of drudg-
sides parallel ; viz., those which are formed by the cutting ing through nearly a whole treatise of conic sections, before
plane and the cylindric surface. From the definition here we are able to arrive at the conclusion, we therefore subjoin
given, the following consequences may be drawn, as being the following demonstration.
too obvious to require any formal demonstration. If a plane, figure 2. Let there be any cylinder, right or oblique,
parallel to another plane, drawn along the axis of a cylinder, standing upon the base G E A p Q D, and let c be the centre of
touch the periphery of the base, the plane so posited will the base ; through c draw G Q at pleasure, and A c D at right
touch the surface of the cylinder, and will meet it in a line angles to G Q. Through o Q and the axis c M draw the plane
parallel to the axis ; but if such plane cut the plane of the G Q s n, cutting the section proposed in the straight line H 8,
base of the cylinder within its periphery, it will cut the also through A D and the said axis draw the plane A D N K,
cylindric surface in two parallel lines, and the common section cutting the section in the straight line K N. In one of the dia-
of the plane and the cylinder will be a parallelogram, and, meters, A D, of the base, take any point, B, between A and c,
lastly, the common section of a plane, parallel to the base, and draw E p parallel to o Q, and the plane E p R F, parallel to
with the cylindrical surface, is a circle with its centre in the the plane G Q s H, cutting the section in F R.
axis. Let us now consider the property of a section which From the construction of the cylinder, it is evident that the
will meet the plane of the base of the cylinder, but lines K N, F R, H s, are each divided into parts, whichare as the
which will neither pass along the axis, nor be parallel parts of the lines A D, E p, o Q. Therefore as E P, G Q, and A D,
thereto. are bisected, so will F R at L, H s at M, and K N at M.

From the premises we have AB:AO KL KM

and by proportional lines BD:AC LN KM

Now, by multiplying the homologous terms .... AB

But from the property of the circle AB
Therefore, by substitution, we have
Now again, by proportional lines

Squaring the terms of the last analogy

but by the fourth analogy, we have

And by comparing the antecedents and consequents of the

last two analogies wo obtain
 CYL 222 CYL
which is a general
property of every two diameters, formed The curved surface of every cylinder is equal to a rectangle,
by the intersection of planes passing along the axis at right one of whose dimensions is the length of the axis, that is,
angles to each other. These diameters, it is evident, will be equal to the length of the side of the cylinder, and the other
parallel to tangents to the curve, at the extremities of each dimension equal to the perimeter or girt. This is a general
other. For, suppose two planes touching the cylindrio sur- principle, whether the cylinder have its ends perpendicular
face, each in a line which passes from the extremities of each or oblique to the axis ; and hence the following
radius at a right angle with each other, these tangent planes Rule. Multiply the girt of the cylinder by the length of
will be respectively parallel to each plane passing along the the axis, and the product will be the cylindric surface.
axis and through the said radii ; the two tangent planes, and Example. Suppose a cylinder, girt 5 feet 9 inches, and the
the two planes passing along the axis, will be at right angles length of its axis, or side parallel to the axis, be 9 feet
to each other, or each opposite pair will be parallel ; therefore, 7 inches, what is the superficial content of the surface ?
if these be cut by a fifth plane, the intersections of the oppo-
site planes with such fifth plane, in any position, will be Cross Multiplication,
parallel lines ; and since the touching planes do not cut the ft. in. Decimals.
surface of the cylinder, the lines at the extremities of each
5 9 9.583
diameter will be parallel to the curve, and are what are
9 7 5.75
termed conjugate diameters.
A cylinder is a species of prism, because all its parallel 47915
sections are equal, and every section parallel to the base is
67081
equal to that base ; therefore the solidity of a cylinder is 47915
determined by multiplying the area of an end by the parallel
distance between the two ends.
What 12) 121 55.10225
Example I. is the
solidity of a cylinder, whose
12
height is 10 feet, and the diameter of the base 2 feet
10 1
6 inches ?
45 1.22700
in.
6 = j^ = .5 in decimals 55 3
12
2.5 = the diameter
. 1 .

2.724
2.5

125 See the first method in this example under the article
50 CROSS MULTIPLICATION, and the second method, under
DECIMAL MULTIPLICATION. These two methods would have
6.25
agreed exactly, but no decimal corresponding to 7 inches can
.7854 be precisely found.
The method by the girt is what every man in practice would
2500
naturally prefer, if the object be before him, since the girt
3125 can be as easily measured as the diameter, and with equal
5000
accuracy, by means of a string ; nor would any person, whose
4375 mind is crowded with the affairs of business, take the addi-
tional trouble of finding the circumference from the diameter,
4.908750
when it may be so expeditiously obtained another way.
10
However, for the satisfaction of those who wish to be informed
49.087500 of every mode of operation, we shall add the following, as
What is the solidity of a cylinder, the circum- some cases may occur, in which the perimeter cannot be
Example II.

ference of the base being 7.85 feet, and the height 15 feet ? obtained without the diameter ; though the contrary might
7.85 as likely be the case.
If the cylinder be a right
7.85 cylinder, find its circumference,
which will then be the same as its ends ; then proceed as
3925 before to multiply the circumference by the axis, and the
6280 product is the superficial content. This is so easy as not to
5495 require an example. But where the axis is inclined to the
base, the section of the cylinder will be elliptic, the diameter
61.6225 of the circular ends will be the greater axis, the lesser one will
.07958 depend upon the inclination of the cylinder, and may be
thus found :

4929800
3081125 As the radius
5546025 is to the sine of inclination,
4313575 so is the diameter of the circular ends
to the shorter axis of the ellipsis.
4.903918550
15 From the two axes being now found, find the perimeter of
the ellipsis, then proceed
as in the first rule.
24519592750 Example. Suppose the length of the axis to be 22 feet,
4903918550 and the inclination of the same to the plane of the base 50
degrees, and the diameter of each end 3 feet 6 inches ; required
73.558778250 the area of the curved surface.
 CYL 223 CYL
By logarithms. if F o Q and p o p be any two plane angles, to be placed at a
Then as radius 10.000000 right angle with each other, that
the plane angle a o u, will be
is to the sine of 50 9.884254 the hypothenusal plane, and consequently when the three
so is 3.5 544868 planes, p o Q, P o p, and p
o u are turned into their position ;
the straight line o u will coincide with o u ; therefore, if a plane
10.428322 be perpendicular to the intersection of two planes, it will be at
10. right angles to each of these planes ;
and that the section of
any vertical line, whose seat is given, will be found by drawing
to the shorter axis .428322 = nat. num 2.68 a line on the original plane, parallel to the intersection from
2.68 the seat, to the intersecting line of the vertical plane ; thence
3.5 a line perpendicular to this intersection to the common inter-
section of the vertical and cutting planes, and thence a line

2)6.18 from this point parallel to the cointersection ; then, by making

this line to the line drawn from the seat to the common
equal
3.09 mean diameter. intersection of the original and inclined planes, and thus
the point R being the scat of r, and I, the seat of L, and the
plane passing through R L s T, being perpendicular to Q o,
the
common intersection of the inclined and original planes, r Is t
9.27 will be the intersection of a plane passing through the axis
.44 and at right angles to the intersection o Q, and therefore per-
pendicular to o M consequently r s and f h are at right
;

9.71 elliptic primeter. angles to, and bisect each other, and are therefore the axes of
22 the ellipsis.
The segment of a cylinder is any portion of the cylinder

1942 made by a plane parallel to the axis.

1942 The plane parallel to the axis is called the chord-plane.
The two lines of concourse formed by the cylindric surface
213.62 the area required. and the chord-plane, are termed the sides of the chord-plane,
and the other two lines of concourse made by the chord-
The above method of finding the extension of the elliptic plane and the two ends of the solid, are termed the bases or
primeter being the most expeditious, is the most useful for ends of the chord-plane.
practical purposes, but those
who wish to work with greater Aline of position is said to be given, when the said line is
accuracy may consult the word Ellipsis. drawn through a given point on each side of the chord-plane,
A cylinder is said to be given in position, when its base and or to make a given angle at a given point in the base of the
magnitude, and the inclination and length of its axis, are chord-plane, or in the base continued.
given. The position of the cutting plane is said to be given, when
A point is said to be given on the surface of a cylinder, the line of position through which the cutting plane passes,
when its distance from that point to the base, measured in a and the angle which the cutting plane and chord plane make
line parallel to the axis is known, and the point on the with each other, are known.
circumference of the base given. Figures 4 and 5. To find the section of the segment of
Figure 3. Given a right cylinder and three points on its a cylinder; given its base and the position of the cutting
surface to find the section of the cylinder, by a plane passing plane. Let A B c be the base of the solid, A D and c E
through the three points. Let the straight lines, A, B, c, be the the sides of the chord plane perpendicularly situated in
distances of the three points, the circle D E F K, the base of respect of A c, the chord of the base, and let
D E be the line
the cylinder ; L the centre of the base. Through the of position of the cutting plane. Through any point/ in D E
points D and p draw the straight line p o ; perpendicular draw h fa, at right angles to D E ; make the angle gfk equal
thereto draw each of the lines D o, E H, F i, respectively equal to the inclination which the planes of the chord plane and sec-
to A, B, c. Draw D B Q and a H Q, intersecting at also draw; tion make with each other ; take any point m
'mfg, Figured,
o i o, meeting p o in o, then Q o, which is the intersection of or fh, Figured, and draw m
k parallel to D E, cutting fk in *,
the cutting plane. Through L draw B L s T, cutting Q o at T. and TO n parallel to c A, cutting D E at n ; make / h equal to/*,
In o o take any point m, draw m
M perpendicular to o o, pro- and join h n. Parallel to E c draw m
q, cutting A c at p,
and
duce M mto M in o P, and draw M u perpendicular to p o, n r, meeting it at r : m k, and join r q. To
make p q equal to
cutting Q o at u. From the point o, with the distance o u, find any point in the curve of the section, take any point, a,
describe an arc, cutting m, u at ; perpendicular from R T, in the arc A B c draw a b parallel to q r, cutting A c at b ;
;

draw R p and L N, cutting p o at p and N. Draw p p and N n draw b c parallel to c E, cutting D E at c, and draw c d
to b a, and the point d is in
perpendicular to p o, cutting o a produced &lp, and n. Parallel parallel to n h ; make c d equal
to u o, draw the lines p r and fnlh; make o / equal to o T the curve.
and p r equal to P R, and draw r I s t ; make I s equal to I r, In the same manner, as many points may be found as will
and / g and / h each equal to R L, the semi-diameter of the be sufficient to draw the curve with accuracy.
base, then will I r If be the semi-axis of the elliptic This method is an improvement upon that published in
section. The Carpenter's Guide, in the year 1792 ; but as that
Demonstration. shown under the article INCLINED
It is method has been very generally employed, it will be well to
PLANKS, that if D, be any three points, and the lines
B, F, insert it likewise in the plate, as the connection of the prin-
A, B, c, the height of three points in the space above the ciple may be clearly deduced from the
one to the other.
plane DBF, that Q o will be the intersection of the plane in Figures 6 and 7. To find the section of the segment of
space with the original plane p o Q or its continuation under : a cylinder, by another and older method, supposing everything
the article STEREOGRAPHY and STEREOTOMY it is shown, that given as before. Let ABC, No. 2, be the inclinations of the
 CYL 224 CYL
In No. 2, draw B D to A c, cutting D E in o ; draw G H
planes of the chord plane and section. parallel parallel
perpendicular to B A, and make B D equal to the distance to E o, cutting AC
at H ; join H B. Produce c A and
between the parallel lines E F and z M, No. 1, and draw D c K D to meet in i ; in E i, Figure 8, also in E i produced Figure
parallel to B A. Through any point, d in i K, No. 1, draw 9, take any point, N, and draw N M perpendicular to N E ;
Nv make d N equal to D c, No. 2, and
at right angles to I K ; produce M N to meet i c at K, Figure 8 ; in Figure 9, M N
d v, No. 2. In No. 1 draw N o parallel
No. 1, equal to B D, will cut c i, produced in K. In both figures draw K L
per-
to F E, meeting IK at o, and join o v. Draw N Q and o L pendicular to K c, and i L parallel to H B ; from i, with the
parallel to K F, meeting E F at Q and L ;produce N Q, meeting distance i L, describe an arc,
cutting N M, at M ; join i M.
z M produced at Y, and join L T. Draw any number of lines To find any point in the curve of the section ; take any
aa, b b,c c, &c., parallel to o L, cutting the lines E F and i K, point a, in A c, and draw a b parallel to L i, cutting the arc
at the points a, b, c ; from the points a, 4, c, in i K, draw the A B c at b, draw a c parallel to c E cutting D E in c ; draw c d
lines a 1, b 2, c 3, &c., parallel to o v, and through the points parallel to i M make c d equal to a b, and d is a point in the
;

a, b, c, in E F, draw the lines

a 1, b 2, c 3, &c., parallel to curve. In the same manner as many
points may be found as
L y. Make all the lines a 1, b 2, c 3, &c., from i K, equal will be sufficient to complete the section.
to their corresponding distances a 1, b 2, c 3, &c., from E F. Another method Figure 10, let A B c be the base of the
A curve being drawn through the points 1, 2, 3, &c., the segment as before also, let A, B, c, be the seats of the three
;

extremities of the ordinates from i K, will give the section points, as before and F G n their respective heights. Draw
;

i v K i of the segment of the cylinder. Or take any point A D, B p, c E, each perpendicular to A c, respectively equal to
point L in E F, and draw L o parallel to F K, the one side of F, G, u draw A B i and DPI, also A c K and D E K then draw
; ;

the rectangle, cutting IK at o ; produce o L to M, and draw the intersection IK. In D K take any point L, and draw L M
z M parallel to E F, to touch the base in M. In No. 2, draw perpendicular to D K; produce M L to meet A K at N draw N o ;

B D at a right angle with B A ; make B D equal to L M, and perpendicular to A K, cutting i K at o. From K, with the dis-
draw D c parallel to B A. In No. 1, draw G H parallel to i K, tance K o describe an arc, cutting L M at M, and join K M.
at the distance D c, No. 2 ; draw o N parallel to E F, cutting Then, to find any point d, in the curve of the section ; in
G n at N ; draw N Q, parallel to o L, cutting E F at Q ; produce A c take any point a draw b parallel to K o, meeting the
N Q to meet z M produced at Y, and join L Y ; draw N v at arc A B c at i; draw a c parallel to A D, meeting D E at c;
i K, cutting i K at d ; make d v draw c d parallel to K M, and make c d equal to a b ; and thus
right angles to equal to B c,
and join o v then proceed to find the ordinates as before.
;
for any other point.
The difference between the old and the first method is, that The very same words applies to Figure 11,
description of
in the old method, the breadth of the segment or base of the except that the point L D K produced, instead of between
is in
solid is limited, in order to find the dissecting lines of the D and K, and also the point N, in A K produced, instead of
ordinates, andtwo diagrams are employed in the construction ;
between A and K. The same is also the case with the preced-
whereas method, one diagram only is used, and
in the first ing method.
the angle of inclination of the planes of the section and chord Figure 12. To form the edge of the envelope of a cylindric
being made as directed, the measure of the first side of the surface, terminated by a line, so that, when the envelope is
hypothenusal side of the right-angled triangle formed by it, folded upon the cylindric surface, the edge formed may coin-
is
arbitrary by this the other parts are regulated. The reader
;
cide with a plane passing through three given points, one in
must observe, that it is only the angles which are required ; each common line of the chord-plane and curved surface, and
the length of the lines is of no other consequence than, if the other in the intermediate curved surface itself.
they be too long, they will be rather cumbrous, and if too Let A B c be the base of the solid draw A D and c E per-
;

short they will not be a sufficient guide for drawing the pendicular to A c, making A D equal to the height of the point,
ordinates. This limitation has been the occasion of some not whose seat is A, and c E equal to the height of the point, whose
understanding the principle, by supposing the point v to be seat is c make c F on c E equal to the height of the point,
;

in the curve, which may be either on the one side or the whose seat is B, and join D E. Draw F G parallel to c A, cut-
other, according to this method. ting E D at G draw G H parallel to E c, cutting c A at H, and
;

A knowledge of the sections of prisms, which include join H B. Divide the arc ABC into any number of equal
segmental cylinders, is an acquisition of the first importance parts, and extend them upon A c produced to i, marking the
to the carpenter and joiner, and is the very essence of the points of division at a, b, c, <Szc., to i ; the corresponding
art of constructing hand-railings and groins. points of 1, 2, 3, &c., on the arc CAB.
The method by having the position of the cutting plane, is To find any point in the line of the envelope required, sup-
not so well adapted to practice, as that of having three given pose that which corresponds to its seat 1, on the base of the
points on the surface of the segmental cylinder. solid.
Under such given data we have already shown how the Draw 1 h parallel to B H, cutting A c in h ; draw h h
section is to be found for a whole cylinder, by describing the parallel to c E, cutting E D at h ; also draw a p parallel to
curve through the extremities of the axis, which are given in c E, and make a, p equal h h, then is a
point in the line
p
position. We
shall now show how the curve is to be obtained required ;
and thus the whole line E pqr s tuv
K!S obtained,
by ordinates in the segmental cylinder from the same data. and edge of the envelope E c i K required.
this line is the
In a segment of a cylinder are given three points, one on CYLINDER, Scaline. When the axis of a cylinder stands
each common line of the chord-plane, and curved surface, at oblique angles with its base, it is called a scaline or oblique
and one upon the intermediate curved surface itself, to find cylinder.
the section passing through these three points. CYLINDRICAL, something peculiar, similar, or relating
Figures 8 and 9. In both figures let A B c be the base of to a cylinder.
the solid, and A, B, c, the seats of the given points, draw A D CYLINDRICAL CEILING, a ceiling which is either a semi-
and c E perpendicular to A c make A D equal to the height
:
segment less than a semi-cylinder.
cylinder, or a
of the point upon its seat A, and c E equal to the height of the Cylindrical ceilings are vulgarly called by some workmen
point upon its seat c ; also from c E take c F equal to the waggon-headed ceilings.
height of the intermediate point, from its seat B. Draw F o When an apartment is sufficiently
high, a semi-cylindric
l'I..J'1'H 1

f.'ni '''to /' Ttirir-

 CYL 225 CYZ

coving ought to be adopted, as it rises from the surface of the a cylinder with an edge, so that when the envelope is lapped
wall, which forms a tangent plane to the curvature at the round the solid, its edge may coincide with a plane passing
springing of the arch ; whereas the tangent plane at the through three given points.
springing of a ceiling, which is less than a semi-cylinder, The method of finding the envelopes of cylinders and cylin-
always tiirms an angle with the plane of the wall, and excites droids, is one of the most useful parts of Stereography, not
the idea of lameness or imperfection. This kind is therefore only in forming the coverings of bodies, but in forming the
only employed when the height of the apartment is not angles of all parts of work, where the surfaces of two different
sufficiently great to admit of a semi-cylindric ceiling. solids meet each other.
A semi-cylindrical ceiling admits of being pierced by CYMA-RECTA. See CYMATIDM.
lunettes, which are windows or openings of less height than CYMATIUM, CIMA, CYMA, or SIMA (from KvpaTiov,
ihe ceiling, and consequently form cylindro-cylindric arches, undula, the diminutive of KVfia, a wave) a moulding, whose sec-
by the intersection of the curved surfaces. tion is a curve of contrary flexure ; it is commonly denominated
No traces of cylindrical ceilings are to be found among the by workmen an ogee. This is the strict sense in which the
ruins of Grecian edifices, but numerous instances are to be term ought to be employed, though Vitruvius uses it for any
met wild among the Romans, in their small temples and the subordinate moulding which terminates a principal member,
side-brunches of the larger ones. The ceiling of the temple and the particular form is specified by prefixing another word,
of yEsculapius, in the pulnce of Dioclosian, at Spalutro, in as Doric cymatium, Lesbian cymatium. In the same sense also
Dalmatia, is a decided instance. The proper decorations for he uses the word Cysts, which signifies separation. But
cylindrical ceilings are coffers, separated at regular intervals notwithstanding this great authority, in the general usage
by bands or arcs double nx, or, as called by some, soffits, which of the term we shall abide by the definition as above,
are enriched with guilloches. signifying an undulated form, as being most generally
CYLINDRICAL COLUMN. See COLUMN. understood.
CYLINDRICAL VAULTING, a vault which is the portion of When the concave part of the moulding projects beyond
a cylinder. Its section is
generally a semicircle, though the convex part, the cymatium is denominated a sima-recta ;
sometimes, for want of room, it is a smaller segment. In but when the convex part has the greatest projection, the
cylindrical vaulting, the equilibrium of the arch and the cymatium is denominated a iima-inversa. The sima-recta is
horizontal thrust of the piers must be attended to. otherwise called gula-recta, or doucine, and the sima-inversa,
CYLINDRICAL WALLING, is that erected upon a circular ffula-inversa, or talon. Palladio distinguishes the cymatium
plan, which of course forms a cylinder, or a portion of a of the cornice by the name intavolata. Our architects, in
cylinder, according as the plan is an entire circumference, or speaking of the uppermost member of a cornice, call it cima,
only a segment. cyma, or cymatium ; but we see no reason for the word being
Cylindrical walling is generally estimated at about half as appropriated to this situation, as the propriety of terms con-
much more than the price of plain walling; but the price sists in their proper application to definite forms.
or ratio ought to depend upon the diameter, and should be The cymatia which are particularized by the terms Tuscan,
greater as the diameter is less. Doric, and Lesbian, mentioned by Vitruvius, are not defined
CYLINDRICAL WORK, any kind of work, partaking of the by this ancient author, and their meaning is only guessed at
shape of a cylinder, of any material, whether stone, brick, by his commentators and readers.
wood, &c. The Tuscan is supposed to be an ovolo, or quarter-round ;

CYLINDRICAL WORK, in joinery. See JOINERY. the Doric, an ovolo, or cavetto ;

and the Lesbian, the sima-
CYLINDROID, (from /cvAtvdpoc, cylinder, and etdof, form) inversa, or talon.
ft solid of such property, that all sections parallel to either Philander makes two Doric cymatia, one of which, he says,
end, are equal and similar ellipses, and that a straight is that said to be Tuscan. The projecture allowed to the
line, called the axis, will pass through the centre of the Doric and Lesbian cymatia, is subduple of the height.
ellipses. CYMBIA, a fillet. See FILLET.
All the axal sections of a cylindroid, and every section CYPHERING. See CHAMFERING, which is most in use.
parallel to an axal section, are parallelograms or rectangles. CYZICENE, TRICLINIUM, or HALL, an apartment of
All parallel sections of a cyliudroid are equi-angular, and ancient Grecian houses, in the porticos, which look towards
of equal length to the axis. the north.
If an oblique cylinder be cut by a plane perpendicular to It is thus explained by Vitruvius, book vi. chap. vi.
"
the axis, near to each end, it will be cut into three parts, There are some aeci, not made in the Italian manner, these
of which the middle portion will be a cylindroid. the Greeks call cyzicenus. They are situated towards the
The cylindroid is
frequently employed in vaulting, instead north, generally have a view of the garden, and have valved
of a segmental cylinder, less than the half, where the height windows in the middle. They are of such length and
would not admit of a semi cylinder. It is frequently em- breadth, that two triclinia, with their surrounding appen-
ployed in the composition of groins, and where the transverse dages may be placed opposite to each other ; they have also
openings vary in their horizontal dimensions, and where it is valved windows on the right and left, that the garden may
required to keep the angles of the groin straight, one of the be seen through the space of the windows their height is
:

simple vaults is necessarily a semi-cylindroid. equal to one and one-half their breadth."
The solidity of a cylindroid is found, as in the prism or The cyzicenus or cyzicena, were of the same use among
cylinder, by multiplying the area of one of the ends by the the Greeks, that the triclinia and ccenacula were among
distance between the two. the Romans.
The superficial content of the curved surface is found by CYZICUM MARMOR, a species of marble, so called by
multiplying the girt by the length of the axis, as in the the ancients, from the great use made of it by a statuary
cylinder. named Cyzicus. It was white, with fine narrow veins of
The method of finding the envelope is the same as that of black, and was also called proconnessium.
29
 DAI DAI

D.

DADO (an Italian word, signifying a die), a term

for the the best and coolest dairies are thus prepared by nature.
die or plain face of a pedestal ; that part of a room com- Artificial excavations in the sides of freestone rocks are

prehended between the base and surbase. The dado employed sometimes formed for the purpose of keeping milk, and more
in the interiors of buildings, is a continuous pedestal, with frequently wine. Where no sueh natural advantages exist,
a plinth and base moulding, and a cornice or dado moulding the requisite coolness in summer, and equal temperature in
surmounting the die. This continuous pedestal with its mould- winter, which are essential in a good dairy, may be obtained
ing is sometimes only made of stucco or plaster but in well- ; by sinking the floor of the dairy some feet under ground,
finished rooms is constructed of wood, and is usually about the and forming an arched roof of stone or brick. In cold climates
Its present purpose, when em- flues around the dairy are a great advantage in winter ; and
height of the back of a chair.
ployed, is to protect the stucco-work or paper of the walls, but an ice-house in warm summers is equally useful. But these
originally it was used as an architectural decoration to a room. are only adapted to those dairies which are kept more as a
The dado is made of deal boards, glued edge to edge, the luxury than as an object of profit. In mountainous countries,
heading joints ploughed and tongued together, and the back such as Switzerland, where the summers are hot in the valleys,
keyed ; employed for this purpose is whole
the stuff generally and the tops of the mountains or high valleys between them
deal ; always made to taper in their breadth,
the keys are are covered with fine pastures, the whole establishment of
and may be about three inches broad in the middle they ;
the dairy is removed to a higher and cooler atmosphere,
are let into the back of the dado by a transverse groove, where the best butter and cheese are made. Coolness is also
which is either wider at the bottom than at the surface, or it produced by the evaporation of water, an abundant supply
is first made of a
square section, which is again grooved on of which is essential to every dairy. It is also a great advan-
each side next to the bottom. Though the keys should tage, if a pure stream can be made to pass through the dairy,
shrink, those of this last form will always keep their inner with a current of air to carry off" the effluvia, and keep the
surface close to the bottom of the grooves. air continually renewed."
Some workmen prefer the broad end of the key to be The dairy, in farm building, should be so situated, with
placed downwards the lower end should rest firmly, either
; respect to other offices, as to be convenient, and to prevent
upon the ground or floor, and the dado should be left at unnecessary labour.
liberty to slide downwards upon the keys. Others, again, A milk dairy requires at least two good rooms, one for the
prefer the wide end of the key to be placed upwards, and reception of the milk, and another for the purpose of serving
the dado to be fixed by this the key. as it shrinks, will fall
;
it out, and for scalding, cleaning, and airing the different
down from its own weight. utensils.
The dado should be grooved and tongued at the internal The entrance to the dairy should communicate with the
angles, and mitred, or made with a lap and mitre, at the scalding-room, which should have a copper, for heating water
external ones. and other purposes, placed in a shed adjoining, in order that
The dado is also framed with panels, but this mode is the heat may be kept at as great a distance as possible from
seldom seen in London ;
it is, however, very frequently the milk. In the bottom of the copper is fixed a cock, for
so prepared in the country. conveying the hot water through a trough or pipe, across the
DAGOUNG, or SHCEDAGON, temple of (signifying temple scalding-room, in which another cock should be fixed, for
of Golden Dagon) an edifice situated about two miles and the convenience of washing smaller utensils ; the heated
a half north of Rangoon, the chief port of the Birman empire. water passes through the wall into the milk-leads for the
It is a very elegant building, and though not so
high by 25 purpose of scalding the whole range of pans, trays, or coolers,
or 30 feet, is much more ornamental than that of Shoemadoe, and may be retained at pleasure. The trough for the passage
at Pegue. of the water through the walls of the dairy, should be of
surrounded by a terrace, which stands upon a rocky
It is sufficient dimensions to admit the discharging a pailful of milk
eminence, considerably higher than the circumjacent country. into it with safety, having a hair-sieve so placed in it, that
The building is ascended by 100 steps, which are now very the whole of the milk of the cows may be made to pass
much in decay ;
its makes it a conspicuous
elevated situation through it into the necessary trays or coolers, in which it is
object for many miles. The top and the whole spire are to stand in order to keep it clean. A trough, pipe, or some
richly gilt, so that when the sun shines, they exhibit a most other contrivance, should be introduced, for the purpose of
splendid appearance. conveying the waste milk, whey, &c., from the dairy-house
DAIRY, the name usually given to the place where the to the cisterns containing the wash for the pigs.
milk of cows is kept, and converted into butter or cheese. The temperature may be regulated either by double walls
The occupation is sometimes called dairying ; and the land and roofs, or by means of hollow walls ;
and for common
which is chiefly appropriated to feed cows for this purpose, in width from the wall
purposes, by having 8 or 10 inches
is called a dairy-farm. to the lath and plaster, as is suggested by Mr. Loudon, in his
" A
dairy-house," observes a writer in the Penny Cyclo- Treatise on Country Residence*.
"
paedia, should be situated on a dry spot somewhat elevated, The size of milk-houses should be regulated by the number
on the side of a gentle declivity, and on a porous soil. It of cows. The usual dimensions in the Gloucester dairy-
should be on the west or north-west side of a hill, if possible, houses, for 40 cows, are 20 feet by 16, and for 100 cows,
or at least sheltered from the north, east, and south,
by high 30 feet by 40. To accomplish the objects of convenience,
trees. In some countries, where there are natural caverns the situation of the dairy should be near the cow-standings,
with an opening to the west, and springs of water at hand, so that the milk may be readily conveyed to them. See
 B35TAJ1.S, PJL.A.TK 5

A' "ft

LCilbert Arch" del

N 1 Dancf.tte Moulding. N5.Ditn.Slyph NO 9, Dovetail Moulding K 13. Engaged Column
N-2 DenUl N. G.Dogs N 10. Dripstone N 14. Entablature
N 3 Uuigonal Buttress N 7, Dogtooth Moulding. N. 11 .
Drops N IS.Knrresole
N 4-
Diaper N 8. Dormer N 12 K#gs.
 DAI 227 DEA
Dr. Young's Calendar of Husbandry, and Mr. Loudon's different utensils, and for cleaning and airing them in. The
Treatise oit Country Residences. churning-room should be fitted up with the necessary
Gentlemen's dairies are often built expensively, and highly apparatus.
ornamented; but they seldom unite all the conveniences DAIS, or DEIS, the raised platform or wooden flooring
essential to a good dairy, generally from a want of practical which was laid at the upper end of a large hall or banqueting
knowledge of the subject in those by whom they are designed. room, such as is still seen in college-halls, and in most of the
In Switzerland and Holland, the cow-house and dairy often halls belonging to the city-companies in London, and those
have a very neat appearance within a short distance from the of the inns of court.
principal residence. In the common dairy-farms
in Holland, In royal halls, there were more than one dels. At a
the farmer and his family frequently live under the same dinner which Charles V. of France gave to the emperor
roof with the cows ; in north Holland and Friesland, a cow- Charles IV. in 1377, there were Jive dels. The principal
house is as clean as any dwelling-house, and the family often table in entertainments of state is always placed on the dais.
assemble and take their meals in it. Also a seat with a high back, and sometimes with a canopy,
The following description of a cow-house and dairy under for those who sat at the upper table. Sometimes the canopy
one roof, combines all that is useful, with considerable neat- itself.
" dam
ness internally and externally. It is a building about sixty DAM, a boundary or confinement ; as, to up, or, to
feet long, by thirty wide, with a veranda running round dam out.
three sides of it. The dwelling is not here attached, as it DAM, a bank, or mole, constructed of stone, timber, or any
usually is in common dairies, and the building not surrounded other materials, for penning up water, in order to divert its
is

by a farm-yard these are the only circumstances in which

;
course into another direction, for turning a mill, or other
it differs from that of a common peasant. The dairy-room purpose. See EMBANKMENT.
is sunk below the level of the soil, and is paved with brick. DAMPER, a valve inserted in a flue to regulate the draught.
The sides are. covered with Dutch tiles, and the arched roof DANCETTE, a name applied to a moulding very fre-
with hard cement. The cow-house, like all in Holland, has quently employed in Norman architecture, and otherwise
a broad passage in the middle, and the cows stand with their termed the chei'ron or zigzag moulding.
heads towards this passage, which is paved with clinkers or DARK TENT, a portable camera obscura, formed like
bi icks set on edge. Their tails are towards the wall, along a desk, and fitted up with optic glasses, to take prospects of
which runs a broud gutter sunk six or eight inches below buildings and fortifications.
the level of the place on which the cows stand. This gutter DATUM-LINE, the base line of a section from which all
towards a sink covered with an iron grate, which the heights and depths are calculated.
slopes
communicates by a broad arched drain with a vaulted tank DAY, or BAY, one of the lights or compartments in great
into which all the liquid flows. The gutter is washed clean windows of the pointed style of architecture, from mullion
twice a day before the eows are milked. The cows stand or to mullion, clear of any intermediate one.
lie on a sloping brick-floor, and have but a small quantity In the Saxon and early Norman styles, windows of moderate
of litter allowed them, which is removed every day, and dimensions were without mullions; but upon the introduction
carried to the dung-heap, or to the pig-sties, to be more fully of the pointed arch, windows becoming long and narrow,
converted intodung. Whenever the litter is removed, the bricks two of these lancets placed together, in order to transmit a suf-
are swept clean, and in summer they are washed with water." ficient quantity of light, suggested the idea of a single mullioned
In
1
lolland, the cows never leave the house from November window, which therefore contained two days or bays. From
till
May. In summer they are driven home to be milked, if this junction, windows with two or more mullions, and three
in pastures near to the cow-house, but if the pastures are far or more days or bays, succeeded, until the number of days or
off they are milked there, and the milk is brought home in bays were multiplied to seven, or even nine. The windows
boats. This is thought not so good for the butter, which thus comparted, were decorated with an endless variety of
is then churned from the whole quantity of the milk, without tracery, consisting principally of trefoils, quatrefoils, Cathar-
butter is always made
allowing the cream to rise. The finest ine-wheels, &c.
from the cream as fresh as possible, and the milk should, to From the time of king Henry VIII., mullioned windows
make this cream rise, be set as soon as milked. The best were superseded again by plain windows. And thus the
quality of butter is
churned from cream skimmed from the rise and fall of the great eastern and western windows in
milk after six hours setting; an inferior kind, from a second our cathedrals.
skimming. DEAD SHOAR. See SHOAKINO.
The utensils of the dairy, such as pails, churns, vats, &c. DEAFENING, a term used in Scotland for sound board-
are usually made of white wood, and require to be kept, as inn ;
sometimes also used in wooden partitions for the same
does everything about a dairy, scrupulously clean and neat. purpose, viz. for preventing the communication of sound.
Utensils of brass and tin are sometimes used ; in Holland, DEAFENING, in plastering, a term used in Scotland, for
the milk is invariably carried in brass vessels. There is some PUOGINO, which see.
danger in the use of brass utensils, but a very
little attention DEAL (from the Dutch, deel) the wood of the fir-tree, as
will obviate it. Cast-iron pans have been invented, tinned cut up for the use of building, which is of two kinds, yellow
inside ; but there is nothing so safe, or so heat, as well-glazed and white.
white crockery ware of the common oval from. Deals are chiefly imported from Christiana, and other parts
A dairy for cheese, well constructed, should consist of four of Norway ; from Dantzig, and several parts of Prussia ;
rooms one for the reception of the milk ; another for the
:
from Petersburg, Archangel, and various parts of Russia.
scalding and pressing of the cheese ;
a third for the purpose They are sold by the piece or standard.
of salting; and the fourth for stowing the cheese, which last hi London, stuff that is kept on hand, consists generally of

may be a loft made over the dairy, though it is sometimes dealsof various lengths, most commonly three inches thick, and
placed at a distance, which makes it inconvenient. seldom exceeding nine inches wide. They are broken or cut
The butter dairy should consist of three apartments, down into various thicknesses, called boards or leaves, so that
namely, a milk-room, a churning-room, and a room for the a deal will always have one cut less than there are leaves.
 DEC 228 DEC
When the leaves are thinner than half an inch, the deal will DECAHEDRON (Greek, dexo, ten, and edpa, a base.)
divide into five or more parts, and is therefore termed Jive-cut A solid figure contained
by ten sides.
sin/', and thus the qualifying word
is applied according to DECAMETRE (Greek, dsna, ten, and /terpov, measure?)
the number of pieces. Whole deal is one inch and a quarter a French linear measure containing ten metres, and equal to
thick, and slit deal the half of that.
393.71 English inches.
Deals are formed by sawing the trunk of a tree into DECANICUM, a prison in which ecclesiastical offenders
longitudinal pieces, of more or less thickness, according
to were confined.
the purpose they are intended to serve. They are rendered DECASTYLE, or DECASTYLOS (from the Greek, delta,
much harder by throwing them into salt-water as soon as and fv Aof, a column) a colonnade, or front of a portico,
ten,

they are sawn, keeping them in three or four days, and consisting of ten columns.
after-
wards drying them by exposing them to the air but neither : DECEMPED A (from the Greek, Seitanovc, or from the ;

this nor any other method will preserve them from Latin, decem, ten, and pes, pedis, foot) a ten-foot rod, used
shrinking. by the ancients: the foot was subdivided into twelve inches,
The quality and well-seasoning of deals are very essential and each inch into ten digits. This rod was used by archi-
to the construction of buildings. They are employed in tects to give the proper dimensions and proportions to their
naked flooring, partitions, the boarding of floors, doors, buildings.
windows, architraves, cornices, mouldings, dados, plinths, Horace (lib. ii. od. 15) blaming the magnificence and
bases, surbases, wainscoting, linings, columns, pilasters, delicacy of the buildings of his time, observes, that it was
chimney-pieces, &c. otherwise in the times of Romulus and'Cato; th::t in the
White deal should only be used for inside work, as in bed- houses of private persons, there were not then known any
chambers it is less liable to shrink than yellow, and being
; porticos measured out with the decempeda, nor turned to
a cheaper article, is to be preferred in panelling. Yellow the north to take the cool air.
deal, on account of its hardness, from being saturated with The decempeda was also used in land-measuring, in the
turpentine, is more fit to endure violence and exposure to the same manner as our chain.
weather. DECIMAL (from the Latin, decimus) any number in-

DEBASED, a term applied to that style of English archi- creasing by the order of tens.
tecture, so to speak, which succeeded the Late or Perpendicular DECIMAL ARITHMETIC, the art of computing by fractions
Gothic, and in which some peculiarities of the Italian style whose denominator is 10, 100, &c. Decimal fractions differ
began to be introduced. For more detailed information, See from vulgar fractions in this ; that the denominator is not
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. written ; instead of writing y4^, or YQ%, the fraction would
DECAGON and yuvia, an elbow or
(from deo, ten, be written decimally, .4 or .15. The decimal point before
corner) a plane figure, with ten sides and angles. If all the it is used to distinguish it from whole numbers.
sides and angles be equal, it is called a regular decagon, and To reduce any vulgar fraction to a decimal, say,
may be inscribed in a circle the method is thus first de-
: : As the denominator of the vulgar fraction
scribe a pentagon, as is shown under that article bisect each ;
is denominator of the decimal,
to the
of the arcs, of which the sides of the pentagon are chords ;
sonumerator of the vulgar fraction
is the
join every point of bisection to the extremity of each to the numerator of the decimal.
adjacent chord, and the decagon will be completed. Example. To reduce ^ to a decimal fraction, whose
if the side of a regular decagon be 1, its area will denominator is 10.
/ It will then be as 3 : 10 : : 2
be 4 5 + 2(5) J
=7.66942088. 10

To the area of a regular decagon

find multiply the :
3)20
square of the side by 7.6942088, and the product will give
the area or, for practical use, multiply the square of the
:
6
side by 7.6942.
so that 6 the numerator required
is but then there is a :

Example. What is the area of a decagon, the side of remainder of 2, consequently the numerator is more than 6,
which is 25 feet ?

25
but less than 7; therefore
^
is the nearest decimal fraction,

whose numerator consists of a single unit. In order to come

25
nearer to the truth, we must then suppose the denominator
of the decimal to be divided into more parts, say 100.
125
50 Then again 3 : 100 : : 2
2
625
7.6942 3)200

1250 66
2500 but here a remainder of 2, that is, 66 is too small and
is still
6
5625 67 too great, therefore the decimal fraction y ^, is still too
3750 small ; 66 is, however, a greater portion of 100, than 6 is
4375 of 10: we have therefore come nearer to the truth in the
latter operation than in the first. We
shall thus find, that
4808.8750 equal the area required. if the number arising by multiplying the denominator of the
This figure may also be measured by the general rule of decimal fraction by the numerator of the vulgar fraction, be
finding the superficial content of any polygon whatever. not divisible by the denominator of the vulgar fraction, an
See POLYGON. increase of the denominator of the decimal will give a more
 DEC 229 DEC
exact portion of the unit, than when fewer figures are used ; figure after the point, these figures will be the decimal, but
and thus, if worth the trouble, the numerator of a decimal if not, the number corresponding to the upper row must be

fraction may be found to any degree of exactness at pleasure, made out, by adding a cipher to the left hand.
by augmenting the number of figures in the denominator, Example \. Required the decimal of}.
either till the division terminate, or till as many figures be 4) 1.00
found as will render the operation sufficiently exact for the
intended purpose. .25 the decimal required.
A decimal fraction be sufficiently denoted, by throw-
may Example II. Required the decimal of $.
ing away the denominator, and using any character or mark 2) 1.0
instead of it, since the denominator is always 1, followed by
one, two, three, or a series of ciphers, which is the only thing .5 the decimal required.
that is to ascertain this point, the number expressed
variable ; Example III. Required the decimal of J.
by the numerator, is always less than the denominator, and 4) 3.00
always consists of as many figures as there are ciphers ;
therefore, if a point be placed before the numerator of a .75 the decimal required.
decimal fraction, it will show that the number following it The reader who wishes to employ decimals in his calcula-
is a decimal fraction, and by reckoning a cipher for every tions, should have the decimals .25, .5, .75, of J, J, J,
fixed

figure, and supposing unity placed before them, the number on his memory.
thus expressed will show how many decimal parts the unit Example IV. Required the decimal of 1 inch in terms of a

is divided into, and the figures themselves that portion of foot. Ilere 1 inch is the twelfth part of a foot, therefore the
these parts taken. vulgar fraction is
jJj.

Thus is .6 12) 1.00000

represented by
" "
ISTJ .66 .08333
7 5 " " .785 Example V. Required the decimal of 2 inches. Now
T7J75B
;4 " 2 inches is
-fa
or | therefore
.085 ;

12) 2.00000 or 6) 1.00000

But instead of saying 66 hundredths, 785 thousandths, &e.,
say, as in the second, 6 tenths and 6 hundredths as in the ;
.16666 .16066
VI. \Vhat the decimal of 3 inches'? 3 inches
third, 7 tenths, 8 hundredths and 5 thousandths and as in Example is
;

the fourth, 8 hundredths and 5 thousandths, as the cipher, 0, is equal to fa or ^, therefore the decimal will be .25,
as above.
occupies the place of tenths ;

Example VII. Required the decimal of 4 inches. 4 inches

6 6 66 is
4
equal to y j
=
y, therefore,
10 100
12) 4.00000 or 3) 1.00000
5 785
and .33333 .33333
10 100 1000 1000
manner, the decimals for every number of inches
In this
8 5 085 under twelve are to be found, as the following table shows :
dso
100 1000 1000 The decimal of 1 inch .08!>33 =
2 = .16666
The point is not only useful in marking the following 3 .25 =
number to be a decimal fraction, but is likewise necessary 4 .33333 =
in separating the decimal parts from integers, when both
5 .41666 =
are concerned.
From what has been said, observable that decimal
6 .5 =
it is

same order from unity towards the

7 .58333 =
fractions decrease in the
increase towards the
8 = .66666
right hand, that integers right. 9 .75
Thus, 348.5683, unity is the place where the numbering
in
10 .83333 =
commences both for integers and for decimals ; going over 11 .91666 =
the places of the integers, we have units, tens, hundreds, 348 ;
In moist practical cases, three figures of decimals will be
then, numbering the decimals, we have units, tenths, hun-
found sufficient.
dredths, thousandths, ten thousandths, which is 5 tenths, When inches, seconds, thirds, &e. are to be reduced to a
6 hundredths, 8 thousandths, and 3 ten thousandths ; in this
decimal, the best method is to reduce the feet, inches, die. to
notation of the fractions, the unit's place was not reckoned,
the last denomination, then divide as often by 12 in succession
us being already counted into the whole numbers.
as there are denominations, and the last quotient will be the
Supposing now, that the notationis
completely understood, decimal required.
we will proceed to thereduction of decimal fractions.
To reduce a vulgar fraction to a decimal : set down the Example I. Required the decimal of 9 firsts, or inches,
and 6 seconds.
numerator of the fraction, with a point upon the right side
Now here are two denominations, therefore
of it, add as many ciphers in succession, towards the right-
9 6
hand, as may be thought necessary ; then, if the denominator 12
consist of one single figure, or of two, not exceeding 12, draw a
horizontal line below the row of figures so set down, and
12) 114 seconds in the whole.
a vertical line upon the left side of the left-hand figure set :

down the denominator upon the left of this line, proceed as 12) 9.5
in short division, placing a point under the other, then if the
7-8166 the decimal required.
succeeding figures towards the right begin under the first
 DEC 230 DEC
Example II. To find the decimal of 5 seconds and 4 thirds. many decimal parts from the right-hand figure towards the
Now in this example, there are three places of duodecimals, left,as there are columns, and the figure or figures
upon
therefore the left-hand side of the point, if any, will be
054 12
integers,
and those upon the right-hand side of the point will be
decimals.
Example I. Add the following decimals together, viz.,
12) 64 number of thirds in the whole.
.7854, .07958, .5236.
.7854
12) 5.33333 .07958
.5236
12) .44444
1.38858 the sum required.
.03703
Tosubtract decimals ; place the numbers as in addition,
And thus for any other number of denominations whatever. the less under the greater, and perform the operation as in
If each foot of our measuring-rules for taking the lineal subtraction of integers.
dimensions were divided into ten parts, instead of twelve, Subtract .25 from .75.
Example I.
and each of these ten parts again into ten others, we should .75
have no occasion for reduction of decimals, as the rule itself .25
would give the decimal. In most cases we should not then
have occasion to work with more than two places of decimals ; .50 the number required.
the tenth part of the tenth part, that is, the hundredth part
If the parts of a foot are given in feet, inches, &c., they
of a foot, is very nearly equal to the eighth part of an inch, must be reduced to the farthest denomination from the place
or the ninety-sixth part of a foot, being only a small matter of feet.
less than the eighth of an inch. Were measuring-rules thus To multiply in decimals, proceed as in multiplication of
divided, the work by decimals would be much shorter than
integers, and point as many figures, beginning with the first
any other denomination whatever. The principal reason of figure from the right in the product, as the number of decimals
operations in measuring by decimals being longer than in both factors ; and the remaining figures, if any, upon the
duodecimals, arises from the necessity of reducing the duode- left-hand, will be integers ; but if there are not as many
cimals to decimals, and this in many cases cannot bo done
figures in the product as in both, the deficiency must be
with the same accuracy, without having four or five denomi- maile up by the addition of one or more ciphers.
nations. In practical cases there are never more than throe
Example I.

places of duodecimals, and if rules were divided decimally, Multiply .9087

there would not be more than three places.
by .852
A decimal part of a foot being given, to find its equivalent
in duodecimals. 18174
Multiply the decimal by 12, cut off as many decimals from 45435
the product as there are places of figures in the multiplicand, 72696
from the right-hand to the left, and the figure or figures
remaining on the left, if any, will show the number of inches : Product .7742124
multiply the number of decimals so cut off, if any, again by Inlarge decimals, the work may
be contracted thus :

12, and cut off as many figures from the left-hand of the new Write the units' place of the multiplier under that place
product as there are decimal places in the multiplicand, and of the decimals in the multiplicand, whose place you would
the remaining figures on the left will show the seconds, if reserve in the product ; write the other figures in the multi-
any. Proceed in this manner as often as there is a remainder, plier in a contrary order.
or as often as may be thought necessary to obtain a sufficient
Begin with the figure of the multiplier nearest the right
degree of accuracy, and the places cut off will be equivalent hand, and multiply by the next figure towards the right
to the given decimal, if no remainder, and very nearly so if of it, in the multiplicand, if any ; and if this product be five,
there is, but in this case something less. or above five, in the number of tens in the product, carry
Example. Reduce .44005 of a foot to a decimal. one more than there are tens in the last product to the next
.44005 product ;
then set down the overplus above the tens for the
12 first figure, and carry the tens to the next place, and proceed

through the line as in common multiplication.

Proceed with
5.28060 every other line in the same manner, observing, however,
12 to place the first figure of every line directly under ihe first
figure of the last line,
and the product so found will be the
3.3672 answer.
12 Example I. What is the product of .9087 multiplied by
.852, in order to retain four places
of decimals 1
4.4064 the common method.
12 By contraction. By
.9087 -9087
258.0 -852
4.8768
To add decimals ;
write down the several parts under 7270 = 908 x 8 + 6 18172
their respective denominators, viz., all the points in a vertical 454 = 90 X 5 + 4 45435
line, the tenths in a succeeding vertical line, and
so on ; add 18 = 9X2 + 72696
the several columns, as in common addition, from right to
.7742 .7742122
place a point under the column of points, or cut off
left ;
as
 DEC 231 DEC
In this example, the multiplier being placed as directed, DECORATED, the title given to the most perfect style of
Gothic architecture, which prevailed during the reigns of the
begin with 8, the first figure of the multiplier, and multiply
it by 7, the next figure to the right of it in the multiplicand, first three Edwards, from the close of the thirteenth century.

and the product is 56, which is more than 5 above 5 tens, It is otherwise named the middle-pointed, or pure Gothic.

therefore carry 6: multiply 8 by the next figure, 8 towards The various styles of Gothic architecture are so implicitly
the left, the product is 04, and 6 carried, makes 70, set down connected the one with the other, that it has been deemed
a cipher for the first figure, and carry 7 to the next proceed ; advisable, at the risk of extending the article to a greater
length than is customary in works of this nature, to
thus for the whole line, and 7270 will be the product. Pro- consider
ceed with the remaining figures of the multiplier, in the same them all under one head. See GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
manner, writing down the left-hand figures of every row DECORATION, anything that adorns or enriches any
under each other. part of an edifice. A tasteful combination of ornamental
To divide a decimal or mixed number by a decimal or details employed in the enrichment of a building.
mixed number: divide as in whole numbers, and cut oflf as True decoration consists not in the mere addition of orna-
many figures from the right-hand of the quotient as the deci- ment, but rather in its appropriate and judicious application.
mal places of the dividend exceed those of the divisor. Decoration, when artistically applied, possesses not only rich-
If the number of figures in the quotient be less than the ness, but also meaning, not only a body, but a soul ; it
excess of the decimal figuierin the dividend above those of delights the eye, and at the same time, engages and instructs
the divisor, the defect must be supplied by prefixing ciphers the mind. No artists, perhaps, so highly excelled in the
on the left hand. Should there be a remainder, annex just and tasteful employment of decorative detail, as did
ciphers to it, and thus the quotient may be carried to any those of what are vulgarly termed the dark ages ; in the
degree of exactness, observing, however, that every cipher glorious monuments of their skill, which have been preserved
annexed in carrying out the work, must be accounted a to us. we find specimens of the most delicate enrichment, all
decimal place in the dividend. of which exhibit the reasonableness of its introduction ; and
the majority, a depth and tone of feeling rarely to be met
Example I. Divide 43.95 by 5.
with in other works.
.5)43.95 The application of the Classic orders, however, as a means
of decoration, is frequently resorted to, and not without
8.79 the quotient required. success ; they may be applied both internally and externally,
Divide 4.368 by .0078. and are themselves likewise frequently charged with further
Example II.
decorations.
.0078)4.3680 (560 Plain surfaces, when very extensive, are often decorated
390
with paintings.

468
DECORATION EXTERNAL, the Building act, (7 and
8 Victoria, cap. 84), requires, that in external decorations,
468
coping, cornice, facia, window dressing, portico,
-
every
balcony, balustrade, or other external decoration or projec-
...0
tion whatsoever, to any building now or hereafter to be built,
DECIMAL SCALK, a scale divided into tenths.
Scales thus or to any addition or enlargement of any such building, shall
divided are much used in designs. J
A
inch scale is that
externally be of brick, stone, burnt-clay, or artificial stone,
wherein the 1 inch is divided into ten parts a inch scale stucco, lead, or iron except the cornice and dressings to shop,
:
J ;

is when the
\ inch is divided into ten equal parts. One windows: and it is further provided with regard to buildings
drawing may be made greater or less than another, by using hereafter to be built or rebuilt, in reference to projections
two diHerent scales made to the proportion of each drawing; therefrom :

but the best method of reducing or enlarging drawings, is Asto copings, parapets, cornices to overhanging roofs,
by
means of a pair of proportional compasses, which give both
blocking-courses, cornices, piers, columns, pilasters, entabla-
greater aceuracy and expedition, with much less trouble, than
tures, facias, door and window-dressings, or other architec-
working by soales. such
tural decorations, forming part of an external wall, all

DECIMETRE, a French linear measure equal to the tenth may projectbeyond the general line of fronts in any street
part of a metre, or 3.9371 English inches. or alley, but they must be built of the same materials as are
DECLINATION, of the Doric mutules, is the acute angle by this act directed to be used for building the external walls
which the planes of the wall and soffit make with each other, to which such projections belong, or of such other proper
by which the soffit is lower at its
projecting extremity, than and sufficient materials, as the official referees may approve
in the receding extremity, whence it commences. All the and permit.
ancient examples of the Doric order have declining mutules. And as to all balconies, verandas, porches, porticos, shop-
DECLINATOR, an instrument used in dialing, whereby fronts, open inclosures of open areas, and steps and water-
the declination, inclination, and reclination of planes are
pipes, and to all other projections from external walls not
determined.
forming part thereof, every such projection (except part of
DECLINING DIALS, are those which either cut the shop-fronts, and the frames and sashes of the windows and
plane of the prime vertical circle, or the plane of the hori- doors, in reference to the necessary wood-work thereof) may
zon, obliquely. stand beyond the general line of fronts in any street or alley,
The use of declining vertical dials is very frequent, because but they must be built of brick, stone, tile, artificial stone,
the walls of houses whereon dials are
commonly drawn, gene- slate, cement, or metal, or other proper and sufficient fire-
rally decline from the cardinal points. Incliners and recliners proof materials ; and they must be so built as not to overhang
are very rare, and more particularly decliners. the ground belonging to any other owner, nor so as to obstruct
DECOR, a term used by Vitruvius, signifying propriety, the light and air, or be otherwise injurious to the owners or
arising either from disposition of the parts of an edifice, or occupiers of the buildings adjoining thereto on any side
from due observance of custom. See DECORUM. thereof.
 DEC 232 DEF
Projections from walla of buildings over public ways. The ancients used two kinds of decoration in their theatres,
And with regard to all buildings hereafter to be built or the one called versatiles, with three sides of faces, which
rebuilt, in reference to projections from the walls of such were turned successively to the spectators ; the other, called
buildings, including-steps, cellar-doors,and area inclosures, ductiles, showing a new decoration, by drawing or sliding
the walls of such buildings must be set back, so that all
all another before it.
projections therefrom, and also all steps, cellar-doors, and The latter kind is still in use, and the change is almost
area inclosures, shall only overhang or occupy the ground of made in an instant whereas the ancients were obliged to
;

the owner of such building, without overhanging or encroach- draw a curtain whenever a change of decoration was
ing upon any public way. required.
Projected buildings beyond the general line of buildings, DECORUM, or DECOR, in architecture, is the suitableness
and from other external walls. of a building, and the several parts and ornaments thereof,
And with regard to buildings already built, or hereafter to the station and occasion. "
It consists," says Vitruvius,
to be rebuilt, as to bow windows or other projections of " in the
(book i. chap 2.), proper appearance of a work,
any kind. and its being compounded of approved and authorized parts.
Such projections must neither be built with nor be added This has regard, either to station, which the Greeks call
to any building on any face of an external wall thereof, so t/iematismos, custom, or nature. To station, when temples
as to extend beyond the general line of the fronts of the which are erected to Jove the Thunderer, the heavens, the
houses (which general line may be determined by the sur- sun, or the moon, are built uncovered and exposed to the air,
veyor, except so far as is herein before provided with regard because the influences and effects of those deities are per-
to porticos projected over public ways and with regard to
;
ceived in the open air ; when to Minerva, Mars, Hercules,
projections from face-walls and shop-fronts, not so as to over- Doric temples are built ; for, on account of the attributes of
hang the ground belonging to any other owner, nor so as to these deities, edifices constructed without delicacy are most
obstruct the light and air, or be otherwise injurious to the suitable. To Venus, Flora, Proserpine, and the nymphs of the
owner or occupiers of the buildings adjoining thereto on any fountains, the Corinthian kind are erected with propriety ;
side thereof. for by reason of the delicacy of those goddesses, the graceful,
Projections from insulated buildings. gay manner, with foliage and ornamented volutes, give a due
Provided always, with regard to any insulated buildings, decorum to the work. To Juno, Diana, Bacchus, and such
that if the projection be at the least 8 feet from other deities, Ionic temples are constructed, as holding a posi-
any public
way, and if they be at least 20 feet from any other building tion between the two for being tempered of the severity of
;

not in the same occupation, then such the Doric, and the tenderness of the Corinthian, they become
projections areexcepted
from the rules ;md directions of this act. most suitable. Decor, with regard to custom, is observed
Wooden shop-fronts and shutters. when the internal parts of edifices being magnificent, the
And with regard to shop-fronts and their entablatures, accesses are also made suitable and elegant for, if the inte-
:

their shutters, and pilasters and stall-boards made of wood. rior parts be elegant, and the approaches mean and ignoble,
If the street or alley in which such front is
situate, be of it will not have decor. So, likewise, if dentils be carved in
less width than 30 feet, then no the cornice of the Doric epistylium, or in the abacus of the
part of such shop-front must
be higher in any part thereof than 15 feet ; nor must any or if triglyphs be represented in the epistylium of
capital,
part, except the cornice, project from the face of a wall, Ionic columns, transferring the characteristics of one kind
whether there be an area or not, more than 5 inches; nor of work to another ; it offends the eye, because custom has
must the cornice project therefrom more than 13 inches. established a different order of things.
If the street or alley be of a
greater width than 30 feet, "Decor, with regard to nature, consists in all temples
then no part of such shop-front, except the cornice, must being placed in a salutary situation, with fountains of water
project from the face of a wall, whether there be an area or in the places where the fnne is built but especially the tem-
;

not, more than 10 inches ; nor must the cornice project ples of jEsculapius, of Health, and such deities, by whose
therefrom more than 18 inches. healing influences numbers
of sick appear to be recovered.
And the width of such street or alley must be ascertained For the diseased bodies being removed from an unhealthy to
by measuring the same, as directed by the act. a healthy situation, and the salutiferous water of the foun-
And the wood-work of any shop-front must not be fixed tains being administered, they are soon restored. By this
r.earer than four and a half inches to the centre line of a means it will happen, that the natural effects of the place will
party wall. increase the received opinion of the power of the divinity.
And with regard to such wood-work, if it be put up at " also observed, when
Decor, with regard to nature, is

such distance of four and a half inches, then a pier or corbel chambers and libraries receive their light from the east ;

built of stone or of brick, or other incombustible material, baths, and winter apartments, from the west picture-
;

and of the width of four and a half inches at the least, must galleries, and such apartments
as require as steady light, from
be fixed in the line of the party wall, so as to be as high as the north; because that region of the heavens is rendered
such wood-work, and so as to project one inch at the least neither lighter nor darker by the course of the sun, but is
in front of the face thereof.
equal and immutable the
whole day."
And the height of every shop-front must be ascertained DEDICATION, the act of consecrating a temple, altar,
by measuring from the level of the public foot pavement in statue, palace, &c., to the honour of some deity.
front of the building. DEFINITION, (definire, to
mark out a boundary), is the
And every sign or notice-board fixed against or upon any process of stating the
exact meaning of a word, by means of
part of any house or other building standing close to any other words, or an enumeration of the principal attributes
public way, must be so fixed that the top shall be within of a thing, in order to convey or explain its nature thus, ;

18 feet at the most above the level of such public way. a circle is defined to be a figure whose circumference is every
DECORATION OF THE SCENERY OF \ THEATRE, is the where equidistant from its centre. Wolfius defines a real
representation of the subject by which the scenes are definition to be a distinct notion, explaining the genesis of a
charged. thing that is, the manner wherein the thing is made, or
;
 DEM 233 DEN
done ; such is that of a circle, whereby it is said to be art of demonstrating from premises, without reference to the
formed by the motion of a right line round a fixed point ;
truth or falsehood of the premises themselves. In effect,
on which footing, what was before instanced as a real defi- the demonstrations of mathematicians are no other than
nition of a circle, amounts to no more than a nominal one. series of enthymemes everything is concluded by force of
;

This notion of a real definition is very strict and just and ; syllogism, only omitting the premises, which either occur
affords a sufficient distinction between a real and a nominal of their own accord, or are recollected by means of quota-
one. But though it has the advantages of analogy, distinct- tions. To have the demonstration perfect, the premises of
ness, and convenience, on its side yet being only itself a
;
the syllogisms should be proved by new syllogisms, till at
nominal definition, t. ., a definition of the term real defi- length you arrive at a syllogism, wherein the premises are
nition, we must consider it in the Hunt of an idea fixed arbi- either definitions, or identical propositions.
trarily to that word, and which Wolfius always denotes by Indeed, it might be demonstrated, that there cannot be a
that word in the course of his book. genuine demonstration, such a one as shall give full con-
t. e.,

Of the parts enumerated in a definition, some are common viction, unless the thoughts be directed therein according to
to other things beside the thing defined ; others are peculiar the rules of syllogism. Clavius, it is well known, resolved
thereto the first are called the genus, or kind ; and the
: the demonstration of the first proposition of Euclid into
second, Ike difference. Thus, in the former definition of a syllogism Herlinus and Dasipodius demonstrated the whole
:

circle, by a figure whose circumference is everywhere equi- first six books of Euclid, and Henischus, all arithmetic, in
dUtant from its centre ; the word figure is the kind, as being a the syllogistic form.
name common to all other figures as well as to the circle ; the Yet the generality of persons, and sometimes even mathe-
rest the difference, which specifies or distinguishes this figure maticians, imagine, that mathematical demonstiations are
from every other. And hence arises that rule of F. de Colonia, conducted in a manner far remote from the laws of syllogism ;
" "
for the making of a definition. Take," says he, something so far are they from allowing that those derive all their force
that is common
to the thing defined with other things, and and conviction from these. But men of the greatest ability
add to it something that is proper, or peculiar to it ; i. e., join have taken our view of the question. M. Leibnitz, for
the genus and specific difference, and you will have a defi- instance, declares that demonstration to be firm and valid,
nition." The special rules for a good definition are these : which is in the form prescribed by logic ; and Dr. Wallis
1. A definition must be universal or adequate, that is, it must confesses, that what is proposed to he proved in mathematics
ajree to all the particular specie*, or individuals, that are is deduced
by means of one or more syllogisms ; the great
included under the same idea. 2. It must be proper, and pecu- Hnygens, too, observes, that paralogisms frequently happen
liar tothe thing defined, and agree to that alone. These two in mathematics, through want of observing the syllogistic
rules being observed, will always render a definition reci- form.
procal with the thing defined, that is, the definition may be Problems consist of three parts a proposition, resolution,
:

used in the place of the thing defined ; or they may be and demonstration.
mutually affirmed concerning each other. 3. definition A In the proposition is indicated the thing to be done.
should be clear and plain ; and, indeed, it is a general rule In the resolution, the several steps are orderly rehearsed,
concerning the definition both of names and things, than no whereby the thing proposed is performed.
word should be used in either of them which has any difficulty Lastly, in the demonstration, it is shown, that the things
in it, unless it has been before defined. 4. definition A enjoined by the resolution being done, that which was required
should be short, so that it must have no tautology in it, nor in the proposition is effected. As often, therefore, as a pro-
any words superfluous. 5. Neither the thing defined, nor blem to be demonstrated, it is converted into a theorem ;
is

a mere synonymous name, should make any part of the the resolution being the hypothesis, and the proposition the
definition. thesis ; for the general tenor of all problems to be demon-
DEFLECTION, a term applied to the distance by which strated is this: that the thing prescribed in the resolution
a curve departs from a straight line, or from another curve. being performed, the thing required is done.
"
It is used where any bending off" takes place ; the word The schoolmen make two kinds of demonstration the one :

deflection, in fact, means "bending ofT." TS diori, or propter quod ; wherein an effect is proved by the
DE1NCL1NING DIALS, such as both decline and next cause ; as when it is proved, that the moon is eclipsed
incline, or recline. because the earth is then between the sun and moon. The
DELUBRUM, in Roman antiquity, a temple with a large second, TU on, or qiria. ; wherein the cause is proved from
space of consecrated ground round it. Also that portion a remote effect; as when it is proved that fire is hot, because
of a temple in which the altar or idol was placed. See it burns ; or that plants do not breathe, because they are not

TEMPLE. animals ; or that there is a God, from the works of creation.

DEMI-RELIEVO, a term applied to that class of sculp- The former is called demonstration a priori, and the latter
ture in which the figures are raised only halfway above the demonstration a posteriori.
surface. DEMONSTRATION, Geometrical, is that framed of reasonings
DEMONSTRATION, (from the Latin) in mathematics, a drawn from the elements of geometry.
method of reasoning, whereby the truth of an assertion is DEMONSTRATION, Mechanical, is that, the reasonings
shown by two, or a series of propositions, whose truth whereof are drawn from the rules of mechanics.
is already established. DENDERAH, the Tentyra of the ancients, a ruined
Thus the 47th proposition of the first book of Euclid town of Upper Egypt, celebrated for its temple, which is
demonstrates a certain property of a right-angled triangle, one of the most splendid remains of antiquity in all Egypt.
on the supposition : 1, that all the preceding propositions are Dr. Richardson, Belzoni, and others, have given descriptions
true ; 2, that the axioms used in geometry, whether expressed of this temple, which the first-named traveller considers to
or implied, are true also. It makes the consequence as cer- have been erected in the period of the Ptolemies. Its remains
tain as the premises, by means of the indubitable character occupy a vast extent of ground, and consist of various build
of the connecting process. This strict use of the term ings, besides the temple itself.
These are enclosed within
demonstration belongs to the science of logic, which is the a wall built of sun-dried bricks, in some places 35 feet high,
30
 DEN 234 DEN
and 15 feet thick. The portico in front of the temple is of the cornice between their soffits and the summit of the
formed of 24 columns, ranged in four rows, having quadran- cornice the angle is vacant.
:

gular capitals, on each side of which is a colossal head, sur- The dentils in the Ionic order of the temple of Minerva
mounted by another quadrangular member, containing in each Polias, at Priene, are something less than one-fourth of the
face a temple doorway with two winged globes above, and height of the cornice, or nearly equal to two twenty-fifths of
other decorations. The shafts of the columns are cylindrical, that of the entablature; their projection is three times the
imd of equal diameter throughout. The whole height, includ- half of their height ; their breadth, two-thirds of their
height ;
ing capital, &c., being a little above 48 English feet. the breadth of the interval, about four-fifths of that of the
The front is adorned with a beautiful frieze, covered with dentils the corner is without a dentil, and the soffit over
:

over the centre of which the winged globe is predo-

figures, the vacant angle is enriched with a honeysuckle.
minant. The walls, columns, ceilings, and also the interior In the Corinthian order of the Choragic monument of
chambers are in the same manner covered with hieroglyphics Lyscirates, at Athens, the dentils of the cornice arc in height
and sculptures, in which the figure of Isis is repeated in nearly two-sevenths of that of the cornice, exclusive of the
numberless instances. The light in the chambers comes in terminating ornament ; their breadth is two-thirds of their
through small holes in the wall ; the sanctuary itself is quite height ; and the interval between them, two-thirds of their
dark. The ceiling of the portico is occupied by a number of breadth ; the angle of the cornice at the dentil band is
figures, by some travellers supposed to be the signs of the vacant.
zodiac, but with greater accuracy shown by Dr. Richardson In the temple of Jupiter Stator, at Rome, the height of
and recent travellers and archreologists, to be merely a col- the dentil is nearly one-fifth of the whole cornice ; its breadth,
lection of mythological emblems, without any reference to two-thirds of its height; and the breadth of the interval,
astronomy. about one-half of that of the dentil ; the angle of the dentil-
On the ceiling of one of the apartments in the upper band is filled with a dentil.
story, under the roof of the temple, there was another The reader who wishes to see the rules of Vitruvius,
assemblage of mythological emblems, similar to those already respecting the placing of dentils, may consult the article
mentioned, but fewer in number, and differently arranged. CORNICE.
This was called a planisphere or zodiac, because in the middle In the frontispiece of the door-way of the Tower of
of it
figures resembling those usually adopted to represent the Winds, at Athens, the inclined cornices, as well
the signs of the zodiac were observed. The opinion of well- as the level one, have dentils, contrary to the doctrine
informed travellers, however, with respect to this collection of Vitruvius.
of figures, as to the fonner, is that it is only a represen- In the interior cornice of the same tower, both dentils and
tation of gods and goddesses, and religious processions, and modillions are employed the dentils occupying the superior
;

has no astronomical meaning whatever. part of the cornice, agreeably to the Vitruvian theory, but
The so-called circular zodiac, which was sculptured on contrary to every other antique example.
a kind of sandstone, was cut out of the ceiling by a French- The only ancient example of the Doric order, in which
man, with the permission of the pasha, and conveyed to dentils are to be found, is in the theatre of Marcellus,
France ; when it was purchased by the French government, at Rome.
and deposited in the Museum, at Paris. The examples of the Ionic order which have denticulated
DENDROMKTER, (from devdpov, a tree, and /terpet), / cornices, are, the temples of Bacchus, at Teos ;
of Minerva
measure), an instrument for measuring trees. Polias, at Priene; the aqueduct of Adrian, at Athens; tile
The same name has also been applied, though improperly, temple of Fortune, and the theatre of Marcellus, at Rome ;

to instruments contrived for and the arch of Constantino; the temple of Concord, at
measuring distances and magni-
tudes from a single station. Rome, has both dentils and modillions in the cornice.
DENTICLES. See DENTILS. The following edifices of the Ionic order, are without
DENTILS, (from the Latin, dens, a tooth) a row of similar dentils in the cornice, viz., the Ionic temple upon the Ilissus,
and equal solids in a cornice, disposed at equal intervals, each the temple of Minerva Polias, and that of Ereehtheus, at
presenting four sides of a rectangular prism, the sides parallel Athens; and in theColiseum, at Rome, the dentil-band
to the vertical face, and the one parallel to the soffit, is uncut. Examples of the Corinthian order, which have
being
attached to the vertical and horizontal planes of an internal denticulated cornices, are, the monument of Lysicrates, the
right angle. arch of Adrian at Athens, and the ruins at Salonica. Both
The surfaces of the vertical face are therefore all in the dentils and modillions are to be found in the following
same plane and those of the soffits are in the same hori-
: Corinthian edifices :the temples of Jupiter Stator, and of
zontal plane. Peace, the piazza of Nerva, and the baths of Diocletian,
The whole series of dentils in the same range, is called at Rome ; the lower range of the interior, and the porticos
the denticulated band. of the temple of Jupiter, and the vestibulum to the peristylium,
The proportions given by Vitruvius " at Spalatro ; all the ruined edifices at Balbec, and at Palmyra,
are, that the denti-
culus to be equal in height to the middle facia of the archi-
excepting the interior order of the temple of the Sun, among
is

trave, and its projection to be the same as its height ; the the latter.
width of the dentils is one-half of its height, and the interval The following edifices of the Corinthian order have the
between them two-thirds of this quantity." dentil-band uncut, viz., the Coliseum, the portico of the Pan-
The proportions of some of the best examples where theon, the temple of Antoninus and Faustina, and the portico
dentils are to be found, are as follows : of Septimius Severus, at Rome.
In the Ionic temple of Bacchus, at Teos, the dentils are in
Examples of the Composite order, which have denticulated
height ai>out one-fourth of that of the cornice, exclusive of cornices, are, the arch of Septimius Severus, and that of the
the inferior bead and fillet next to the architrave the breadth
: Goldsmiths, at Rome, and the upper range of the temple of
of the dentils is about two-thirds of their in the arch of Titus, at Rome,
height, and the Jupiter, at Spalatro ; but
breadth of the interval about two-thirds of that of the dentil : both modillions and dentils are to be found.
their projection is about one-fourth of the
height of that part The frontispiece to the door-way of the Tower of the
 DBS 235 DBS
Winds, at Athens, though it cannot be classed as a regular
Common Trimmers
order, has dentils in the cornice. naked (
A denticulated cornice is employed in the Caryatic portico <
Trimming-joists
flooring
of the temple of Pandrosus, at Athens. ( Strutting-pieces
Thus it be observed, that dentils and modillions are
may Framed ( Girders
frequently employed in Corinthian and Composite cornices ; naked
and sometimes both are omitted, as in the temple of Vesta at | Bindingjoists
flooring ( Bridging-joists
Tivoli, and in the temple of Antoninus and Faustina, and the
little altars within the Pantheon, at Home. Rafters
In very small work, it would be better to omit modillions Ceiling-joists, ties, or tie-beams
and dentils and, indeed, it is the opinion of some, that
: Collar-beams
though the work be ever so large, it would be better to Puncheons
employ one of them only as, were all the members to be
; Hips
admitted in a Corinthian cornice, and if the individual parts Valleys
of the cornice bear the same proportion to the whole height, Common Ridge pieces
as in the Doric or Ionic orders, the cornice would either be roofing Beams for platforms
too high for the entablature, or the entablature too high for Beams for skylights
the column ; consequently, the cornice must either be too slates, J-inch thick

great a load for the entablature, or the entablature too great for )
platform -

nch
a load for the column which, in either case, is contrary to
;
for gutters J

the laws of strength for it would be giving the greater

: Arris
{for fillet

burden to the slender column, and the lighter burden to the Bearers for gutters
more massive. See CORNICE. Wall plates
DEPARTMENT, (from the French) that part of an
Diagonal ties
edifice destined to some peculiar purpose, as, in a palace, the
Dragon-beams
department of a kitchen, of the stables, &c. Tie-beams
DEP6T, (French) in military architecture, an edifice for Pole-plates
the preservation and reservation of stores, provisions, &c.,
Hammer-beams
also a station for the reception and training of recruits.
rp ( King-posts
A depot should contain a great number of bomb-proof Iruss-posts -J r
Queen-posts
buildings, the lower tier of which should be reserved as
(

Braces
store-rooms for provisions requiring to be kept cool, and, if
Struts
possible, be below the surface of the area the ground-floor ;
Trussed
should be allotted for artillery and ordnance-stores ; the walls Auxiliary rafters, or principal braces
roofing Studs
and piers being furnished with strong wooden battens (pro-
Principal rafters
jecting a little, to obviate the danger of damp) for the support
Hip-rafters
of muskets, carbines, pistols, swords, halberts, bayonets,
The second Valley-rafters, or valleys
pikes, and other descriptions of small-arms.
Collar-beams, or straining-beams
floor should be devoted to the reception of camp-equipage,
Purlins
and the upper to the lodgment of ready-filled cartridges.
Camber-beams
The great magazines for powder should be separate the :

Straining-sill
whole of the principal body should be casemated for the
Common rafters
accommodation of troops, and pierced through, perhaps
Boarding, generally |-inch thick
masked, for the reception of heavy cannon. The out-works Arris fillet, ^-inch by 3 inches
should be of the best materials, and constructed on the most
compact system of defence. f Nails, what kind
DESCR1BENT, (from the Latin, describe, to describe) in Sound I
Fillets, 1^ inch by 1 inch, nailed at 1 foot

geometry, a line or surface which produces a plain figure by boarding |

distance
motion. [Boarding, f-inch thick, with or without nails
DESCRIPTION, of a building, an explanation of all the
Nine-inch
materials, specifying their qualities, proportions, how used, brickwork
> Wood bricks, 2J inches by 4 inches
sizes of timbers, &c.
The following articles are most frequently employed in Quarterings
Brick-
buildings, in the carpenter's department :
Nogging-pieces
nogging Lintels

Carpentry. Common Sills

wooden Quarterings
Timber in (
Piling partitions Top-pieces
foundations \ Spikes
( Planking (
or plates
Sills,
Sleepers Door-posts
Bond-timbers in brick walls (
King-posts
Templets Truss Truss-posts Queen-posts
-j
C
Bonding Under-sleepers partitions ( Side-posts
Wall-plates i Under-joists Braces
(
Under-roof Inter-tie, or straining-piece
Lintels Common quarterings, 1J inch thick
 DBS 236 DBS
Plugging, at what distances ( Front shutters
Shutters
Battening Closers
for walls '
Battens, 2 inches by f-inch j

Nails ( of interior doors, framed doors, linings, backs,

'for windows, edge-chamfered or grooved Mouldings 4 elbows, soffits, and shutters, to be all simi-
for lar.
mouldings (

Grounds for chimneys Base of rooms \ ^

for doors Base
( mouldings
for cupboards Surbases
I
Square single faced
Angle-staff Beaded Architraves double faced
I

Blocks to be used or not

Ceiling-joists
Ribbing inch thick Pilasters plain
Bracketing lij
sunk
Finishings v
on walls
Facings
on ceilings Belts
Lath
behind shutters
Skirtings
and back of skirtings Wood moulding upon stone skirting
Jamb mouldings
Joinery. Chimney-pieces
Hatch-boards
Pulley-pieces C Kitchen dresser
Inside facings, or linings
Outside linings
Kitchen <
Belting round kitchen
(
Wired or latticed windows for larder
Sash-frames ^ Back linings
Heads Water- (
Flap, clamps, as also the top seat
Sills closet / Riser, framed bead and flush
Beads
, TT ( Troughs, with hooks and bolts
Water con- ' ---
J Water trunks
Glazed, with oil-putty veyances Cover for rain-water pipes
(
Sashes Pulleys f Risers
Weights Stair } Treads
Lines of the
{Primed best quality
( Rail, of deal or mahogony.
windows
Aclause in specification, describing the quality of wood.
Square skylights Joiner to take the plaster work ofFthe plasterer's hand, or
Skylights
Polygonal skylights to make it good if damaged by his men.
Circular or elliptic conic skylights
{Hatch Time of finishing the joinery.
grooved and tongued, or 1 b d
Boards I
DESCRIPTIVE CARPENTRY, the art of forming a
Boarding straight-jointed 19 b on a the rules of geometry, in order to
,

diagram plane by
grooved and tongued,
for floors or
Battens ^ j^ j
construct any piece of carpentry of a known property, from
doweled together J
certain given dimensions of the thing to bo constructed.
r Plugs used in shops, water-closets, &c. This branch is only the application of stereography to
Battens
Boarding when ]ess than the whole height Carpentry and, indeed, the only difference between stereo-
I I
:

for walls Boards

|
graphy and descriptive carpentry, is, that in the former, the
L
Nails J bodies are entire solids, but in the latter, the bodies to be
Cupboard j
Sides formed consist of ribs, disposed in parallel lines or planes, or
Bucks in lines tending to a point, or in planes tending to an axis ;
linings |
Door so that descriptive carpentry shows the methods of forming
f stops
Miscella- the separate pieces in order to construct the whole body or
J Shelving
neous j
Framed solid. Stereography is, therefore, not only employed in the
Dado construction of individual pieces, but also in the whole, when
( Plain, glued together
brought into a mass, or taken as one body. This branch
is
Door Jambs
j a necessary qualification to an architect, not only to enable
Soffits
linings (
him to anticipate the effect, but to judge of the propriety of
Mouldings laid in or planted, or
fStiles ") the execution of any proposed work.
Rails I moulded on one or both sides
It is too often the case, that young men professing to be
Doors Munnions,or of framing, or bead and flush, will not submit to that
| |
studying the science of architecture,
or bead and butt.
Mountings J which they are pleased to deem the drudgery of the profes-
I
Panels, flat or raised, or with planted beads sion. Instead of acquiring, by constant practice and studious

diligence, the necessary elements of descriptive and construc-

Dado tive knowledge of the various parts of an edifice, they attempt,

f Backs before are qualified by such knowledge, to design

they
Elbows edifices, fanciful in conception, as they would be ridiculous
Recess to if executed.
Soffits
windows ^
The result of this want of careful training, is well described
Boxings "
by Mr. Bartholomew,
in the following passage Taken :
I
Back-linings
 DES 237 DES
from school at nn age in which he cannot have imbibed in DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY, the art of representing
any degree sufficient of a polite and liberal education, the a definite body upon twoplanes, at right angles with each
architectural pupil, frequently with no knowledge whatever other, by lines falling perpendicularly to the planes from all
of geometry, never acquires any beyond the mere manual the points of the concourse of every two contiguous sides of
dexterity of drawing circular and plain lines ; abandoned by the body, and from all points of its contour and, vice versa,
;

his master while yet scarcely arrived at manhood, forced from a given representation to ascertain the parts of the
into premature and profitless practice with all the expenses original object.
of a separate establishment, it cannot be wondered at, that Descriptive geometry may therefore be considered
the adolescent architect sometimes has, in after-life, bitter synonymous with orthographical projection, npon which
cause to repent the circumstances and the rashness, which subject, with the exception of a treatise byMr. P. Nicholson,
led him to acquire practical design and practical construction, (first published in re-published with improve-
1795, and
solely by his youthful failures ; for it is then, with deep ments in the year 1809), nothing hud appeared in the
repentance, that he perceives the confusion of styles into English language, until the publication of this Dictionary.
which he has fallen, the whole chronology of gothic arches About the year 1794, the celebrated Monge, who has been
which he has paraded in the same fa9ade, the mixture of called the inventor of descriptive geometry, published in
Roman forms and luxury with the severe and elegant sim- France his Geometrie Descriptive, one of the most elegant
plicity of the Greeks in many a breaking up and fracture,
;
and lucid elementary works in existence. Previous to the
he has the mortification to find that inventions upon which appearance of this work, the science of perspective and
he has relied for eternal duration, have not survived their many other applications of geometry to the arts, had required
inventor's ruin that he has formed his pinnacles with
;
isolated methods of obtaining lines, angles, or areas, described
graduated outlines, as if Rossi yn chapel or some other impure under laws not readily admitting of the application of algebra,
source were his only pursuit; he regrets that he has placed and its consequence, the construction of tables. The des-
his columns opposite apertures, instead of opposite piers ; criptive geometry of Monge is a systematized form of the
he regrets that, from false bearing, want of plumb and equi- method by which a ground-plan and an elevation are made
poise, his work is so fractured, that even a man of more to give the form and dimensions of a building. The pro-
experience than himself cannot restore it; he perceives too jections of a point upon two planes at right angles to each
late, that his patronage of mean and fragile stone, and other being given, the position of the point itself is given.
pretended substitutes for it, his reliance on bad timber, has From this it is possible, knowing the projections of any solid
added something to the wreck of his country's architecture ; figure upon two such planes, to lay down on cither of those
he perceives with deep mortification, that his want of mathe- planes, a figure similar and equal to any plane section of
matical and mechanical skill, both theoretical and practical, the solid.
has led him to perform that which a professor of more This necessary and neglected part of education, had been
experience would avoid ; bruken arches, tie-less roofs, walls also much cultivated by Mr. Nicholson, and with such
thrust from their right position, partitions falsely trussed, success, that his works have always been referred to by
and groaning beneath loads which, formed otherwise, they succeeding writers as authorities. In addition to the treatise

might have borne unflinchingly, and a foundation which above mentioned, and also some parts of the carpentry in
fails in all directions from want of sufficient Rees' Cyclopaedia; the numerous valuable articles in this
spread to the
footings, or from the building being carried up piecemeal, Dictionary attest the sound practical know ledge of the writer,
or from other causes these are a few of the faults and and his perfect acquaintance with the subjects on which he
disasters, which in after times make a precocious practitioner has written. It is due to his memory, to state that he had
wish he had studied five or ten years more, before he had at that time no knowledge of any foreign work on Descriptive
risked himself or his employer's property." Geometry, and that the treatise by Monge did not fall into
This was not the case formerly ; men endeavoured in those his hands until the year 1812. While strongly recommend-
days to qualify themselves for the practice of their profession, ing that work, however, to the study of all those who
by Jong study, practice, and unceasing diligence. are desirous of attaining truth in delineation, he con-
Architects, among the ancients, were highly accomplished siders hisown views, differently conceived, as undoubtedly
characters, being skilled in all the geometrical and mechanical they were, from those of Monge, to have equal claims to
knowledge of their time ; and in this country they have had originality.
much claim to eminence as late as the reign of Queen Anne. As we are desirous of omitting nothing that may tend to
enlarge the bounds of science, we shall here insert so much
Since that time, however, a gradual declension of the art is
equally perceptible in all public edifices, as well as in all of Monge's work as we conceive to be conducive to this end,
works of architectural literature. referring Mr. Nicholson's own ideas on this branch of geo-
Though travelling adds to the accomplishment of a judicious metry, to the article PROJECTION, a name better understood
architect, it is among the least of the necessary qualifications ; in this country than that of Descriptive Geometry.
a careful observer will lay up greater stores of knowledge at To facilitate the knowledge of this subject, the reader
home, than he who has travelled, with inferior abilities ; and, should be well acquainted with the eleventh book of
indeed, if the architect have no farther views, than that of The Elements of Euclid, which treats particularly of planes,
travelling, in order to produce what he calls drawings of taste, and the manner in which solids are constituted.
he will, in most instances, become ostentatious, and will "
Figure 1. If from all the points of an indefinite right
ultimately lose the good opinion of his employers. Travelling line, however situated in space, we imagine perpendiculars
improves the man of science, but inflates the sciolist with to be dropped upon a given plane, L M N o, all the points of
vanity, and renders him ten times more a subject of com- these perpendiculars will fall upon the plane in another inde-
miseration than before. finite right line, a 6, for they will be all comprised in the
As those parts of carpentry which are objects of descrip- plane described by A u, perpendicular to the plane M N o,
i.

tion, are placed under their proper denominations, the reader and can only meet the latter in the line of intersection com-
is referred to each
particular term, for further information mon to both planes, which is a right line.
"
upon this useful subject. The right line a b, which passes through the projections
 DBS 238 DBS
of
right line A B, upon the plane L M N o,
all the points of the lines a c, c a", passing both by the point c, and being both
called the projection of the
right line A B upon this plane. perpendicular to L M, are in prolongation to each other ; the
is
"
As two points are sufficient for determining the position case is similar with the right lines ft D, D ft", as to every other
of a right line ; it is only in constructing the pro-
necessary, point, as B. Hence it follows, that when we have obtained
jection of a right line, to construct the projections of two of the horizontal projection of a point, the projection of this
its points, and the line which
they describe will be the same point upon the vertical plane, supposed to be laid down,
required projection. will be in the right line drawn along by the horizontal pro-
" Hence it
follows, that if the proposed right line be per- jection perpendicularly to the intersection, L M, of the two
pendicular to the plane of projection, its projection will be planes of projection, and this reciprocally.
reduced to a single point, which will be that in which it falls "This result very frequently occurs in practice.
upon the plane.
" We
have hitherto considered the right line, A B, Figure 2,
" The of the same indefi- as indefinite ; in which case we should only have to do with
Figure 2. projections a ft,
a' ft',

nite right line, A B, being given upon two planes, not parallel, its direction ; but we must now consider it as terminated
by
L M N o, L M p Q, this right line is determined for, if from ;
the points A B, which will bring us to take its extent into our
one of the projections, a 6, we imagine a plane perpendicular calculation. We shall, therefore, examine how this may be
to L M N o, the position of this plane being known, it would deduced from a knowledge of its two projections.
"
necessarily pass through the right line A B. The position of When a right line is
parallel to one of the planes on
this right line, which is found at once upon both the known which it is projected, its length is equal to that of its projec-
planes, consequently at their mutual intersection, is therefore tion on the plane for the line and its projection, being both
;

absolutely determined. terminated at two points perpendicular at the plane of pro-

"
What we have just stated is to be understood as inde- jection, are parallel to each other, and comprised between
pendent of the planes of projection, and takes place, whatever parallels. In this particular case, therefore, the projection
may be the angle formed by the two planes. But if the angle being given, the length of the right line, which is equal to it,
formed by the two planes of projection be very obtuse, that is also given.
formed by their perpendiculars will be very acute very " A
:
right line is always parallel to one of the two planes of
trifling mistakes in this respect, will, in practice, lead to very projection, when its projection upon the second is parallel tc
grave errors in determining the position of the right line. the first of its planes.
To obviate this cause of inaccuracy, at least in the absence " If
the right line be at the same time oblique upon two
of better means, it is usual to have the planes of projection planes, its length will be greater than that of either of its
perpendicular to each other besides which, as most artists,
:
projections ;
but the true length may be obtained by a very
who use projections, are familiar with the position of a hori- simple operation.
zontal plane and the direction of a plumb-line, they gene- "
Figure 2. Let A B be the right line ;
a ft,
a' ft', its given
rally represent one plane of projection as horizontal, and the projections to find its true length.
: From one of the
oihur vertical. extremities of the right line A, in the vertical plane, falling
"The necessity of representing, in drawings, the two pro- from it, imagine a horizontal line, A E,* stretching out till it
jections upon tlie same sheet, and in larger operations upon meet K the vertical line falling from the other extremity
in
the same area, has farther determined artists to represent the at B ; give the rectangular triangle, A E B, which
this will
vertical plane as turning and
folding down, as upon a hinge, must be constructed in order to obtain the length of the
at its intersection with the horizontal plane, so as that the right line A B, which is its hypothenuse. In this triangle,
two may form but one plane, upon which they construct their independently of the right angle, we know the side A E,
project ions. which is equal to the given projection, a A. And if, in the
" The
vertical projection is thus, in fact, traced upon a vertical plane, we draw from the point a', the horizontal line
horizontal plane, and it must ever be kept in mind, that it a' e', which is the projection of A E, it will cut the vertical
must be corrected and put in its
place, by turning it one- line A' D at the point e, which will be the projection of the point
fourth of a revolution round its intersection witli the hori- E. Thus !>' e will be the vertical projection of B E, and con-
zontal plane to do which accurately, care must be taken to
:
sequently of an equal length with it. Having ascertained,
trace this intersection very plainly upon the design.
"
by these means, the two sides of the triangle, it will be easy
Thus, in Figure 2, the projection a' ft' of the right line to construct the triangle, whose hypothenuse will give the
A B, could not be drawn upon a real vertical plane but if we ; length of A B.
"
conceive the plane to be turned about the right line L M, so as Fir/vre 2. being draw n in perspective, has no affinity to
to bring it in contact at L M P'<J', we shall readily execute the constructions done in the manner of projections. shall We
'
vertical projection //'. here give the construction of this first question in all its
"
Besides the
facilities of execution
presented by this dis- simplicity.
" The M being supposed to be the
position, possesses the additional advantage of abridging the
it
Fir/tire 3. right line L
labour of projections. Thus, suppose the points a, a', to be !
intersection of the two planes of projection, and the lines a A,
the horizontal and vertical
projections of the point A, the a" A", the given projections of a right line ; to find the length
plane indicated by the right lines A rr, A a', will be perpen- of thisline. Draw through the point a", the indefinite hori-
dicular to the two planes of
projection at the same time, zontal H e, which will cut the line A A", at the point e, and
because it passes along the right lines
perpendicular to them :
upon it measure the length of a A, from e to H. Draw the
consequently, it will be perpendicular to their common inter- hypothenuse H ft", and its length will be that of the right line
section LM ; and the right lines a c, a' c, according to which required.
" As both the
they cut these two planes, will be themselves perpendicular planes of projection are rectangular, this
to L M.
operation, which is performed upon
one of the planes, may
"Now, if the vertical plane be turned about L M, as upon be also done upon the other, and will yield a similar result.
"
a hinge, the right line a' c, still continues
perpendicular to From what has been said, the reader will perceive, that
L M ; and the case is still the same, when the vertical whenever we have the two projections of a body, terminated
plane,
laid down, assumes the position c a". Thus the two right by planesurfaces, by rectilinear angles, and by the apices of
 DES 239 DES
solid angles (projections which are reducible to the system of order to avoid a combination of the horizontal projection of
rectilinear angles) it will be easy to ascertain the length of one point with the vertical projection of another and the most
;

any of dimensions
its for this dimension will either be
:
ready mode of thus uniting these projections, being to join
parallel to one of the two planes of projection, or it will be at them by one perpendicular right line to the line of intersec-
the same moment oblique to them both. In the first case, tion of the two planes of projection, the draught would
the required length of the dimension will be equal to its pro- become surcharged with a prodigious number of lines, and
jection ; in the second, it may be reduced from the two pro- cause a confusion, which would increase in proportion as we
jections, by the method just described. would aim at accuracy and precision.
" We
come now to describe the mode by which the pro- "
We shall now prove this method to be insufficient, and
jections of solids, terminated by planes and rectilinear angles destitute of the requisite copiousness.
"
are constructed ; though there is no general rule for this Amongst the vast variety of differently-curved surfaces,
operation indeed, the construction of these projections will
: there are some which extend only through a finite and cir-
be more or less easy, according to the method in which the cumscribed portion of space, and whose projections are
position of the apices of the angles of the solid is defined ; limited, as to extent, in every direction ; as in the case of a
the nature of the operation being governed by that of the sphere, the extent of whose projection on a plane is reduced
definition. The case is precisely here as in algebra, in which to that of a circle, having its circumference
equal to that of
there is no general method of reducing a problem to equa- the sphere ;
and we must allow the plane, on which the
tions. In every particular instance, the process depends on projection falls, to be of dimensions sufficient to receive it.
the mode in which the relation between the given quan- But cylindric surfaces are as indefinite in a certain direc-
all
titiesand those sought for, is expressed and it is only by a
: tion, as the right line by which they are generated ; and the
variety of examples that young students can learn how to lay plane itself, the most simple of all surfaces, is indefinite in
hold of these affinities, and to express them in equations. So two ways. There are likewise a great number of surfaces,
likewise, in descriptive geometry, it is only by a multitude of whose protuberant particles (nappes) shoot at once into all
examples, and by the use of the rule and compasses in our the regions of space. Now, as the planes on which projec-
schools, thatwe can acquire the habit of forming construc- tions are received, are unavoidably of a limited extent, this
tions, or accustom ourselves to make choice of the most mode of describing the nature of a curved surface, had we no
familiar and elegant methods in each particular case. We other than that of the two projections of each of the points
may farther observe, that, as in analyses, when a problem is by which it parses, could be only applicable to those of which
reduced to equations, there are methods of treating those the points of the surface correspond to the size of the planes
equations, and of deducting from them the value of each of projection ; all beyond this, could neither be expressed
unknown quantity ;
so also, in descriptive geometry, when nor known consequently, this mode would be insufficient.
:

the projections are made, there are certain general methods Lastly, it
variety, because we could not deduce
would want
of constructing whatever may result from the terms, and from it anything relative either to tangent planes to the sur-
respective positions of bodies. face, nor to its normals, nor to its two curvatures in each
" Nor is this
comparison between descriptive geometry point, nor to its lines of inflection, nor to its returning arretes,
and algebra altogether useless: for these sciences are intimately nor to its multiplied lines and points, nor, in a word, to any
connected. There is no construction of descriptive geometry, of the affections necessary to be considered in operating on
but what may be reduced to an analysis and when questions ;
a curved surface.
"
require no more than three unknown quantities, each analysis It is therefore necessary, that we should have recourse

may be looked upon as the record of a spectacle in geometry. to some new principle, riot only compatible with the former,
" It is much to be but also capable of supplying its place, whenever it becomes
wished, that these two sciences were
studied together :
descriptive geometry would carry that evi- our purpose.
in itself insufficient for It is this new
principle
dence which peculiar characteristic, into the most com-
is its that we are now about
to lay down.
"
plicated analytical operations ; while on the other hand alge- Every curved surface may be considered as generated by
braical analyses would give to geometry, that generality the movement of a curved line, either inflexible in form
which it stands in need of. when its position is changed, or variable both in form and
"
The principle upon which we ground the theory of pro- situation. As the universality of this proposition may render
jections is convenient for describing the position of a point in it difficult of comprehension, we shall explain it
by some
space or that of an indefinite or terminated right line, and, familiar examples.
"
consequently, for representing the form and position of a Cylindric surfaces may be generated in two principal
body terminated either with plain faces, rectilinear arretes, ways, viz., either by the movement of a right line, which
or the apices of solid angles; for when once we are acquainted keeps constantly parallel to a given line whilst in motion, yet
with the position of all its arretes and of the apices of all its inclining always towards a given curve ; or by the movement
angles, the body itself is entirely known. But were all bodies of the, curve itself, taken in the foregoing instance as the con-
bounded, either by an uniformly curved surface, all whose ductor, which so moves, as that while from one point it
points were governed by the same law, as in spheres, or by inclines towards a given line, all its other points may describe
an unconnected assemblage of several parts of differently parallels to this line. In both these modes of origin, the
curved surfaces, as in a body turned on a lathe; this prin- generating line, which is a right line in the first case, and a
ciple would not only be inconvenient, impracticable, and curve, of whatever description, in the second, invariably
destitute of the advantage of forming an idea of the shape, retains itsform only changing its position in space.
;

but would also be insufficient through want of variety. "Conical surfaces have, in like manner, two principal
" modes of being generated. First, they may be considered
For instance it is easy to perceive that this principle
:

by would be inconvenient and impracticable, if we

itself, as generated by an indefinite right line, which being forced to
wished to describe all the points of a curved surface ; because pass always upon a given point, moves so as to lean constantly
itwould be necessary not only to indicate each of them, as towards a given curve, that directs its movement. The only
well by its horizontal, as its vertical projection, but also to point through which it always passes the right line, is the
have tlio two projections of the same point united together, in centre of the surface, improperly called its apex or head. In
 DBS 240 DES
this mode, the geneiating line still preserves its identity, this second line be itself in the plane in question, it may be
never ceasing to be a right line. also said that the plane is generated by such second right
" Conic surfaces line moving so that all its points may describe lines parallel
may also be generated in another way,
which, for greater plainness, we shall here apply only to those to the first.

with circular bases. The surfaces may be considered as " We

have therefore an idea of the position of a plane,
bounded by the circumference of a circle, moving with its from an observation of the two right lines, each of which may
plane always parallel to itself, and its centre upon a right be considered as its generator. The position of the^e two
line passing through the apex ;
its radius being, in every right lines in the plane which they generate, is altogether
movement, proportionate to the distance of the centre from indifferent ;
it is
only necessary, therefore, for projections, to
the apex. Here it is evident, that if in its motion, the plane make choice of such as are of the most simple construction.
of the circle tends towards the apex of the surface, the radius Hence, in descriptive geometry, the position of a plane is
of the circle will decrease, till, in passing the apex, it will be indicated by giving the two right lines along which it cuts
an absolute nullity, after which it will again increase indefi- the planes of projection. It is easy to recollect that these

nitely, in proportion as the plane, having passed the apex, is two right lines must meet the intersection of the two planes
withdrawn farther and farther from it. In this second mode of projection in one and the same point, and that, consequently
of generating, the circumference of the circle, which is the this must be the point, in which they meet themselves.
"
generating curve, not only changes its position, but its form As we shall have frequent occasion to bring planes under
also, at every motion ; for, changing its radius, it conse- our consideration, we shall, for the sake of brevity, adopt the
quently varies both in curvature and extent. term traces to describe those right lines, by which they cut
'
Let us take a third example. the planes of projection, and by which their position is
"
Acircular surface may be generated by the movement indicated.
"
of a plane curve, turning about a right line ; drawn in any Having settled these preliminaries, we now proceed to
direction upon its plane. In thisway, we find the generating the solution of various questions, which will at once serve as
curve inflexible in form, but changeable in position. We may exercises on the method of projections, and facilitate our
also see generated by the circumference of a circle, moving
it farther progress in descriptive geometry.
with its centre always on the axis, and its plane being per- " A whose projections
First Question. Figure 4. point,
pendicular to this axis, the radius will be uniformly equal to are D, e/,
and a right line, whose projections are A B and a b,
the distance of the point in which the plane of the circle cuts being given ;
to construct the projections of a second right
the axis, from that in which it cuts a given curve in space. line, drawn from the point given, parallel to the first.
Here the generating curve changes both in form and position. "
Solution. The two horizontal projections of the given
" .From these
three examples, we may perceive that all right line, and of the line sought, must be parallel to each
curved surfaces may be generated by the movement of cer- other being the intersections of two vertical planes, parallel
;

tain curved lines, and that there are none of which the form to a common plane. It is also the same with the vertical
and position may not be accurately described from an exact projections of similar right lines. Therefore, as the right
and complete definition of its generation. This new prin- line sought for must necessarily pass through the given
ciple forms a complement to the method of projections ; and point, its projections must also pass through
those of the
in proceeding, we shall have
frequent occasion to be con- point respectively. If, then, from tho point D,
E F be drawn
vinced of its simplicity and copiousness. parallel to A B, and if from the point d, e be drawnf
"
It is by merely giving the projections of
not, therefore, parallel to b, the lines E F and e/will be the projections
individual points, through which a curved surface passes, required.
that we are enabled to determine its form and position but ;
"
Second Question. Figure 5. A plane whose two traces
B, B c, and a point, whose projections
by being able construct for any point the generating
to are A are o, g, being
curve, according to the form and position it would have in given to construct the traces of a second plane, drawn
:
from
parsing such point. And here we may remark, 1. That as the given point, parallel to the first.
" The traces of the plane sought for, must be
every curved surface may be generated in an infinite number Solution.
of different ways, it must depend upon the dexterity and parallel to the respective traces
of the given plane, because
knowledge of the operator, to make choice, among all the these traces taken in pairs, are the intersections of two planes
possible generations, of such as will require the most simple parallel common plane.
to a We
have, therefore, only to
curve, and least complex considerations. 2. That long expe- find, foreach of them, one of the points through which they
rience has taught us, instead of considering only one genera- respectively pass. To obtain this, from the given point,
ting principle of a curved surface, as prescribed by the laws conceive a horizontal right line in the plane sought for;
of motion and of the change of form in its generation, it is be par.-illel to the trace A D, cutting the vertical
this line will

frequently more simple to take two generating principles, plane a point, which will be one
in of those of the trace of
and to indicate for each point the construction of the two the plane sought for on it ; and we shall have its two pro
generating curves. jections,by drawing the indefinite horizontal g f from the
" i from the point o, parallel to
Thus, descriptive geometry, in order to express the
in
point g, and the right line o
form and position of a curved surface, it is only necessary, A B. be produced to meet the intersection, L M, of the two
If G i

for any point of such surface, of which the such point will be the hori-
projections may planes of projection in the point i,
be taken at pleasure, to give the manner of constructing the zontal projection of the intersection of the horizontal right line
horizontal and vertical projections of two different
generators, with the vertical plane. This point of intersection, there-
which pass that point. i F, drawn from the
fore, will be found upon the vertical line
" Weshall now proceed to
apply these general principles point i. But as it must also be found upon g F, it will be
to the plane, of all surfaces the most simple, and the most discovered at the poir.t of intersection of the two latter
F,
line from F parallel to B c,
frequently in use. right lines. Lastly, by drawing a
"Aplane is generated from the motion of a given right we shall have upon the vertical plane the trace of the plane
line, of a known position, which moves so that all its points be produced till it meet LM
required : and if this trace
may describe lines parallel to a second given right line. If in the point E, and E D be drawn parallel to A B, we
 DES 241 DES
shall have the trace of the same plane upon the horizontal purpose, let an horizontal line from the given point be con-
plane.
ceived in the plane required, produced so as to meet the
"instead of a horizontal right line in the plane sought vertical plane of projection, and we shall find its vertical
If,

for,a line parallel to the vertical plane were conceived, the projection, by drawing the indefinite horizontal dc, through
construction following, by parity of reasoning, would be the point rf, and its horizontal projection by drawing a per-
obtained : pendicular to AB, through the point D, produced till it cut
" Draw from the LM in H, which will be the horizontal projection of the point
point o, parallel to L M, the indefinite
right line GD; from the point g, draw ^H parallel to c B, of coincidence of the horizontal with the vertical plane of
producing it till it cut L M in the point n, whence draw n D projection. This point of coincidence, which must he found
perpendicular to L M this latter will cut o D in D, whence
: in the vertical line HO, and the horizontal line rfo, and con-
if a parallel be drawn to A B, one of the traces of the plane sequently at the point, o, of the intersection of these two
sought for will be obtained and if, having produced this ; lines, will be one of the points of the trace on the vertical
trace to meet L M in E, E F be drawn parallel to B c, we shall plane; we shall then find this trace by drawing the line FC,
have the trace on the vertical plane. from the point o, perpendicular to a b; and if from the
" Third
Question. Figure 6. A plane whose two traces point c, where the first trace meets LM. c E be drawn per-
are A B and B c, and a point whose two projections are D, </, pendicular to A B, we shall have the second trace required.
"
being given ;
to construct, 1, the projections of the right The same process would discover the point of coincidence
line tailing perpendicularly from the point upon the plane; of the plane with the right line.
"
2, the projection of the point of coincidence of the right line Were it necessary to drop a perpendicular from the
with the plane. given point upon the rii;ht line, we should construct, as has
"
Solution. The perpendiculars D o, dy, falling from the just been described, the coincidence of the right line with
points D and d upon the respective traces of the plane, will the plane drawn by the given point, and which would be
he the indefinite projections of the right line required: for perpendicular to it; and we should obtain, from each of the
if, along the perpendicular, a vertical plane be conceived, two projections of the required perpendicular, two points
such plane will cut both the horizontal and the given planes, through which it must pass.
"
in two right lines, both of them perpendicular to the common
Fifth Question. Figure 8. Two planes being given in
intersection, A B, of the two planes now. the first of these ; position, by means of their traces A B and A b for one, and
lines, being the projection of the vertical plane, is also that CD and cd for the other; to construct the projections of
of the perpendicular which is included therefore the pro- ;
the right line upon which they intersect each other.
"
jection of this perpendicular must pass through the point D. Solution. All the points of the trace A B being found in
and the perpendicular to A v. the first of the two given planes, and all those of the trace
"The same demonstration will serve for the vertical c D being found in the second, the point E, of intersection
projection. of these two traces is evidently in the two planes, and is
"
As to the point of coincidence of the perpendicular with consequently one of the points of ihe required right line. In
the plane, it is evident that it must be found at the intersec- like manner, the point, F, of intersection of the two traces
tion of this plane, with the vertical plane drawn along the upon the vertical plane, is also another point of this right
perpendicular ; such intersection being projected indefinitely line. The intersection of the two planes is therefore so
upon EF. By obtaining the vertical projection, fe, of this placed as to meet the horizontal plane in E, and the vertical
intersection, we shall find it to contain that of the point plane in F.
and as this point must be projected upon the ri<iht " the point F be projected on the horizontal
required ; If, therefore,
line will be found at the intersection, <7, of the lines which be performed by dropping the perpen-
<///, it
plane, may
fe and d g. It remains, therefore, only to discover the right dicular F/on L M, and if the line /E be drawn, it will be the
line/e: now, the intersection of the given plane with the horizontal projection of the intersection of the two planes.
vertical plane, which are perpendicular to each other, will So, if the point E be projected on the vertical plane, by
meet the horizontal plane in the point E, whose vertical dropping the perpendicular E c on LM, and if the right line
projection, e, will be found by dropping E e perpendicularly e F be drawn, it will be the vertical projection of the same

upon M and it will meet the vertical plane of projection

t,
; intersection.
"
in a point, whose horizontal projection is the intersection of Sixth Question. Figure 9. Two planes being given, by
the line L M with D o. produced, if necessary, and whose means of the traces A B and A b for the first, and c D and c d
vertical projection must be at once upon the vertical line vf for the second; to construct the angles formed by them.
and the trace c B ; of course, it will be at the point, /, of "Solution. Having constructed, as in the preceding ques-
their intersection. tion, the horizontal projection, E /, of the intersection of the
"
The of the foot of the perpendicular
vertical projection, g, two planes ; by conceiving a
third plane perpendicular to

being found, the construction of its horizontal projection will them, and consequently perpendicular to their common inter-
be easy; for by dropping the indefinite perpendicular g o section ; this third plane will cut the two given planes in
upon L M, a right line will be obtained, which will contain two right lines, containing between them an angle equal
the point required and as the line DF must also contain it,
: to the one required.
it will be found at the point, o, of intersection of these two
"
The horizontal trace of this third plane will be perpen-
right lines. dicular to the projection, sf, of the intersection of the two
" Fourth
Question. Figure 7. A right line whose two given planes, forming with the other right lines a triangle,
projections are A B, a b, and a point whose two projections of which the angle opposed to the horizontal side will be the
are D, d, being given; to construct the traces of a plane one required. It remains, therefore, only to construct
drawn from the point, perpendicularly to the right line this triangle.
"
Solution. We
have seen from the preceding question, " It is
quite indifferent through what point of the inter-
that the two traces must be perpendicular to the respective section of the two first planes the third passes ; and we are
projections of the two right lines it remains to be discovered : at liberty to mark its trace upon the horizontal plane, at
what points each of them ought to pass through. For this
pleasure ; provided that it be perpendicular to E/. Suppose
31
 DES 242 DES
then, the line o H be drawn perpendicular to zf. terminating, line A F, and the vertical height of one of its extremities
in o and H, at the traces of the two given
planes, and meet- above that of the other is
equal to a a ; hence, according to
ing F.yj in the point i ; this line will be the base of the the property of Figure 3, if upon L M, A F be measured from
triangle intended to be constructed. In fact, let us suppose o tof, and if the hypothenuse af, be drawn, such hvpothennse
that the plane of this triangle turns on its base, o H, as on will be the distance required.
Finally, if a f be carried
a hinge, to adapt itself to the horizontal plane ; in this from F to H, and if from the point H the two lines H D and
motion, its
apex, in the first instance placed on
which was H E be drawn, the triangle will be complete, and E H E will
the intersection of the two
planes, continues in the vertical be the angle sought for.
"
plane drawn through such intersection, because the vertical Eif/hth Question. The projections of a right line, and
plane is perpendicular to o H and when the plane of the
;
the traces of a plane, being given to construct the angle
;

triangle is laid apex will be found on one of

down, this formed by such line and plane.
"
the points (if the line B/ It therefore remains Solution. Suppose a line perpendicular to the given
only to
discover the heights of the triangle, or the extent of the plane to be drawn from a certain point in the given right
perpendicular dropped from the point i, on the intersection line, the angle formed by such perpendicular with the given
of the two planes. right line, would be the complement of the required angle,
"
But this perpendicular is
comprised in the vertical plane the construction of which will resolve the question.
"
drawn from E to therefore, we conceive this plane to
/; if, Now, if upon the two projections of the right, line, two
revolve about the vertical line /F, in order to apply itself points be taken, in the same perpendicular with the intersec-
to the vertical plane of projection ; and if we carry /E from /' tion of the two planes of projection and if lines be drawn
;

to ?, fi from /
to i, the line e F will be the extent of the from these two points, perpendicular to the respective traces
portion of the intersection comprised between the two planes of the given plane, they will describe the horizontal and
of projection ; and if from the point f, the perpendicular k i vertical projections of the second right line. The question
be dropped upon this line, it will give the height of the will therefore be reduced to the construction of the angle
required triangle. formed by two right lines which cut each other, and will be
" of the same nature with the former.
Hence, by carrying i h from i to K, and completing
"
the triangle o K H, the angle in K will be equal to the angle It is usual, in
projecting a chart of a countrv, to imagine
formed by the two planes. the remarkable points to be connected by meansof right lines
"
Seventh Question. Figure 10. Two right lines inter- forming triangles, which are to be transferred to the chart
secting each other in space, being given by their horizontal on a smaller scale, but placed in the same relative order as
projections A n, A c, and by their vert ical projections a b, a c ;
those they represent. The operations necessary to be made
to construct the angle formed between them. on the earth consist chiefly of the measurement of angles,
" we enter on
Before the solution of this question, we may and of these triangles ; and in order to the angles being
remark, that as the two given right lines are supposed to described correctly on the chart, they ought each to be in a
intersect each other, the point, A, of the coincidence of their horizontal plane, parallel to that of the chart. If the plane
horizontal projections, and the point, a, of the coincidence of the angle be oblique to the horizon, it must not be repre-
of their vertical projections, will be the projections of the sented, but its horizontal projection must be taken, which
point in which they cross each other, and will, consequently, may always be found, if after measuring the angle itself,
be in the same right line, OOA, perpendicular to L M. Were those angles which its two sides form with the horizon be
the two points A and a not in the same perpendicular to L M, also measured. Hence we derive the following operation,
the given right lines would not intersect each other, and of known under the appellation of the redaction of an angle to
course would not be in the same plane. the horizon.
" Solution. Conceive the " Ninth The angle formed by two right lines,
two given right lines to be Question.
produced so as to meet the horizontal plane, each in a point, and the angles formed by such lines with the horizontal
and then construct these two points of coincidence. To planes, being given ; to construct the horizontal projection
perform this, produce the lines a b and ac, till they cut LM of the first of these angles.
in the points d and e, which will be the vertical projections
"
Solution. -Figure II. Let A be the horizontal projection
of these two points of coincidence. From the points d and e. of the apex of the angle sought for, and A B that of one of
draw upon the horizontal plane, and perpendicularly to L M, its sides, so that the other side may be represented by A E.

two indefinite right lines, d E and e E, which, as they Conceive the vertical plane of projection to pass along A B ;
must pass through one of these points, will determine and having drawn the vertical indefinite line A a, through
their positions by their intersections, D and E, with the the point A, any point, as rf, may be taken at pleasure, as
respective horizontal projections A B and A c, produced the vertical projection of the apex of the angle observed.
if necessary. If from the point rf, the right line de be drawn, so as to
"
This done, draw the right line D E, which, with the two make with the horizontal line, an angle rfs A, equal to that
parts of the given lines comprised between their intersecting made by the first side with the horizon, the point B will be
point and the points D and E, will form a triangle, of which the coincidence of this side with the horizontal plane. Also,
the angle opposite to D K will be the angle required we : if from the point rf, the line rf c be drawn, so as to make

have, therefore, only to construct this triangle. To do so, with the horizontal line an angle, rfcA, equal to that made
having dropped from the point A, the indefinite perpendicular by the second side with the horizon ; and if from the point A,
A F, upon D E, conceive the plane of the triangle to turn as as from a centre, with the radius AC, the indefinite arc of
upon a hinge on its base D B, till it lie flat on the horizontal a circle, c E F, be described, the second side can meet the
plane; the apex of this triangle, during its movement, will horizontal plane only in the points of the arc c B F. It
not depart from the vertical plane described remains, therefore, only to ascertain the dUtance between
by AF, and
will at length apply itself in some
degree upon the prolonga- this point and some other, as B.
tion of F A in a point, H, of which it remains " Now this latter distance is in the
only to find the plane of the angle
distance from the base D B. observed. If, therefore, the right line rf B be drawn, so as
" Now
the horizontal projection of this distance is the right that the angle D rf B may be equal to the angle observed, and
 DES 243 DES
ifd c be carried from d to D, the right line D B will be equal favourable for receiving a certain impression it
supposes ;

to such distance. in the artist a great knowledge of philosophy exacts, on ;

"
Therefore, taking B as a centre, and, at an interval his part, a most intimate acquaintance with the nature of

equal to c D, describing the arc of a circle, the point E, where thing-, the mode in which they affect us, and the move-
it will cut the first, will be the
point of coincidence of the ments, even involuntary, by which such affection manifests
second side with the horizontal plane; consequently, the right itself. This can only be the result of a very refined educa-
line A K will be the horizontal projection of such side, and tion, such as no one receives, and such as we are far from
the angle B A E that of the angle observed. giving to young artists it is governed
:
by no general rule,
"The nine preceding questions barely convey an idea of but is subject solely to genius.
the method of projections ; they are inadequate to a display "The other part of painting may be properly called the
of all the resources: but in proportion as we rise to more trade : its object is a correct execution of the conceptions of
general considerations, we shall take care, to introduce such the former. Here nothing is arbitrary; all is foreseen, by
operations as will be most conducive to this object. the help of sound reasoning, as the necessary result of deter-
"
Of planes tangent to ctirvfd surfaces, and of normals. minate subjects and given circumstances. When the form
'There is no curved surface but what may be generated and position of an object are ascertained ; when its nature,
in several ways, by the movement of curved lines; there- and the number and positions of all the bodies by which it
fore, if from any point of a surface, two generating lines be may be illumined, whether by direct light or reflected rays,
supposed to spring in the position they would naturally have are understood ; when the position of the eye of the spectator
in
passing each other through such point, and if the tangents is determined ;
and when, in a word, every circumstance
be supposed in this point, to each of the two generators, the that can influence the vision, is well established and known,
plane described by such two tangents is the tangent plane. the tint of each of the points of the visible surface is abso-
The point of the surface in which the two generators cut each lutely determined. Whatever relates to the colour of this
other, and is at the same time common to the two tangents tint,or its brightness, depends on the position of the plane
and to the tangent plane, is the point of contact between the tangent in this point, with respect to the illuminating bodies
surface and the plane. and to the eye of the spectator. This may be discovered
"The right line drawn through the point of contact, per- by mere reasoning, and when so determined should be applied
pendicularly to the tangent plane, is said to be normal to the with accuracy. Every diminution, or exaggeration, will
surface. It is
perpendicular to the ground of the surface, change the appearances, alter the forms, and produce an
because the direction of such ground coincides, in every part, effect quite different from that intended by the artist.
with that of the tangent plane, which may be considered as "I am aware that the rapidity of execution, which is often
its
prolongation. necessary, rarely admits of the use of a method which
"A knowledge of tangents and of normals to curved sur- deprives the genius of all corporeal succours, and leaves it
faces, is very useful in a great number of arts in to the exercise of its faculties alone, as well as that it is much
; many, it
is
indispensable. We
shall here adduce only a single example more easy for the painter to look at objects, to observe their
of each case, selected in architecture and painting. tints, and to imitate them but were he accustomed to con-
:

"The portions which compose vaults of hewn

several sider the positions of tangent planes, and the two curvatures
stone, are called voustoirs, and the faces on which two con- of surfai-es in each of their points (curvatures which will
tiguous voussoirs touch each other, are denominated joints, form the subject of subsequent lessons) he would not fail
whether the voussoirs form but a single course, or whether to derive from this material method, a more advantageous
they be comprised in two successive courses. result it would
: enable him to supply effects which the
'
The position of the joints of vaults is subject to several omission of some circumstances had prevented him from,
conditions, which must necessarily be complied with, and producing, and to suppress others which had arisen from
which we shall demonstrate
succession, in the sequel of
in extraneous incidents.
"
this discourse; but at
present we must confine our attention In conclusion, we may remark, that the vague expres-
to the object more sions, such as flats, which painters are in the constant
"
immediately before us.
One of the conditions required in the position of joints, habit of using, are standing evidences of the need in
is, that they be all perpendicular to each other, and to the which they are of more accurate knowledge, and of deeper
surface of the vault. Any material deviation from this rule, reflection.
not only destroys the general symmetry of the structure, but "Besides its utility in the arts, the knowledge of planes
is one of the most
also diminishes the firmness and durability of the vault. For tangent and normals to curved surfaces,
instance, if one of the joints be made oblique to the surface fertile methods employed in descriptive geometry for the
of the vault, one of the two continuous voussoirs will form solution of questions, which it would be very difficult to
an obtuse angle, and the other, an acute one ; and in the resolve by any other process, as will appear from the follow-
reaction which these voussoirs would exert against each ing examples.
other, the two angles would present an unequal resistance, "The general mode of determining the plane tangent to
whence, in consequence of the fragility of the materials, the a curved sgrface, consists, as we have already remarked, in
with two
acute angle would bilge, and spoil the shape of the vault, as conceiving at the point of contact, the tangents
well as endanger the edifice. The reduction of vaults into different generating curves, whieh would pass through this
voussoirs, therefore, absolutely requires a knowledge of point,and in constructing the plane that would pass through
planes tangent and normals to the curved surface of the arch. these two right lines. In some particular cases, in order to
shorten the construction, the strict letter of this mode is
11
Let us take another example, from an ait, which, at
first view, seems to require a much less rigid attention departed from, but an equivalent is always adopted.
to this rule. " As we shall not dwell
to the construction of the, normal,
" itself merely to that of a
1'ainting generally considered as consisting of two
is upon it reduces
particularly, as it

parts. The one is, properly speaking, the art; its object is right line perpendicular to the tangent plane,
which is suffi-
to excite in the ciently understood.
spectator a determinate emotion, to create
"
in him a given idea, or to
place him in a situation the most First Question. From a supposed point on a cylindric
 DBS 244 DES
surface, of which the horizontal projection is given, to draw ing the trace as a second generating line, it would be necessary
a tangent plane to that surface. to conceive it as passing successively through each of the
" Solution.
Figure 12. Let A B, a 4, represent the hori- points of contact, and to construct a tangent for each of such
zontal and vertical projections of the given right line, to points; but in the present case of cylindric surfaces, a nun h
which the generator of the eylindric surface must be parallel ;
more simple process may be pursued. For example: the
let E p D be the given curve in the horizontal plane, on which plane tangent to the point c, c, touches the surface, through-
the generator must constantly rest, and which may be con- out its extent, of the generating right line which passes from
this point; it touches it, then, in D. which is a
sidered as the outline of the cylindric surface; lastly, let c point of such
be the given horizontal projection of the point supposed on generating line, and ought therefore to pass through the
the cylindric surface, from which the tangent plane must tangent to the trace at the point D. Bv parity of reasoning,
be drawn. we shall find that the plane tangent, c, c', ought to pass along
Next, from the supposed point on the surface, whose the tangent to the trace in E. Therefore, if from the two
'

horizontal projection is in c, imagine the generating right points D, E, we draw the trace of the two tangent planes D K,
line in the position it would have, if it passed through that E o, produced till they cut the line L M in two points K, o. we
point: this generator being a straight line, will be; its own shall have, in the horizontal plane, the traces of the two tangent

tangent, and consequently one of the two right lines bv which planes.
li
the position of the tangent plane will be determined also, ; only remains to discover the traces of the same planes
It

it will be parallel to the given right, lino: its two projections, on the vertical plane and having already for one of these
;

therefore, will be respectively parallel to A B and a It: then, traces the point K. and for the other, the point o, we have
if from the point c. an indefinite line be drawn, parallel to only to determine a single point for each of them.
"
A B, as E F, we shall have the horizontal projection of the With this view, operating for the first of the two tangent
generator. To obtain its vertical projection, we must sup- planes, imagine the point to be constructed, to be one in
pose the generator to be produced upon the cylindric suiface, which a horizontal line drawn upon the plane throuuh the
till it meet the horizontal
plane, which it can only do in a point of contact, would meet the vertical plane; we shall
point, that will l>c al once on the projection E F, and on the
have the horizontal projection of such line, by drawing from
curve E p D, and consequently the intersection of these two the point c, a line parallel to the trace D K, which
may be
lines: thus the poi:it will be determined by producing E F produced the line LM in the point i; and we may
till it meet
till it cut some part of the curve E p D. obtain its
projection by drawing from the point c
vertical
"Two c.ises here present themselves: either the line E F an indefinite horizontal line. The point of coincidence of the
will cut the outline of the cylinder in a single point, or it will vertical plane with the horizontal, will be found at once both
cut it in several points In examining these two cases sepa- upon the vertical line I i and the hoiizontal line c i. and will
rately, we shall the first instance, that to what-
suppose, in be at the point, i, of their intersection therefore, if through
;

ever length the line E F may be produced, it shall cut the the points i and K a line be drawn, it will give the trace of
curve E P D only in the single point D. the first plane tangent to the vertical plane. By a similar
" The we
point D being the trace of the generator, if it be process for the second tangent plane, shall find its trace

projected on the vertical plane, by means of the perpendicular on the vertical plane, by drawing from the point c a line, c n,
D d, and if from the point d, the line d /be drawn parallel parallel to the horizontal trace E G, which may be produced
to a b, we shall obtain the vertical projection of the generator. till it cut L M in the
point H, upon which the vertical line H h
We are thus in possession of the two projections of one of may be raised; from the point c' draw a horizontal line to
the right lines, through which the required tangent plane cut the vertical line H A, in the point />, from which, and
must pass. The vertical projection of the. point of contact from the point G, by drawing the line o A, we shall obtain
ought to be on the line c c', drawn from the given point c. the trace required.

perpendicularly to L M ; it should also be on d consequently f Second Question. From an imaginary point of a conic
'

it will be in the intersecting point, c, of those two lines. surface, of which the horizontal projection is given, to draw
" a tangent plane to such surface.
If the line E F cut the trace, E p D, of the cylindric sur-
face in several points, as D and E, we must proceed for each "The solution of this question differs only from the pre-
in the same manner as that just directed for the point D, ceding, in having the generating right line, instead of being
considered by itself, and we shall obtain the vertical projec- always parallel to itself, parsing constantly from the apex
tions, df, ef, of as many generating lines, and the vertical whose two projections are given. \Ve think it unnecessary
projections, c c', of as many points of contact, as there to enlarge in this place, and leave the reader to examine for
are points of intersection between the line E F and the himself, with the assistance of Figure 13, should he stand in
trace E p D. need of such aid.
" " Third From an imaginary point of a surface
In the instance of Figure 12, the trace of the cylindric Question.
surface in the circumference of a circle, which has the pro- revolving upon a vertical axis, and given in the horizontal
perty of being cut by a right line in two points; so that the projection, to draw a plane tangent to such surface.
"
vertical line elevated from the given point c, must meet the Solution. Figure 14. Let A be the given horizontal
surface twice ; first, in a point whose vertical projection is r, projection of the axis, a a' its vertical projection, B c D E F
through which the generator passes when it touches upon the given generating curve, considered in a plane drawn
the point D ; and, secondly, in another point, whose vertical from the axis, and o the given horizontal projection of the
projection is e', through which the generator passes when it point of contact.
rests on the point E of the trace. " If from the
These two points, although point of contact, and from the axis, a vertical
they have the same horizontal projection, are nevertheless plane be conceived, whose projection would be the indefinite
very distinct, and should each have a particular corres- horizontal line A G, such plane must cut the revolving surface
pondent tangent plane. Indeed, for eaeh of the two points in a curve, which will become the generator, passing through
of contact, we must find the second right line, by which the point of contact: if from the point G, a vertical line be
the position of the tangent plane is to be determined. conceived, it will meet the generating curve, and consequently
Were we strictly to follow the general method, by consider- the surface, in one or several points, which will become so
I-: ;s ( K i :i:'*i' .L-VE <r u DM ^BTIKY .
 DBS 245 DBS
many points of contact, of which o will be the common vertical projections, a b, c d; to construct the projections,
horizontal projection. All these imaginary points of contact p N,y> of their shortest distance; that is to say, of the line
,

will be found in the plane of the generator, by

carrying A a that is at one and the same time perpendicular to both ; and
upon L M, from a to
and drawing through the point e a
e, to find the quantity of this distance.
line parallel to a a'
the points, E, c, in which this line
all
" Solution, From the first of the two given right lines,
;

cuts the curve B c D E F, will be the intersections of the conceive a plane parallel to the second ; which is always
generating curve with the vertical line drawn through the possible, because if from any point whatever of the first, a
point o, and will indie-ate the altitudes of as many points of line be drawn parallel to the second, and if this third line be
contact above the horizontal plane. To obtain the vertical conceived to move parallel to itself along the first, it will
projections of these points of contact, draw through all the generate the plane spoken of. Imagine, also, a cylindric
points, E, c, indefinite horizontal lines, which will contain surface, with a circular base, having the second given right
such projections; and as they are also contained in the line line for its axis, and the distance
required fir its radius ;

perpendicular to L M, drawn from the point o, the intersec- this surface will be touched
by the plane in a line parallel to
tions, y y', of this line with the horizontal lines, will be the the axis, and will cut the first right line in a point. If from

projections of the several points of contact. this point, a perpendicular to the plane be drawn, it will be
"
Now, if from each point of contact, a section be con- the line required ; for it will pass, in fact, through a point
ceived, made by a horizontal plane, such section, which may of the fust given right line, and will be perpendicular to it,
be considered as a second generator, will be the circumfer- as it would to a plane passing along this right line it will ;

ence of a circle, whose centre will be in the axis, and of also intersect the second right line
perpendicularly, because
which the tangent, which must be perpendicular to the it will be a radius of the
cylinder, of winch such second line
extremity of the radius, will also be perpendicular to is the axis.

the vertical plane drawn through A o, in which the radius is ''It remains, then,
only to construct, successive! v, all the
found therefore the tangent plane which must pass through
:
parts of this solution.
this tangent, will be also perpendicular to the same vertical '(1.) To construct the traces of the plane drawn through
plane, and wi!l have, upon the horizontal plane, it-; trace the first right line parallel to the second, we must first find
perpendicular to A o. We
only want, therefore, the trace the point. A, wherein this first lino meets the horizontal
of each of the tangent planes, to enable us to discover its plane, and which will be a point of the horizontal trace. To
distance, from the point A now, if through the points E, c,
: effect this, produce the vertical projection b a till it cut the
we. drawto the first generator the. tangents E i, c H, produced line L M in the point ,
draw a A perpendicular to L M. and
till
they meet L M in the points i, n, the lines a i, a H, will be its intersection with the horizontal projection A B will

equal to those di-tances ; then-fore, if these lines be trans- determine the point A. Through the point in which the first
ferred from A to i, and from A to A, and if through the points right line cuts the vertical plane, whose projections are B !>,
i and h, the
perpendiculars i Q, h p, be drawn to A o, and conceive a right line parallel to the second given right line,
produced they meet the line
till I.
M, we shall have, on the. and construct its projections by drawing, indefinitely, n E
horizontal plane, the traces of all the tangent planes. parallel to c D, and b e parallel to < d. In like manner, con-
"
To find on the vertical plane, the traces of the same struct the point, E, of coincidence of this parallel with the
planes, we must suppose fir each point of contact, and in the horizontal plane, by draw ing e E perpendicular to L M ; and
correspondent tangent plane, a horizontal line produced to the point E will be a second point of the horizontal trace of
the vertical of projection
plane this line, which is the
;
the plane. Then, if the right line A E be drawn, and pro-
tangent to the circle, will determine, on this plane, which duced till it cut, in the point F, the line L M. it will give the
belongs to the trace. Now, for all the points of contact, horizontal trace; and it is evident, that if through the points
these lines have the same horizontal projection, viz. the line F and 6, the right line F b be drawn, we shall have the trace
o K drawn from the point G, perpendicularly to A o, and on the vertical plane.
"
terminating in the right line L M. It', therefore, from the To construct the line of contact of the plane with
-

( -J.)

point K, an indefinite perpendicular, K k k', be drawn upon the cylindric surface ; from any point of the second right
L M, it will contain all the points of coincidence of the line, which is the axis of the cylinder (as from the point c,
horizontal lines with the vertical plane of projection. But for example, in which it meets the horizontal plane) drop a
as these points of coincidence will also be found on the normal, that is, a perpendicular upon the tangent plane and :

respective horizontal lines drawn through the points E, c ;

the foot of such normal will be a point of a line of contact.
the intersections k. k', of such horizontal lines with the ver- "To find this foot, according the method already laid
tical line K, ',
will be each a point of the trace of one of the down in Figure indefinite projections of
6, first construct the.

tangent planes. Thus the line Q k will be on the vertical the normal, the point c, the line H o
by drawing through
plane, the trace of one of the tangent planes ; the line p it' perpendicular to the trace A E, and through the point c,
will be that of another; and so of the rest, were there a the line c K, perpendicular to the trace F b ; then having
greater number. produced H a till it meet A E in the point o, and L M in n, pro-
" We ject the point o in g, and the point H in A, on the trace
shall confine ourselves for tho present, to the three F b ;

preceding examples, because they are sufficient for all the draw the line a h. whose intersection with r K will determine
surfaces, whose generation we have defined. In the course the vertical projection, of the foot of the normal ; and we
(',

of this work, we shall have occasion to investigate the gene- shall have, on o n, the horizontal projection of the same point
rations of tribes of surfaces, infinitely more numerous: and by letting i i fall perpendicularly on L M. The projections,
as they present themselves, we shall apply the same method i, i, of the
foot of the normal being found, draw i N through
to the determination of their tangent planes, and of their the point i, parallel to c D, and i n, parallel to c d, and we
normals. At present we are about to propound a question, shall have the projections of the line of contact of the plane
to the solution of which the consideration of the tangent with the cylindric surface. Lastly, the points N, n, in which
plane mny be appropriately and usefully applied. these projections meet those of the first given right line, will
" Fourth
Question. Figure 15. Two right lines being be the projections of the point of such line, through which the
given, by their horizontal projections, A B, c D, and by their common perpendicular required will pass.
 DES 246 DES
"(3.) Having ascertained the projections, N, n, of one of faces. Thus, were it proposed to draw a tangent line to a
the points of the required common perpendicular, it will be given curved surface, this condition would be equivalent to
sufficient to obtain the projection of the perpendicular itself, only one of the three to which the plane is capable of
to draw through the points N, n, the right lines N p, n p, answering we might, again, take two others, at pleasure,
:

perpendicular to the respective traces A E, F b ; and the and for example, make the plane pass through two given
parts N p and up of these perpendiculars, comprised between points, or, which is the same thing, along a given right line.
the projections of the two given right lines, will be the pro- Were it essential that the plane should be tangent to two
jections of the required shortest distance. surfaces at once, two conditions would be fulfilled ; there
" size of this shortest distance would remain but one to be disposed of, and the plane could
(4.) In conclusion, if the
be desired to be known, it may be constructed by the process only be brought to pass through one given point. Lastly,
of figure o. when the plane touches three given surfaces at once, there
"The consideration of a cylindric surface touched by a remains no longer any condition to be disposed of; its posi-
plane, was not essential to the solution of the preceding tion is determined.
"
question. After having supposed a plane parallel to the two The preceding observations relate to curved surfaces
given right linos, we might through each of these lines have generally yet we must except from them, whatever regards
;

drawn to such plane, a perpendicular plane ; and the inter- cylindric. conic, and developable surfaces in which the
;

section of these two planes would have been the direction of contact with the plane is not reduced to a single point, but
the required shortest distance. We
content ourselves with extends along the whole length of an indefinite line, which
announcing this second method, and advise the reader to seek loses itself in the generator, in one of its positions. The
its construction by way of exercise. property of a plane touching one only of these surfaces,
In the several questions which we have resolved relative would be equivalent to two conditions, since it would subject
'

to planes tangent to curved surfaces, we have always sup- it to

pass along a right line and there would only remain
;

posed the point, through which the tangent plane should be one condition to be disposed of. viz., to make it pass through
drawn, to be taken on the surface, and to be itself the point a given point. It were in vain, therefore, to
propose to
of contact :this condition alone sufficed to determine the draw a plane, that should be at one time tangent to two
position of the plane. But it is different when the point of these surfaces, much less to three of them, unless there
through which the plane should pass is taken out of the were some peculiar circumstances which should render these
surface. conditions compatible.
" "
In order to determine the situation of a plane, it must It
may not be altogether useless, before we proceed
satisfy three several conditions, each equivalent to that of farther, to illustrate by a tew examples, the necessity there
passing through a given point. Now, in general, the pro- is for
drawing planes tangent to curved surfaces through
perty of being tangent to a given curved surface, when the points taken from the outside of them. The first of these
point of contact is not indicated, is only equivalent to one of examples is selected from the construction of fortifications.
"
these conditions :
if, therefore,
we propose to determine the In treating of the general principles of fortification it is

position of a plane by conditions of this nature, we shall taken for granted, first, that, in every direction, the ground
generally have occasion for three. For instance suppose :
by which the place is surrounded, at least within the reaeh
three curved surfaces to be given, and that a of cannon-shot, is Hat, and free from every eminence that
plane be tan-
gent to one of them, in any point whatever; we can conceive might be converted to advantage by a besieging army. This
that such plane would move around the surface, without hypothesis being settled, the draught of the place is next
ceasing to touch it it would do so in
:
every direction only ; determined, with its half-moons, covered ways, and advanced
the point of contact would shift its situation on the surface, works; the bearings of the various parts of the fortifications
in
proportion as the tangent plane changed its position; and upon each other arc then marked out, so that they may all
the direction of thu point of contact would be similar to that contribute, in the most efficacious manner, to their mutual
of the motion of the plane. Suppose this movement to be and reciprocal defence. But, in order to apply these prin-
made in a certain direction till the plane meet the second ciples tn cases where the surrounding cmintry presents some
surface, and touch it in a given point then the plane would
:
height, of which besiegers might take advantage, and from
be tangent to the two first sui faces at once, and its position which it is requisite that the fortification should be made to
would not yet be fixed. Indeed, the plane may be supposed defile, a new consideration presents itself. If there be
only
to turn about the two surfaces, without a single eminence, two points should be fixed upon in the
ceasing to touch
them both. It will no
longer, however, be free to move in place, through which might be conceived a plane tangent to
every direction, as before, but will be confined to one only. the height, from which it is desirable to defile. this tangent
:

In proportion as the plane

changes its position, the two plane is denominated the defiling plane ; and all the parts of
points of contact will move each upon the surface to which the fortification must receive the same relief above such plane,
it
belongs ;
so that if a right line be conceived as
passing as they would have had above the horizontal plane, had the
through those points, their movements will be in the same country been quite level :
by this incins, they all acquire,
direction with respect to such line, when the
plane touches relatively upon each other, and collectively upon the neigh-
the two surfaces on the same side, and
they will be in a bouring height, a command equal to what they would other-
contrary direction, when it touches one surface on one side, wise have possessed over the flat country : and the foitifica-
and the other on the contrary side. Lastly, tion will possess the same advantages as in the first case.
imagine this
motion, which is the only one that can now take place, to be As to the choice of the two points, through which the
continued till the plane touch the third surface in a certain
defiling plane ought to pass, it must be conformable to
point ; then its position will become fixed, and k can no the two following conditions: 1st, That the angle formed
longer move without ceasing to be tangent to one of the by the plane with the horizon, be the least porsible, in
three surfaces. order that, the platforms having less slope, the service of
'
Hence we may perceive, that to determine the position defence may be attended with fewer impediments 2dly,
;

of a plane by means of indeterminate contacts with That the relief of the fortification above the natural
given
curved surfaces, we shall generally
require three such sur- ground, be likewise as little as possible, that its construe-
 DES 247 DES
tion may require less labour, and be attended with novelty, and with them, in the first instance, we are now
less expense. about to be occupied, not so much on their own account, as to
" Should there be two heights in the environs of the acquire, by the observation of the three dimensions, a habit,
place, from which the fortification should defile, the defiling of which we shall stand in need, for more general and useful
plane must be tangent to the surfaces of both, at the same subjects.
"
time and to determine its position, there is but one
: First Question. Through a given right line to draw a
disposable condition and it is to be disposed of, by choosing
; tangent plane to the surface of a given sphere.
in the place, a point, through which the plane may pass, as "Solution. First method. Figure 16. Let A, a, be the
nearly conformable as possible to the conditions prescribed two projections of the centre of the sphere; BCD, the pro-
in the first case. jection of the great horizontal circle; E F, e f, the two
"The second example we shall take, is from painting. indefinite projections of the given right line. Through the
"The surfaces of bodies, especially when polished, present centre of the sphere, imagine a plane perpendicular to the
brilliant points, whose lustre may be compared to that of the right line, and construct, by the methods given under Figure
luminous body by which they are enlightened. The bright- 6, the projections o, y, of the point of coincidence of the right
ness of thc-ie points is greater, and their extent more con- line with the plane.
fined, in proportion as the surfaces are more polished. "From this position, it is evident, that from the
given
When the surfaces are unpolished, the brilliant points have right line two tangent planes may be drawn to the sphere,
much less lustre, and occupy a greater portion of the the first on one side, the second on the other, and. conse-
surface. quently, that the sphere will be placed between them this :

"
every surface, the position of the. bright point is
In indicates two different points of contact, whose projections
determined by the following condition ; that the incidental we must now construct.
"
ray of light, and the reflected ray, directed to the eye of the from the centre of the sphere, a perpendicular be con-
If
spectator, be in the !-aine plane, perpendicular to the plane ceived to fall upon both the tangent planes, they will each be
tangent in this point, and make equal angles with it; for bounded, at the point of contact with the surface of the
the shining point of the surface acts as a mirror, and reflects i

sphere, bv the corresponding planes and will both be in the

:

upon the eye a portion of the image of the luminous object. I

plane perpendicular to the given right line: therefore the
The determination of this point demands the utmost pre- \
two points of contact will be in the section of the sphere by
cision for be the design never so correct, or the
:
apparent I the perpendicular plane a section which must be the cir-
;

contours traced with mathematical nicety, the least mistake cumference of one of the great circles of the sphere, and to
I

committed in fixing the position of the brilliant point would which the two sections made in the tangent planes by the
be productive of the most palpable errors in the appearance same plane will be tangent.
of the shapes. We
will give a single, but very striking
'
"
Ifin the perpendicular plane, and through the centre of
case in proi if. the sphere, an horizontal line be imagined, whose vertical
"The surface of the ball of the eye is polished, and projection may be obtained by drawing the horizontal line a h.
covered with a thin moisture, which renders the gloss more and other projection by letting the perpendicular A H fall
its
j

\N hen we look
perfect. upon an open eye, we see a bright upon E F; and if the perpendicular plane be conceived to
point upon its surface, of great lustre, but of very limited turn upon this horizontal line, like a hinge, till it become
extent, whose position depends upon the situation of the horizontal itself; it is evident that its section with the sur-
observer and the direction of the illuminating object. \Vere face of the sphere would be lost in the circumference BCD,
the surface of the eye perfectly spherical, it might turn on that the two points of contact would then be upon this cir-
its vertical axis without in the least
afFecting the position cumference, and that were the point j constructed, in which,
of the brilliant point but the surface being lengthened in
:
by this movement, the perpendicular plane would meet the
the direction of the axis of vision, the position of the point given right line the tangents j c, j D. drawn to the circle
;

is
changed every time that the eye moves upon its vertical B c D, would determine these two points of contact to the
axis. Long experience having made us familiar with this position in which they then appear. It is
easy to construct
change, our judgment, as to the direction of the eye, is con- the point j, or, which is tantamount, to find its distance from
siderably blamed by it. By the difference of position in the point H ;
for the horizontal projection of this distance is
the bright points upon the balls of the two eyes of a person, o H, and the difference of the vertical heights of its extremi-
we chiefly judge whether he squint, or not ; whether he ties is y g': therefore by transferring the distance o H upon
look towards us ; and when he does not, to which side his the horizontal fine a h, from y to //, thehypothenuse h y will
attention is directed. be the amount of this distance; and by transferring 17 A upon
" \Ve do not
pretend to infer from this example, that it is E r, from H to j, and drawing the two tangents j c, J D, the
indispensable, in a picture, that the position of the brilliant two points of contact, c, D, will be determined to the position
point upon the ball of the eye be geometrically defined ; our they assumed, whilst the perpendicular plane was laid upon
intention is merely to demonstrate how trifling errors as to the horizontal one.
"
this position may produce considerable distortion in the Now, projections in the position which they
to find their
apparent form of the object, though in other respects the ought naturally to have, we must suppose the perpendicular
tracing of its apparent outline may remain the same. plane to be restored to its original position, by turning it
"
Wenow proceed to the determination of planes tangent back upon the horizontal line, or hinge, A H, and it will carry
to curved surfaces, drawn through points taken on the out- with it the point J, the two tangents j c, j D, produced till
side of them. they cut A H in the points K K', and the chord c D, which will
"The surface of the sphere is one of the most simple that likewise cut A H, in the point u. In this movement, it is
can fall under our consideration ; it has common generations evident, that the points K, K', N, which are upon the hinge,
with a great number of different surfaces ; we may, for will be fixed, and that the two points of contact c, D, will

example, class it among revolving surfaces, and say nothing describe arcs of circles, which will be in planes perpendicular
particular relative to it. But its regularity is productive of to the hinge, and whose horizontal projections will be obtained
remarkable results, some of which are curious from their by dropping from the points c D, the indefinite perpendiculars
 DES 248 DES
c P, D Q, upon A H. The horizontal projections of the two cone, and consequently vertical, and whose horizontal pro-
points of contact will therefore be found upon the two right jection will be the line c D.
But in the retrograde movement of the per- " If from the
lines c p, D Q. given right line two tangent planes to the
pendicular plane, the two tangents j c K', J K D do not cease conic surface be conceived, each of them will touch it,
to pass through the respective points of contact; and when according to one of the generating lines, which will be at
this plane is returned to its primitive
position, the point J is the same time on the conic surface and on the plane; and
projected anew in G, and the two tangents are projected since such generating line also touches the surface of the
according to the right lines o K', o K. The two latter, there- sphere in one of its points on the circumference of the circle
fore, must eacli contain one of the points of contact; and, in projected in c D, it follows, that this point is at once on the
fine, the intersections of these two right lines with the conic surface, on the plane which touches it, on the surface
respective lines c p, D Q, will determine the horizontal pro- of the sphere, and on the circumference of the circle pro-
jections, K, s, of the two points of contact, which are found jected in c D, and that it is a point of contact common to all
in the same line with the point K. these objects. Hence we may conclude, 1st. That the two
"
To obtain the vertical projections of the same points, first, planes tangent to the conic surface, are also tangent to the
draw the indefinite perpendiculars K r, s s, upon L M then by
;
surface of the sphere ; 2dly, That their points of contact
projecting the points K K', to k, k', and drawing the lines g I; with the sphere, being in the circumference of the circle
g k', from the point g. we shall have the vertical projections projected in c D. mu^t be themselves projected on some part
of two similar tangents. These lines, therefore, will contain of this right line; Sdly, That the right line passing through
the projections of the respective points of contact; and the the two points of contact, being comprised in the plane of the
points, r, s, of their intersection with the vertical lines R r, same circle, must also be projected indefinitely upon c D.
6 s, will be the projections required.
"
Wenext proceed to an operation, for the plane of a large
"The horizontal and vertical projections of the two points circle parallel to that of the vertical projection, similar to
of contact being found, to construct, upon the horizontal plane that which we have
just finished for the great horizontal
the traces of the two tangent planes, lines parallel to the circle. The
horizontal projection of such plane will be the
given right line must be conceived to pass through each of right line B A n. indefinitely parallel to L M ; the point wherein
the points of contact. These lines will be in the respective it meets the given right line will be horizontally projected

tangent planes, and their horizontal and vertical projections to the intersection H, of the two right lines E F, B A n and ;

will be obtained by drawing K u, s v, parallel to E F, and r ,

its vertical projection will be obtained by projecting the
s v, parallel to e f. On the horizontal plane, construct the point H upon e f, in h. Gmceive a new conic surface,
trace, T, of the given right line, and the traces, u, v, of the two whose apex shall be in this point of coincidence, and which,
last lines and the lines T u, T v, will be the traces of the two
;
like the former, shall cover the sphere ; and we shall have

tangent planes. the vertical projections of the two extreme generating lines
"Instead of supposing fresh lines to pass through of such surface, by drawing from the point h, to the circle
the points of contact, we may find the traces of the two b K i, the tangents h K. h i, which shall touch it in such
tangents o R, o s, which will answer the same purpose. points, K i, as we may determine. This second conic surface
As to the traces of two similar planes with the vertical plane, will touch that of the sphere, in the circumference of a new
thi y 7iiay be obtained
by the method already so often circle, of which K i will be the diameter, and of which the
j

alluded to. plane, perpendicular to that of the vertical projection, will,

1:
This solution may be rendered much more elegant by consequently, be projected indefinitely upon K i. The cir-
making the two planes of projection pass through the centre cumference of this circle will likewise pass through the two
of the sphere itself. By this mode the two projections of the points of contact of the sphere with the tangent planes
sphere would be mingled in the same circle, and the produc- required ; whence the vertical projections of those two points
tions of the right line-; would not be so long. We have only of contact will be somewhere upon K i; and the right line
separated the two projections for the sake of perspicuity in bv which these two points are united, will also be projected
the exposition :for it is easy to give to the construction all upon the same line K i.
"
the conciseness of which it is susceptible. Thus the right line drawn through the two points of
"
Second Method. Figure 17. Let A, a, be the two pro- contact, projected horizontally upon c D, and vertically
is

jections of the centre of the sphere; A B, or i, its radius; upon K meets the plane of the great horizontal circle
i; it

BCD, the projection of its great horizontal circle ; and E F, in a point, whose vertical projection is at the intersection, n,
e f, the projections of the
given right line. Conceive the of K i with b n g, and whose horizontal projection may be
plane of the great horizontal circle produced till it cut the obtained by projecting the point n upon c D.
"
given right line in a certain point, and we shall have the This done, suppose the vertical plane of the circle, pro-
vertical projection of the plane, by
drawing the indefinite jected in c D, to turn upon its horizontal diameter, as upon
horizontal line l> a g through the point a ; the point </, where a swivel, so as tobecome horizontal, and that it draw with
this horizontal line cuts
ef, will be the vertical projection of it, movement, the two points of contact, through which
in its
the point of coincidence of the plane with the given right its circumference passes, and the right line by which those

line; and we shall have the horizontal projection, o, of this two points are united. Construct this circle, in its new
point by projecting g upon E F. position,by describing upon c D, as a diameter, the circle
''This done, take the same point for an
apex, and conceive c p D Q; and if the position assumed by the line uniting the
a conic surface covering the sphere, all whose two points of contact be constructed, it will cut the circum-
generating
lines touch it in their
respective points ; now, we shall have ference c P D Q in two points, which will determine them
the projections of the two horizontal
generators of such conic upon this circumference considered in its horizontal
surface, by drawing from the point o, the two lines G c, o D, position.
" The two contacts, being upon
tangent to the circleBCD, and which will touch it in the two point, N, of the line of the
points c, D, as may be easily determined. The conic surface the swivel c does not change its position by the move-
D,
will touch that of the sphere, whose line c D will be the ment this line must, therefore, pass through such point
:

diameter, whose plane will be perpendicular to the axis of the when it has become horizontal. Besides, the point in which
 DBS 249 DES
it meets the plane of the great circle, parallel to the vertical if a number of planes, taken at pleasure, be conceived as
projection (a point
whose horizontal projection is in the passing along the right line, which shall cut the sphere, each
coincidence, o, of the two lines i>. n A n. and whose ver-
< in the direction of a circle ; and if, for each of such
circles,
tical projection /, is found by projecting the point o upon K i) a right conic surface be conceived, of which it shall be the
describes in its movement upon the swivel c D, a quarter of base, and which shall be confined within the sphere, the
a circleperpendicular to c D, whose radius is the vertical apices of all such conic surfaces will be another identical
line o t ; if, then, a line be drawn through the point o, per- right line.
"
pendicular to c D, and if upon such perpendicular o t be By merely considering what happens in drawing the
transferred, from o to T, the point T will be one of those of plane from the given right line, and from the centre of
the line of contact, when it becomes horizontal. Therefore, the sphere, we are led to the two following propositions,
if n line be drawn through the points N and T, its two points which are immediate corollaries of what has preceded.
" Given in a plane, a circle, whose
of coincidence, p, Q, with the circumference c p D Q, will be Fiyures 18 and 19.
the t\v> points of contact considered in the vertical plane, centre is A. and any right line whatever, as B c ; if, after
when laid down. having drawn from a point, as D, of the right line, two
"
To
obtain the horizontal projections of the same two tangents to the circle, and the lines E F connecting the points
point* in their natural positions, imagine the circle c D p Q !
of contact, the point D be supposed to move along the right
to be returned to its original station, by turning on the same ,
line B c, draw ing with it the two tangents, without
ceasing
swivel c D. In this movement, the two points p, Q, will ,
to touch the circle ; the two points will shift their position,
describe quarter-circles in the vortical planes perpendicular as well as the line E F, by which thev are united, but the
to c D, whose horizontal projections will be the perpen- ;
latter will always pass through the same point, s, upon
diculars p Q. R s, dropping upon c D. The horizontal pro- I
the perpendicular, A o, dropped from the centre of the circle
jectiotis of he two points of contact will then be respectively
l
upon the right line n c.
"
upon the lines p Q and K s and as we have seen that they
; And, reciprocally, if. through a point, as x, taken in the
must likewise be upon c D, they must, consequently, be upon plane of a circle, a number of lines, as E F, be drawn at
the. two points of coincidence K and s. pleasure, each cutting the circumference of the circle in two
"The vertical of the same two points
projection*, r, , j points ; and if through these two points two tangents to the
m;iy lie obtained, by projecting the points R and s upon K i ; circle, ED, F D, be drawn, to meet in a point, as D, all
or, which amounts to the same, by transferring upon the the other points of intersection, found in the, same manner,
vertical lines K r, s s, beginning from the horizontal line will be upon the same right line, B c, perpendicular to A N.
"
li a
ij.
r' r.
equal to P R, and .v' s, equal to Q s. not because all the points of the circumference are
It is

'The horizontal and vertical projections of the two points '

equally distant from the centre, that the circle possesses the
of contact being constructed, the traces of the two tangent property just described but because it is a curve of
;

planes may be determined according to the method of the j

the second order, and has all its conic sections of the same
first solution. quality.
" This second solution
may be rendered much more con- "Figure 20. For example, let A E B F be a conic section
cise, by making the planes of projection pass through the of any kind, aiwl c D any given right line upon its plane :

centre of the sphere ; which would reduce the two projec- suppose the curve to turn upon one of its axes, A B, to gene-
tions to one figure. rate a surface of revolution, and imagine tjie two tangent
'These hitter considerations lead us to the discovery of planes to this surface drawn from the right line c D; the two
some remarkable properties of the circle, of the sphere, planes will each have their particular point of contact. Now
of conic sections, and of curved surfaces of the second take for an apex, any point whatever, as n, of the right
degree. line c D, and conceive the conic surface contained within, and
"
It has been seen, that the two conic surfaces bounded
tangent to the revolving surface, and it will touch the latter
by a sphere, would each touch it in the circumference of a in a curve that must necessarily pass through the same two
circle, and that their circumferences would both pass through points of contact as the tangent planes. This curve will be
the two points of contact of the sphere with the tangent plain its
; plane, which will be perpendicular to that of the
Tills property is not peculiar to the two conic sur-
planes. given conic section, will be projected upon the latter, accord-
faces that we have considered, but applies to all such as have ing to the line E F ; and this line will pass through the points
their apex in the given right line, and are circumscribed by of contact of the tangents with tho conic section, drawn
the sphere. If, therefore, we suppose a prime conic surface, from the point n. Now, suppose the apex, H, of the conic
which, having its apex upon the given right line, is bounded surface to move along the right line c D, without ceasing to
by the sphere ; and if this surface be supposed to move so be contained within, and tangent to the revolving surface ;
as that its apex may run along the right line without ceasing in any of its positions, its curve of contact will possess the
to be contained within, and tangent to the sphere it will in
;
same properties of passing through the two points of contact
any of its positions touch the sphere in the circumference with the tangent planes, of being plain, and of having its
of a circle all which circumferences will pass through the
:
plane perpendicular to the conic section. The planes, there-
same two points in which the sphere comes in contact with fore, of all the curves of contact will touch the ends of the
the two tangent planes ; and the planes of these circles will Hue that unites the two points of contact, which is itself
intersect each other upon one right line, which is that of perpendicular to the plane of the conic section, and hence
the two contacts. If now the plane be conceived as drawn the projections of all the planes will be right lines that must
from the given right line, and from the centre of the sphere, all touch the ends of the projection, N, of the line, by which
it will
pass through the axes of all the conic surfaces, will the two points of contact are joined.
be perpendicular to the planes of all the circles of contact, " This
proposition is only a particular case of another
consequently to the right line that is their common intersec- more general one, that takes place in the three dimensions,
tion, and cut all these planes in right lines that will pass and which we shall be content with announcing in this
through one point. place.
" "
By reciprocity, a sphere and a right line being given,
Any curved surface whatever, of the second degree, and
 DES 250 DES
a conic surface contained within, and touching it, whose will also touch it
along the length of one of its generating
apex is a point chosen at pleasure, being given in space ; if lines, and will
consequently pass through its apex. Lastly,
the conic surface move without ceasing to be contained if a third conic surface be conceived, enclosing and touching

within, and to touch the curved surface, but so as that its the second and third spheres, the tangent plane will still
touch it along one of its generating lines, and pass through
apfx be kept in a right line, the plane of the curve of con-
tact of the two surfaces will always pass upon one right line its apex. Thus the apices of the three conic surfaces will be
(which will be determined by the contacts of the surface of plane; but they will also be in the plane
in the tangent

the second deijree with the two tangent planes that pass which, passing through the centre of the sphere, contains
along the line of the apices) ; and if the conic surface move they will therefore be in two different planes
the three axes :

so as that its apex be always in the same plane, the plane at the same time ; consequently, they will lie in a right line.
of the curve of contact will always pass upon the. same Hence it follows, that if the horizontal and vertical
projec-
point.
tionsbe constructed, as laid down in the preceding question,
"
Second Qi/cxtion. From a given point, to draw a plane of whieh two will be sufficient, the projection of a line found
tangent to the surface of two given spheres. upon the tangent plane may be made to pass through them.
" Solution.
Fiyure 21. Let A, a, be the two projections The question therefore reduced to ihe drawing from a given
is

of the centre of the, first sphere B, A, those of the second

; ; right line, a tangent plane to that of ihe three spheres sought
and r. c, those of the given point. After having drawn the for, which may be done by the preceding methods, and this
indefinite lines A B, a A, which are projections of the line that plane willlie
tangent t" the two others.
would pass through the two centres, and having constructed '
must be observed, that, as we may always imagine,
It

the projections o E F, y e f. n i K, h i k, of the great circles for any two spheres, two conic surfaces which envelope and
of the two spheres parallel to the planes of projection, con- touch them both, the first having its apex on the outside of
ceive a conic surface containing the two spheres within it, one of the centres, with respect to the other, and the second
and touching them both at the same time the apex of this ; having its apex between the two, it is evident, that in the
surface will be in the line which passes through the two cen- preceding question there will be six conic surfaces, of whieh
tres. Then draw to the two circles G E F, H i K, the two three will be on the outride of the three spheres, taken two
common tangents E H, F K. meeting in the point D, of the by two, and three will have their apices between the spheres.
right line A u; this point will be the horizontal projection of The apices of these six cones will be distributed, three and
the apex of the cone, whose vertical projection, also, will lie three, upon four right lines, along each of whieh may be
obtained bv projecting the point D to </, on the production drawn two planes tangent at the. same time to the thre
of a b. Lastly, draw the projections c D, c d of the right line spheres. Tims eight different planes are sufficient for this
passing through the apex of the cone and the given point. question : two of which touch the three spheres on the same
Now, if from this latter line two tangent planes be conceived side relatively ; and the other six are so disposed as to touch
to the conic surface, they will each touch it in one of its two of the spheres on one side, and the third on the other.
generating lines, and consequently will both be tangent, at These considerations lead to the following proposition :

"
the same two spheres. The question is therefore
time, to the Fiyure 22. Three circles whatever being given in posi-
reduced to draw ing two planes tangent to the surface of one tion and magnitude on a plane, if, considering them two at a
of the spheres, from the right line that passes through the time, exterior tangents be drawn to them, produced till they
apex of the cone and the given point; which may be done as intersect each other, the three points of intersection, D, E, F,
in the preceding question, and the two planes will also be so obtained, will be in a right line.
Here, if we imagine the three spheres, of which these
'

tangent to the second sphere.

"
It must here be remarked, that the same two spheres circles are the great circles, and a plane that touches them
may be supposed to be contained within two conic surfaces. allthree exteriorly, such plane will also touch the three conic
The first conic surface will envelope them both on the out- surfaces contained within the spheres, considered two by two,
side, and will have its apex on the outside of one of the and pass through their three apices, D, E, K ; but these three
spheres, with respect to the other, and the tangent planes to apices are likewise upon the plane of the three centres ;
it will touch the two
spheres on the same sides. The second therefore they are on two different planes, and consequently
conic surface will also envelope both spheres, but will have in a right line.
"
its
apex between the two centres. The horizontal projec- If to the same circles, considered two by two, interior

tion, D',of this apex will be found by drawing to the circles tangents be drawn, intersecting each other, the three new
E F o. H K, the two interior tangents, which intersect each
i
points of intersection, o, H, i, will be, two by two, in a right
other in a point of the line A B and its vertical projection
;
line with the three first ; so that the six points D, E, F, G, H, i,
by projecting the points D' to d', upon a 4. The two tangent will be the intersections of the four right lines.
" This
planes, drawn to this eonic surface will also each touch the question is only a particular case of the following,
two spheres but they will touch the first on one side, and
;
which applies to all the three dimensions.
the second on the other. " The size and
Thus, four different planes may- position of any four spheres being given in
answer this question for two of them, the two spheres are
:
space, if the six conic surfaces circumscribed exteriorly by
on the same side of the plane ; and for the two others, they them, considered two by two, be conceived, the apices of the
are on different sides. six cones will be in the same plane, and at the intersections
''
Third Question. To draw a plane tangent at the same of the four right lines ; and if the other six conic sections,
time to three spheres of given dimensions and positions. circumscribed interiorly by them, viz., that have their apices
'
Solution. Imagine the plane tangent at the same time between the centres of the two spheres, be conceived, the
to the three spheres suppose, also, a conic surface contain-
;
apices of the six latter cones will be, taken three by three,
ing the two first of those spheres, and them bothtouching ;
in the same plane with three of the former.
and the tangent plane will touch such conic surface in the " Fourth From an arbitrary point, to draw a
Question.
whole length of one of generating lines, and pass through tangent plane to a given cylindric surface.
its
the apex of the cone. If a second conic surface be " Solution. Let E i F K be the trace of the
supposed, Figure 23.
containing the first and third spheres, the same tangent plane cylindric surface on the horizontal plane;
a trace that we
 BESCMIPTIVB EOMETRYc PLATE II.

fJra*n by M .A. Nicholson. . R ThrW.

 DES 251 DES
suppose to be. given. Let A B, a 6, be the two given projec- will exit the generating line in a point wherein the same

tions of the right line, to which the generating line should tangent plane will come in contact with the second for ;

always be parallel; and c, c. those of the given point. Con- besides the generating line, along which it passes in this
ceive from this point a parallel to the generating line, it will point, it also passes along the tangent of the horizontal circle
be in the tangent plane required, and the points where it cuts to the same point, since it likewise passes along the tangent
the planes of projection will be upon the traces of the tangent of the horizontal circle to the point of contact with the first
plane. Then if from the point c, c D be drawn parallel to surface, and therefore, from the known property of revolving
A B, and from the point c, c <i parallel to a l>, we shall have surfaces, these two tangents are parallel.
two projections of this right line; then, having produced "
the As we wish to resolve the question by means of the
d it meet L M in the point d, if tlie second revolving surface, it becomes necessary to construct
c till
point d be projected
to D, upon c D, the point D will be the coincidence of this the curve according to which it would be cut by a plane
right lino with the horizontal plane, and consequently a point drawn from the axis: here we will suppose such plane to be
of the trace of the tangent plane. Now, the horizontal trace parallel to the vertical plane of projection, and consequently
of the tangent plane ought to be tangent to the curve
projected on the horizontal plane in a right line, A F, parallel
E F K, therefore, if from the point D we draw to such curve
i to L M.
allthe tangents possible, as D E, D F, &e. we shall have the "Take upon the given right line, any point whatever,
horizontal traces of all the tangent planes that can possiblv whose projections are E, e, and seek for the point wherein it
pass through the given point. By drawing from the points would meet the plane of the section in its movement. Here
of contact E, F, &c. to A B, the indefinite parallels E G, F n, the point will describe around the axis of revolution, the arc
&c. we shall obtain the horizontal projections of the generat- of a horizontal circle, whose horizontal projection will be
ing lines, wherein the different planes touch the cylindric obtained, by describing from the point A, as a centre, and at
surface. Lastly, we shall have the vertical projections e q t
the interval A E, the arc E F. till it meet the right line A F,
I
''/t,
&c. of the-e generating lines, or lines of contact, by somewhere in a point, as F the vertical projection of the same
;

projecting the points E, F, &e. upon the vertical plane, to arc may be had by drawing from the point e, the indefinite
!,f. &c. and by drawing from these latter points indefinite horizontal line e f. The point F, then will he the horizontal
lines parallel to a b. As
to the traces of the tangent plane
projection of the coincidence of the describing point with the.
upon the vertical plane, they will be found in the working plane of the section; therefore, by projecting the point K to
f. upon e f, the point/will be the vertical projection of this
jf F'ujure 12.
'

Fifth Question. From an arbitrary point, to draw a coincidence, and consequently a point of the section. 15y
plane tangent to a given conic surface. repeating the same operation for as many other points as may
"The solution of this question differing but little from be wanted, taken on the given right line, we shall have so
that of the preceding one, we shall only refer to the figure manv points, y, f, r, it, through which the curve required
24, where the curve E G F H, is the given trace of the conic must pass.
" Next
surface; A. a. are the given projections of the apex; ami imagine the given right line, and the tangent plane,
c, o, those of the given point, through which the tangent bv their simultaneous rotation about the axis, to have arrived
plane must pass. at a position wherein the tangent plane would be perpendi-
'
Sixth Question.- Fiom a given line, to draw a tangent cular to the vertical plane of projection. Here the projec-
plane to a given revolving surface. tion on ihis plane would be a right line, tangent at the same
'Solution. Figure 25. Suppose the axis of the revolv- time to both the curves a' i p a, y r nf; and if all the com-
ing surface to be perpendicular to one of the two planes of mon tangents, as g i, n p, be drawn to these two cur\es. we
projection (which will not weaken the genera] application of shall obtain the projections of all the tangent planes required
the. solution, because we always retain thepower of disposing by the question, considered in the position they have
of the position of these planes so as to make them conform to assumed, when in the course of the rotation they have suc-
this rule) ; let A be the given horizontal projection of the cessively become perpendicular to the vertical plane. The
a\is of the suiface ; a ', its vertical projection ; a p i a', the points of contact, i, p, of these tangents with the generating
generating curve of the surface; and B c, A c, the two given line of the first surface will determine the height of those of

projections of the line along which the tangent plane should each surface with all the tangent planes: there/ore, if from
pass. From the point A drop the perpendicular A D upon these points the indefinite horizontal lines / /, p s, be drawn,
B c, and it will be the horizontal projection of the shortest they will contain the vertical projections of the points of con-
distance between the axis and the given right line; and pro- tact of the surface with the planes: and if from the point A,
ject the point D to d, upon b c. as a centre, and with the radii respectively equal to i t, p *,
" the tangent plane to be drawn, and the the arcs of a circle, i K, p Q, be drawn, such arcs will contain
Now, suppose
given right line to turn about the axis of evolution, without
i the horizontal projections of the same points. To complete
shifting its distance from it,
or its inclination upon the the discovery, it only remains to determine upon what
horizontal plane, drawing with it the tangent plane, so that meridians of the revolving surface they ought to be found, to
the latter may still touch the surface ; in consequence of such which end the points of contact, rf, H, will be. subservient.
" For this
movement, it is evident, that the point of contact of the purpose, project the points y, 11, upon A o, to
surface with the plane will change its position ;
but since the o, N ; from the point A, as a centre, with the intervals suc-

tangent plane uniformly preserves the same inclination, the cessively equal to A o and A N, describe the arcs o N o, till
.

point of contact will not change its altitude above the surface, they intersect the right Ifne B c in the points H, o ; these arcs
and it will move in the circumference of a horizontal circle, will express the quantity of the rotation, which for each
whose centre will be in the axis. The given right line, also, tangent plane, the right line passing through its contacts with
will generate by its movement
a second revolving surface the two surfaces has been obliged to make, in order to trans-
around the same axis, to which the tangent plane will itself port itself into the vertical plane parallel to that of projection.
be tangent in every position. We have, therefore, the horizontal projections of the same
" If we
suppose a plane through the axis, and through the right lines, considered in th> ir natural positions, by drawing
point of contact of the tangent plane with the first surface, it from the point A the lines A H, A o; and the points, K, <j, where
 DES 252 DES
the latter lines intersect the correspondent arcs i K, p Q, will occupy, without abating the relation established between
be the horizontal projections of the points of contact of the the three co-ordinates, is that to which the equation
first surface with the
tangent planes drawn along the given belongs.
right line. "Thus, suppose a sphere, whose radius is expressed by A,
" The vertical same points be have its centre in the point of intersection common to the
projections of the will
obtained by projecting the points K, Q, to k, q, on the three rectangular planes and that in considering a certain
;

respective horizontal lines i t, p s. point on the surface of the sphere, perpendicular-; be sup-
"The horizontal and vertical projections of the points of posed to fall from such point upon the three planes, and to
contact being determined, the traces of all the tangent planes be represented by the letters x, y, z ; it i> evident that the
may be constructed by methods similar to those already radius of the sphere, directed to the point under eon-idera-
described. tion, will be the diagonal of a rectangular parallelepiped,
"This mode may be easily generalized and applied to any whose three aretes will be x, ?/, z that its square will be
surfaces generated by curves of determinate forms, and equal to the sum of the four squares of the four aretes and ;

mutable as to their situation in space." thatwe shall thus have the equation x 1
-\- if + z
2
A*.

Now. should the point change position on the surface of

its
Of the Intersections of curved surfaces. the sphere, its distances, x, y, z. as to the three rectangular
" When
the generations of two curved surfaces are posi- would
planes, vary also but its distances us to the centre
;

tively determined and understood ; when the course of all would remain unaltered, and the sum of the squares of its
the points of space through which they pass is no longer three co-ordinates, which is always equal to the squareof the
arbitrary for either; when for each of these points, one of radius, would still retain its first value we should therefore
:

its two projections being taken at pleasure, the other may be have the relation between the co-ordinates of this point
always constructed if these two surfaces have any
; points in expressed by the equation .T* y* z*+ A2+ This equa- = .

space common to them both, the positions of all such common tion, which answers for all the points of the surface of the
points is absolutely determined it
depends on the form of
; sphere, an'! for them only, is that of the surface itself. All
the two curved surfaces and their respective positions and ;
curved surfaces have, thus, each its equation ; and though
is of such a nature as to be
always capable of being deduced it be not always
easy to express it in such simple quantities
from the definition of the generations of the surfaces, of as the distances x, y, x, always possible to obtain it in
it is

which a necessary consequence.

it is more complex quantities, such as the inclinations of tangent
The course of all the points common to two determinate
'

planes, or the radii of curvatures: but it is suffi'-ient for our

curved surfaces, forms in general a certain curved line in present purpose to have conveyed our meaning by one
space, which, in very particular cases, mav be found upon example.
"
a certain plane, having but a single curvature; which, in If now, having, in x, y, z, the equations of two difle.rent
instances infinitely more peculiar, may become a right line, curved surfaces, and supposing that for the points of the
without any curve ; and la-tly, in cases still more rare, may two surfaces the distances be taken to the same rectangular
resolve itself into a mere point; but which, in the general, planes, we eliminate one of thu three quantities x,y, z, the
is what is denominated a curve
of double curvature, because latter, for example, from the two equations; we establish
it
ordinarily partakes of the curvatures of two curved sur- first, by the similarity of these two equations, that which

faces, upon each of which it is found at the same time, and does not belong indiscriminately to all the points of the first
forms their common intersection. surface, nor to all those of the second, with which we are
"
There exists between the operations of analyses and the occupied, but only to those of their intersection, for which
methods of descriptive geometry, a correspondence, of which each of the two equations ought to serve, because they are
it is here
necessary to give an idea. upon the two surfaces at the same time. Secondly, the
"
In algebra, when a problem
put into equations, and
is
equation in x, y, which results from the elimination of z,
we have as many equations as unknown quantities, we can expresses the existing relation between the two distances
always obtain the same number of equations, in each of for all the points of intersection, whatever may be the dis-
which there enters but one of the unknown quantities ; tance z, which has disappeared, and about which there is no
whence we gain a knowledge of the value of each of them. longer any question in the equation it is therefore the
;

The operation by which this is performed, is called elimina- equation of the projection of the intersection of the two
tion, and consists in expelling, by means of one of the equa- surfaces upon the plane perpendicular to z.
unknown numbers from all the other "
tions, one of the Hence we discover that in algebra, the design of elimi-
equations ;
so that by thus successively expelling all the nation among many equations with three unknown qualities.
different unknown numbers, a final equation is obtained, is to determine,
upon the three planes to which all space is
containing only one, whose value it ought to produce. referred, the projections of the intersections of surfaces to
" The
object of elimination in algebra bears a close analogy which the equations appertain.
to those operations in descriptive geometry, by which the "The similitude between the operations of analysis and
intersections of curved surfaces are determined. the methods of descriptive geometry, are not confined to the
"
For example :
suppose that in
considering a point in instance just given, but prevails in every situation. In

space, and representing, by x, y, z, the distances from this working generating lines of any description in spacr, what-
point to three rectangular planes between them, a relation ever movements be given to points, curved lines, or surfaces,
be established between these three distances, and that it be they may always be governed by analytical operations ; and
expressed by an equation, wherein the three quantities x, y, z, the new objects which they originate, are expressed by the
and fixed quantities enter. By virtue of this relation, the very results of such operations: on the other hand, there is
position of the point would not be determined ; for the quan- no operation of analysis in three dimensions, but what is the
value, and consequently the expression of a movement operated in space, and ruled by it.
tities x, y, z, may change their

point may vary in its position, without destroy ing the relation To obtain the most advantageous acquaintance with the
expressed by the equation ; and the curved surface which mathematics, the student should early accustom himself to
passes through all the positions that the point may thus perceive the existing analogy between the operations of
 DBS 253 DES
analysis and those of geometry : on the one hand, he should of the required intersection of the two curved surfaces.
be al)le to write down all the movements that he can con- To obtain the vertical projections of the same points, observe
ceive in space, in one analytical method ; and on the other, that they are all comprised in the horizontal plane E E', and
to perpetuate upon his memory, the object moving in space, that their projections must fall upon the line E E'. There-
of which each of the analytical operations is the expression. fore, bv projecting the points, F, o upon E E', tof. g. .
. . . . .

" We
now return to our subject, viz.. the mode of deter- we shall have their vertical projections.
"
mining the projections of the intersections of curved By pursuing the same operation for all the other hori-

surfaces. zontal lines e e', e e', we shall obtain for each of them, in the
" To present the exposition of this method horizontal projection, a series of new
in a clearer points, F, o , &e.,

light, we shall not at first disclose it with all

the elegance and in the vertical projection, another new scries f, ij . . . .

of which it is susceptible, but proceed towards it by degrees. &c. Then if the branch of a curve be passed through all

And here it may be premised, that the exposition will be the points F .,
another branch through nil the points G
. . ,

general, und applicable to any two surfaces whatever ; and and so of the concourse of all these branches which
rest, the
thatthough the letters used refer to the Figure 26. which may possibly meet one in another, will he the horizontal
shows the particular case of two conic surfaces, with circular projection of the two surfaces ; in like manner,
if
through
bases anil vertical axes, the reader should keep in mind, that all the points f a branch of a curve be passed, through
. . . .

the surfaces tinder consideration may be, each one in par- all the
points g .... another branch, and so of the others,
ticular, any other than conic surfaces. the concourse of all these branches, which may likewise
"
First yenerul problem. The generating lines of two possibly meet one in another, will be the vertical projection
curved surfaces being known, and all the given lines which of the intersection required.
fix such generators being determined on the plane of projec-
" This method is
general, even supposing a system of pianos
tions; to construct the projections of the curve of double i
to be chosen which intersect a series of horizontal planes.
curvature, according to which the two surfaces intersect But we shall see, presently, that in certain cases, the choice
each other. of the system of intersecting planes is not indifferent, that
" Solution.
Figure 26. Conceive a series of indefinite it may sometimes be so made as to be productive of systems

pianos, conveniently disposed in space; such planes, for more easy and more elegant ; and that it may even be more
example, may be, all horizontal, as in fact we shall suppose advantageous, instead of a system of planes, to adopt a scries
them in the first instance. Here the vertical projection of of curved surfaces, which vary from each other only in one of
each of them will be an indefinite horizontal right line; and their dimensions.
as we are not restrained from drawing them at arbitrary "To construct the intersection of two revolving surfaces,
distances, we shall suppose in the vertical projection as many whose axes are vertical, the most advantageous system of
horizontal lines, e e',e e', e e'.&ic. as we please, and that the planes, is a s"ries of horizontal plane
j for ea"h of such planes:

series of these lines is the vertical projection of the series of intersects the two surfaces in the circumferences of circles
planes at first conceived. This done, work successively, whose centres are. upon the respective axes, whose radii are
for each of such .planes, and relatively to the line e e' whieh , equal to the ordinates of the generating curves, taken at the
is its
projection, the operation we are about to lay down for height of the interscctins; plane, and whose horizontal projec-
the one among them, that is projected in E E'. tions are circles of known size and position. Here all the
"The plane E K' will intersect the first surface in a certain points of the horizontal projection of the two surfaces are
curve, which will be easily constructed, when we are found bv the intersections of the arcs of a circle ; and we
acquainted with the generation of the surface ; it being the are aware, that if all the revolving surfaces hud their axes
course of the points in which the plane E E' is intersected by relatively parallel, but not vertical, it would lie necessary to
the generating line in all its positions. This curve being change the planes of projection, and so to choose them as that
plain and horizontal, will have its horizontal projection equal, one of them should be perpendicular to the axes.
"
similar to itself, and placed in the same manner; it is there- Were it required to construct the intersection of two
fore possible to construct such projection, and here we shall conic surfaces, with whatever bases, whose traces on the
suppose it to be the curve F o H i K. horizontal plane were given or constructed, the system of
"The same plane, E E', will likewise cut the second sur- horizontal planes would demand operations too tedious for the
another plain horizontal curve, whose horizontal
face
example for each of the horizontal planes would intersect
in :

projection
"
may also be constructed, as by the curve FOG. the two surfacesin curves, which, though very nearly resem-
It may happen, that the two curves, wherein the same
bling the traces of the respective surfaces, would not be equal
plane, E E', intersects the two surfaces, may intersect each to them ; they must be constructed by points, each by itself;
other, or they may not if they do not intersect each other,
:
whereas, if after having drawn a right line through the given
however much produced, it proves that, at the height of the apices of the two cones, the system of planes passing along
plane E E', the two surfaces have no common point; but if such right line be adopted, each of the planes will cut the
these curves do intersect each other, they will do so in a two conic surfaces in four right lines and these right, lines, ;

certain number of points common to the two surfaces, which which will be in the same plane, will cut each other, inde-
are consequently so many of the points of intersection
pendently of the apices, in four points upon the intersection
required and according as the intersecting points of the
:
of the two surfaces. In this case, each of the points of the
two curves are upon the first or second of them, so are they horizontal projection of the intersection will be constructed
upon the first or second of the surfaces proposed ; therefore, by the intersection of two right lines.
if they be upon the two curves at once, "For two cylindric surfaces, of whatever bases, whose
they are also upon
the two surfaces.
" As the generating lines are diversely inclined, the system of hori-
horizontal projections of the points wherein the zontal planes would not be the most eligible that might be
two curves intersect each other, should be found both on the
adopted. They would, indeed, each cut the two surfaces in
projection of the first, and on that of the second ; the points curves similar and equal to their respective traces but the ;

r, o .... of the coincidence of the two curves F o H i K, curves that did not correspond vertically to the traces would
and F o o, will be horizontal projections of as many points have for their projections, curves, that would be distant from
 DES 254 DES
the traces themselves, and which it would be necessary to point of contact is the projection of that of the curve of
construct from points. But were choice to be made of the double curvature.
"
system of planes parallel at the same time to the generating Thus, if from all the points of the curve of double cur-
lines of the two surfaces, each of such planes would cut the vature, perpendiculars be supposed to fall upon one of the
two surfaces in right lines, and these lines would cut each planes of projection, as upon the horizontal plane, for exam-
other in points appertaining to the intersection of the two ple, all such perpendiculars will be upon a vertical cylindric
surfaces. Bymeans, the points of the horizontal projec-
this surface, which will be cut by the horizontal plane in the very
tion would be constructed by the intersections of right lines. projection of the curve. In like manner, if, from all the

Indeed, this is but a necessary consequence of what has been points of the tangent to the curve of double curvature, ver-
said relative to the case of two conic surfaces. tical lines be supposed to drop, they will be in a vertical
"
For two revolving surfaces, having their axes in the plane, intersected by the horizontal plane in the projection of
same plane, but not parallel to each other, the system of the tangent. Now, the cylindric surface and the vertical plane
spherical surfaces having their common centre evidently touch each other in the whole extent of the ver-
in the point
of coincidence of the two axes, would be preferable to that of tical line dropped from the point of contact, and which is

planes ; for each of the spherical surfaces would cut the two
common to them both the intersections, therefore, of the
:

revolving surfaces in the circumferences of two circles, hav- cylindric surface, and of the plane along the horizontal plane,
ing their centres upon the respective axes, and
their planes touch each other in a point that will be the intersection of the
perpendicular to the plane drawn along the two axes the : line of contact of the cylindric surface and the vertical plane.

intersecting points of these two circumferences, which would Consequently, the projections of a curve of double curva-
be at the same time on the spherical surface and upon the ture and of one of its tangents will touch each other in a
two revolving surfaces, would belong to the intersection point that is the projection of the point of contact of the
required. Thus the points of the projection of the intersec- curve.
tion would be constructed by the coincidence of the circles
"'
We
shall now proceed to apply \vhnt has been said to
with the right line*; in which case the most advanta- some particular cases; and to begin with simple considera-
geous position for the two planes of projection is to have tions, we shall first suppose one of't wo surfaces to be a plane,
one perpendicular to one of the axes, and the other whose intersection we would determine.
to both. 'First Question. To construct the intersection of a given
parallel
"
These few observations, with respect to such curved sur- cylindric surface with a plane of a given position.
as most frequently meet together, will suffice to show
fiiees
':
The position of planes of projections being arbitrary, we
how the general method should be employed, and how, by a will first suppose, what is always possible, that these two
knowledge of the generation of curved surfaces, that species planes have been so chosen as to have one perpendicular to
of sections may be adopted which will yield the most ready the generating line of the surface, and theother perpendicular
constructions. to the cutting plane; for in this supposition the construction
" is much more
\Vhen the respective form and positions of two curved easy and then to give to students a habit of
;

surfaces are defined, not only the curve of their intersec-

is making projections, we will suppose the two planes of pro-
tion in space determined, but also all the affections of these jection in any other manner.
curves immediately follow. Thus, for example, in each of "Solution. First case, in which the generating line of the
their points the direction of their tangent is determined : surface is supposed to be perpendicular to one of the planes of
it is the same as to their normal
plane, viz., of the plane that projection, as to the horizontal plane, for example, and the
cuts the curve in a right angle, and which is, consequently, cutting plane perpendicular to the other.
"
perpendicular to the tangent at the point of intersection.
As Figure 27. Let A be the horizontal projection of the
we have frequent occasion to consider planes normal
shall right line, to which the generating line of the cylindric sur-
to curves of double curvature, we shall not here enter into face should always be parallel a a" its vertical projection ;
;

B c D E, the given trace of the cylindric surface, which being

any detail as to their determination for as they are always
;

perpendicular to tangents, it is enough to have given the the horizontal projection of the indefinite surface, is conse-
mode of constructing projections of tangents to the intersec- quently that of the curve of intersection let f g be the given
;

tions of curved surfaces. vertical projection of the culling plane, which will also be
Second general Problem.
'
From a point taken at plea- that of the intersection required; and F G the horizontal
sure upon the intersection of two curved surfaces, to draw trace of the same plane. It is evident, that if we draw to

a tangent to such intersection. the curve B c D E, and perpendicular to L M, the indefinite

" Solution. The
point chosen upon the intersection
of two tangents E e", C c", the right lines e e", c <", will be the
curved surfaces, is at the same time upon both such surfaces. vertical projections of the generating line, in its extreme posi-
If then, from this point, as considered on the first surface, a tions ; and that the points e'. c', in which they intersect the

tangent plane be drawn to such surface, it will touch the projection, fg, of the cutting plane, will terminate upon/(7,
intersection in the point in question. So, likewise, if from the vertical projection of the required intersection.
"
the same point, as considered on the second surface, a tangent Now. if from a point taken arbitrarily upon the intersec-
tion (a point whose horizontal projection will be a point. H,
plane be drawn to such surface, the plane will touch thu inter-
section in the point under consideration. The two planes, taken at pleasure on the curve B c D E, and whose vertical
then, will touch the intersection in the same point, which projection may be had by projecting the point H in i', upon
will also be one of their common points, and consequently one / g) we would draw it is also evident that
to this intersection,
of those of the right line in which they intersect each other: such tangent should be comprised the cutting plane, and
in

therefore, the intersection of the two tangent planes will be that its vertical projection would be the right line f g also,;

the tangent required. that it would be comprised in the vertical tangent plane to
" the cylindric surface, and that its horizontal projection, which
From
this problem arises the following observation, which
is of great utility in descriptive will be the same with that of the tangent plane, would be the
geometry.
"The projection of the tangent of a curve of double cur- right line r H u, tangent in H to the given curve B c D E.
vature is itself tangent to the projection of a curve and its ;
Thus all is determined as to the intersection required.
 DBS 255 DBS
" be required to construct
Now, should it this intersection development of the surface, the traces of the different posi-
such as exists in its plane, and from one of its points, taken
it tions of the generating line, and we shall then only have
at pleasure, to draw a tangent to it : if the vertical plane of to transfer upon these perpendiculars the parts of the corres-
projection be at too great a distance from the curve u c D E, ponding generating lines, comprised between the perpen-
we may suppose another vertical plane, parallel to it, passing dicular section B c D E, and the section made by the cutting
through the interior of the curve B c D E, and whose hori- plane. Now, these parts of generating lines are equal to their
zontal projection should be the right line E c, parallel to L M. vertical projections, and these projections are all terminated,
This vertical plane will intersect the cutting plane in a right on one hand, by the right line L M, and on the other by f g.
line parallel to its projection f g, and upon which, as upon a If then the point H, for example, fall in s, upon the line n Q,

hinge, we will suppose the cutting plane to turn, to become by transferring i i' upon the perpendicular passing through
vertical, and to present in full front the curve required. Then, the point s, from s to T, the point T will be, upon the
from as many points, n, as may be thought convenient, taken developed surface, that where the generating line, which
arbitrarily upon B c D E, suppose vertical planes perpendicular passes through the point n, is intersected by the cutting
to the vertical plane of projection, whose horizontal and plane. The curve x T Ywhich passes through all the
z,
vertical projections will both appear at the same time, in determinate points in the same manner, will be the curve
drawing through all the points u, the right lines u j K I i' per- required.
"
pendicular to L M. Each of these planes will intersect the is
Itobvious, that were the tangent produced from the
it meet the horizontal trace, G F, of the
cutting plane in a horizontal line, perpendicular to the hinge, point H till
cutting
whose vertical projection will be the point of coincidence, i', plane, somewhere in a point, F and that if n F were trans-
;

of two right lines/y, i i'. In each plane this horizontal line ferred upon n Q, from s to u, the right line T u would be tan-
will meet the hinge in a point, whose horizontal projection gent to the curve for when the cylindric surface is developed,
;

will be the intersection, j, of the two right lines E c, H j K, i i' ; its elements do not alter their inclination with
respect to the
and will also meet the curve required in points, whose hori- horizontal plane.
"
zontal project ions will be the intersections u, K. ot' the right Second Case, wherein the cylindric surface and the cut-
line H j i i with the curve B c D E. ting plane are supposed to be in any manner whatever with
1
In a word, this right line
and all its parts will be equal to their horizontal projections. respect to the two planes of projections.
the cutting plane turns upon the hinge, to become " Solution.
Now, when Figure '28. L>>t A A' and <r a' be the two pro-
vertical, allthese right lines, which were at first horizontal, jections of the right line, to which the generating lirre should
remain perpendicular to the hinge, and do not vary in size. be parallel c E D F, the given trace of the cylindric surface;
;

Therefore, if through all the points i', we draw indefinite per- and H o, A 4, the traces of the cutting plane.
"
pendiculars, h I', tiifg. and it upon these perpendiculars j u Conceive a series of planes parallel to the generating
be transferred from ;' to A, and j K from i' to A, we shall have as line of the cylindric surface, rind also perpendicular to one of

many points. A, k, as we wish for, through which the required the planes of projection, as the horizontal plane, for example :

curve, e' k c' A, may be drawn. each of such planes would be projected upon a rijiht line,
"
The curve being constructed in its plane, if it be o K K, parallel to A A', cutting the surface in right lines that
required, from one of its points. A, taken arbitrarily, to draw would be so many positions of the generating line, and would
a tangent to it, we may obtain the vertical projection of such meet the horizontal plane in the points of intersection, E, F,
point, by dropping from the point
A, npon/</, the perpendi- of the line o K K with the curve c E D F. I5y projecting,
cular A i'
; and
horizontal projection, by projecting i in
its
1

therefore, the points E, F, upon L M, in e, f, and draw ing

H upon the curve B c D E ; we shall have the horizontal pro- through these latter, to the right line a a', the parallels
jection of the tangent required, by drawing the right line F N e e',f'f, the vertical projections of the intersections of the
tangent in u to the curve B c D E ; and it will be sufficient to surface with each of the planes parallel to the generating
bring into the plane of the curve any point whatever of the line will be obtained.
tangent ; as that, for example, which is projected on the "The same planes will likewise intersect the cutting plane
point N taken arbitrarily, and whose vertical projection is in right lines, parallel to each other, all whose horizontal

uponfff in a'. Now, in making our deductions upon this traces will be upon the different points, o, of the line o H,
point, as upon every other of the cutting plane, it cannot but and whose vertical projections will be also parallel to each
be obvious, that if through the point a', we draw to f y the other. To obtain these projections, we must first find the
perpendicular a n and that if upon this right line we transfer direction of one of them, of that, for example, which corres-
1

from a' to n the distance N A from the point N to the right ponds to the vertical plane drawn from A A'. With this view,
line E c, the point n will be the second of the tangent. produce A A' till it meet, on one hand, the trace of the cut-
Therefore by drawing the line A n we shall have the tangent ting plane in a point N, and on the other, the right line L M,
required. in a point B, and by projecting the point B in b on A b, the
"
Whatever curve be given to B c D E, we see that the two points N and b will be, upon the two planes of projection,
e' k c' A the traces of the intersection of the cutting plane with the
intersection possesses the property of having for either
of its points the sub-tangent a' n equal to the sub-tangent A N vertical one. By projecting the point N in n upon L M. and
of the first. This property, which is very well known in the drawing the line n b, it will give the vertical projection of
circle and ellipsis, when those two curves have a common this intersection. By projecting on L M all the points, o, in
axis, arises, with respect to them only, from their being which the trace o H is cut by the projections of the vertical
the intersections of one cylindric surface through two dif- planes, which will give a series of points o, and drawing
ferent planes. from the latter the parallels o i k, to n b, the vertical projec-
"
Lastly, it may occur, that we shall want to trace upon tions of the intersections of the cutting plane, through the
the development of the cylindric surface, the effect of the whole serie. of the vertical planes, will be obtained. Lastly,
section made by the cutting plane. For this purpose, after the points of coincidence, k, of each right line o i k with the
',

having developed the. curve B c D E, with all its divisions, projections e ',//', of the sections made in the cylindric sur-
upon a right line R Q ; if indefinite perpendiculars be drawn face by the corresponding vertical plane, will be the vertical
through all the divisions of B <j, we shall have, upon the projection of the intersection required ; and the curve that
 DES 25 DES
would pass through all the points, i, lr, thus determined, would likewise intersect the cutting plane in lines perpendicular to
be that projection. By projecting the points i, k, in J, K, on the vertical plane. The projections of such lines will be the
the project ion, o K E, on the corresponding vertical plane, we points, h .,
of coincidence of/.?, with the lines a' c
. .
. . .
;
shall have the horizontal projection of the same points, and and their horizontal projections will be obtained by
dropping,
the curve, K j p, that would pass through all thy points from the points h . ., upon L M, the indefinite perpendiculars
. .

so determined, would be the horizontal projection of the fia .This done, the lines AH.... will cut the
. . .
correspond-
intersection. ing lines c A, c' A . ., in points, u, H' ., which will be the
. . . .

" In
seeking the tangents of these two projections to the horizontal projections of so many of the
points of intersection
it must be recollected that such tangents are and the curve, p H Q H', that would pass through
points j, ;', required ;

projections of the tangent to the intersection. Now, the all the points thus constructed, will be the
projection of the
latter tangent being ;it the same time in the cutting plane intersection.
"
and in the tangent plane to the cylindric surface, it must To draw
a tangent to this curve, from a point H, fixed
have its horizontal trace in the intersection of the horizontal upon at pleausre,
it is
only requisite to find upon the hori-
traces of the two planes the trace of the tangent plane is
: zontal plane the trace of the tangent of the intersection in
also the tangent in F to the curve c E D v. Therefore, by a point corresponding to u. This trace must be upon that
drawing this tangent, and having produced it till it meet the of the cutting plane, and consequently on of; it must also
trace of the cutting plane in a point G, drawing the right be upon that of the plane touching the conic surface in the
line G j, we shall have the latter line touching, at the point j, right line, whose projection is A H and if A H be produced :

the horizontal [injection of the intersection. And by pro- till it meet the curve B c D E somewhere in a point c, the
jecting the point G upon L M in //, and drawing the right tangent, c F, of this curve, in the point c, will be the hori-
line g i, we shall obtain the tangent, in i, of the vertical zontal trace of the tangent plane. The point, r, of coinci-
projection of the same curve. dence of the two traces/ G, c F, will therefore be upon the
"
Should it be required to construct the curve of the tangent the point, H, of the curve p H Q n'.
in
intersection as it is in the plane, suppose the cutting plane "
Should
it be required to construct the intersection con-

to turn upon its horizontal trace n o, as upon a hinge, and sidered in its plane, we may indefinitely suppose either that
applying itself to the horizontal plane. In this movement, the cutting plane turns upon G f, as upon a hinge, in order
each of the points of the section, that, by way of example, to apply itself to the horizontal plane, and so construct the
which is projected in j, will describe an arc of a circle, whose curve in the position it will thus assume ; or that it turns
plane will be vertical, perpendicular to H o, and whose upon its vertical projection/.?, to apply itself to the vertical
indefinite projection will be obtained by drawing through is the hypothesis we shall here
the latter
plane ;
adopt.
the point j a right line, R J s, perpendicular to H o ; conse- " All
the horizontal lines in which the series of planes
quently, when the plane is laid down, the point of the section drawn from the apex has intersected the cutting plane, and
will fall somewhere upon a point of this right line. To which are perpendicular to /<?, do not change their size in
discover the distance of such point from the hinge as the : the movement of the cutting plane, nor do they cease to be
horizontal projection of this distance is j R, and the difference perpendicular to f g : if then indefinite perpendiculars be
of the heights of its extremities is the vertical line is; if j R drawn through all the points h, tofg; and if upon them the
be measured upon L M, from s to r, the hypothenuse r i will corresponding horizontal lines K H, K H', be measured and
be such distance. Then by measuring r i upon R j, from applied from /;, to N and N', the points N, N', will be those of
R to s, the point s will be one of the points of the intersection the section ; and the curve R N s N', drawn through all the
considered, with its plane laid down upon the horizontal points thus constructed,
will be the intersection considered

plane, and the curve s T u v, drawn through all the points s in its plane.
" From that has been
constructed alike, will be the intersection itself. all said, it appears evident, that, to
"
To obtain the tangent of this curve to the point s, it is draw to this curve a tangent in a point, N, taken arbitrarily
sufficient to observe, that in the movement of the cutting upon it, the perpendicular
N h must be dropped from the
plane, the tangent does not cease to pass through the point G point N that the right line a' h must be produced
uponfg;
of the hinge therefore, by drawing the right line s G, we
;
till it the point c; that this point must be pro-
meet L M in
shall have the tangent required. jected in c, or the curve B c D E ; that the tangent must be
"
Second Question. To construct the intersection of a drawn to such curve in c, cutting the trace of somewhere
conic surface, of any given base, by a plane given in in a point v and that F/must be carried perpendicularly
;

position. to f n. from /in o. The right line o N will be the tangent

" Solution. Here we may suppose, what is
always required.
" As to the mode of constructing the development of the
possible, the vertical plane of projection to be placed perpen-
dicular to the cutting plane. conic surface, of whatever base, and of tracing thereon
"
Let A, a , be the projections of the apex of the effect of the intersection with the cutting plane, we shall
1

Figure 29.
the cone, or of the centre of the conic surface ; B c D E the proceed to describe it, after having spoken of the intersection
trace of such surface on the horizontal plane; of the conic surface with that of a sphere having its centre
g the vertical f
projection of the cutting plane; and o/its horizontal trace. in the apex.
" To construct the intersection of two conic surfaces with
Suppose from the apex of the cone a series of planes, per-
pendicular to the vertical plane of projection ; the vertical circular bases, whose axes are parallel to each other.
" As it would be superfluous here
projections of such planes will be the right lines a! c, drawn Solution. Figure 26.
from the projection of the apex and their horizontal traces
: to repeat what has already been said in treating of the general
will be the right lines c c, perpendicular to L M, which will method, of which this figure was a type ; we shall only
observe, that in the case now before us, as
cut the trace of the conic surface somewhere in the points well as in that of
c, c'. . These planes will cut the surface in right lines,
. . two revolving surfaces, of whatever description, the sections
whose vertical projections will be the lines a' c .,
and . . . made in the two surfaces by the horizontal planes, are circles;
whose horizontal projections will be obtained by drawing but we shall enter some details relative to tangents, of
upon
from the point A, the lines c A, c' A the same planes will
. . . .
;
which we have not yet had occasion to speak.
 DES 257 DES
"
To disc-over the tangent to the point D (Figure 26) of line a k
will be the distance sought for. Bv constructing,
the horizontal projection of the intersection, we must recollect in like manner, all the other parts of the intersection, suc-
ihat it is the projection the tangent of the intersection of cessively, and passing a curve through them, the intersection
the two surfaces, in the point of of the two surfaces described upon the development of the
corresponding to D, and that
to determine it, it is only
necessary to find the point B, which first surface will be found. Proceed in the same manner
is, upon the horizontal plane, the trace of the tangent of the for the second surface.
intersection. This latter tangent is in the two planes which "Fourth. Question. To construct the intersection of two
touch the conic surfaces in the point of intersection there- ;
conic surfaces, of whatever basis.
"
fire, Ivy of these two
finding the horizontal traces R r, Q q, Solution. Figure 30. Let A, a, be the projections of
tangent planes, they will by their coincidence, determine the the apex of the first surface; c G D o', its given trace upon
point s. But the plane tangent to the first surface touches the horizontal plane; B A, the projections of the apex of the
it a line that passes through its apex, whose horizontal
in second surface and E H F u', its trace on the horizontal
;

projection may l>e obtained by drawing the indefinite right plane. Suppose a right line passing through the two apices,
line A D. And if A D be produced till it meet the horizontal whose projections are the indefinite lines A B, a b, and whose
circular trace of the surface. T Q u v, in a I, may be easily constructed upon the horizontal plane.
point, <j, such point trace,
will lie a point of he line <.f contact between the sur-
I
Along this line conceive a series of planes, each cutting the
face and the plane; consequently, the horizontal trace of the two conic surfaces in the system of several right lines and ;

plane will lie tangent in Q to the circle T Q u v: let this tan- such of these right lines as shall be in the same plane will
gent therefore, be drawn, as Q q. In like manner,
by produ- determine, by their intersections, so many points of the
cing the radius B D till it meet in R the circular horizontal intersection of the two sui faces. The horizontal traces of
trace, K x v z, of the second surface, and drawing to this all the
planes of this series will necessarily pass from the
circle I in R. the line R r will be the horizontal
lie tangent point i ; and since the position of these planes is besides
l race of the
plane tangent to the second surface. And it" arbitrary, their traces may likewise be taken arbitrarily, by
from the points, of the intersection of the two tangents Q 9, drawing from the point r, a number of lines, i K, at pleasure,
R ;, the right line s D be drawn, it will
give the tannent, in by each of which the following operation may be worked
the point n, of the horizontal projection of the intersection. for either of them.
" \N
respect to the tangent to the corresponding
ith "The trace, K i, of each of the planes of the scries will
point of the vertical projection, it is obvious that it may
</, cut the horizontal trace of the first conic surface in points,
be obtained by projecting the point s in *, and by drawing G G', which will also be the horizontal traces of the right
the line n d, which will be the tangent lines, according to which the plane cuts the conic surface
required. :

"
It
may happen to be neccs-ary to construct upon the thus A o. A o'. will be the indefinite horizontal projections of
development of one of the conic surfaces, perhaps, even these, lines, and their vertical projections will be obtained

upon that of each of them, the effect of their mutual inter- by projecting G, G', in g, r/', and drawing the indefinite lines
section ; as, for example, if we were d ff, a g So likewise, the trace, K i, of the same plane of
1

obliged to fabricate the .

cones of flexible substances, such as metal plates: in this case the series will cut the horizontal trace of the second conic
we must operate for such cone in the manner we are going surface in points, H, H', from which if B it, B u', be drawn
indefinitely, the horizontal projections of the lines will be
to prescribe tor the first.
"Before we proceed, let it be observed, that when a conic obtained, according to which the same plane of the series
surface is developed so as to become a will cut the second surface and their vertical projections
plane, the right lines ;

that are upon it, change neither their form nor size, because may be had, by projecting n, H', in A, //, and drawing the in-
each of them is successively the hinge upon which the definite lines b 1>,
b It'.

development aet<; so th:it all the points of the surface "This done, for the same plane, whose trace is K i, we
remain always at thu same distance from the apex. And shall have on the horizontal projection a certain number of
when, as in this ca<e, the conic surface, is direct and circular, lines, A G, A G,' B H, n n'; and the points, p, Q, R, s, in which
all th>!points of the circular horizontal trace are at equal those belonging to one of the surfaces, meet those belonging
distances from the apex; they must, therefore, be also at an to the other, will be the horizontal projections of so many
equal distance from the apex upon the development, and points of the intersections of both surfaces. Thus, by work-
consequently upon the are of a circle, whose radius is equal ing successively, in the same manner, upon the other lines
to the uniform distance of the apex from the circular trace. K i, we shall find new series of points, p, Q, R, s ; and by after-
And if, after having taken an arbitrary point to represent wards passing through all the points p, a first branch of a
the apex on the development, the arc of an indefinite circle, curve, through all the points Q, a second, through all the
whose radius is equal to a c, be described, having such point points R, a third, &c., we shall have the horizontal projection
for its centre, it will also be indefinitely the development of of the intersection required.
" In
the. horizontal trace of the surface. Then, by measuring the like manner, for the same plane, whose trace is K I,
arc of the circle T Q on the arc just described, beginning we shall have upon the vertical projection a certain number
from the point T of the trace from which it is designed to of lines a <?, a g', b h, b h', whose points of intersection will

begin the development, the position of the point Q upon the be the vertical projections of as many points of the inter-

development will be determined ; and the indefinite right section.

" Here be remarked, that
line drawn from this point to the centre of the development, let it it is not necessary to con-
will be the position occupied by the right line of the surface struct the two projections independently of each other, and
projected in A Q, and upon which the point D rf, of the that having constructed a single point of one of them, it may
section referred to, will be found. To construct this point, be projected in the other upon one of the lines that ought
it
only remains to discover its distance from the apex, and to contain it hence we acquire means of verifying the
:

to measure indefinite right line, beginning from

it upon thu operation, and of avoiding, in certain cases, the intersections
the centre of the development. In order to this, draw the of lines which cut each other in angles too oblique.
horizontal line d k, from the point d in the vertical projec- "To find the tangents to the horizontal projection, that,
tion, till it cut the side a o of the cone, in a point k, and tho for example, which touches it in the point p, we must
33
 DES 258 DES
construct the horizontal trace, T, of the tangent of the in, in o,F ; by projecting the latter points upon I. jt, in y, f,
intersection in the point corresponding to p. This tangent the right lines a y, af, will be the vertical projections of the
is the intersection of the two planes which touch the conic sections made in the conic surface, considered in the new
surfaces in that point; its trace, therefore, will be in the position they have assumed in consequence of the movement
coincidence of the horizontal traces with such two tangent of the plane. The section made in the surface of the sphere,
And as A o' p is the projection of the line of contact considered also in its new position, will have the circumfer-
planes.
of the plane which touches the first surface, the trace of such ence //' g' m
as a vertical projection. The points, therefore,
first plane will be the tangent to the curve c o D o', in the of coincidence, g' f, of this circumference with the lines a r/,
point G' let then o' T v be that tangent.
:
So likewise B H' p a/ will be the projections of the points of intersection
is the horizontal projection of the line of contact of the plane required, considered also in the new position of the plane.
"
that touches the second surface and as the horizontal trace
; Now, to obtain the projections of the same points, in their
of the second tangent plane will be the tangent, in the natural position, the vertical plane must be supposed to he

point H', of the curve E H F H', let

H' T u be such tangent. returned to its original situation. In this movement, all its
The two tangents o' v, n' u, will intersect each other in points, and consequently those of the intersection contained
a point, T, from which if the line T p be drawn, we shall in it, will describe the arcs of horizontal circles around the

have the tangent in the point p, as required. vertical line raisedfrom the point A as an axis, whose \er-
"
Bv proceeding in like manner with the other points Q, R, e, ticalprojections will be horizontal lines. Then bv drawing
we shall find, first, that the tangent in Q must pass through through the points f 7', the horizontal lines h, g' i, they f
the point of coincidence of the tangents in c'and H secondly, ;
will contain the vertical projections of the points of intersec-
that the tangent in B must pass through the coincidence of tion but these projections must also be upon the respective
:

those in 11 and G ; and, thirdly, that the tangent in s must right lines a c, ft e, and will be found in the points of coinci-

pass through the coincidence of tho~e in o and H'. dence, i A. of the latter, with the horizontal lines </' /' A. ;'.

'Tangents of the vertical projection are attended with no Thus the curve k h n i, drawn through all the points con-
difficulty, when those of the horizontal projection are once structed in the same manner for any other line, besides c E,
determined for by projecting the horizontal traces of the
;
will be the vertical projection of the intersection required.
"
tangents of the intersection, we have the points through By projecting the points, j, A. upon c E, in J, H, we shall
whicli they must pass. have the horizontal projections of the same points of the
"
Fifth Question. To construct the intersection of a conic intersection and the curve K H N J drawn through all the
;

surface of any base, with that of a sphere. points, j H, constructed in the same manner for any line
"
We shall here suppose the two surfaces to he concentric, besides c E, will be the horizontal projection of the
that is to
say, the apex of the cone placed in the centre of intersection.
"
the sphere, because we shall have occasion for such a dispo- To find the tangent to the point J of the horizontal pro-
sition in the following question. jection, the horizontal trace v of the tangent to the corres-
"
Solution. Figure 81. Let A, a, be the projections of the ponding point of the intersection must be constructed. This
common centre of the two surfaces B c D E, the given hori-
;
trace must he in the coincidence of the traces of the planes
zontal of the conic surface; am, the radius of the
trace tangent to the two surfaces, in the point of the intersection
sphere; and the circle, I f
g' m, the vertical projection of corresponding to the point j. Here it is obvious, that by
the sphere. Suppose from the centre common to the two drawing c P through the point c, tangent to the curve B c E D,
surfaces, a series of planes, which may likewise be conceived we shall have the trace of the plane tangent to the conic
to be perpendicular to one of the two planes of projection
all : surface. And for that of the plane tangent to the surface
in the Figure 31, we have supposed them to be vertical. of the sphere, the operation is similar to what has been
Each of such planes will cut the conic surface in a system described in the cases of revolving surfaces, viz. by drawing
of right lines, and the surface of the sphere in the circumfer- g' o through the point y', tangent to the circle g' m, pro- If
ence of one of its great circles; and for each plane, the duced to the right line L M, in o, afterwards measuring a' o
coincidence of these lines with the circumference of the circle upon c E, from A to o, and drawing the line o p, through the
will determine the points of the intersection
required: draw, point, o, perpendicular to c E. The two traces c P. o p, then
therefore, from the point A as many indefinite right lines, will cross each other in a point, p, through which, if j p be
c A E, as you please, and they will be the horizontal projec- drawn, it be the tangent to the point j.
will
tions of so vertical planes in the series, and, at the
" Hence we see that the tangent to the point i of the ver-
many
same time, those of the lines according to which these planes tical projections of the intersection will be obtained by pro-
cut the two surfaces. Each right line c A E, will intersect jecting the point P upon L M in p, and afterwards drawing the
the horizontal trace B c D E of the conic surface in points, c, E, right line i p, which is the tangent required.
that will be the horizontal traces of the sections made in this ''
If the sphere and the conic surface were not concentric,
surface by the corresponding plane; and if, after having it would lie necessary to conceive a right line passing
projected the points c, E, upon L M, in e, e, the lines a c, a e, through their two centres, and to choose a series of cutting
be drawn, they will give the vertical projections of the same planes that should pass through such line. Each of these
sections.
" planes would cut the conic surface in right lines, and that of
It now remains to discover the the sphere in one of its great circles, as in the preceding
points of intersection of
these sections with those of the
sphere, upon the same plane. instance; which would give an equally simple construction:
" For this
purpose, having drawn through the point A, the but then it would be advantageous to place the vertical plane
right line OAF, parallel to L M, suppose the vertical plane of projection parallel to the right line drawn through the two
drawn through c E, to turn about the vertical line raised from centres, in order that, in the movement given to each cutting
the point A, and projected in a' a, as
upon a hinge, till it plane to render it parallel to the vertical plane of projection,
become parallel to the vertical plane of projection, and that it the two centres may remain motionless, so as not to change
also draw with it the sections it has made in the two surfaces. their this means the constructions are
projections ; by
In this movement, the points c, E, will describe around the
simplified.
" Sixth. To
point A, as a centre, the arcs of circles c o, E r, and will fall Question. construct the development of a
 DBS 250 DBS
conic surface, of any base, and to represent upon the surface from a change of the planes of projection it will even prove
;

so developed, a section, whose two projections are given. more easy to represent the objects by referring them all to
" Solution.
Suppose the surface of a sphere, whose radius the same planes. We
shall therefore suppose the
generating
is taken at pleasure, whose centre is placed in the apex of the lines of the two surfaces to be placed
indifferently as to the
cone, and construct, as in the preceding question, the projec- planes of projection.
"
tions of the intersections of the two surfaces. This done, it Under this idea, let T F u F', x a v o' (Figure 34) be the
will appear evident, that all the points of the spherical intersec- given horizontal traces of the two cylindric surfaces; A n,
tion being at the same distance from the apex, they must like- a b the given projections of the right line, to which the
wise, upon the surface developed, be at an equal distance from generating line of the first is parallel c D, c rf, those of the
;

the apex, and consequently upon an arc of a circle described from line to which the
generating line of the second is parallel.
the apex as a centre, with a radius equal to that of the sphere. Suppose a series of planes parallel to the two generating
"Thus, supposing the point R (Figure 33) to be the apex of lines: such planes will intersect the two surfaces in right
the surface developed, if from this point, us a centre, with a lines and the coincidences of the sections made in the first
;

radius equal to a m (Figure 31) the arc, s T u,of an indefinite surface with those made in the second, will determine the
circle be described, it is upon this arc that all the points of points of the intersection required.
"
the spherical intersection will fall, so that the points of such Thus, after having constructed, as in Figure 15, the hori-
arc will be respectively equal to the corresponding points of zontal trace, A E, of a plane drawn along the first given
right
the spherical intersection. It therefore now remains, line, parallel to the second, draw as many parallel right lines,
(after
having taken at pleasure a point by way of origin, as, for F o', to this trace as you please, and consider such parallels as
example, the one projected in N, n (Figure 31), and a point s traces of the planes of the series. Each line, F o', will cut the
(Figure 33) to correspond with it on the surface developed) trace of the first surface in such points as F, F', and that of
to develop the different arcs of the spherical intersection, the second in such as o, G', through which draw to the
and to measure them successively upon the arc of the circle respective projections of the generating lines, the parallels
8 T r, f;om s. in certain points T. To do which, the spherical F H, F' n' G J. o' j' and the intersecting points, p, Q, R, s,
;

surface being of double curvature, it must be successively of these lines, will be the horizontal projections of so marv
deprived of its two curvatures, without, however, altering its points of the intersection of the two surfaces. By working
size, in th.' following manner. in a similar manner on the remainder of the lines F G', we
"
The spherical intersection being projected on the hori- shall obtain a succession of systems of points p, Q, R, s, and
zontal plane in N j K n, (Figure 31) it may be considered as the curve that will pass throu<rh all the points so found, will
traced upon the surface of a vertical cylinder, whose base be the horizontal projection of the intersection.
would be N j K ii :this surface may then be developed as "To obtain the vertical projection, project upon L M the
directed in Figure 27, and the spherical intersection may be points F, F' o, G' in f.f y, g' and draw
described upon it by developing the arc N j (Figure 31) in N' j' through those latter points, to the projections of the respective
(Figure 32), and carrying the vertical line i' i (Figure 31) generating lines, the parallels/' A,/' It g i, g' i'
. . . . and
. . . .

perpendicularly to s' x' (Figure 32) from j' j". The curve their coincidence will determine the Vertical projections,
N" j" K"N", passing through all the points, j", thus determined, p, q, r, s, of the points of intersection. And by thus pro-
will be the spherical intersection, freed from its horizontal ceeding with all the other lines F G', we shall obtain new
curvature, without having changed its length. The tangent points/), q, r, s, and the curve that would pass through such
to the point j" of this curve will be obtained by carrying j p points will be the vertical projection of the intersection.
'

(Figure 31) measuring it upon N' N' (Figure 32) from J to In order to obtain the tangents of these curves to the
p', and drawing the right line j" p'. points p, p, construct the horizontal trace, F' y, of the plane
"
Now, we shall develop the curve N" j" K" H" N", in tangent in this point to the first cylindric surface ; then the
order to fold it on the arc s T u (Figure 33) :for example, trace, o' Y, of the plane tangent in the same point to the
measure the, arc s" j" from 8 to T, and the point T will be on second surface ; and the right line drawn from the point p to
the conic surface developed, the point in which that of the the point Y of the coincidence of these traces, will be the
spherical intersection will apply, whose projections are j, i tangent in p. Lastly, project Y upon L M in y, and draw the
(Figure 31.) Therefore by drawing the right line R T we right line/) y, and it will give the tangent to the pointy of
shall have upon the development of the surface, the gene- the vertical projection.
"
rating line, whose horizontal projection is A c (Figure 31). Eighth Question. To construct the intersection of two
Lastly, should any point be found upon this generating line, revolving surfaces, whose axes are in the same plane.
"
that should be brought upon the surface developed, it will be Solution. Dispose the planes of projection in such a
only requisite to take the distance (Figure 31) of such point manner, that one among them shall be perpendicular to the
from the apex of the conic surface, and to carry it (Figure 33) axis of one of the surfaces, and the other parallel to the two
upon R T, from R to v ; and the point v will be upon the axes. Then let A, Figure 35, be the horizontal projection of
surface developed, the one required. the axis of the first surface ; a a' its vertical projection ; and
"
Seventh Question. To construct the intersection of two c d e the given generating line of such surface. Let A n,
cylindric surfaces, of any bases. parallel to L M, be the horizontal projection
of the axis of the
"
Solution. In making the research in which this question second surface ; a' 6 its vertical projection, so as that A, a'
originates, if we have no other intersections to consider than be the projections of the point of coincidence of the two axes ;
that of the two cylindric surfaces, (and especially when these fff h the given generator of the second surface. Conceive a
surfaces have circular bases) it will be found expedient so to series of spherical surfaces, whose common centre would be
choose the planes of projection, as that one among them may in the point of concourse of the two axes ; and for each of
be parallel to the generating lines of the two cylinders by : such surfaces construct the projection i k n o p q of the great
which means the intersection will be constructed without the circle parallel to the vertical plane of paojection ; which pro-
aiii of
any other curves than those given. But when we are jections, being arcs of circles described from the central point
obliged also to keep in view the intersections of these surfaces a', with radii taken arbitrarily, will cut the two generating
with others, there is no longer any advantage to be derived lines in the points k p.
 DES 260 DES
" We
shall now find each spherical surface cutting the first "The
"
following is an example.
surface in the circumference of a circle whose plane is per- Figure 36. A thread, A M
B, being fastened by its

pendicular to the axis a a.', and whose vertical projection may extremities to two fixed points, A, B if, by means of a point,
;

be obtained by drawing the horizontal line k o, and its hori- M, this thread be stretched out, and the point moved, so as
zontal projection, by describing from the central point A, with still to keep the thread in a state of tension, it will de ciibe

a diameter equal to k o, the circumference of a circle K R o R'. the curve D c M, being an ellipsis, whose foci are the fixed
In like manner, every spherical surface of the series will cut points A, B. From the generation of this curve, it is easy to
the second revolving surface in the circumference of a circle draw a tangent to it, by Roberval's method. For instance;
whose plane will be perpendicular to the vertical plane of as the length of the thread is not altered, the radius A M, in
be obtained by every instant of its motion, is lengthened in the same propor-
projection, and whose vertical projection may
tion that the radius B M is shortened. The swiftness, there-
drawing through the point p a line,/) n, perpendicular to a' b.
'
Should the points r, in which the two right lines k o,p x, fore, of the describing point in the direction A -M, is equal to
intersect each otlier, be nearer to the two respective axes itsmotion in the direction M Q. Therefore, by measuring on
than are the points k p, it is evident that the two circumfer- M and on the prolongation of A M, the equal light lines M Q,
n,
ences of circles would intersect each other in two points, of M p, and by completing the parallelogram M p R Q, the diagonal,
which r would bo the common vertical projection and a
;
M K, of this parallelogram will be the direction of the gene-
curve drawn through all the points r, constructed in a similar rating point in M, and consequently the tangent to the same
way, would be the vertical projection of the intersection of point of the curve. Hence we may clearly perceive, that in
the two surfaces. By projecting the point / upon the circum- the ellipsis, the tangent divides the ang'e BMP. formed
by
ference of the circle N u o K'. in R, K', we shall have the hori- one of the vector radii, and by the prolongation of the other, in
zontal projection of the two points of the coincidence of the two equal parts; that, the angles A M s, n M R are equal to ca< h
circumferences of circles found upon the same sphere and
;
other and that the curve possesses the property of reflecting
;

the curve drawn through all the points n, it', constructed in upon one of its foci the rays of light emanating from the other.
"
like manner, will lie the horizontal projection of the intersec- The method of Roberval
in the case of three dimensions,

tion required. may be readily understood, and applied to the construction of

"These examples may suffice for conveying an idea of the tangents to curves of double curvature. Thus, if a gene-
method to be adopted in constructing the intersections of sur- rating point move in space, so as to be constantly impelled
faces, and drawing tangents to them more especially if the
;
towards three different points, the line it will traverse,
student be careful to make his constructions with scrupulous though in some particular cases it may be a right line, will
exactness, if he employ large dimensions, and, as much as in general describe a curve of double curvature. The tangent
to such curve may be obtained in any point whatever, l>v
possible, trace the curves
in all their extent.
In the foregoing pages, we have supposed the curves of drawing right lines from the given point, in the three diree-
'

double curvature as being each determined by two curved tionsof the. movement of the generating point; by measuring
surfaces, of which it is the intcr.-cction and, indeed, such is
; upon such lines, in an appropriate direction, parts propor-
point of view wherein they most commonly present them-
tin-, tional to the swiftness of the three respective motions of this
selves in descriptive geometry and, under this consideration
; point; by completing the parallelopiped, and drawing the
we have shown that it is always possible to draw tangents to diagonal of the parallelopiped, which will be the tangent to
them. But, although a curved suifacc may be defined by the curve in the point taken.
means of the form and movement of its generator ; it. may
" We
shall now apply this method to a case
analogous to
nevertheless happen, that a curve may be given, by the law that of the ellipsis. The Figure 37, to which we. refer,
of motion, from a generating point ; in which case, if the represents the object in perspective mid not in projection.
practitioner do nut choose
to have recourse to analysis, he may "Three fixed
points, A, B, c, being given in space, let a
adopt the method of Roberval. This method, invented by thread, A M
be fastened by its two extremities to the
B,
him before Descartes had applied geometry to algebra, is points A, B let a second thread, A M c, independent in its
;

size of that of the other, be attached by its extremities to the

implicitly comprised in the processes of differential calculi,
and is therefore not noticed in the, elements of the mathe- points A, c let a generating point, holding both threads, be
;

matics ; a summary exposition of it in this place, will be moved so as to keep them in a state of tension, and it will
sufficient;
those who are curious to see numerous applications describe a curve of double curvature. In order to draw a
of this method may consult the Memoirs of the Academy of tangent to this curve in the point M, we must observe that
Sciences (French) anterior to the year 1699, wherein the the length of the first thread, A M B, being uniform through-
works of Roberval have been collected. out its movement, the part A M is lengthened out precisely
" in proportion as the part M B is shortened, and that the swift-
When, pursuant to the law of its motion, a generating
point isconstantly impelled towards one particular point in ness of the generating point in the direction A M is equal to
space, the line it describes by virtue of such law is a
right that of its movement in the direction M B. So, likewise, the
line ;
but if, in the whole course of its movement, it be at length of the second thread, A M c, being unaltered, the swift
the same time impelled towards twopoints, it will in general ness of the generating point in the direction M o is equal to
describe a curve, though in particular cases it may describe a that of its motion in the direction A M. Therefore, by
right line. The tangent to such curve may be obtained by measui ing upon the prolongation of A M, and on the right
drawing through the point of the curve two right lines, lines M the equal parts M p, M Q, M R, and completing
B, M c,

following the two different directions of the motion of the the parallelopiped M p u s v Q R T, we shall obtain in the
diagonal, M s, of this parallelopiped,
the tangent required.
generating point ; by measuring upon these directions, in an
"
appropriate manner, parts proportional to the swiftness of two The method of Roberval being founded on the principle
respective motions of the point ; by completing the parallelo- of compound motion, we may readily conceive that in ca-es
gram, and drawing the diagonal, which will be the tangent more complex than these, which we have chosen as examples,
required for this diagonal will be in the direction of the
: we may avail ourselves of the known methods to find the
movement of the describing point to the point of the curve resultance of forces towards a point, whose size and
impelled
under consideration. directions are ascertained.
 DBS 261 DBS
"
Application of t/ie melliod of conn true ting the intersections "By using the intersection of the second and third planes,
nf curved surfaces to the solution of various questions. we obtain a third right line, that passes through the
shall
"In Figure 26, we have defined the mode of constructing centre, and whose projections also pass through those required,
the projections of the intersection of two curved surfaces, which furnishes a means of verification.
" As to the
definite in heir form and position; which we have done in
I
radius, it is evident, that a right line drawn
the abstract, that is, without attending to the nature of the through the projection of the centre and that of one of the
questions whose solutions would require such operations. given points, will be its projection ; whence we may obtain
The exposition of this method, even in this abstract manner, both the horizontal and vertical projections of the radius,
will lie found sufficient f>r most of the arts; for instance, in and consequently its size.
" When
the position of the planes of projection can be
masonry and carpentry, the curved surfaces there considered,
and the construction of whose intersections may be required, chosen at pleasure, the preceding method may be considerably
generally form the principal object of attention, and present simplified. Thus, suppose the plane that we have considered
themselves naturally. But as descriptive geometry will one as horizontal (Figure 38) to pass through three given points,
day become a principal part of the national education, its so as that of the given projections A. n, c, D, of the four
methods being no less nece-sary to artists than reading, points, the three first may be blended with their respective
writing, and arithmetic; we conceive it must prove useful points; then, having drawn the three right lines, A D, A c,
to point out, by a few examples, how it may furnish the A D, suppose the vertical plane to be parallel to A D, that is
analysis for the solution of a great number of questions, to say, that the right lines L M and A D are parallel to each
whi.-h, at first sight, seem not to admit of being treated in other; the vertical projections of the three first points will
this manner. We shall begin with
such examples as require be upon L M, in such points as n, 4, c. and that of the fourth
will be given somewhere in a point, </, of the right line n d,
oniy the intersections nf planes, and then proceed to those in
which the intersections of curved surf ices are necessary. perpendicular to L M. This done, the line drawn from the
"The first question that forcibly occurs to those who are point A to n. being horizontal, any plane perpendicular to it
learning the elements of ordinary geometry, is the finding of will be vertical, having for its horizontal projection a line
the centre of a ciicle whose circumference passes through perpendicular to A n. It is the same with
respect to the
three arbitrary points on the plane. The determination of right line drawn from A to c. Therefore, by drawing
this centre by the intersection of two right lines, upon each through the middle of A B, the indefinite perpendicular K e,
of \vhich it is necessarily found, surprises the pupil as well we shall have tlie horizontal projection of a vertical plane,
by its
generality, as because it yields
a mode of execution. that passes through the centre of the sphere; consequently,
Were all geometry treated in the same manner, which it may the horizontal projection of the centre will be somewhere on
be, it \viiu, d suit a much greater number of geniuses, would the line E e. So, likewise, by drawing through the middle
be cultivated and practised by a far more numerous class of of A c. the indefinite perpendicular F /' we shall have the
men, the ordinary instruction of the nation would be more projection of a second vertical plane, that passes through
advanced, and the science itself carried to a greater extent. the centre of the sphere, and the horizontal projection of this
"In the three dimensions, there existsa question analogous centre will be in some point of the right line F/: therefore,
to the one just quoted, with which we shall begin. the point o, of the intersection of the two lines E ?, F/, will
"First Question. To find the centre and radius of a be the horizontal projection of the centre of the sphere, and
whose surface passes through four points, given its vertical
projection will consequently be upon the indefinite
sphere,
arbitrarily in space. right line of projection o <j <j'.
" "
Solution. The four points being given by their hori- The line drawn from the point A to the fourth point being
zontal and vertical projections, conceive right lines drawn parallel to its vertical projection a d, any plane- perpendicular
from one of them to each of the others; and truce the hori- to it, will also be perpendicular to the vertical plane of pro-
zontal and vertical projections of such lines. Then, in con- jection, and will have its vertical projection in a right line
sidering the first of these right lines, it will appear evident, perpendicular to a d. Hence by drawing through the
that as the required centre must be at equal distances from middle of a rf, the indefinite perpendicular H A, we shall
the two extremities, it will be on the plane perpendicular to obtain the projection of a third plane, that passes through
such right line, and drawn through its middle. Therefore the centre of the sphere; therefore the vertical projection
by dividing the projections of the line into equal parts, which of the centre being at the same time upon y </' and H//, must
will give the projections of its middle, and by constructing be in the point K, of the intersection of these two lines.
"
the traces of the plane drawn through the point perpendicular Lastly, by drawing the two right lines A o, a K, we shall
to the line, as has been before described, we shall obtain the evidently have the two projections of the same radius of the
traces of a plane upon which the centre required will bfe found. sphere; therefore, by measuring A G upon L M, from g to J,
Next, in considering the two other right lines, and working we shall have, in the right line j K, the size of the radius
successively for each of them,
a like operation, we shall required.
" Second Question. To inscribe a sphere in a given
obtain the traces of three several planes, upon each of which
the centre sought for will be found. Now, as the centre triangular pyramid; that is to say, to find the position of the
must be upon both the first and second of these planes, it centre of the sphere find the size of its radius.
can be nowhere but in the line of their intersection, therefore, "Solution. As the surface of the inscribed sphere must
by constructing the projections of this intersection, we shall touch the four faces of the pyramid, it is evident, that a plane
have upon each plane of projection, a line containing that of passing through the centre of the sphere and through each
the centre. For the samereason, if the projections of the of six aretes, would divide the angle formed by the two faces
intersection of the first and third planes be constructed, we that pass through the same arete, into two equal parts. If,

shall have on each plane of projection another line contain- then, three of the six aretes be chosen, which do not all pass
ing the projection of the centre. Hence we have upon each through the same apex of a solid angle, and if through each
whose intersection will of these aretes a plane be made to pass, dividing in two
plane of projection two right lines,
determine the projection of the required centre of the equal parts the angle formed by the two corresponding faces,
sphere.
we shall obtain three planes, upon each of which the centre
 DES 262 DES
of the sphere required will be found, whose position will be its distances from three points of known position ;
we shall
determined by their common intersection. now proceed to the actual construction of this question.
" In "
order to simplify the construction, we shall suppose Third Question, To construct the projection of a point,
the planes of projections to be so chosen as that the one which whose distances from three other points given in
space is

we consider as horizontal may be the same with one of the known.

"
faces of the pyramid. Solution. Figure 40. Let the planes of projection be
" With this view, let A, B, c, D, be so chosen as that the one considered as horizontal
Figure 39. Plate 4. may pass
the given horizontal projections of the
apices of four solid along the three given points, and let the other be perpendicu-
angles of the pyramid, and a, b. c, d', their vertical projec-
lar to the right line by which two of the points are joined.
tions; conceive through the apex of the pyramid, planes
Then let A, represent the three given points; and
B, c,

perpendicular to the three sides of the base such planes

; A', B', c', their given distances from the point required. Join
will be vertical, and their horizontal projections will be the two of the points by the right line A B, perpendicularly to
right lines D K, D F, D G, falling perpendicularly
from the point which draw L M, and it will determine the position of the
D on the sides A c, c B. B A, of the base. Each of these planes vertical plane of the projection. Take ihe points A, B, c, as
will cut the base of the pyramid and the face that passes centres, and describe with radii equal to the respective dis-
through the arete in two right lines, comprehending between tances A', B', c', three arcs of circles, which may cut each
them an angle equal to that which the face forms with the other by two's, in the points D, E, F, j, p, Q; through the
base. Then, by measuring on L M the right lines D E, D F, D o, intersecting points of these arcs taken by two's, draw the
beginning from the vertical line D d d', from d to e, f, g, and lines D E, F j, p Q, and they will be the horizontal projections

drawing from the apex the right lines </' e, d, f d' g, the
?'.
t
of the circumferences of circles wherein the three spheres
latter will form with L M angles equal to those formed by the intersect each other; and the single points, wherein these

corresponding faces of the pyramid with the base and if each ;

three lines meet, will evidently be the horizontal projection of
of these three angles be divided into two equal parts by the the point required.
"
right lines e e', //', g g'. the angles formed by these last lines In order to obtain the vertical projection of the same
with L M, will be equal to those formed by the base with the point, draw the indefinite line of projection N n H' ; then,
faces of a second pyramid, having the same base with the observing that ihe circle projected in D K is parallel to the
given pyramid, and whose apex will be in the centre of the vertical plane, and that its projection on this plane must be

sphere required. a circle of equal radius, project the line A B upon L M. in the
"
To find the apex ofsecond pyramid, let it be cut by
this point r, from which, as a centre, and with an interval equal
a horixontal plane, at an arbitrary height, whose
drawn to D K, or the half of D E, describe the circle d n e n', and the
vertical projection may be obtained by drawing any horizontal circumference will cut the right line x n n', in two points, n n',
line whatever, as p it. This line will cut e e',ff,</ .7', in the which will be indifferently the vertical projection of the point
points ft', i', &', from which let the vertical lines h' /i, i' i k' k, , required.
"
fall
upon L M and by measuring the three distances /( e, i f,
; According to the other circumstances of the question, we
k #,ou the respective perpendiculars, from E to H, from F to may determine whether the two points n, n', ought to be
J, and from G to K, we shall have in H, j, K, the horizontal both used and in case of one only being necessary, which
;

projections of points taken in the three faces of the second of them to prefer, and which to reject.
"
pyramid, and which will be found upon the arbitrary hori- The reader may propose to himself the construction of the
zontal plane. Then by drawing through the points H. j, K, projections of a point whose distances from three lines given in
to the respective sides of the base, parallel lines, as space are known.
"
p N, N o, o P, they will be the projections of the sections of Fourth Question. An engineer, when surveying a moun-
the three faces of the second pyramid, upon the same hori- tainous country, whether for the purpose of studying the
zontal plane; they will also intersect each other in points, as form of the earth, or for making a draught for public works
N, o, p, which will be projections of as many points of the dependent on such form, is furnished with a topographical
three aretes of the second pyramid; and by drawing from chart, whereon not only the projections
of the different points
these points to the apices of the respective angles of the base, of the earth arc exactly laid down, but also the altitudes of
indefinite right lines, as A p, B o, c N, such line will be the all these points above a level surface, are indicated by figures

projections of the aretes; lastly, the single point Q, wherein placed on their sides respectively, commonly called quotas:
IK- meets with a remarkable point, not placed on the chart,
they all three meet, will be the horizontal projection of the
apex of the second pyramid, and consequently of the centre either in consequence of an omission, or becau-e it has become
of the sphere required. remarkable since the chart was drawn. The engineer has
"
To obtain the vertical projection of this centre, draw, first, no instrument of observation about him, except a graphomcter,
the indefinite right line of projection Q q q', on which it will used for measuring angles, furnished with a plumb-line.
"
be found; then project the three points, N, o, p, on the hori- Placed in such circumstances, he is required, without
zontal line n,p,\nn,o,p; draw through the projections, quitting the station, to construct
on the chart the position of
a, b, f, of the apices of the respective angles of the base, the the point in question, and to find the suitable quota, viz. its
right lines a p, li o, c n, and they will be the vertical projec- height above the level surface.
" Mode
tions of the three aretes; and the single point, q', wherein of Solution. Among the points correctly described
the three last lines cut each other, and which will be at the on the chart, nearest to the one under consideration, let the
same time on the right line Q <?<?', which will be vertical pro- engineer select three, of which
two at least are not of the
jection of the centre of the sphere. same altitude with that on which he stands; then let him
"
Lastly, the vertical line q q' will be evidently equal to the observe the angles formed by the zenith with the visual rays
radius of the inscribed sphere, and the points Q. q, will be the directed to these three points, and by this single observation
projections of the point of contact of the surface of the sphere he may resolve the question.
"
with the plane of the base. For instance Let A, B, c, represent the three points
:

" We have shown by what considerations we are enabled observed, whose horizontal projections are on the chart, and
to determine the position of a point, after having ascertained whose vertical projections he may construct, by means of
 IK

Knnminl fy H The*
 DES 263 DES
their quotas. Knowing the angle formed by the zenith with centres of the circles, according to which the corresponding
the visual ray directed to the point A, he is also acquainted horizontal plane cuts the three conic surfaces; it will also
with the angle formed by the same ray with the vertical line cut the extreme sides of the cones a I, b m, c n, in such points
raised above the point A: for, disregarding the convexity of /', /, h', that the distances f'fgg' h h', will be the radii of
the earth, which is here admissible, these two angles will be these circles. From the points A. B, c, taken successively as
found to be alternate-internal, and consequently equal. Then centres, and with the radii respectively equal to ff, y </', h /;',
by conceiving a conic surface, of a circular base, with its apex describe circles, whose circumferences will be the horizontal
in the
point A, its axis vertical, and forming with its axis and projections of the sections made in the three conic surfaces by
generating line an angle equal to the angle observed, which the same plane E E'; these circumferences will intersect each
completely determines such surface, it will pass along the other, two by two, in points D D', K, K', J, j', that are the pro-
visual ray directed to the point A, and consequently along jections of as many points of the three intersections of the
the point of the station: thus he will have a first curved conic surfaces, considered by two's; and by projecting these
surface determined, on which he may find the point required. points upon E E', d d', k &', i i', we shall obtain the vertical
By proceeding in a similar manner for the points B, o. as for projections of the same points of the three intersections.
"
the lir.st, the point required will farther appear on two other By afterwards working in the same manner upon the
conic surfaces, with circular bases, having their axes vertical, other right lines e e' we shall obtain from each of them
tlieirapices in the points B, c, and each forming an angle with new points, n, D', K, K', j. j',in the horizontal projection, and
itsaxis and generating line equal to the angle formed by the likewise J, d', t, A-', i, /',
in the vertical one; then pass a curve,
zenith and the corresponding visual ray. The point sought n i> D'. through all the points D, D' and it will be the
. . . .

for, therefore, willhe at (he same time upon three conic sur- horizontal projection of the intersection of the first conic sur-
faces, of determinate forms and positions, and consequently face with the second ; pass another curve, K r through nil K',
in their common intersection. It remains then
only to con- the points K, K' and it will be the projection of the inter-
. . . .

struct, according to the data of the question, the horizontal section of the second surface with the third: and by passings
and vertical projections of the intersections of these three third curve, j p j'. through all the points j, j' we shall
surfaces, taken by two's ; the intersections of these projec- have the projection of the intersection of the third surface
tions will give the horizontal and vertical projections of the with the first. All the points p .... wherein these three
point required, and consequently its position on the chart, curves intersect each other, are the horizontal projections of
with height above or below the points of observation,
its as many points answering to the question.
which will determine the quota. "So, in the vertical projection, bypassing a first curve
'This solution will generally produce eight points in through all the points (/, d' a second through all the points
. . . .

answer to the question ; but the observer may readily dis- X-,
k 1
and a third through all the points i, i'
. . . . we shall . . . .

tinguish among them that which coincides with the point of have in such curves the vertical projections of the intersec
the station, lie may at first sight ascertain whether the tions of the three surfaces, taken in pairs; and all the points,
point of the station be above or below the plane that passes }>.... wherein such curves intersect each other, will be the
along the three points of observation. Suppose this point to vertical projections of all the points necessary to the solution
be above the plane of the apices of the cones; he may then of the question.
"
neglect such branches of the intersections of the conic surfaces The projections P, p, of an identical point will be in the
as are below the plane, which will reduce the number of same perpendicular to L M.
"
possible points to four. So, on the contrary, were the point Having discovered among the points p the one indicative
of the station placed below the plane, the number of points of the point of the station, the observer will be in possession of
would be equally reduced by omitting such branches as were the horizontal projection of such station, and, consequently,
above it. Then among these four points, if indeed so many of its position on the chart; then by means of the altitude of
exist, he will easily recognize that whose position, relatively the corresponding point p above the right line L M, he may
to the three apices, is the same with that of the point of the obtain the elevation of the point of the station above that
station, relatively to the points of observation. of the point of observation A., and that will give him the
"
Construction. Figure 41. Let A, B, c, represent the appropriate quota.
" In this
horizontal projections of three points of observation taken on solution we have constructed the projections of
the chart ; a, 6, c, the vertical projections of such points, con- the three intersections of the surfaces but two would have ;

structed by measuring on the vertical lines B A, c c, beginning been sufficient. Yet we would always advise the adoption
from the horizontal line L M, passing through the point a, the of this practice, because the projections of the two curves of
ditfcTence of the quotas of the two other points ; and let double curvature may intersect each other in points not cor-
A' B' c', represent the angles which the visual rays, directed respondent to those of intersection ; and also, because in
to the respective points A, B, c, form with the zenith. order to recognize the projections of the points of intersection,
" Draw the indefinite vertical lines a
<t',
b 6', c c', and they it is
necessary to follow the branches of the two curves that
will be the vertical projections of the axes of the three cones; are upon the same face of one of the surfaces; which requires
through the three points a, b, c, draw the right lines a laborious degree of attention, seldom, if ever, necessary in
a I, b m, c n, and they will form with the vertical lines, angles constructing the three curves the points wherein they all :

respectively equal to the given angles A', B', c'; which right three cut each other, are true points of intersection.
lines will be each the vertical projection of one. of the two "Fifth Question. Under circumstances similar to the
extreme sides of the corresponding conic surface. preceding, except that the instrument is not furnished with a
"This done, draw in the vertical projection horizontal plumb-line, so that the angles formed with the zenith cannot
lines, e e' at pleasure, which may be considered as the projec- be measured, the engineer is required, without quitting the
tions of as many horizontal planes, and for each of them work station, to determine on the chart the situation of the point
the operation we are about to describe for the one indicated where he is, and to find the quota belonging to it, viz. its
by E E'. elevation above the level surface to which all the points of
" This line
will cut the projections of the axes of the three the chart refer.
" Mode
cones in points _/j g, A, that are the vertical projections of the of Solution. Having made choice of three points
 DES 264 DES
of land, whose situations are
accurately marked on the chart, plane passing through the three revolving axes, and four on
and of such kind as not to be in the same plane with the point the other. The observer, being always aware of the side on
of the station, let the engineer measure the three angles which which he is placed relatively to this plane, will, of course, not
he visual rays directed towards those three points form construct the intersections of the opposite side, so that the
with each other and by means of this simple observation he
;
number of points will in fact be reduced to four. Now,
will be able to resolve the question. among these four points, if they all exist, he will readily
"Thus, by lotting A, B, c, represent the three points of know which is placed in respect to the points A, B. c, in a
observation, and supposing them to be joined by the right manner similar to that of the station relatively to the three
linos A B, B c, c A, the engineer will be in possession of the points of the country that he has observed.
horizontal projections of such lines, traced on the chart ; and
" Construction. Select the position of the two planes of
by means of the quotas of the three point*, he may obtain projection so as that the one taken as horizontal may pass
the differences of the altitudes of the extremities of the lines; through the three points observed, and that the other may
he may, therefore, ascertain the size of each of them. be.
perpendicular to the right line drawn through two of those
"This done, if any plane whatever, drawn through A B, points. Let then ABC
(Figure 42) represent the triangle
a rectangular triangle, BAD
(f'iyure 42) be conceived as formed by the points observed, considered in its plane, and
constructed, with A B for its base, whose angle in B is the A', B', c', the throe angles given by the observation. Draw
complement of the angle under which the side A B has been perpendicularly to the sides A B, the right line L M, which
observed, the angle in D will bo equal to the angle of obser will indicate the position of the vertical plane of projection ;
vation, and the circumference o( a circle described through and construct, according to the directions already given,
the points A, B, D, will possess the property that if from any the generating arcs A E D B, B o c, c F A, of three revolving
point whatever, E, of the are A D B, two right lines be drawn surf-ices, whose sides, A B, B c, A c, are the axes. Then,
to the points A, B, the angle, in E, which they include, will
taking the point A as a centre, describe arcs of circles,
be equal to the angle of observation. If, then, the plane of as EOF, at pleasure, and they will cut the generators,
the circle be conceived to turn upon A B, as on a whose axes meet such points as E, F, from which,
hinge, the in A, in
arc A D B will generate a revolving surface, all whose
points drop upon the respective axes, the indefinite perpendiculars
will be endowed with the same
property, viz. that if from any E E', F F'
these perpendiculars will intersect each other
;

point of the surface two right lines be drawn to the points somewhere a point, as H, which will be the horizontal
in

A, B, they will include an angle equal to the angle of observa- projection of a point of intersection of the two surfaces,
tion. Now, it is evident that the points of such revolving whose axes are A B, A c ; and the curve, A n p, drawn
surface alone possess this property therefore the surface
; through all the point* H thus found, will be the hori-
. . . .

passes through the point of the station. zontal projection of this intersection. Next, after pro-
'

By operating in a similar manner upon the two other jecting the axis A B in a, take the point a as a centre, and
lines B c, c A, two other describe from it, with radii successively equal to the per-
revolving surfaces will be obtained,
on each of which the point of the station will be found this; pendiculars E E', arcs of circles, as e e' h, on each of which,
point will therefore be at the same time upon three different by projecting the point H, to its corresponding point in k, we
revolving surfaces, determined as to their form and position ;
shallhave the vertical projection of a point of the intersection
consequently it must be a point of their common intersection. of the two same revolving surfaces; and the curve, a h p,
Thus, in the construction of the horizontal and vertical pro- drawn through all the points, h so constructed, will be
. . . .

jections of the intersections of these three surfaces, taken in the vertical projection of this intersection.
pairs, the points in which the three projections cut each other "The same method mav be pursued for the two surfaces
will lie the projections of the point answering the
question. revolving about the axes A B. B c viz. taking the point of
;

The horizontal projection will be its position on the chart, coincidence, B, of the two axes as a centre, describe arcs of
and the vertical projection its elevation above or below the circles, as D K G. at pleasure; which arcs will cut the two
points of observation. generators in points, as D, G, from which drop on the respec-
" Were this question to be treated by analysis, it would tive axes the indefinite perpendiculars D, D'. G G' ; these per-
generally lead to an equation of the sixty-fourth degree; for pendiculars will cut each other in a point, as j ; and the curve,
each of the revolving surfaces has four distinct faces, two of B j p, drawn through all the points j will be the hori- . . .

which are generated by the arc A D B, and the other two by zontal projection of the intersection of the first and third
the arc A F B. As each of the faces of the first surface may revolving surfaces. Taking the point a as a centre, with
be cut by all those of the second, sixteen branches may be the radii successively equal to the perpendiculars D D', describe
result in the curve of intersection and as these may be
;
arcs of circles, as d d' i, on which project in i the correspond-
again cut by the four faces of the third surface, they may ing points j; and the curve, a i p, drawn through all the
produce sixtv-four points of intersection in the three surfaces; points i, will be the vertical projection of the same intersection.
" Here we shall find that all the
though they would not all apply to the solution of the ques- points, p .... in which the
tion. Thus, if from any point, as F, of the arc A F B, lines two curves A H p, B J P, cut each other, are horizontal pro-
be drawn to the extremities of A B, the angle A F B, included jections of so many points applicable to the question; and
by them, would not be equal to the angle of observation, but that all the points, p .... in which the curves a h p, a i p,
would be its supplement. The faces generated l>y the arc intersect, each other, are the vertical projections of the same
A F B, and the analogous faces in the other revolving surfaces,
points.
cannot therefore serve towards the solution of the question ; "The projections, thus found, will not give immediately
and all the intersecting points belonging to any of these faces the position of the point of station on the chart; nor its
are foreign to the problem. is not that of the chart;
height, because the horizontal plane
" In
descriptive geometry, we may, and indeed should but it will be easy to find them on the true planes of pro-
exclude the arc A F B, and those analogous to it, in the two jection.
other surfae.es ; each of which will then have but two faces, ''
Sixth Question. The general of an army meets that of
and the number of their possible points of intersection will be an enemy, but not having a chart of the country, is at a loss
reduced to eight. Of these, four will be on one side of the. how to form his plan of attack. But being in possession of
IDE 3 C' MjP TIViK {wE OMET3JY"
I'l.ATK A'
 DES 265 DES
a t>al loon, he dismisses an engineer in it, to make the neces- other equal to the measured distance of the two staC'ions, and
sary arrangements for constructing a chart, and to give as through these points draw right lines making with the zenith
near an idea of the level of the country as possible. Fearing, angles equal to those observed for an identical point of
however, that, should the balloon be suffered to change its country ; which lines will cross each other in a point whose
station over the earth, the enemy might anticipate his design distance from the zenith will be the distance required ; and
and frustrate it, he permits the engineer to raise himself to by measuring it on the corresponding ray, beginning from the
different altitudes in the atmosphere, if necessary, but not to projection of the balloon, we shall have on the chart, the
alter his perpendicular station. The engineer is provided position of the point of country. The same two right lines,
with an instrument for the measurement of angles, which is n the vertical projection, will, by their intersection, determine
ilso furnished with a plumb-line it is asked, how can the
: the height of such point therefore, by taking on the vertical
;

engineer fulfil the object of his general ? projection, the heights of all the points of country above a
"
Sulittion. The engineer must take two stations in the common horizontal plane, we shall be able to determine the
same vertical line, whose difference he may ascertain by mea- quotas suitable for all the points of the chart, and likewise
suring the cord let out, to raise the balloon from one station the level of the country.
to the other. In one of these, the lowest, for " This
example, let construction is so easy, that it does not require a
kim measure the angles made by the zenith with the visual figure.
rays directed towards the points whose position he wishes to ''The right line drawn from the projection of the zenith
determine on thy chart ; then, among these points, let him of the balloon to that of the first point, A, observed, having
select one, which he will consider as the first, and which we been in the first instance traced upon the chart arbitrarily,
shall denominate A ; let him also measure successively the it follows that the chart is not
adjusted to the cardinal points,
angles formed by the visual ray directed to the point A, and and, indeed, in the observations laid down, we find nothing
those directed towards all the other points. In the second by which to determine the objects observed towards them.
.-station, let him measure the angles formed by the zenith with But if an engineer observe on the earth, the angle made by
tlie visual
rays directed to all the points of the country and : the meridian with a visual ray directed from the foot of the
from these observations, he mav construct the chart required. zenith towards one of the points placed on the chart, and if
'
When we are acquainted with the angles formed by the he describe this angle upon its projection, he will have the
zenith with the, two visual rays directed from the two stations direction of the meridian, and the chart will be adjusted to
towards the same point, we know that such point is at once the cardinal points."
upon two determinate and known conic surfaces, with The great length to which our extracts from Monge's
circular bases, having their axes in the same zenith, the dis- work have extended, will be, we trust, pardoned, in consi-
tance of their apices equal to the difference of the altitudes of deration of the value of those extracts ; and of our desire to
the two stations, and the angles formed by their generators do the most ample justice to the learned and ingenious author.
with the common axis equal to the angles observed. Also, Though many works of a similar kind by eminent writers
when we are acquainted with the angle formed by the visual have since issued from the press, the Geometrie Descriptive
ray directed from tlie first station to this point, and by that of Monge still holds a most distinguished place and will con-
;

directed towards the point A, we know that the point con- tinue to be regarded as one of the best elementary books of
sidered must likewise be on a third conic surface, with a cir- modern times.
cular base, whose inclined axis is the visual ray directed from DESICCATION, (Latin, dcstceo, to dry), the act of
the first station towards the point A, having its apex in the the chemical operation of drying bodies,
it is
making dry ;

first station, and forming an angle between its axis and and is effected in different modes, according to the nature of
generator equal to the angle observed. The point consi- the substance. The term, Desiccating Process, has been
dered, therefore, will be found at the same time on conic sur- applied to a patented invention, (Davison and Symington's
faces with circular bases, of known form and position ; con- Patent), for seasoning or drying a great variety of sub-
sequently it must be the point of their common intersection ; stances. It is said to have been used with success in season-
and by constructing the horizontal and vertical projections of ing wood.
the intersection, we shall obtain the position of the point on an original
DESIGN, (detigno, Latin ; dessein, French),
the chart, with its elevation above or below others. drawing of a building to bo executed, comprehending the
" Without A
varying from these considerations, the construc- invention, composition, and arrangement of the whole.
tion may be rendered more simple, by some of the methods
design includes plans, elevations, and sections of the building
already prescribed for with a knowledge of the angles
: intended to be carried into execution, besides other drawings
formed at the first station by the visual ray directed towards of details, or parts at large. The number of these will, of
the point A, and by the rays directed towards all the other course, depend either upon the nature of the building, that is,
points and knowing the angles formed by the sides of these
;
on its being more or less complex, or as it is intended to show
angles with the zenith, it is easy to reduce them to the horizon, it more or less fully. A
small simple house will only require
viz. by constructing their horizontal projections. By select- one plan and an elevation. A large edifice, with great variety
ing, therefore, on the chart, an arbitrary point, to represent of parts, will require plans of each story, elevations of the
the projection of the zenith of the balloon, and drawing an different fronts, a longitudinal and transverse section, and, in

arbitrary right line through it, to represent the projection of general, as many drawings as will be sufficient to explain all
the visual ray directed towards A ; drawing also, through the parts All the minute parts, as bases, capitals, architraves,
the same point, right lines, making with such projection of friezes, cornices, and other mouldings, are to be exhibited in
the ray, angles equal to those reduced to the horizon ; it is their true geometrical proportion, at full size.
evident that each of these lines must contain the horizontal There is,perhaps, a certain prejudice against drawings of
projection of its correspondent point, of country. It only this kind, from an impression too generally entertained, that
remains, then, to find the distance of this point of the country they are unintelligible except to the initiated. This feeling
from the zenith. For this purpose, take, in the vertical pro- would be easily removed, were unprofessional persons to take
jection, and upon the projection of the zenith of the balloon, the pains to examine a complete set of well-prepared architec-
two points, which in parts of the scale are distant from each tural drawings. A
very little explanation renders these draw-
34
 DES 266 DET
ings perfectly clear to any person of common capacity, how- seen, except where the front of a house has been ta'<en down
ever ignorant he may be of architecture. for the purpose of rebuilding it, while the floors and partition-
To begin with the plan. This may be described as the walls are left
standing ;
in which case any one may obtain a
map of the building. By its means we distinguish most good idea of the nature of a section, but of one seen in per-
clearly the exact shape and extent of the structure as regards spective.
the space on which it stands the thickness of the walls, the
;
Besides general sections showing the whole of a building
internal arrangement of all the rooms and passages; and the from top to bottom, there are frequently partial ones, show-
situation and width of doors, windows, fireplaces, stair- ing only the rooms on one floor, or even a single room, when
it is desired to show
cases, &c. The raised and solid parts, such as walls, columns, any particular apartment on a larger
piers, &c., are shaded ; the voids and apertures, such as doors,
scale than could conveniently be done any other way. Some-
windows, &c., are left white. For every story of a building times recourse is had to a plan of the room with each of its
there should be a separate plan, although it is not usual, in sides drawn around it, as if laid flat on the ground, by which
books of designs, to give more than those of the ground-floor, means the whole of the apartment is described, Horizontal
and the principal one above it. sections also are given, to show more accurately than can be
Next to the plan we may describe the Elevation. This may done on a plan, the soffits of entablatures, the ceiling and its
be defined as a vertical plan ; it shows the front, or one ornaments, the window recesses, and door-cases, and the capi-
external face of the building, and gives the precise forms tals of columns and projection.
and measurements of every part, drawn to scale. It must be Besides the usual plans, elevations, and sections, there
observed, that the particular in which an elevation differs from should also be detailed drawings, answering, in some respect,
other drawings, and from the appearance of the objects them- to what are termed working drawings ; these give a more cor-
selves, is, that no distinction is made between curved hori- rect idea of the minutias and finishing of the subject than can
zontal lines and straight ones so that, whether the part be
;
be obtained from the general design only.
a plane or a curved surface, can be understood only from the In a complete design, however, it is desirable to have per-

shadowing, unless there happens to be something that assists spective views both of the exterior and principal parts of the
in denoting curvature of plan. Thus, the mouldings of the interior. These enable a person to comprehend the character
base of a column are all straight lines consequently, with-
;
and effect of the design as a whole, which, without such draw-
out shadow to express rotundity, we could not determine ings, can be judged of only piecemeal. The perspective
whether they belonged to a flat or a round surface, unless the drawing of the exterior ought to exhibit the edifice from one
shaft be fluted, in which case the flutes will diminish in width, of the most frequented points of view, and ought also to be
according to their distance from the centre. so contrived as to make it impressive from every point whence
Elevations have sometimes given to them something of a it can be seen, and
particularly from those positions in which
pictorial character, by colouring as well as by shadowing, the greatest part of the design is comprehended at one
and not {infrequently by the addition of sky and background, view.
't would be better, perhaps, were such
accompaniment re- very large works, a model will be useful for preventing
In
stricted to what may be just sufficient to relieve, the building, many mistakes that might otherwise arise, as all the parts
instead of being extended over the whole picture, and care- can be easily seen by inspection ; but when drawings only
fully worked up; because such additions to the usual plain are used, from the number that are necessary to the perform-
architectural drawing are calculated to give a formal and ance of the work, a long examination and consideration are
stiff appearance to the drawing, offensive to good taste and requisite ; and after all, some of the most essential parts of
simplicity. In modern architectural publications, especially the construction may be, and frequently are, overlooked.
foreign ones, outline elevations are now generally given ; these For other particulars respecting designs, we refer to the
are preferable to those which are shadowed, as they exhibit articles APARTMENT, BREAK. BUILDING. HOUSE.
all the forms more distinctly, and admit of being measured DESIGNING, the art of delineating or drawing the
with much
greater exactness. appearance of natural objects by lines on a plane.
We
next proceed to describe the Section. A
section is the DESK, a part of a pulpit ; as the clerk's or precentor's
projection or geometrical representation of a building sup- desk ; also a kind of rostrum where the clergyman reads
posed to be cut by a vertical plane, for the purpose of exhi. the printed service of the English Church.
biting the interior, and describing the height, breadth, thick- DESTINA. Latin, a pillar or other support of a building,
ness, and manner of construction of the walls, &c. Bv the in which sense the term is u<ed by Vitruvius ; but when-
section we are made acquainted with a variety of particulars, employed by ecclesiastical writers, it is usually applied by
in regard to which a plan cannot be made to afford any infor- them to the aisle of a church, or to a small cell.
mation. It shows us the thickness of the walls and floors, the DETACHED COLUMN, the same as INSULATED
heights of the rooms, the forms and profiles of ceilings, whe- COLUMN, which see.
ther flat, coved, or arched, also the exact forms of domes and DETAIL,(from the French, detailler) the delineation of
It shows the heights of the doors, how the parts of an edifice, so as to be sufficiently intelligible
skylights. they are all

panelled and decorated, the form of the chimney-pieces, <fcc., for the execution of the work. The detail is otherwise
and, in some instances, furniture and fittings-up are advan- denominated the working drawings.
tageously introduced, with a view to judge of effect. For The expressiondetail is also \ised in other ways, as, when
detailed and filled-up sections, it is usual to employ outline a moulding exhibited in profile by abutting on a plane, it
is
with the walls and floors shaded, the former as more solid, is said to detail on the plane. Details in the fine arts are
being made darker than the latter. When, on the other minute and particular parts of a picture, statue, or building,
hand, the elevations of the rooms themselves are shadowed, as distinguished from the general conception, or larger parts
the thickness of the intersected walls, &c., are left white, in of a composition.
order to prevent confusion, and exhibit the profiles better. DETERIORATION, (from the Latin, Jelerior) the act
Indispensable and interesting, however, as they are, sec- whereby a thing rendered worse. This was the fate of
is
tions are a fur more conventional mode of drawing than ele- architecture in passing from the Greeks to the Romans, and
vations, because they represent a building as it never can be more particularly in the decline of the Roman empire.
 DIA 267 DIA
DETERMINATE, a word applied in mathematics to frame whatever can be rendered stationary or immovable
those problems which have one answer only, or at least about the angles, without diagonal pieces, as the strength
a certain and finite number of answers. consists in dividing the work into triangles. In geometry,
DETERMINING LINE, conic sections, the intersec-
in a polygon cannot be constructed by the linear dimensions of
tion of a plane parallel to the cutting plane with the plane its sides only, without the diagonals, as the area of the
figure
of the base of the cone. In the sections of a cone which may be variable under the same number of sides, ad injinituin,
produce the hyperbola, the determining line falls within the from a certain position of the sides, in which they will con-
base of the cone ; in parabolic sections, it forms a tangent tain the greatest possible area to any less area whatever.
to the base. In the elliptic section, it falls without; and The impulse given to a body, at the same instant, by two
when the section is a circle, the determining line will, in one forces, in different directions, causes that body to move in
case, never meet the plane of the base, as in this instance the diagonal of a parallelogram, of which, each of the forces
the cutting plane is parallel to the plane of the baSe. acting separately, would cause the body to describe a side,
DIACON1CON, (from / nerve, I minister) a
dta/co^eo), in the same time as the body moved conjointly by the

place adjoining to tlie churches, where the sacred

ancient two forces.
vestments, vessels, relics, and ornaments of the altar, were DIAGONAL BUTTRESS, a buttress placed at the angle of
preserved. This apartment was otherwise called sacristy. a building, chiefly used churches of meditevai date, and
in
It was also denominated arm ?IKOV, and in Latin, salutatorium ;
employed to resist the thrusts of the ribs of the last severy of
because it was here that the bishop received and saluted the vaulting. It answers the same purpose as two distinct

strangers. Sometimes it was called \ir\Ta-u>viov, or /iirarw- buttresses set square with the two walls at their intersection,
ptov, j/ienxo, on account of the tables kept there. but with less material. Diagonal buttresses do not seem to
DIAGONAL, (from the Greek, diayuvios) in geometry, have been employed to any extent previous to the fourteenth
a line drawn through any figure, from the vertex of one century, but are common in buildings of the Decorated style.
angle to that of another. Previously, two buttresses at right angles were employed.
Every rectilinear figure may be
divided into as many DIAGONAL MOULDING, the same as ZIG-ZAG or DANCETTE.
triangles, wanting two, as the figure has sides. DIAGONAL PAVING. See PAVEMENT.
Every diagonal divides a parallelogram into two equal DIAGONAL RIB, a rib or groin passing diagonally across
parts. a bay of vaulting from one angle to the opposite.
A most excellent theorem in elementary geometry, first DIAGONAL SCALE, a compound scale, by which a subdivision
demonstrated by Mr. Lagny, the Memoires de P Academic
in may be made of any part of the smallest unit upon a straight
Rutjule des Science*, an. 1706, is, that the sum of the squares line, by means of equidistant parallels crossing others of the
of the two diagonals of every parallelogram is equal to the same kind.
j

sum of the squares of the lour sides ; and it is evident that j

DIAGRAM, (from <5mypa0w, / describe) in geometry, a
the 47th proposition of Euclid may be derived as a mere scheme demonstration of a figure.
for the explanation or
corollary from this theorem. The demonstration is as DIAL, (from the Latin, dies, day) an instrument .serving
follows: Let A B c D be an oblique parallelogram, of which to measure time by the shadow of the sun. Or more par-
B D is the greater diagonal, and A c the lesser. From the ticularly, the surface of a body so graduated
that a certain
vertex, A. of the obtuse angle DAB, drop the perpendiculars line parallel to the earth's axis will show the hour of the
A E and B F to c D ;
then the triangles A D E, B c F, are equal dav, when the sun shines upon the surface of such body.
and similar; for A D is equal to B c, and the angles A D E DIAMETER, (from dia, through, and perpeiv, to measure)
and u c F are equal to each other ; also the angles A E D, and a straight line passing through the centre of a circle, and
B F c, are equal to each other consequently D E is equal
;
terminated at each end by the circumference the diameter
;

to c F. Now, by proposition xii. lib. ii. of Euclid, in the is therefore a chord passing through the centre of the circle,

obtuse-angled triangle B D c, the square of the side B D is and is consequently greater than any other chord in the
equal to the sum of the squares BC, c D, together with double same circle.
the rectangle c F by c D ; and by the 13th proposition of the The diameter of a circle divides the circumference into
same book, in the triangle D A c, the square of A c is equal two equal parts.
to the sum of the squares of A D and c D, abating double the For other particulars, see the article CIRCLE.
rectangle of c D by D E equal to c F; for c F is equal to D E : DIAMETER OF A COLUMN, the thickness of the lowest part
now, since of the shaft at the bottom. In a colonnade, or range of

columns, the intercolumns should always be proportioned

and AC' = 2(cFXco) to the diameter of the column.
DIAMETER OF A CONIC SECTION. Set CONIC SECTION.
Therefore DIAMETER, Conjugate. See CONIC SECTION.
DIAMETER OF DIMINUTION, the diameter at the top of the
Then, if the
parallelogram be right-angled, the diagonals are shaft.
equal, and consequently each equal to the squares of the two DIAMETER OF A SPHERE. See SPHERE.
sides containing other right angles opposite that diagonal. DIAMETER, Transver.it, the longest axis of an ellipsis.
Hence, if one of the diagonals and a side be known, the DIAMETERS, Conjugate, of a circle, two diameters at right
other diagonal will likewise be known. angles.
Another proposition, of a similar nature to the above, was DIAMOND, an instrument for cutting glass.
discovered by Ptolemy, viz., that the rectangles of any two DIAMOND, the small instrument used by glaziers for cutting
diagonals of a quadrilateral figure inscribed in a circle, is glass, and formed by the setting
of a fractured piece of
equal to the sum of the two rectangles contained by the diamond in a wooden handle. There are now in use two
opposite sides. descriptions of pencil diamonds, the old one,
and the new or
building, in order to make The defect of the former is the difficulty
In taking the dimensions of a
patent pencil.
a plan, it is by far the most accurate and expeditious method, experienced in placing it on the glass in, at once, the proper
to take the
diagonals. In carpentry and joinery, no polygonal angle, so as to make it cut and not scratch.
The patent
 DIG 268 DIL

pencil overcomes this difficulty, the diamond being fixed by sand}' ground, when wheeling is requisite, three men
In
the peculiar mode of its setting at the correct angle at which will be required to remove 30 cubic yards a day, to the
it will cut the glass. The diamond in these pencils is about distance of 20 yards, two filling and one wheeling but to ;

the size of an ordinary pin's head, and is set in a nipple of remove the same quantity
a day, to any greater distance,
in
brass or copper. They are differently fitted up, according an additional man will be required for every twenty yards.
to the quality ot' the material which they are to work upon. To find the price of removing any number of cubic yards
DIAMOND FRET, a species of moulding consisting of fillets to any given distance:

intersecting each other, so as to form diamonds

or rhombuses. Divide the distance in yards by 20, which gives the number
DIAMOND, Glass. See GLASS. of wheelers ; add the two cutters to the quotient, and
you will
DIAMOND, Pavement. See PAVEMENT. have the whole number employed ; multiply the sum by the
DIANA, Temple of. See TEMPLE. daily wages of a labourer, and the produce will be the price
DIAPER, a panel or recessed surface enriched with of 30 cubic yards. Then,
carving in low relief, and frequently gilded
and coloured; As 30 cubic yards is to the whole number, so is the price
or a plain surface enriched with polychrome. Also a kind of 30 cubic yards to the cost, of the whole.
of linen-cloth wrought with figures in weaving. Example. What will it cost to remove 2,750 cubic yards,
DIAPERING, the decoration employed in the relief of to the distance of 120 yards, a man's wages being three

any plain surface by the interweaving of fret-work, or shillings per day 1

covering the field with ornamental patterns. In some cases,

it consists in the application of colour only, but in others of
2,0)12,0
embossed or carved work, delicately chiselled, and also
6 number of wheelers.
enriched with gilding and colour. Diaper-work is usually 2 fillers.
composed of small square panels, containing flowers in low
relief, as in the spandrels of the choir arches, and in other
8 men employed.
parts of \Yestmin>ter Abbey. There is a beautiful specimen
3 shillings per day.
of later date on a monument in the choir of Canterbury
cathedral the design is composed of a flower of six leaves
;
24 price of 30 cubic yards.
in low relief, within a sexagonal compartment, the sides of
which are formed by the sides of six spherical triangles,
and are foliated within, and coloured azure and gules.
Another specimen is to be seen in the Lady Chapel,
30 : 2750 : : 24 : -
2750 X
30
24
- = 110.

Ely, at tin back of the canopies of the ornamental

1

arcade which surrounds the walls ; others at Waltham See farther under EXCAVATION.
Cross, and in many buildings erected during the reigns of DIGLYPII, (from the Greek, a tablet with two ,

Henry III. and Edward I. Diaperings of a rich and taste- engravings or channels.
ful design were also employed in ecclesiastical hangings, DIKE, or DYKE, (from the Saxon, die, a bank or mound),
vestments, &c. Some very beautiful designs may be seen a work of stone, timber, or earth, supported by fascines,
in Puyiti's Glossary. raised to oppose the entrance or passage of waters of the sea,
DIASTYLE, (from dia, and fv/toc;, a pillar) in classical a river, lake, or the like. These dykes usually consist of ele-
architecture, that distance between columns equal to three vations of earth, strengthened with hurdles or stakes, stones,
diameters of the column ; or the word is applied to the edifice and other matters.
itself, in which columns arc applied at this interval. DILAPIDATION, (from the Latin), the state of a build-
D1ATIIYRA, the vestibule in front of the doors of a ing suffered to fall into a ruinous condition by neglect. The
Greek house, answering to the prothyra of the Romans. term is
usually restricted, in its legal sense, to the pulling
DIATONI, quoins or corner-stones bonding two walls down or destroying the houses or buildings belonging to an
together. ecclesiastical benefice, or suffering them by neglect to fall
into ruin or decay. In the experience of every -day life, there
D1DORON, (from the Greek) a kind of brick used by the
Greeks, being one foot long and half a foot broad. are few families who have not had occasion to feel how much
DIE. of a pedestal, that part contained between the base of annoyance, inconvenience, and loss may be hidden under
and the cornice. See DVE. the word dilapidations.
DIFFERENTIAL, a term used to denote an infinitely In the " Builder" of January, 1849, there appeared an
small quantity. The differential method is applied to the excellent letter on this subject, and as it is evidently written
doctrine of infinitesimals it consists
;
in descending from by one well acquainted with it, we consider its insertion here
whole quantities to their infinitely small differences, and will be both interesting and useful :

" This " is one that has never

comparing them. Hence it is called the differential calculus subject," says the writer,
or analysis of infinitesimals. received proper consideration from the hands of a large class
DIGGING is
performed bv the solid yard of 27 cubic who are interested and affected by it 'tenants.' Men who
feet. are daily imposing upon themselves heavy responsibilities, the
In soft ground, where only cutting with the spade is extent, or the peculiar obligations, and the ultimate result of
necessary, a man will throw up a cubic yard in an hour, or which they are totally unacquainted with.
"
10 cubic yards in a day. But if hacking be necessary, Few persons on taking a lease think of raising objections
an additional man will be required ; and very strong gravel to covenants which are, they are informed, of the usual
will require two. The. rates of a cubic yard depending thus character; or, if prudent enough to pledge themselves to an
upon each circumstance, they will be in the ratio of the agreement of but three years, they fearlessly, and without
arithmetical numbers 1, 2, 3. If. therefore, the
wages of a hesitation, affix their signatures to a clause promising
to
or that which really
labourer be 2s. Gd. per day, the price of a yard will be 3d. for 'uphold, maintain, and sustain,' &c.,
gutting only ; 6d. for cutting and hacking ;
and 9d. when two may turn out an impossibility; for some houses, so to speak,
hackers are necessary. have the elements of destruction and disease upon them from
 DIL 269 DIL

their infancy. Bad brickwork, causing by its humidity damp happening during his tenancy, if not inevitable, must be
walls, rots everything ; unseasoned timber, that shrinks and made good by the tenant, for it is fair to presume, that had
twists in all directions, throwing floors out of their level, and he adopted proper precautions, the accident might have been
making settlements from top to bottom, through which the prevented; therefore, there exists an obligation not to suffer
doors and windows have to be constantly eased and rehung; dilapidations, and it is evident that the tenant is equally
faulty and imperfect drainage, which becomes constantly bound not to do any act that will cause an injury to the
choked the roof acting like a sieve and this list of ills that
; ;
tenement.
modern houses are heir to, is no exaggeration ; yet many a "Voluntary waste means an alteration in the tenement, it
man, and he, too, who may be esteemed in his own business being held in law that a lessee cannot change the nature of
a prudent man, is induced, from a want of consideration, the thing demised the act of alteration exceeds the right to
;

readily to promise to do and perform all needful and neces- use, and infringes on the condition that the landlord shall
sary repairs, or at least to leave the house in tenantable receive back the premises in the same state and condition as
repair. It is not a little amusing to observe the tenant's sur- when the lease was granted. It is, therefore, essential that a
prise at the end of his tenancy, on receiving a notice of dila- tenant contemplating an alteration or improvement should
pidations. What! he exclaims, and leave the house 100 per receive proper permission and authority from the landlord."
" Permissive waste consists of a
cent, better than when took it ? This, and the various sums
I
neglect on the part of a
of money paid to jobbing tradesmen, all the accounts of whom tenant to supply the repairs required by time and use, and
he can enumerate by heart, constitute the anchor of hope to also a neglect to make good occasional and accidental dilapida-
the poor tenant, when informed, in spite of all the benefits tions. Houses and outbuildings are the principal subject of
the house has derived from him during his tenancy, that still dilapidations, but the law extends to trees, land, changing
such and such are dilapidations, and as such he is answerable the course of industry, <fee., but the chief subject is buildings.
for their being reinstated. In the present age, remarkable These, though subject to decay in the progress of time, are
for the number of scantily-constructed houses, with so nice capable of having the defective or decayed parts made good. and
and clean, yet deceitful, an exterior, invitingly waiting for are therefore subject to both permissive and voluntary waste.
" A
tenants on lease or agreement, it cannot fail to be useful to tenant hiring premises on lease is bound to perform
consider the nature of the obligation that exists between land- tenantable repairs, which may be divided into three heads, -
lord and tenant upon the hire of house-property ; for as mis- the ornamental, which includes the trades of painter and
takes will happen in the best regulated families, so do the paper-hanger; the substantial, which includes the trades of
friendship and good understanding that may have existed bricklayer and carpenter; the third includes all works which
between landlord and tenant suddenly cease with the termi- tend to preserve the fabric from decay as, stopping out wind
nation of the lease. Covenants to repair, when once entered and weather, which includes the trades of the joiner, plas-
into, are irrevocable; it is, therefore, most important that each terer, and glazier.
"
party should clearly understand what constitutes repairs or Dilapidations caused by accident are very serious upon a
dilapidations ;
and as to all detects, whether they arise from tenant, as not only is the accident considered as a dilapida-
accident, neglect, or decay, and by which party they are to tion, but injuries arising therefrom, of which the following is
be made good. an illustration from Mr. Gibbons: 'If a building be covered
" A
landlord, on making a claim from his tenant for dila- with weather-boarding, and such boarding decay from age, so
pidations, must show that they are such as were stipulated lung as it form an entire and complete covering, it is no
for in the lease, as the obligation on the part of the tenant to but if, owing to any neglect, any of the internal
dilapidation ;

make good, varies, in nearly every case, according to the woodwork become injured, that is a dilapidation. If the main
different covenants of the lease, by which the tenants are timbers decay, they are not chargeable as a dilapidation, so
bound by more or less stringent clauses, involving greater long as they are an efficient support ; but if they give way,
or less responsibilities. the tenant is bound not only to replace the timbers, but all
"Mr. Gibbons, in an excellent treatise on this subject, damage done by their fall. Accident, shown to be inevitable,
defines dilapidations as the act or default of a such as resulting from tempests, does not fill upon the
person having
to use a tenement to the injury of another having a right to tenant, as in the case of a house being prostrated, the tenant
the same tenement, or a tenant's obligation may be considered need not rebuild, but if the roof be blown off", the tenant must
as depending on the old maxim '
You must not injure an- A tenant, generally speaking, is not answerable
replace it.
other's property, but use it as your own.' for dilapidations resulting from natural decay, or the result
"
It is an imperative act of justice to himself for the future of time, or fair ordinary wear and tear, but is answerable for
tenant to make a stipulation hut, previous to the commence-
t all extraordinary decay. For instance, as to decay, caused by
ment of his tenancy, the premises shall be surveyed ; so that, the premises being exposed to the weather, as if the roof be
if then thwre can be considered anything unsound or defec- suffered to go in bad repair, the tenant must make good the
tive on the premises, it may be made good before the agree- rafters and other timbers, if they are injured.' Lord Chief
ment is concluded, otherwise the tenant will find that he must Justice Tiudal defined a tenant's obligation to repair thus:
make good all, whatever was the state of repair when he Where an old building is let, and the tenant enters into a
'

took possession of the premises. covenant to repair, it is not meant that the old building is to
" Houses held on lease. In the case of premises being let be restored in a renewed form at the expiration of his tenancy,
on lease, as tenant should not be compelled to supplv and make or that the premises shall be of greater value than it was at
good defects that may arise from time and use, because, as the commencement. What the natural operation of time
the tenant bargained for use, and gives to the owner an equi- flowing on effects, and all that the elements bring about in
valent rent, the landlord has a claim only for a restoration of diminishing the value, which, so far as it results from time
the tenement as injured by the tenant, but hns no and nature, constitute a loss, falls upon the landlord. But
right to
make a claim for the wear to be made good ; but then, as the then the tenant must be careful that the tenement do not
tenant agrees to keep the house in tenantable repair, he is suffer more than time and nature would effect. He is bound
bound to supply all occasional and accidental defects which to keep the premises in nearly the same state of repair as
may expose the premises to premature decay. Accidents when demised.'
 DIM 270 DIM
" An annual tenant's obligation has been thus laid down The dimensions of a spheroid are the fixed and revolving
by Lord Kenyon A tenant from year to year is bound to
:
'
axes. The dimensions of an irregular surface or body are in
commit no waste, and to make from time to time fair and a great measure arbitrary. The dimensions of an
irregular
tenantable repairs, such as windows and doors that be surface are thus taken Fix upon some principal line passing
:

injured during the tenancy.' Lord Tenterden decided that through the middle of the body in the direction of its greatest
'
an annual tenant was bound to keep the premises wind and extension, as nearly as can be judged ; then divide the length
water tight.' of this line into equal parts; through the of
" points division,
It seems but under any mode of letting or
justice, that draw perpendiculars, terminated by the boundary; then the
hiring of house property, a tenant should be bound to use length of the first line and of the perpendiculars are the
all
ordinary precautions to preserve the building from decay ;
dimensions. The dimensions of a definite body may be
therefore there exists an obligation to keep the outside and limited as to number, and the
body may be accurately ascer-
the roof sound, perfect, and water-tight and if the internal
; tained, either with regard toils construction or solidity; but
woodwork decay sooner than it otherwise would do for an body can never be ascertained for either, what-
indefinite
want of bound to restore it. Glass,
paint, &c., the tenant is ever be the number of its dimensions greater
may accuracy, :

if cracked or broken, becomes dilapidation, it being an however, will be obtained, the greater the number of dimen-
outside covering. sions taken. The dimensions of an irregular plane figure or
"A tenant with no agreement ay to duration of his tenancy, solid, ought to be taken in equidistant lines or planes.
cannot be bound to perform any repairs, the nature of his The subjects to which dimensions are applied belong
tenancy being so weak that he cannot be expected to do any to geometry, mensuration, and the construction of solids.
repairs, as his landlord might immediately determine his The method of squaring dimensions will be found under
tenancy, and reap the advantage to be derived from the out- the articles Cuoss MULTIPLICATION,
DECIMALS, and Duo-
lay :
besides, if the house require any repairs being done, the DECIMALS.
landlord can enter, and take any necessary steps for its pre- Ill
writing the dimensions of a body, consisting of many
servation but not so with premises let for a definite time. different parts, in order to avoid mistakes, an
;
eye-draught, or
then, the landlord having granted the use for a certain period, sketch of the body, should be made, and two
angles, each
has not a right to enter upon the premises until the expiration with its apex fixed in the opposite extremities of the exten-
of the tenancy. A
tenant under this mode of letting, is how- sion, with a number placed between them to denote the
ever bound neither to commit nor permit waste. This kind length of the line thus, { : 3(5 ft. denotes 36 }>
of tenancy may be considered rather as a deposit than as a
'
feet between the point of one
angle and that of the other:
letting on hire,' and the tenant's obligation may be defined as the opening of each angle is
always turned towards the centre
' "
to use the house with care." of the line. By this method no mistake can occur, even
The above extract gives a very clear and concise descrip- though ever so many other dimensions cross one another,
tion of the responsibilities undertaken by tenants under unless they come so close as to confuse.
Simple rectangles,
varied forms of tenancy. It is well
worthy the attentive or rectangular prisms, are most
frequently written down
perusal of the young professional man, and indeed the whole without any eye-draught, and the dimensions entered in the
subject of dilapidations is an important one, requiringhis care- book with a cross between each, or the word BY" thus, for a ;

It is one on which he is
rectangle, 3 9'x4 8', or 3 9' by 4 8' ; that is, 3 feet
ful study. very frequently called . . . . . . . .

upon to advise ; and he will scarcely be competent to do so 9 inches by 4 feet 8 inches; the mark thus',
signifying that
unless well acquainted with the
just claims of the landlord, the figures below are inches, and
consequently that the first
and the fair obligations of the tenant. To give in a list of is the
place of feet. A
solid is thus denoted, 5 3'x 4 8' X . . .

repairs required to be done, is simple enough in acting for 12 .

6", or 5
. 3' by 4. 8' by 12
. 6' ; that is, the end, or
. . . .

the landlord, but the surveyor should be well assured, from a base, is 5 feet 3 inches by 4 feet 8 inches, and 12 feet
practical acquaintance with what really are dilapidations, to 6 inches from end to end or the solid is 12 feet 6 inches
;

what extent lie is justified in calling on the tenant to do them. long, 5 feet 3 inches broad, and 4 feet 8 inches thick.
DIMENSION (from the Latin) a principal distance mea- In finding the contents of artificers' works in
buildings,
sured in a straight line on the surface of a body, in some the dimensions are placed one under the other,
according to
particular direction, or through some certain point, by the their denominations, and the surface or solid is known the by
help of which the body may be constructed or measured as to number of dimensions ; in order therefore to distinguish
its
its
superficial or solid contents. any set of dimensions from the next, whether above or below,
The dimensions of rectangular figures and solids are taken a horizontal line must be drawn between them. See the
along, or parallel to the straight lines which bound their sur- article BRICKWORK.
faces and consequently rectangles have two dimensions, viz.
; DIMENSION- BOOK, a book in which the measurement of
length and breadth, and rectangular prisms three dimensions, the builder's work is entered,
specimens of which are given
vi/. length, breadth, and thickness. The dimension of a under the head BRICKWORK.
paral-
lelogram are the length of one side, and the distance from DIMINISHED BAR, of a sash, one that is thinner on
that side to the opposite side of the same, so that the two the, inner
edge, or the edge next to the apartment, than where
dimensions of a parallelogram are at right angles to each it recedes close to the
glass, in order to give it a lighter
other. The dimensions of any plane figure are the lengths of appearance.
the sides and The dimensions of a circle are its DIMINISHED COLUMN, one whose upper diameter is less
diagonals.
radius, diameter, or circumference, or all. The dimensions than the lower as is to be seen in all the regular orders of
;

of a regular polygon are the

length of one of its sides, and architecture.
their number. The dimensions of any prism are the dimen- DIMINISHING RULE, a board cut with a concave edge, so
sions of one of its ends or bases, and the as to ascertain the swell of a column, and try its curvature.
perpendicular or
distance between the said ends or bases. The dimensions of For the method of forming a diminishing rule, see COLUMN.
a pyramid are the dimensions of its base, and the distance or DIMINISHING SCALE, a scale of gradation, used in finding
perpendicular form the apex to the plane of the base. The the different points for drawing the spiral curve of the Ionic
dimensions of a sphere are its diameter or circumference. volute, by describing the arc of a circle through every three
 DIN 271 DIG

succeeding points, the extreme point of the last arc being one the statue of a man, in whose left hand shall be a large citv,
of the next three ; each point through which the curve and in his right a bason, which shall receive all the rivers
passes being so regulated as to be in a line drawn to the of the mountain, and again discharge them to the sea.'
centre of the volute, and the lines at equal angles with each Alexander, delighted with the idea, immediately inquired,
other. See SPIRAL and VOLUTE. if the country adjacent would produce sufficient food for the
DIMINUTION OFCOLUMNS, the continued contrac- sustenance of the inhabitants. When he understood that
tion of the diameter from the base to the top of the shaft. provision must be conveyed thither by sea, he replied :

Some modern authors make the diminution to commence 'Dinocrates, I discern the excellence of thy design, and am
from one-third of the height of the column ; but if ancient pleased with it ; but I consider, that whoever should establish
methods are to have a preference, we shall find few examples a colony in such a place, would hereafter be justly blamed ;

to authorize this practice. In all the Grecian

antiquities of for, as a new-born infant cannot be nourished, or gradually
Athens, or Ionia, the diminution commences invariably from reared to the different stages of life, without the milk of the
the bottom of the shaft, immediately above the nurse ; so neither can a city be peopled, nor can it thrive,
apophyge :

and, according to the engravings from Stewart's drawings, without fertile land and plenty of provision ; however, as I
the diminution is continued in a straight line, excepting in the approve the design, though I disapprove the place, I will
Temple of Corinth, where the swell is shown. The diminu- have thee attend me, that elsewhere I may employ thee.'
tion is rarely less than one-eighth, or greater than one-sixth, From that time, Dinocrates remained with the king, and
of the inferior diameter. attended him into Egypt. There Alexander, observing a
In Gothic architecture, neither swell nor diminution is spot which had a haven formed secure by nature, an excellent
used; all the horizontal sections being similar and equal. place for an emporium, the adjacent country through all
In ancient examples, even of the same order, the diminu- Egypt being and having the accommodation of the
fruitful,
tion is
very variable. river Nile, ordered him to build the city now called, from
Other particular remarks will be found under COLUMN. his name, Alexandria. Thus, by the means of a graceful
DIN1\G-KOOM, an apartment in a house, appropriated countenance and dignity of person, Dinocrates became
to the eating of dinners. The dining-room and drawing-room eminent."
ought to have some relation to each other in point of size, as Dinocrates was also employed to superintend the rebuild-
the company move from one to the other. In the smallest ing of the temple of Diana, at Ephesus, when burnt by
houses, the dining-room ought to be the largest, and nearly Erostratus, which he did with more magnificence thnn before.
square upon a plan. In houses of a middle size, they are The last design which history ascribes to him, was that of
very frequently of the same magnitude, which may be 18 erecting a temple to Arsinoe, quern of Ptolemy Philadelphia,
feet in breadth, 24 feet in length, and
13^ feet in height, at Alexandria, with a dome above it, which was to enclose
or 3-4ths of the breadth. In larger houses, the length may a magnet, in order to keep suspended in the air an iron statue
be extended to 40 feet and in very considerable edifices
;
of that queen. Ptolemy approved the design, and gave orders
even to 50 feet in the latter case the length may be double
: for its execution; but both the king and the architect died
the breadth. before the project could be accomplished.
Dining-rooms are sometimes fitted up with a recess at one DIpPHANTINE PROBLEMS, in mathematics, certain
end for receiving the side-board; but if the apartment be questions relating to square and cube numbers, and right-
very large, a recess at each end is necessary these recesses
:
angled triangles, &c., the nature of which was determined
may be either square, .or in the form of a niche. See HOUSE, by Diophantus.
and ROOM. DIOPHANTUS, a celebrated mathematician of Alexan-
DINOGRATES, an eminent architect, patronized by dria, reputed to have been the inventor of algebra. The
Alexander the Great whose history is thus related by Vitru-
;
exact date of his birth is unknown some authors asserting
;
" At the time that
vius : Alexander was conquering the that he lived before Christ, and others after, in the reigns of
world, Dinocrates, the architect, confiding in his knowledge Nero and the Antonines. His reputation was very high
and genius, and being desirous of obtaining the royal com- among the ancients, since they ranked him with Pythagoras
mendation, left Macedon, and repaired to the army. He and Euclid in mathematical learning.
carried with him letters from his relations and friends in his Diophantus left behind him thirteen books of arithmetical
own country, to the nobles of the first rank, that he might questions, of which, however, only six arc extant.
thereby more easily gain access. Being favourably received, DIORAMA, a mode of paintinii and scenic exhibition
he requested to be immediately presented to Alexander; invented a few years ago by two French artists, Das;iierre
they gave him many promises, but made delays, pretending and Bouton. The peculiar, and almost magical effect of the
to wait till a proper opportunity should offer. Dinocrates, diorama arises, in a great degree, from the contrivance em-
therefore, suspecting that he was derided, sought the remedy ployed in exhibiting the painting, which is viewed through
from himself. He was very large of stature, had an agree- a large opening or proscenium. Within this proscenium the
able countenance, and a dignity in his form and deportment. picture is placed at such a distance, that the light is thrown
Trusting to these gifts of nature, he clothed himself in the upon it, at a proper angle from the roof, which is glazed with
habit of a host, anointed his body with oil, crowned his ground glass, and cannot be seen by the spectators. While
head with boughs of poplar, put a lion's skin over his left the light is thus concentrated on the picture, the spectators
boulder, and holding one of the claws in his light hand, are left comparative darkness, by which the effect is
in

approached the tribunal where the king was administering materially increased and the illusion is rendered still more
;

justice. The novelty of the appearance attracting the notice complete, by the skilful manner in which the transitions of
light are managed. The light may
of the people, occasioned Alexander also to see him, who, be diminished or increased
wondering at the sight, commanded way to be given, that at pleasure, and that either gradually or suddenly, so a* to
he might approach. Alexander then demanded who he was. represent the change from ordinary daylight to sunshine, from
DinocraU'S replied, ' I am a Macedonian architect, who come sunshine to cloudy weather, or to the obscurity of twilight,
to thee with ideas and designs, worthy of the greatness of and also the difference of atmospheric tone attending them.
thy fame ; I have formed a design to cut Mount Athos into By means of different folds or shutters attached to the glazed
 DIP 272 DIS

ceiling, transitions are produced in regard to light and

atmos- porticos, called wings, or aisles. Vitruvius informs us, that
pheric effects of the most pleasing character. The diorama dipteral temples were octostyle ; but this he must mean only
is indeed a most perfect scenic representation of nature ; by in general ; for they may be also Indeed, they
decastyle.
varied and ingenious contrivances, it is capable of displaying could not have been less than octostyle, as no room would
the greatest difference in its pictures. It is peculiarly adapted have been left for the cell. The same author also observes,
" accidents" that Hermoginus made a very great improvement in the con-
for moonlight subjects, and for exhibiting such
in landscapes as sudden gleams of sunshine and their dis- struction of dipteral temples, by taking away the interior

appearance. For showing architecture, particularly interiors, range of columns, which occasioned confusion in the perspec-
it is unrivalled, as powerful relief may be obtained without tive appearance.
that exaggeration in the shadows which is almost inevitable DIRECT RADIAL, a right line from the eye, perpendi-
in every other mode of painting. Although as yet only cular to the picture.
employed for purposes of public exhibition, the diorama might DIRECTING LINE, the line in which an original plane
undoubtedly be made use of fur the embellishment of such would cut the directing plane.
as corridors and the like, where light can DIRECTING PLANE, a plane passing through the point of
parts of a building
only be obtained from one extremity. sight, or the eye, parallel to the picture.
The Diorama in the Regent's Park, was erected for the DIRECTING POINT, that in which any original line pro-
exhibition of pictures with the effects we have been describing; duced cuts the directing plane.
and as; one of the most interesting and remarkable of the DIRECTOR OF AN ORIGINAL LINE, the straight line
"sights in London," deserves a passing notice. passing through the directing point and the eye of the
The pictures exhibited are each about 72 feet long, and spectator.
42 feet wide, and are capable of being shifted and exchanged DIRECTOR OF THE ETE, the intersection of the plane with
for others when required. They are placed at distances from th directing plane, perpendicular to the original plane and
the spectator proportioned to the angle at which he would that of the picture, and hence also perpendicular to the direct-
view the object in nature and by the united talents of the
; ing and vanishing planes; since each of the two latter is
artist and the machinist, the illusion is rendered so perfect, parallel to each of the two former. The director of the eye
and so true to nature, that the beholder is almost led to doubt is also sometimes called the eye director.
that they are really the effect of art. Thus, in architectural DIRECTRIX, or DIRIGENT, in geometry, a term express-
subjects, as the interior of the cathedral, the whole is at one ing the line of motion along which a describent line, or sur-
moment subdued by gloom, as by the overshadowing of some face, is carried in the genesis of any plane or solid.
passing cloud. The " long-drawn aisle " and deep recesses Thus, if the line A B move parallel to itself, and along the
are obscured, all seems about to be buried in darkness, when, line, A c, so that the point A always keeps upon the line A n,
in an instant, as though the interruption had passed away, it will form a
parallelogram. A B c D, of which the side A B is
and the bright light of day was permitted to shine through the describent, and A c the dirigent. So, also, if the surface
the windows in its full lustre, the Gothic architecture is A B c D be supposed to be carried along the line c E in a posi-
illumined in the most beautiful manner, the shadows pro- tion always parallel to itself, in its first situation, the solid
jected with force and truth, and the secondary lights produced A D E H will be formed, when the surface A D is the descri-
beneath the groinings of the roof in all the delicate grada- bent, and the line c E is the dirigent.
tions of natural reflections. Landscape scenes undergo DIRETTA, the same as GOLA, or SIM A-RECTA, which see.
similar changes, and admirable effects are produced in the DISCHARGE, (from the French), a term applied to a
transitions from shade and darkness, to the brightness of brick wall, or post, when trimmed up to a piece of timber
light and sunshine. overcharged in its bearing in which case the wall or post is
;

The elevation of
the building was designed by Mr. Nash ; a discharge to that bearing.
it is of the Ionic order, the basement embellished with DISCHARGING ARCHES, rough brick or stone arches, built
columns and pilasters, &c., the centre of which is the over the wooden of apertures.
lintels These, are scheme
approach to the theatre. The building consists of a vesti- arches, being the segments of very large circles. Dis-
bule and two lateral houses, facing a circular part of the charging arches are employed in the inside of external walls
edifice, which may be regarded as the audience-room of or in partition walls. The length of the chord of a dis-
the theatre, and is occupied by boxes, and an open area for
charging arch should exceed that of the wooden lintels
spectators. The sides of this circular part are painted and beneath, so that when the wood begins to decay, the lintels
adorned with festooned draperies, and the top is covered with may be taken out, and the arch will be sufficient to sustain
a transparent painting, divided into many the superincumbent part of the wall, as well as that the arch
compartments, and
charged with medallion likenesses of several eminent artists. may be sustained by the walls, and not have any dependence
Over this semi-transparent
ceiling, or inner roof, rises a coni- upon the lintels. To make the arches resist with greater
cal roof, nearly half of which is glazed. The circular part force, the lintels should not have more wall-hold than what
consists of a wall, two-thirds of a circle, with two small may be found sufficient to sustain the superincumbent part
doorways, and two large openings to the compartments of while building: indeed, if walls be well built, upon firm
the scenic theatre. Immediately within this wall, but ground, wooden lintels may be dispensed with.
detached from it, is another wall, rising from the floor to DISCHARGING STRUTS, the same as auxiliary rafter, or prin-
the inner ceiling, and which, with the floor, revolves on a
cipal braces : the term is used by Batty Langley.
pivot beneath. A large square opening, like the proscenium DISH-OUT, to form coves by any kind by means of ribs,
of a theatre, allows the audience to view the or to form wooden vaults for plastering upon.
pictures.
The Diorama was opened to the public in October, 1823, DISHING-OTJT, any kind of coved work formed by wooden
and has ever since continued to be visited as one of the most ribs, for plastering upon. The term is of the same import
popular exhibitions in the metropolis. as cradling.
DIPTERON, or DiprEROs, the
(from Greek), or DIP- DISPLUVINATED CAV^EDIUM. See CAV^DIUM.
TERK, (from the French), in ancient architecture, a temple DISPOSITION, (from dispono, to place), in architecture,
surrounded with a double row of columns,
forming a sort of the just placing of the several parts of a building, according
 DIS 273 DOD
to their use ; a, disposition of apartments, disposition of gard to architectural symmetry, elegance of appearance, and
columns, as eustyle, diastyle, pichnostyle, &c. domestic convenience.
DlS 1'ANCE OF THE EYE, in perspective :If a straight line DISTYLE, (Greek, dixo-cnr/loc), a portico of two col-
be drawn from the eye, perpendicular to the plane Of the umns. It applies rather to a portico with two columns in
picture, the intercepted part of such line is termed the dis- antis, than to the mere two-columned porch.
tance of the eye. DITRIGLYPH, an interval admitting two triglyphs over
DISTANCE, Point of. See POINT OF DISTANCE. the intercolumn ; that is, if in two adjoining columns a tri-
DISTANCE OF A VANISHING LINE, the length of a perpendic- glyph be placed with its middle over each, the ditriglyph
ular, falling from the eye perpendicular to the vanishing will contain three metopes, or spaces, two half triglyphs,
line. and two whole triglyphs.
DISTANCE, Inaccessible. See TRIGONOMETRY. DIVAN, among the Orientals, a council-chamber, or the
DISTEMPER, (from the French, detremper, to temper or saloon or hall in which a council is held it is applied gene-
:

dilute,) in painting, the working up of colours with some- rally to denote a state apartment, or room in which company
thing besides mere water or oil. If colours be prepared with is received.
water, the painting is called liming ; and if with oil, it is DIVERGING LINES, such as are continually increasing in
called pain tiny in oil, or simply painting. their distance from each other.
If the colours be mixed with size, whites of eggs, or any DIVIDERS. See MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS.
such proper glutinous or unctuous substance, and not with DIVISION, Harmonical. See HAHMONICAL DIVISION.
oil, they then say it is done in distemper ; as those of the DIVISION OF AN ORDER. See ORDER.
admirable cartoons, formerly at Hampton Court, and as DOCK, an artificial receptacle for shipping, generally
all ancient
pictures are said to have been before the year formed by excavation, and enclosed by gates, which open
1410. for the ingress and egress of vessels ; the sides are
usually
In distemper, the white colour or base generally used is constructed of masonry.
the finest whiting, which is prepared in large quantities by DOCK, a place artificially formed on the side of a harbour
various manufacturers. The colours most commonly mixed or bank of a river, for the reception of ships. Docks are of
with it for producing the various tints are as follows : Straw two kinds, wet docks and dry-docks. A
wet-dock is an ex-
colour may be made with white and masticot, or Dutch cavation or basin, of considerable extent, which vessels can
pink ;
fine grays, with white and refiner's verditer; an infe- enter to discharge or take in their cargoes, and in which they
rior gray may be compounded with blue black or bone are always afloat ; of this kind are the immense docks of
black, and damp blue or indigo ; pea-greens, with French London, Liverpool, and other places of great commerce. A
green, Olympian green ; and fawn colour, with burnt sienna dry-dock is used for inspecting and repairing ships, and is
or burnt umber and white, and so of any intermediate tint. so contrived, that the water can be admitted or excluded at
All the colours used in distemper, should either be ground pleasure, so that a vessel can be floated in when the tide is
very tine, or washed over so as to ensure the most minute up, and the water may run out with the fall of the tide ; or,
division of their particles. In general, the size made of the gates of the dock being closed to prevent the egress of
common glue is used with a proper quantity of water to the water, it is pumped out by steam-power. Dockyards
render the colour liquid, but where the work will afford it, belonging to the government usually consist of dry-docks
parchment-size will be found greatly superior. for repairing ships, and of slips on which new vessels are
It will not
require less than two coats of any of the fore- built;
besides which they comprise storehouses, in which
going colours, in order to cover the plaster, and bear out various kinds of naval stores are kept, and workshops in
with an uniform appearance. When old plastering has be- which different processes subsidiary to ship-building, are car-
come discoloured with stains, and it be desired to have it ried on.
painted in distemper, it is advisable to give the old plaster, DODECAGON, (dudeica, twelve and yoma, angle), & regu-
when properly cleaned off and prepared, one coat at least of lar polygon or twelve equal sides and angles.
figure, with
white-lead ground in oil, and used with spirits of turpentine, If the radius o A D F, be so divided into two
of a circle
which will generally cover all old stains, and, when quite parts, that the rectangle
under the whole and the one part
dry, will take the water-colours very kindly. shall be equal to the square of the other part then this last ;

The best methods of compounding the colours with the part will be equal to the side c D of a regular decagon ABC
vehicles, is mix the size in water, then to levigate the col-
to D E &c., inscribed in the circle ; and that line whose
F,
ours of it, and afterwards to put each kind into a of the whole, and of the
equal to the two squares
in part is
proper square
pot, adding as much more of the melted size as will bring it same part, will be equal to the side, A c, of a regular pen-
to a due consistence, and mixing the whole well For, draw the radii o A,
together tagon inscribed in the same circle.
in a pot with a brush or wooden
spatula. Warm water o c, o D, o F ; also draw A D, cutting o c in o, and let A H be
may be afterwards added, if necessary, for grinding the col- perpendicular to o o. The triangle ODD, having the angle
ours, or for working. The pots must be covered with blad- coD(=:-iDOF = oAD) r= o D A, is isosceles the trian- :

ders, and tied. This method of painting is chiefly confined gle A o o, naving AGO (= ODO + DOo = 2Doc) = A
to scenes and grosser works, where the effect depends more o c, is likewise isosceles ;
as is also the triangle c D o ;
be-
upon the perspective and opposition of the colours, than cause, COD being =A o o, and c D o (c D A) F A D, the =
upon their brightness. triangles A o o and c D o are equiangular ; consequently,
DISTRIBUTION, the dividing and disposing of the seve- c D, A o ; c o, o o, being corresponding sides, we have c o
ral parts of a building according to some plan, or to the XAo(coXco) = ODXoo = oof, because o o oD =
rules of architecture. The proper distribution or arrange- = D c, the side of the decagon, &c. Moreover, because A o
ment of the various apartments in a large building is of = A o, H o will be =
H o ; and o c being the difference of
great importance, and may be either good or bad, as they the segments H o and H c, we have AC* A o* c o X oc =
may be best suited to answer their use. That arrangement = o o' ; and consequently A c' (t. e. the square of the side of
only can deserve the former appellation, in which every the pentagon) = A o* + o o'.

apartment seems placed in its very best position, with re- Let c o = a, o o = x, then will 00 = a x ; and by
36
 DOD 274 DOG
this proposition, a x a X = *
and x* -f- a x =
a* ; and The sides of a dodecahedron inscribed in a sphere is equal
resolving this quadratic equation, we shall have z* 4- a * + to the greater part of the side of a cube inscribed in the.
same sphere, and cut according to extreme and mean pro-
I-
a2 a2 4- J
s
= a* ;
whence a; + \-
a = y^|
s
and x ,
=
portion. If a line be so cut, and the lesser segment be taken
\/i
9
j fl - Let the radius a be = 1, and o o, or the side for the side of a dodecahedron, the
greater segment will be
of a regular decagon inscribed in the circle, is y" -J.
= the side of a cube inscribed in the same sphere. The side of
Hence it appears that the sine of 18 (or half the side of a dec- the cube is equal to the right line which subtends the
angle
agon inscribed in the circle) is = j -y/j v=j -^ 1 .25 J = of a pentagon, of the dodecahedron inscribed in the same
1.11803398 sphere.
,&c.-l=.55901699, &c. .25 =.3090 1699, &e. DODECASTYLE, an edifice having twelve columns in
2 front.
If the side of a dodecagon be 1, its area will be equal to DOG-LEGGED STAIRS, such as are solid between the
three times the tangent of 75 3 2 1 1 .19(51524 = X + y 3= upper flights or those which have no well-hole and the
; ;

rail and balusters of both the.

nearly; and, the areas of plane figures being as the squares progressive and retrogressive
of their sides, 11.19(51524 multiplied by the square of the flight, fall in the same vertical plane. The steps are fixed
to strings, newels, and
side of any dodecagon, will give its area. Ilutton's Menmir carriages; and the ends of the steps
ration, p. 114.
of the inferior kind terminate only on the side of the
string,
To inscribe a dodecagon in a given circle. Carry the ra- without any housing.
dius six times round the circumference, which will divide it No. 1. The a the seat of the newel ; g the seat of the
plan.
into six equal parts, or form a hexagon, (See
HEXAGON) ; then upper newel.
bisect each of those parts, which will divide the whole into The dotted lines represent the faces of the risers, and the con.
12 parts, for the dodecagon. tinued lines the nosings of the steps.
DODECAIIED11ON, (from dax5ea, twelve, and idpa, No. 2. The elevation. A u the lower newel, the part B c
seat,) one of the regular bodies comprehended under twelve being turned ; o H the upper newel D E, F o, the lower and
;

equal sides, each of which is a pentagon or, a dodecahedron ; upper string-boards, framed into the newel ; K L a
may be conceived to consist of twelve quinquangular pyra- joist framed into the trimmer i; k I, n o, q r, <kc., the
mids, whose vertices, or tops, meet in the centre of a sphere faces of the risers ;m n, p q, s f, the heads, or cover-boards ;
conceived to circumscribe the solid consequently they have ;
m, p, s, etc., nosings of the steps ; M o, F Q, the upper and
their bases and altitudes equal. lower ramps.
To Jind the solidity of the dodecahedron. Find that of one To describe the ramps. Suppose the upper one to be
of the pyramids, and multiply it by the number of bases, drawn ; produce the horizontal part, n M, of the rail to p :

viz., 12 the product is the solidity of the whole body.

; Or draw M N perpendicular to p H, and produce the straight
its solidity is found by multiplying the base into one-third part, B o, to N make N o equal to N M draw o p at right
: :

of its distance from the centre, twelve times and to find ;

angles to B N from p, as a centre, describe the arc M o and
: :

this distance, take the distance of two parallel faces the describe another concentric circle to meet the under side of
;
the rail, and the sloping part B o; and the
half is the height. ramp will be
The diameter of the sphere being given, the side of the completed.
dodecahedron is found by this theorem the square of the B s, the story-rod ;
this is a necessary article in fixing the
;

diameter of the sphere is equal to the rectangle under the steps ; for if a common measuring rule be used for this pur-
aggregate of the sides of a dodecahedron and hexahedron in- pose, the workman will be very liable to err either in excess
scribed in the same, and triple the side of the dodecahedron. or defect, and thus render the stairs extremely faulty ;
Thus, if the diameter of the sphere be 1, the side of the which cannot be the case if the story-rod be applied to every
riser, and if the successive risers be regulated thereby.
dodecahedron, inscribed, will be (y^ s) ~^~ 2 conse- V ;

When steps are put up without the use of the story-rod, the
quently, that is to this as 2 to (i/f -v/s)
an<^ l ^ e
square
smallest error is liable to multiply.
of that, to the square of this, as six 3 5. Therefore
the, diameter of the sphere is incommensurable to the side
:
y In the construction of dog-legged staircases, the first thing
is to take the dimensions of the stair and the
of an inscribed dodecahedron, both in itself and in its power. height of the
If the side, or linear edge, of a dodecahedron be *, its sur- story, and lay down a plan and section upon a floor to the
full size, representing all the newels and
face will be steps ; then the
situation of the carriages, pitching-pieces, long bearers,

15 s
2
V + 1 v/ 5 = 20.G457788 s> : and its
solidity
and cross bearers, will be ascertained, as also of the string-
boards.
The quantity of room allowed for the stairs, and the situa-
5s + 21
= 7.663 11 896s 1
.
tion of the apertures and passages, will determine whether
there are to be quarter-paces, half-paces, one-quarter winders,
40
or two-quarter winders. In order to give all the variety
If the radius of the sphere that circumscribes a dodecahe-
possible, we shall suppose the flight to consist of two-quarter
dron be r, then is
winders.
v/15
The strings, rails, and newels, being framed together, they
its side or linear edge = must be fixed with temporary supports the string-board
;

8 will show the situation of the pitching-pieces, which must be

put up next in order, wedging one end firmly into the wall,
its
superficies = 10rV2 Jv/5, and and fixing the other to the string-board ; this being done,
pitch up the rough strings, and thus finish the carriage part
20 i* Vu -rV~5~ of the flyers. In dog-legged staircases, the steps and risers
its solidity are seldom glued up, except in cases of returned nosings ;
8 30 suppose them, therefore, to be of separate pieces ; proceed to
DOG- LEO- /V../-/Y;/
 DOG 275 DOG
put up the steps :
place the first riser in its situation, having line, and the extreme lines will contain the breadth of the
lilted it down the top being brought to a
close to the door ;
rail: draw any radius of the circle, and set half (In- breadth
level at its proper height, and the face in its right position, of the rail from the centre towards the circumference;
fix itwiih flat headed nails, driving them obliquely through through the point where this breadth falls, draw a concen-
thu bottom part of the riser into the floor, and then nailing tric circle; from the point where this circle cuts the middle
the end to the string-board ; proceed then to cover the riser line of the rail, draw two lines to the points where the
with the first tread, observing to notch out the farther breadth of the rail intersects the outer circle, and these
bottom angle opposite the rough strings, so as to make it fit lines will show the mitre. See HAND-RAILING and STAIR-
closely down to a level on the top side, while the under side CASINO.
beds firmly upon the rough strings at the back edee, and to DOGS, otherwise termed andirons or endirons, creepers, &c.
the riser towards the front edge nail down the tread to the
: iron standards used in the olden times to support the logs of
rough strings, driving the nails from the seat, or place on wood whin consumed for fuel. The distinction between the
which the next riser stands, through that edge of the riser andirons and creepers consists in the former being of a larger
into the rough strings, and then
nailing the end to the string- size than the latter ; the use of the andirons was to support
board ; begin with the second riser, having brought it to a the logs, and of the creepers to keep the brands off the
breadth, and fitted it close to the top of the tread, so that hearth. ENDIRONS.
the back edge of the tread below it DOG-TOOTH, an ornament very prevalent in edifices of the
may entirely lap over the
back of the riser, while the front side is in its regular ver- Early English which it forms a very marked feature.
style, in
nail the head of the riser, from the under side,
tical position : It pyramidal flower of four leaves, so disposed
consists of a
taking care that the nails do not go through its face, and as to have the space between the two adjacent leaves in the
thereby spoil the beauty of the work. centre of the sides of the pyramid a series of such orna-
;

Proceed in this manner, with tread and riser nlternately, ments is very frequently seen inserted in a hollow moulding.
until the last parallel riser. The face of this riser must stand DOME, a term applied to a covering of the whole or part
the whole projection of the nosing back from the face of the of a building. The Germans call it Dom, and the Italians
newel. Then fix the top of the first bearer, for the first Duonw, and applv the word to the principal church of a city,
winding tre:id, on a level with the top of the last parallel although the building may not have any spherical or poly-
riser, so that the farther edge of this bearer may stand about gonal dome. From this and other circumstances we may
an inch forward from the back of the next infer the term to be derived from the Latin Domus. house.
succeeding riser,
fur the purpose of
nailing the treads to the risers upwards, A dome is an arched or vaulted roof, springing from a
as was done in the treads and risers of the
flyers ; and hav- polygonal, circular, or elliptic plan presenting a convex sur-
;

ing fitted the end of this bearer against the back of the riser, face on the outside, or a concavity within, so as that every
and nailed or screwed them fast together, fix a cross-bearer, horizonal section may be of a similar figure, and have a
by letting it half its thickness into the adjacent sides of the common vertical axis. According to the plan from which
top of tlie riser, and into the top of the long bearer, so as they spring, domes are either circular, elliptical, or polygonal ;

not to cut through the horizontal breadth of the long bearer, of these, the circular mav be spherical spheroidal, ellipsoidal,
nor through the thickness of the riser, as this would weaken hyperboloidal, paraboloidal, Arc. The word dome is applied
the one, and spoil the look of the other. Then fix the riser to the external part of the spherical or polygonal roof, and
to the newel, driving a nail
obliquely from the top edge of cupola to the internal part. Cupola is derived from the
the former into the latter then proceed to put down the first
: Italian ct/po, deep, whence also our word cup. But cupola
winding tread, fitting close to the newel, in the bird's-
it and dome are often used synonymously, although perhaps
inouth form. Proceed in this manner with all the succeed- incorrectly. Such as rise higher than the radius of the
ing risers and treads, always fixing in the bearers, previously base, are denominated surmounted domes ; those that are of
to laying each successive tread, until the
steps round the a less height than the radius, are called diminished or surbased;
winding part are entirely completed. Then proceed with and such as have circular bases, are termed cupolas.
the upper retrogressive runjje of flyers as with those below. The remains of ancient domes are generally spherical in
Fit the brackets into the backs of the risers and treads, so their form, or built of stone or tiifo. Ruins of numerous ones
that their edges may join each other on the sides of the rough still exist in the neighbourhood of Rome and Naples. They
strings, towhich they are fixed by nails, and thus the work were frequently used among the Romans, after the accession
is
completed. Some workmen do not mind the close fitting of of Augustus, in whose reign, the use of the arch, and conse-
the riser but it certainly makes the firmest work.
; quently of domes, first became common. The arch, indeed,
In the best kind of dog-legged stairs, the nosings are is of Grecian in all the nncient edifices of th.-it
origin, though
returned sometimes the risers are mitred to the brackets,
; country, we do not meet with a single instance of a built
and sometimes mitred with quaker-strings in the latter case, : dome: that which covers the monument of Lysicrates, being
a hollow is mitred round the internal angle of the under side only a single stone, can only be looked upon as a lintel and :

of the tread, and the face of the riser. Sometimes the string the invention of this species of vault seems justly attributed
is framed into the newel, and notched to receive the ends of to the Romans, or Etrurians.
the steps ; the other end having a corresponding notch- Of the ruins of domes in and near Rome, the
principal are
board, and the whole flight is put up like a step-ladder. the Pantheon, and the temples of Bacchus, Vesta, Romulus,
In order to get the lower part for the turning, set the thick- Hercules, Cybele, Neptune, and Venus, and also some of the
ness of the capping on the return string-board, and where chambers of the Thermae. The most magnificent dome of
that falls on the newel below, is the place of the lower limit antiquity that of the Pantheon, at Rome, built in the reign
is

for the turning. of Augustus, and supposed to be a chamber of the great

To find the section of the cap of the newel for the turner. baths of Agrippa. It is still entire, and consists of a hemi-
Draw a circle to its intended diameter: draw a straight line spherical concavity, enriched with coffers, and terminating
from the centre to any point without the circumference, and upwards in an aperture, called the eye. The exterior rises
set half the breadth of the rail on each side of that line ; from several degrees, in a sloping direction, nearly tangent
through the point draw a line parallel to the middle straight to the several internal quoins, and presenting to the spectator
 DOM 276 DOM
the truncated segment of a sphere, considerably less than a and two from the south sides of the pillars, to the distance
hemisphere. The diameter of (he dome internally is 142 of about 90 feet. The east and west arches were abutted
feet 8 inches ; the circular opening at the tup in the centre upon by half domes, resting on cylindrical walls, which, it was
28 feet (5 inches in diameter ; the height from the top of the supposed, would have been suffirient to resist the pressure of
attic 70 feet 8 inches. The interior of the dome is orna- the arches on the north and south ; but in this the architect
mented with five rows of square compartments, and as these was mistaken for the superstructure gave way towards the
;

converge towards the top, each row is considerably larger than east, and, at the end of a few months, fell, taking wilh it the
that immediately above it. Each of the large squares con- half-dome on that side. After the death of Anthemius, the
tains four smaller ones sunk one within the other. It is
sup- superintendence of the building devolved on Isidorus, who
posed that these were decorated with plates of silver. The strengthened the eastern pillars, by filling up certain voids
base of the dome externally consists of a large plinth with left by his predecessor but when the dome was turned
;

six smaller plinths or steps above it and in the curve of the

; upon them, the east end proved still too weak for the support
dome a flight of steps is formed which leads to the opening of so great a load, and again gave way, before the work was
at the top of the dome. From the drawings of Serlio, it completed, In order to counteract this thrust on the east,
appears that similar (lights of steps were formed at intervals Isidorus now built strong pillared buttresses against the
all round the dome, but these are now covered with lead. eastern wall of a square cloister that ran round the building;
The dome is constructed of bricks and rubble. The thick- from which he threw flving buttresses over the void, and
ness at the base is about 17 feet ; at the then raised the dome a third imc, but with very little success ;
top of the highest I

step, 5 feet 1^- inches; and at the top of the dome, 4 feet 7 for though every precaution was taken to lessen its weight,
inches. The circular wall which supports the dome is 20 by using pumice-stone and olher light materials, and by
feet thick, but is divided
by several large openings, and has reducing its thickness, the arches were so much fractured, that
discharging arches of brick. The dome of the Pantheon is he was under the necessity of filling up the large arcades on
incombustible, and is perhaps the cheapest as well as the the north and south sides, with arches of less dimensions, in
most durable and unconsumable roof which could have been three stories.
erected over so large a building. We have mentioned these circumstances, to show that the
The dome of the temple of Bacchus is also internally architects of the age to which this building is referred, were
hemispherical, though without coffers. Externally it is now not so well acquainted with the principles of dome-vaulting,
covered with a common roof, which may have been the as those of more modern date for tlie latter would probably
:

original form ; such a roof is also to be seen over the dome have hooped or chained such a dome immediately over the
of the temple of Jupiter, in the palace of Diocletian, at arches and pendentives, so as to confine its pressure to a per-
Spalatro. pendicular thrust, or nearly so. Such was the case, in the
The dome of one of the chambers of the Thermos of Catania far more ponderous dome of St. Peter's, at Rome, erected by
was 111 feet in diameter. In the Thermae of Titus there Michael Angelo and such, more recently, was the practice
;

are two domes, each 84 feet in diameter and in the baths

; of our countryman, Sir Christoph -r Wren, in the cupola of
of Constantine there was one of 76 feet. There were three St. Paul's, at London. The present dome, however, of Santa
domes in the baths of Diocletian, of which two still remain ; Sophia, was reconstructed by the nephew of Isidorus. It rests
one is 73 feet ( inches in diameter, and the other 62 feet
!
on the square formed at the intersection of the arms of the
3 inches. Judging from those that remain, it would seem Greek cross ; the diameter being about 111 feet, and the
that in the Therma; they were lighted from the top, in the dome 40 feet high, and is supported by corbellings placed in
same manner as in the dome of the Pantheon. In the neigh- the angles of the square. These corbels are surmounted by
bourhood of Puzzuoli there is a circular edifice which has a a kind of cornice on which rests a circular gallery. The
dome built of pumice-stone and volcanic tufa
its diameter is
: lower part of the dome has a row of windows adorned with
about 96 feet. The temple of Minerva Medica at Rome, columns on the exterior, and the top is surmounted by a
was on the plan, a polygonal dome often sides, without any lantern on which is a cross. The dome of Anthemius and
opening at the top. Domes were sometimes constructed on Isidorus, was not so high and was partly destroyed by an
;

corbels by the ancients. In one of the octagonal rooms of

earthquake a few years after its construction. In rebuilding
the enclosure round the baths of Caracalla the. corbels which white brick, made
it, the nephew of Isidorus used a very light

supported the dome still remain, and at Catania there is a at Rhodes, and much lighter than the common brick.
spherical dome covering a square vestibule. The dome of St. Mark, at Venice, erected about the year
The dome of Santa Sophia, at Constantinople, built in the 973, and that of the cathedral at Pisa, built early in the
reign of Justinian, ranks next to the Pantheon in point of eleventh centurv, are both upon the same plan with the pre-
antiquity, and is the most remarkable and the earliest con- ceding. The church of Saint Mark, built in the tenth
structed after those of the Romans. Anthemius of Tralles. century, has five domes the
;
dome being much larger
central
and Isidorus of Miletus, were the architects. Anthemius had than the others. Each dome
enclosed within four pieces of
is

promised to raise a dome over this edifice, of such magnitude semi-cylindrical vaulting together forming a square ; in the
as to eclipse the magnificence of the Roman Pantheon. With
angles of this square are four corbels, which gather in the
this view, he erected four pillars at the circular base of each dome.
angles of a square, at In 1523. Sansovinus, the archi-
about the distance of 115 feet from each other, and nearly of tect, repaired the great dome, and placed a circle of iron
the same altitude. The church was to be of the form of a round it to prevent its falling. A
similar precaution was
cross, and vaulted with stone he therefore threw arches
; taken with one of the smaller domes by Andrew Tirali, in
over the pillars, and filled up the angular spaces between the 1735, with the same successful result.
archi vaults, till he had gradually shaped them into a The dome of San Vitale at Ravenna, is of very curious con-
complete
circle, atthe level of the extradoses of the arches. On the struction. The plan of the lower part is that of a regular
ring thus formed, the dome was raised, being the first ever octagon, supported by eight piers at the angles of the dome.
built on pendentives. The pressure of the eastern and Between these angles are seven tall niches divided into two
western arches was resisted by four walls almost solid, form- stories. The lower part of these niches is open, and adorned
'ng transepts, and running longitudinally, two from the north, with columns. The remaining side of the dome is an arch of
 DOM 277 DOM
the same diameter and elevation as the niches ; this arch form- firmed with bricks stuccoed. Externally the work is faced
ing an entrance. Above these the wall sustains a hemi- with thin slabs of travertine stone. The drum is pierced with
spherical dome, the plan being a circle within an octagon. 16 windows, 9 feet of inches wide, and 17 feet high. The
Corbels are not employed at Santa Sophia, but the arches walls are strengthened on the outside, between the windows,
support the gathering over, which forms the circular base of with 16 buttresses, constructed with solid masonry. These
the dome. In the base are eight windows, each window being buttresses are 13 feet 3 inches wide, and 51 feet 6 inches in
divided in the centre by a column supporting two small arches. height from the base to the top of the entablature. Each
The dome itself is built with a double row of
pipes, hollow at buttress is decorated and strengthened with half-pilasters,
one end and pointed at the other, so that the point of one is and terminates with two coupled columns engaged, the
received in the hollow of the preceding one, continuing thus diameter of which is 4 feet ; the order is Corinthian. When
in a spiral line until
they finish at the top. Both the exterior the base of the dome had been built to the height of the
and the interior of the dome are covered with mortar. entablature of the drum, Michael Angelo died ; but some
In 1298, the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, was
begun time before his death he had caused a mode! to be made, with
at Pisa, by the celebrated Arnolfo Lusii but he died two
; ample details, to which he added drawings and instructions.
years after, and no architect could be found who would under- After his death Pirro Ligorio and Vignola were appointed the
take to execute the dome upon
the vast plan that its pro- architects. Giacomo della Porta, the pnpil of Vignola, fol-
jector had designed consequently remained unfinished for
: it lowed his master as architect to the cathedral but although
;

one hundred and twenty years ; when, in a professional con- the designs of Michael Angelo were strictly followed, the
vocation, Philip Brunelleschi was permitted to attempt its dome itself was constructed under the pontificate of Sixtus V.
completion. (See BRUNELLESCHI.) Notwithstanding the SixUis gave Giacomo dolla Porta as a colleague, Domenico
opposition he met with, and the vapouring sarcasms with Fontana, by whom the dome was constructed.
which hu was treated by his contemporaries, who held his "On the constructions of Michael Angelo a circular attic
scheme to be impracticable, he carried on the building, and was first formed, 19 feet 2J inches high, and 9 feet 7 inches
completed the cupola, in a manner worthy of his great repu- thick. This attic is strengthened externally by 16 projections,
tation. Tliis dome, which is octangular, and of great elevation, 2 feet 1 1 inches deep, and 6 feet 4^ inches wide, placed over
is formed of two vaults, with a
vacancy between them; and the buttresses of the dome; on the attic rises the. double
is
supported merely by the springing wall, without the aid of dome, the internal diameter of which at the base, is 138 feet
buttresses, though its dimensions exceed those of all the 5 inches. The curve externally is an arc of a circle whose
ancient Roman domes, with the sole exception of that of radius is 84 feet 1.62 inches. To the height of 27 feet 8 inches
St. Peter's. from the attic the dome is solid. At the base the thickness is
The church of St. Peter's, at Home, is the largest temple 9 feet 7 inches; and as the external dome is raised higher
ever built: it was begun by Bramante, in 1513, and carried than the internal dome, the thickness is increased as the curve
on successively by Raphael, Sun Gallo, and Michael Angelo, ascends, so that where the dome is divided the thickness is
the latter of whom designed the dome as it now 11 feet 4 inches. The circular space which divides the two
appears.
The following description, extracted from the " Encylopedie domes is 3 feet 2^ inches wide ; the internal dome is 6 feet
Methodique," and the "Penny Cyclopaedia," will enable the 4 inches thick; and the height from the attic to the opening
reader to form some idea of this superb work. of the lantern is 83 feet 10 inches. The diameter of the
"The dome, which is double, is circular on the plan. The lantern is 24 feet 10 inches. The external dome is 2 feet
dome is constructed on double consoles, instead of
internal 10^ inches thick, where it separates itself from the internal
corbellings. The double consoles are crowned with a small dome and it is strengthened externally by 16 projecting
;

cornice, forming an impost for eight arches, from the upper bands of the same thickness. The dome is pierced with three
part of which springs the dome ; on the top is a lantern- rows of small windows, as the curves of the dome are not
light, which is not apparent externally. Up to this time concentric, the space between them becomes w ider as it rises ;

domes had been constructed on walls and corbellings, but, in so that at the opening of the lantern the space is 10 feet
St. Peter's at Rome a new plan was adopted. The dome of wide. These domes are joined together by 16 walls or spurs,
St. Peter's stands upon four piers, 61 feet 11 inches diminishing in thickness as they ascend to the lantern at
high, ;

and 30 10 inches thick, measured in a straight line with

feet the base they are 8 feet thick, and at the summit 3 feet.
the arches. From the arches spring the corbellings, which are The base of the lantern is arched, and pierced with small
finished by an entablature. Upon this entablature is a windows. Above the two domes is a circular platform, sur-
plinth. The plinth is externally an octagon, and internally a rounded with an iron gallery. In the centre rises the lantern
circle. The external diameter of the octagon is 192 feet 9 on a stylobate broken into 16 parts, forming projecting
inches, and the internal circle 134 feet 84- inches ; the pedestals, above which are buttresses similar to the buttresses
thinnest part of the wall, between the octagon and the circle, of the drum, decorated externally with coupled Ionic
is 29 feet 3 inches. On the plinth is a circular stylobate, columns, 17 inches in diameter. The space between the
28 feet &J inches thick. This thickness is divided into three buttresses is filled with arched openings, which give light to
p;trts by a circular passage 5 feet 10 inches wide; the two the lantern. The external diameter of the lantern is 39 feet;
walls on each side of this passage are, respectively, the internal the internal diameter 25 feet 6^ inches; and the height from
wall 14 feet 7-J inches thick, and the external 8 feet. In the the platform to the top of the cross is 89 feet 7 inches.
internal wall are other smaller passages, 2 feet 10 inches wide, The whole height, from the external plinth of the dome to
forming of steps communicating with the four spiral
flights the cross, is 263 feet. The total height internally, to the top
staircases formed in the thickness of the wall of the drum of the. dome of the lantern, is 387 feet.
Above the circular stylobate, which is 12 feet " Sixtus
of the dome. V. covered the external dome with lead, and the
4% inches high, is placed the drum of the dome, which is 10 bands with bronze gilt. During the construction of the dome
feet 1 inch thick, measured to the inside line of the it is believed that
only two circles of iron were placed round
pilasters,
which decorate the interior of the dome. The pilasters them- the masonry, one of which was placed on the outside of the
selves are 1.78 feet thick in addition. The construction is internal dome, at about 36 feet from its
springing, and one
formed of rubble and fragments of brick. The interior is foot above the division of the domes. The bands of iron of
 DOM 278 DOM
which this circle is composed are 3 inches wide by
1|-
inches cornice of the attic. Above the internal order of the drum
thick. A similar placed about the middle of the
circle is rises the interior dome, the diameter of which at the spring-
solid part of the dome at about 17 feet 6 inches above the ing is 102 feet 2f inches by 51 feet in height. The top of
springing of the internal dome. Near the top of the internal the dome has a circular opening 14 feet 10^ inches in
dome there are several holes, at the bottom of which upright diameter.
"
iron bars appear. These bars are said to be the connecting Above the attic are two steps, from which the external
rods which keep together other circles of iron placed at dome springs. The external dome is constructed of wood,
different heights within the masonry, which are finally ter- covered with lead, and decorated with projecting ribs forming
minated by a circle round the eye of the dome. panels, curved at the ends. This dome terminates with a
" The domes which joins the base of the lantern
were constructed with such haste, that suffi- finishing the circular :

cient time was not allowed to the work

form solid beds as
to gallery formed on the finishing is 274 feet 9 inches above the
it was carried
up, in consequence of which a great number pavement of the nave. The lantern is supported on a conical
of vertical settlements took place, and the circle of iron tower, terminated by a spherical dome. This tower, which
round the internal dome was fractured. To obviate the danger is
joined to the internal dome at its base, disengages itself
arising from these settlements, six circles of iron were placed from it at the height of 8 feet 6 inches above the springing
round the external dome at different heights, and the broken of the same. The perpendicular height of this tower is 86
circle of the internal dome was repaired. The first circle feet 9 inches, and the walls are inclined 24 degrees from the
was placed above the cornice of the external stylobate, or perpendicular, the diameter of the base is 100 feet 1 inch
continuous plinth, on which the buttresses stand; the second measured externally, and 34 feet 1 inch at the springing of
circle was placed above the cornice of the buttresses the ;
the spherical dome which finishes it. The wall of this tower
third, above the attic, at the springing of the external dome ; is built of brick, and is 1 foot 7 inches thick, with circular

the fourth, half way up the external dome; and the fifth rings of masonry, fastened with iron bands. The spherical
under the base of the lantern. A sixth was shortly after dome at the top of the tower has an opening 8 feet in
placed at one foot below where the dome divides itself. The diameter at the summit. Between the attic and the wall of
iron bands are flat, from 16 to 17 feet long, 31 inches wide, the tower are 32 walls or buttresses, which also serve to
'
and 2j^ inches thick. At one end of the pieces of iron a bear the ribs of the wooden external dome. Penny
hole is made; the other end is turned up, and passed through Cyclopa'dia.
the eye of the next band. The whole of these bands are. About the same time that Wren built the dome of St.
fixed with iron wedges, driven into the rubble with mallets. Paul's, Hardouin Mansard, a French architect, constructed
Sheets of lead are placed under the iron circles." the dome of the Invalides at Paris. The plan of this dome
(Coupule,
a square, in which is inscribed a Greek cross in the angles
1

Eiici/clopidie Mettiodique ; 'Architecture.' ) is ;

St. Paul's cathedral, London, the workmanship of the of the square there are four chapels. The dome is raised in
great Sir Christopher Wren, was begun in 1085, and finished the centre of the Greek cross the base supporting it is an
;

in 1710. "The dome is placed over the intersection of the octagonal figure, with four large and four small sides. The
four naves. The ground plan is a regular octagon, each face dome, which is double, rises from a springing which is
of which is 44 feet 8^ inches wide four of these sides are
: common to both. The lower or internal dome constructed
formed by the four great arches of the naves; the other four with masonry is spherical. The outer dome is of a spheroidal
sides are formed by false arches of tiie same size in each of
; form, constructed of stone at the base, and of brick above.
these arches there is a great niche, the base of which is pierced It is framed of wood and covered with lead, like St. Paul's,

with two arches. By this means eight supports are obtained London, but the construction is much heavier. The total
instead of four, and the corbellings do not project too much, height to the top of the cross which surmounts the lantern ia
as in other similar constructions. The corbellings gather in a 330 feet.
circle, the diameter of which is 104 feet 4 inches, the octagon The modern Pantheon at Paris, formerly the church of
base being 107 feet. The corbellings are surmounted by a St. Genevieve, was built by J. G. Soufflot, who distinguished

complete entablature, 8 feet three inches high, decorated with himself by his architectural works, in the reign of Louis XV.
consoles. The drum is set back 3 feet 2^ inches from the The dome, which is lofty, is sustained by four pillars, arched

f.ice of the frieze, and this intermediate

space is occupied by over the cross parts. The angular spaces are filled up with
two steps and a seat. The cornice is 98 feet 9J inches from pendentives, terminating in a circular ring, on which a cylin-
the pavement. Tlie height of the drum from the top of the drical wall is built, supporting the cupola. In the latter par-
seat is 62 feet 6 inches to the springing of the internal ticular it is similar to St. Paul's.
dome. The wall forming the drum is inclined internally Of wooden domes, that of the Halle du Ble, at Paris, is
4 feet 11 ^ inches, or about the 12th part of its height. This an excellent example ;
it being more than 200 feet in
was designed by the architect to increase the resistance of diameter, and only a foot in thickness.
the walls to the united pressure of the large internal vault, A new material has been lately employed in the construc-
and the conical dome which carries the lantern. tion of the dome of the church of St. Isaac, at St. Peters-
" The interior of the drum is decorated with a continuous de Mont-
burg, erected under the direction of the Chevalier
stylobate, on which is an order of Corinthian pilasters. The fur rand. An account of the construction is given by Mr.
" The walls of the dome are carried
32 spaces between the pilasters are filled with 24 windows Godwin as follows :

and eight large niches. Externally the drum is decorated up in solid construction of brick, with tiers of stone-bond,
with an order of 32 Corinthian columns engaged, which are and are above 8 feet thick. On the level of the top of the
united to the wall of the drum by eight solid constructions in cornice of the circular colonnade which girds the drum, there
masonry. In each space bet.ween the constructions there are is a series of twenty-four cast-iron ribs, the feet of which
three intercolumniations, the columns being joined at their rest on a cast-iron plate 7 feet wide, which runs quite round
liases by wall pierced with arches. The external colonnade the circumference. At their head all the ribs are attached to
is surmounted by an entablature; behind this is a terrace, a horizontal plate or curb, 6 feet 3 inches wide, which follows
formed by the recessing back. The attic is 22 feet 4J inches the periphery of the dome. At this height the rib is divided
high from the top of the balustrade to the under side of the into 2, the one part about 12 feet 6 inches deep, following
 DOM 279 DOM
the sweep of the inner dome for a height of 20 feet, is at its dome are struck with centres in the base line, which, if con-
summit bolted to a cast-iron perforated cylinder, 21 feet in tinued, would meet in an angle in the axis of the dome.
diameter, and 7 feet high ; this forms the centre aperture Since the revival of Grecian architecture, the contour of the
at the summit of the inner dome. The other part follows the old Roman dome has also been revived, especially in cases
line of an intermediate cone, with a catenary outline, and where other parts of the building are decorated with any of
similar to the one in St. Paul's ; it is also 21 feet long, and the orders. Exterior domes can never be correctly applied
2 feet 6 inches deep, and perforated to render it lighter. At to buildings in the pointed style of architecture.
this height the heads of the ribs are again secured to another The following are the admeasurements of some of the prin-
"
horizontal plate or curb, which forms a complete circle, and cipal domes in Europe, taken from Mr. Ware's Tracts on
is 3 feet wide ; and this curb and the ribs are tied to the Vaults and Bridges :"

cylindrical opening of the inner dome, already mentioned, by

radiating beams 2 feet 3 inches deep. The conical ribs have
then another length of 21 feet, and their heads are again con- Domes of Antiquity.
nected by another horizontal plate, from which spring the Feet
in diameter
circular ribs, about 1C feet long, forming a dome to the inter- taken externally.
mediate cone, and their heads are also bolted to a cylinder,
8 feet 6 inches in diameter, and 18 inches high. But the Dome of the Pantheon
"
Minerva Medica, at Rome. . .

upper portions of the ribs diverge at top, so as to form abase "

Baths at Cnrncalla.. . .
for the octagonal cupolino, which consists of a series of cast- "
Batlis at Diocletian. . .

iron story -posts, ribs, and bracketing*, inclusive of the, dome Temple of Mercury
" Diana
of the cupolino, with its ball and cross at the apex, which last
"
are of brass-gilt. The filling in between the ribs consists of "
Apollo
Proserpine and Venus.. .

pots, the surfaces of which are subsequently rendered with

plaster, and painted with sacred subjects. The external face
of this outer dome is covered with bronze gilt in three thick- Domes of comparatively Modern Times.
nesses of leaves of ducat gold. The whole entablature and
Santa Sophia, at Constantinople
flat, and the balustrade over the peristyle of the drum of the of Achmet,
"
Mosque
cupola, likewise consist of cast and wrought iron framing, San. Vitate, at Ravenna
faced with plates of copper, to form the profiles and mould- Sau. Marco, at Venice

ings. The '24 pedestals of this balustrade carry winged

angels of bronze, above 9 feet high, each of a single casting.
"The quantity of metal employed in the work is as
follows:

Ducat gold 247 Ibs.

Copper 52J- tons

Brass "
32l|
Wrought-iron .... 524^
"
"
Cast-iron . 1068

1966$ tons 247 Ibs.

"The roofing wholly of iron, covered with copper. The

is

raising of the monolithic shafts of the 24 columns of the

exterior peristyle of the dome each of which weighed nearly
66 tons to the height of 150 feet, was an operation requiring
considerable skill. The first column was raised on the
17th November, 1837, and in two months the 24 columns
were completely fixed.
"The skeleton of the entablature of the peristyle of the
dome is of cast and wrought iron, resting on the columns,
and affixed to them by wrought-iron pins, which are let a con-
siderable depth into the shafts, and the frame- work is also let
into the cylindrical wall of the dome, securely affixed to three
templates. The cornice, with its modillions and mouldings,
rests on cast-iron corbels ; the caissons and rosettes of the
inner soffit also rest on cast-iron girders.
" Thecareful skill with which the architect has fulfilled
his part, and the feeling
for decorative art with which he has
embellished the church of St. Isaac, render it one of the most
striking edifices of the nineteenth century."
All the ancient Roman domes are on the convex side a
much less portion of a sphere than a
hemisphere but those,;

from the completion of the church of Santa Sophia, to the

finishing of St. Paul's cupola, are of the surmounted kind,
approaching in a greater or less degree to the proportion of
towers, or spires, which were so much admired and adopted
in the middle
ages. The sides of the section of St. Paul's
 DOM 280 DOM
The equilibrium and pressure of domes is very different that Domes of
would otherwise have completed the whole.
from that of common arching, though there are some proper- flattercontours will bear more, in proportion as they
ties common to both. Thus, in cylindrical and cylindroidal approach nearer to that of a cone and circular vaults, that
:

vaulting, of uniform thickness, if the tangent to the arch at are either straight or concave on the sides, if chained at
the bottom be perpendicular to the horizon, the vault cannot the bottom, may be loaded to any degree, without
giving
stand ; neither can it be built with a concave contour in way, until the materials of which they are built be crushed
whole, or in part; and to bring an arch to an equilibrium, to powder.
whether its section be circular or elliptical, the intrados being The foregoing description of the equilibrium and pressure
given, both extremities of the arch must be loaded, ad iiift. of domes may be comprehended without any acquaintance
nitum, between the extrados of the curve which runs upwards, with either algebra or fluxions, and will be of use to the
and the vertical assymptote rising from each foot. So, in thin ordinary workmen for the satisfaction of more scientific
;

domes, of equal thickness, if the curved surface rise perpen- readers,we subjoin Dr. liobison's theory.
dicularly from the base, it will burst at the bottom, whatever Problem. To determine the thickness of dome-vaulting
be the contour. when the curve is given, or the curve when the thickness is
Yet, though dome-vaulting, in this particular, agrees with given.
common arching, they difl'ei' materially in several other points. Plate 1. Figure 1. "Let B b A be the curve which pro-
For, in order to equilibrate the figure of the former, after the duces the dome by revolving round the vertical axis A D. We
convexity has been carried to its full extent of equilibrium shall here suppose the curve to be drawn
through the middle
around, and equidistant from the summit on theexterior side, of the arch-stones, and that the coursing or horizontal joints
the curvature may be changed into a concavity here the
: are everywhere perpendicular to the curve. shall sup- We
interior circumference of the courses is less than the exterior,
pose (as is always the ca*e) that the thickness K L, H i, &e.
and therefore, whatever the pressure towards the axis, the of the arch-stones is
very small in comparison to the dimen-
course cannot fall inwardly, without squeezing the stones into sions of the arch. If we consider any portion H A A of the
a less compass. Hence a vault may be executed with a con- dome, it is plain that it presses on the, curve of which H L is
vex surface inwardly, and a concave surface outwardly, and an arch-stone, in a direction b c, perpendicular to the joint
be sufficiently firm. H i, or in the direction of the next superior element j3 b of the
The strongest form of a circular vault, required to bear a curve. As we proceed downwards, course after course, we
weight on top, is that of a truncated cone, similar to the
its see plainly that this direction must change, because the
exterior dome of St. Paul's, London, of which it is
impossible weight of each course is superadded to that of the portion
to conceive any force acting on the summit, that would be above it to complete the pressure of the course below. Through
capable of disturbing its
equilibrium for the pressure
:
being B draw the vertical line B c G meeting ft b, produced in c.
communicated the sloping right line of the sides of the
in We may take b c to express the pressure of all that is above
cone, perpendicular to the joints, the conic sides have no it,propagated in this direction to the joint K L. may also We
tendency to bend to one side more than to another; the suppose the weight of the course H L united in 6, and acting
gravity of the materials towards the axis, being counteracted on the vertical. Let it be represented by b F. If we form
by the abutting vertical joints. the parallelogram b F o c, the. diagonal b G will represent
In dome-vaulting, the case is
very different for here the
: the direction and intensity of the whole pressure on the
contour being convex, there is a certain load, which, if laid joint K L.
on the top, must burst it outwardly, which weight becomes '
We
have seen, that if b o, the thrust compounded of the
greater in proportion as the contour approximates towards thrust b c exerted by all the courses above H i L K, and if the
the chords of the arches of the two sides, or to a conic vaulting force b F, or the weight of that course be everywhere coin-
on the same base, carried up to the same altitude, and ending cident with b B, the element of the curve, we shall have an
in the same circular course. For example, suppose a hori- equilibrated dome if it fall within it, we have a dome which
;

zontal line, tangent at the vertex, proceed from the key-stone will bear a greater load, and if it fall without it, the dome
downwards, course by course; it will be evident, that every will break at the joint. We
must endeavour to get analytical
successive coursing-juint may be made to slant as much, and expressions of these conditions. Therefore draw theordinates
consequently, th:it the pressure of the arch-stones of any b 6 b", D D B", c d c". Let the tangents at b and b" meet the
course towards the axis will be so great, as to be more than axis in M, and make M o, M p, each equal to b c, and complete
adequate to the resistance of the weight of all the super- the parallelogram M o N p, and draw o Q perpendicular to the
incumbent parts. Hence it may be clearly deduced, that there axis, and produce b F, cutting the ordinates in E and e. It is
is a certain
degree of curvature to be given to the contour, plain that M N is to M o as the w eight of the arch
r
H A h to the
which will just prevent the stones in any succeeding course thrust b c, exerts on the joint K L (this thrust being
which it

propagated through the course of H i L K,) and that M Q, or its

from being forced outwardly.
The circular vault, thus balanced, is indeed an equilibrated
equal b e, or S d, may represent the weight of the half A H.
dome ; but, instead of the strongest, it is the weakest of all
"
Let A D be called x, and D B be called y. Then b e ie,
=
between own contour and that of a cone upon the same
its and e c y (because b c is in the direction of the element
base, rising to the same height, in a key-stone, or in an equal ft b). It is plain if we make y constant, B c is the second
circular course. The equilibrated dome has therefore the fluxion of x, or B c =
z, and b e and b K may be considered as
boldest contour; but is the limit of an infinitude of inscribed
equal, and taken indiscriminately for x. We have also
circular vault*, all of them stronger than itself.
6 c =.>/ x t + y,; letrf be the depth or thickness of H i of the
In other respects, circular
vaulting differs from straight Then d*/ will represent the
arch-stones. x, ijt ; trapezium
vaulting in being built with courses in circular rings ; and in
H L and since the circumference of every course increases
having the stones in each course of equal length, which press- ;

ing equally towards the axis, cannot slide inwardly. Circular in the proportion of the radius y, d y</ x +
y will represent
vaults may therefore be open at the top ; and the the whole course. If s be taken to represent the sum or
equilibrated
to it, the formula will be
dome, which, as we have just observed, is the weakest of all, aggregate of the quantities annexed
'
may be made to bear a lantern of equal weight with the part analogous to the fluent of a fluxion, and s d y v x" 4- y* will
 DOM 281 DOM
represent the whole mass, and also the weight of the vaulting for we may put in place of t any power or function of x or of
down to the joint H i. Therefore we have this proportion :
y, and thus convert the expression into another, which will
s rf
y / i* + y* d y ,/ i? + y = b e
:
s
: b r b e : c o = still be applicable to all sorts of curves.

dy "
Instead of the second member - we might employ
id; c a = x co. Therefore c o =
:
-\

s dy v/ i* 4- y* .-,
f

" If the curvature of the dome be ~r-, where p is some number greater than unity. This will
precisely such as puts it
in equilibrium, but without any mutual pressure in the dome having because the original
evidently give a stability ;

vertical joints, this value of c o must be equal to c B, or to

x, the point G coinciding with B. This condition will be formula will be greater than x. This will
+ y'
expressed by the equation
dyxjx* +
s dy
== =
j x' + y'
y'
x or more con-
give d
*

=-V---
dy ^/ i*
d X ^ ~~ Jc
Each of these forms has its advantages
yVi'+y
veniently by
dy

a tottering equilibrium, independent of the friction of the

joints and cohesion of the cement. An equilibrium, accom-
==
' x
. But this form gives only when applied
d = -
y y V
ax
to particular cases.

===== when
** + y*
Each of them
the curvature is such as
also gives

in precise

equilibrium and lastly, if d be constant, that is, if the vault-

:

panied by some (inn stability produced by the mutual press-

ing be of uniform thickness, we obtain the form of the curve,
ure of the vertical joints, may be expressed by the formula.
because then the relation of x to x and to y is given.
d y v/ x
~
1
+ i? x d y ^/ .<" + x //' t 'The chief use of this analysis is to discover what curves
~. 7 IT' or by ~, ~. i~~7'/~, where t are improper for domes, or what portions of given curves may
.
+ if x
. . .,

sd yj X* + if
, J sd
y </ x
a
1 ,

be employed with safety.

is some variable positive quantity which increases when x "The chief difficulty in the case of this analysis arises from
increases. This last equation will also express the equili- the necessity of expressing the weight of the incumbent part,
brated dome, if t be a constant quantity, because in this case :
or s rf y v/i y*.
l
+
This requires the measurement of the
= conoidal surface, which in most cases can be had only by
-fis approximation, by means of infinite series. cannot We
" Since a firm -
expect that the generality of practical builders are familiar
stability requires that ; with this branch of mathematics, and therefore will not
sd y ^/ j-' + y
1

engage in it here ; but content ourselves with giving such

shall x, and c o must be greater than c B.
be greater than instances as can be understood by such as have that
Hence we learn that figures of too great curvatures, whose moderate mathematical knowledge, which every man should
sides descend too rapidly, are improper. Also since stability
possess, who takes the name of engineer.
d y x\/ 'j? -f- y
s
"The surface of any circular portion of a sphere is
requires that we have r.
greater than very easily had, being equal to the circle inscribed with a
radius equal to the arch. This radius is evidently equal to
td y v^ X* + y*, we learn that the upper part of the dome
must not be made very heavy. This, by diminishing the v/*' + y'.
b o, and
'
In order to discover what portion of a hemisphere may
proportion of b F to b c, diminishes the angle c may
set the point o above B, which will infallibly spring the dome
in that place. We
see here also, that the algebraic analysis
expresses that peculiarity of dome-vaulting, that the weight
of the upper part may even be suppressed.
f
be employed
when

to the equation or formula

evident we cannot employ the whole)
(for it is

the thickness of the vaulting is uniform, we may recur

dyx ^/ X*

We
= sdy ^/x +
-t
y*.

dy ^ i + have
1
y> Let a be the radius of the hemisphere.
The fluent of the equation = -- is most
|

gyy ay*
x = v~~5n i and x = -j-^ j,. Substituting these values
easily found. L * d y v/ x* y L x
It t-, where L is
is + s
= + ^^_^ ^^_
the hyperbolic logarithm of the quantity annexed to it. If we in the formula, we obtain the equation y* ./ a
1
y* =
consider y as constant and correct the fluent, so as to make it
s . We easily obtain the fluent of the second
nothing at the vertex, it may be expressed thus :

i. s dy y* La=L L'- This gives member = a* a' ^/ a* y , and y a9

= ^ j- + ^/^.
if the radius of the hemisphere be one-half, the
us L
sdy ./ x' + y'
=s L and therefore
idy */& Therefore,

y
t,
breadth of the dome must not exceed %/ i |> r 0.786, +V
and the height will be 618. The arch from the vertex is
about 51 49'. much more of the hemisphere cannot stand
even, though aided by the cement, and by the friction of the
This last equation will easily give us the depth of the
coursing joints. Thii last circumstance, by giving connection
vaulting, or thickness, of the arch, when the curve is
rf,
to the upper parts, causes the whole to press more vertically
. dy v/ x* +y*
= t' x + tie on the course below, and this diminishes the outward thrust;
given. For its fluxion is : and d but at the same time diminishes the mutual abutment of the
a y
which is a great cause of firmness in the
= a t' x + a C x ..
known
vertical joints,
A
,
which is all
expressed in quantities :
vaulting. Gothic dome, of which the upper part is a
y y \/ i* + y* portion of a sphere not exceeding
45 from the vertex, and
 DOM 282 DOM
the lower part is concave outwards, will be very strong, and
not ungraceful.
" Persuaded that what
has been said on this subject con-
vinces the reader that a vaulting, perfectly equilibrated
throughout is by no means the best form, provided that the
base is secure from separating, we think it unnecessary to
give the investigation of that form, which has considerable
intricacy, and shall merely give its
dimensions. The thick-
ness is supposed uniform. The numbers in the first column
of the table express the portion of the axis counted from the
vertex, and those of the second are the length of the ordinates.

AD
 D> <DM IE,
/

fjruwn fry P NichtiU-vn

/'I:. ITU IH
 DOM 283 DOM
Figure 3. Plan of a polygonal dome, showing the cover- Figure 5. Then making A D equal to the length of the
ing extended, and the angle-rib. The method of finding the arc, divide the curve B c into any number of equal parts, and
covering and angle-rib for Figures 2 and 3, is the same as in draw the lines e h, fi, g k, parallel to a A, cutting A c at A, i, k ;
Figure 1, and may be described in the same words. divide the straight line A D into as many equal parts as the
Instead of laying out the covering and angle-rib, as in curve B c is divided into, at the points /, in, , and draw
Figure 3, of the octagonal dome, they may be laid down lo, mp, and n q, parallel also to A B ; making / o, p, n q, m
as in Figure 4, without laying down the whole plan ; and if respectively equal to he, if, and kg, and through the points
only the covering be wanted, it may be found without any B iPi 1i D draw a curve; then the space comprehended
> >

part of the plan, as in Figure 5. Thus, let A D represent between this curve and the straight lines A D and A B, will be
the middle of the boarding for one of the sides, and let A B, half the covering of one of the sides.
at right angles thereto, be half the breadth of the side A H, Figure 6. Oiven K L M N, the plan of an oblong dome, and
Figure 3 ; let A B, Figure 5, represent half the base of the the rib A B; to find the hip and the rib parallel to the longi-
rib ; on A B describe a quadrant or similar figure to the given tudinal side, also the covering upon the longitudinal and
rib, ILK, Figure 5 make A D equal to the circumference, L K,
: transverse sides.
of the given rib. The rule for this purpose will be found Divide the curve A B into any number of equal parts, at
under those for measuring segments of circles ; see the article the points of division 1, 2, 3. and draw lines 1 Ic, 2 i 3 A, ,

SEGMENT ; or if the arc be that of a quadrant, the quadrantal parallel to N K, the longitudinal side cutting the seat of the
arc may be found, as in the article CIRCLE, and then taking a hip K o from the points of intersection in K a draw lines
:

fourth part of the whole circle, <>r the half of a semi-circle. We parallel to K L, the breadth of the dome, to the points m, n, o ;
shall here give examples both fora complete quadrant, and for draw OK parallel to N K, and produce it to F; also produce
a rib which is the half of a segment less than a semi-circle : A c to D take the parts of the given rib A B, and extend
;

Figure 3. Suppose the base, i L, to be 20 feet, then them on c D, from c to 1, from 1 to 2. from 2 to 3, and from
3 ]f X 20 3 to D make 1 m, 2 n, 3 o, on each side of c D, respectively
:

= 31 feet 5 inches. equal to the parallel distances from A K, comprehended be-

2 tween the lines A o, and K o ; from the points d, e, f, cut by
Again, suppose the base to be 12 feet, as before, but the the lines parallel to K L, make da, eh, and f c, respectively
height to be onlv 5 feet, then the whole chord will be 24 feet, equal to the several heights of the given rib AB, and trace
and the versed sine 5 feet. a curve through the points E, a, l>, c A upon the straight :

RULE. Multiply the sum of six times the square of the line E F, extend the parts E a, a li, b c, c A, of the arc K A,
half chord, and five times the square of the versed sine, by from E to a, from a to b, from b to c, and from e to F ; through
the chord; and divide the product by the sum of six times the points a, b, c, in E F, draw k k, i i, It h, parallel to K L ;
the square of the half chord and the square of the versed sine ; make the parts a k, b i, c h, respectively equal to the parallels
mid th<> quotient is the length of the arc, nearly. of E K, comprehended between E o and K o then K F L. is ;

Here the half chord is 12 feet therefore, : the form of the boarding for each end, and L M, that of
(6 X 12
s
+
5 x 5 s ) X 24 the sides.
=
26.69, the answer. The angle-rib is found the same as in the square
6 X 12' + 5" dome.
Or thus, at full length : Figure 7, No. 1. To find the covering of an oblong poly-
then 6 X 12' 5'+ 864 = + 25 = 889. gonal dome.
12 5 Given the plan ABCDEFGHI, and the axal section
12 5 through its breadth, a semi-circle. Take any straight line,
N <j, No. 2; in No. 1, draw lines from the middle point i,
144 = 12'
perpendicular to the sides a H,
H A, A B, of the polygon,
6 and let these perpendiculars be i K, i H, and i L : on the
straight line M Q, No. 2, make
M o equal to i K, M p equal to
864 = 6 X 12' 125 = 5 X 5' i H, and N Q equal to i L, No. 1. In No. 2, draw M N perpen-
125 dicular to MO; from the centre M, with the radius M o,
describe the quadrant o N divide the arc o N into any num- :

989 = 6 X 12' + 5 X 5' ber of equal parts, say four, w z, z y, yx, x-s, at the points
24 whole chord, or base of two ribs.
z, y, x ; from the points x, y, z,
No 2, draw lines x u, yv,zw,
distances M u, v v, v w, w o,
cutting M o at M, v, w ; transfer the
to the straight line i K, No. 1. Through the points of divi-
1978 sion, draw lines parallel to H o. to cut the diagonals
o i, and
H i ; from the points of section in H i, draw lines parallel to
889) 23736 (26.63 H A, to cut the next diagonal A I from the points of section :

1778 13.315 feet for the of the in A draw lines to A B, cutting B i take the parts
parallel
:
length i,

curved o z, z y, and extend them to K R, No. 1, and

y x, x N, No. 2,
hip.
5956 draw lines through the points of section, parallel to HO;
5334 make the two parts of the lines so drawn on each side of K R,
lines drawn parallel to H o, term!
respectively equal to the
6220 nated by K i, and H i. With the greater semi-axis M P, and
5334 lesser semi-axis M N, describe the quadrant of an ellipsis N p M :

to M p, to cut
~~8860~ through the points z, y, *, draw lines parallel
the elliptic curve : extend the elliptic curve so cut, upon the
8001
straight line H B, and through
the points of section, draw lines
859 parallel to H A ; transfer
each of the lines contained between
NOTB. The above rule is the invention of the author. H i and A to each of the parallels on the other
i, respectively,
 DOM 284 DOM
side of HA ;
or draw lines through the several points of sec- divide a quadrant of the plan into as many equal parts as
tion in the diagonal A i, parallel to I s, to cut the lines perpen- there are to be boards in each quarter, then draw lines from
dicular to H s, and the points of intersection will form the the points of section, to the centre of the plan, and draw
direction of the line for the edge of the covering H 8 A. In chords by joining each two adjacent points, so that there will
like manner, by describing the quadrant of the ellipsis M Q N, be as many triangles formed as there are boards from the :

and by drawing lines through the points z, y, x, to cut the centre of the plan, draw a perpendicular to each of the chords,
curve N Q, by proceeding as before, we shall obtain the cover- meeting each chord ; make the length of each perpendicular
The three coverings o R H, H s A, A T B. cover more the base of a rib, and take the common
ing A B T. height of the dome
than one-quarter of the whole, by the half coverings o R K, as the height of each rib, and place it at the
extremity, at
and LTD, of the side and end. The covering of each side so right angles to each base ; and describe the quadrant of a
found answers to the opposite side, by turning the back for circle or ellipsis, according as the base and
height may be
the front. Each covering, except that upon the side, and equal, or unequal. To find the covering for any side, divide
that upon the end, will cover four different sides the : the curve of the upper side of the rib, so found, into any
covering upon the sides and ends only answer in two oppo- number of equal parts, and draw lines perpendicular to the
site places. base to intersect therewith, and the whole will be completed,
The angle-ribs of this dome are found as usual. If the cir- as shown in Plate 111.
cumference of each quadrant or rib perpendicular to the side, No. 6, shows the covering over ION; No. 7, over i N M ;

were ascertained by calculation, then the boarding could easily No. 4, the middle rib No. 5, the rib between the side and
;

be laid out without the use of a plan, upon the same prin- end ribs.
ciple as in figure 5, us is obvious from what has already
been said. To find the solidity of a square dome, the axal sections
through the middle of the sides being temi-circles.
To construct the ribs of a spherical dome, with eight axal Let the radius of the circle be represented by r ; suppose
ribs, and one purlin in the middle. then, in the vertical section, that we draw any line parallel
Plate II. Figure 1, No. 1. Let ABCDEFGH, be the to the base, for the section of the generating plane, which is

semi-plan, which is supposed to be divided into four equal equal to the side of the generating square. Suppose the axis
parts, and let A H be the diameter, terminating the semi-plan ; to be drawn upon the section, and the part of the axis from
divide the semi-circumference into four equal parts, from the the summit to the generating line, to be denoted by x and y,
extremity A, to the other extremity H, of the diameter A H ; to denote the half generating line, we shall then have, by
and the points of division will mark the middle of the back, the property of the circle, y (2 r x x*) \, and conse-
=
or convex sides of the ribs. This being the case, let n c c b, quently 2 y 2 ('2 r x = 2
) \
the whole length of the side
i) E e
d, F o g f, be the plans of the intermediate ribs, B c, D E, of the generating square.
and F B, having the points of division in the middle; the lines
Therefore, 4 y' = 4 (2 r xx*)
B It, c c, D d, E e, F f, a g, being the places of the vertical
and 4 y' x = 4 x (2 r x j 2 ) the fluxion of the solid. The
sidi.'s, and parallel to the lines drawn from the middle of
4 z8
i!
c, D K, F o, to the centre. Draw v x, No. 2, parallel to A n, fluent of 4 x = 4 r x* for the solidity of the seg-
y*
No. 1 from the side A a, B c c b, D E e d, &c., draw lines cut-
: o
ting v x, perpendicular to A n ; then taking v x for the under ment of the dome. Now, therefore, if the solidity of the whole
side of the kirb or wall-plate, draw its proper thickness. In dome be required, it is only supposing x to become equal to r ;
the elevation, No. 2, of the dome, the front ribs are quadrants,
3 8 r8
4 x3 4
funning a semi-circle with the upper side of the wall-plate, = 8-
i

which is of course the diameter ; the curves of the sides of

we then find 4 r x*
o
4 r
-3-=. Sup-
each of the other ribs are the quadrants of an ellipsis of the
same height with the front rib, and their projected places, pose d = the diameter, equal to 2 r, and a = r, the altitude,

from the plan upon the kirb v x, gives the lesser semi-axis.
To form the purlins, place the section of one of them in its then will = ,
that is, the solidity of the dome is
o
situation, and, circumscribing its angles, draw the square
m m equal to two-thirds of the circumscribing rectangular prism.
n o p, draw q, and n r, parallel to v x, and the lines from If in the above dome all the horizontal sections had been
the several angles of the purlins, also parallel to v x; then,
circles instead of squares, the dome would have been sphe-
where they cut the opposite rib v x form the section of the =
rical ; let us suppose that p .7854, the area of a circle, the
purlin, and then the circumscribing square q rs t. First form diameter of which is unity, then in the case of the segment
a ring, whose greater diameter is m q, or n r, and whose inner,
or less diameter, is p t, or os,and whose thickness is m n, orpo; 4j^\
of the sphere we have p I 4 >'- 1 for solidity
the ring being thus formed, gauge lines from each of the sides,
as is shown by the section then cut off the angles made by
;
of the dome when less than a hemisphere; or, putting
the horizontal and perpendicular surfaces, between each two
2 r = d, and a equal to the altitude of the segment, then
lines, on each two adjoining sides, and the purlin will be
formed. The ribs of this dome are not complete quadrants, as
they abut upon the upper kirb w Y at the top.
(<ir x* -- )
=p I 2d a* --|-j and the hemispheri
ieric

The method of covering this dome is, to suppose the sur-

face polygonal ; the principle is the same as is shown in
Plate 111. solidity is p The same form of expression may be
Figure 2. The ribs of an elliptic dome are formed in the
same manner as in Figure 1, and the covering as in the pre- shown for all polygonal domes whatever it is only using a :

proper multiplier for p, when

the covering of one quarter being found, the radius of its circumscribing
ceding Plate ;

answers for the whole, as has been observed. It may be circle is unity.
were required to find the solidity of a trun-
noticed, once for all, as a general rule to cover any dome, Suppose it
TD <D> M I-', S J'JATK 11

A '
''
I
' I. H
 DOM 285 DOM
cated hemispheric dome, let x =
the altitude of the dome, as To find the solidity of a truncated square dome, the axal
before, then, by the nature of the circle, we have section being t/iat part of a semi-circle left by cutting
of a
y
4
= r* x* equal to one quarter of the generating square. segment parallel to the diameter.
4 y* = 4 /* 4 X* for the generating square. From the square of the side of the base, multiplied into the
4 y* x 4 r1 *= 4 j 8 x the fluxion of the solid. altitude of the dome, subtract the third part of four times
the cube of the altitude, and the remainder is the solidity
The fluent of 4 y* x = 4 r'z : now let d = the required.
Example. Suppose the side of the base 20 feet, and the
diameter equal 2 r, and a equal the altitude of the dome, then altitude6 feet, what is the solidity 1

4 r' a; --45 = z*
d* o
4 a'
equal to the solidity of the 20 6
3 3 20 6

square truncated dome, and p I d1 a --- I

equal the 400 36
6 6
solidity of the circular dome. Let us suppose the same
expression to be applied to a hemispheric dome, 2400 216
288 4

2112 solidity of the dome required. 3)864

= p I
I
a*r --<Pr\
5 =p I
2<Pr
=p 2rf*a
,
the same for-
288

mula as above. But if the horizontal sections had been circles instead of
squares, we should then have the solidity of the circular
dome as follows :
Practical application of the preceding rules.
2112
To find the solidity of a dome less than a hemisphere, upon
a square plan, when its axal sections, parallel to the sides, are .7854
circles.
8448
From twice the diameter of the vertical section multiplied
10560
into the square of the altitude, subtract the third part of four
16896
times the cube of the altitude, and the remainder is the soli-
14784
dity of the square segmental dome.
Example. Suppose the altitude of the dome to be 4 feet,
1658.7648 the solidity of the dome
and the diameter of the vertical section 20 feet, the solidity when the horizontal sections are circular.
of the dome is required. It may here be remarked, that the
segment and truncated
20 4 domes make together a complete square dome, each side of
2 4 the base being 20 feet, and the altitude 10 feet.
Now the solidity of the segment dome is 554J feet,
40 twice the diameter of the vertical 16 square of the and that of the truncated dome . 2112
. .

16 section. [altitude.
Therefore the whole square dome whose
4 vertical section is a semi-circle, is 2666|
. .

640 4 Now, the rule for measuring a square dome with semi-circu-
lar vertical sections parallel to the sides of the base, is to take
16 two-thirds of the area of the base, multiplied into the height:
554 \ solidity required of the square 4
dome.
20
20
64
4 400 area of the base
10
3)256
3)4000
85)
13331
Suppose now a circular dome of the same dimensions: Then
1338J

2666f the solidity, as before.

31416 But as itmay be objected by many, that, when a square or

39270 circular dome, whose vertical section is the segment of a cir-

39270 cle, isrequired to find its solidity, it is difficult to find the

diameter of the vertical section, and that it would be more
435.1116 eligible to find the solidity from the side or diameter of its
2618 base, and the altitude of the section in order to save the
:

2618 trouble of finding the diameter, we shall here show the

investigation of another rule, independent of any foreign or
435.6352 feet, the solidity required. adventitious dimension.
 DOM 286 DOM
Let s
equal the side of the square base, base, and o equal the altitude, that the solidity of the solid

then is
equal to half the side of the base ; dome was expressed
1
by d a --4a* ,
then to find the solidity
m o
and if d be the diameter of the section, and a its altitude, of the shell, it is only finding the solidity of two solid

then, by the property of the circle, domes, of the same altitude, but of different dimensions at
4
the base, and deducting the greater from the less.
= a(d a) = da of Now let D be the side of the base to the external surface,
and d the side of the base corresponding to the internal sur-

therefore, da = + o*
face;
then the solidity of the solid comprehended within the
external surface, and the two parallel planes forming the

consequently, d = s*
+a end, is D' --
3
In like manner, the solidity of 4 at
and 2 d =
s'
+ 2a the solid which would fill d* a -- -
;

the cavity, is
s*
- h 2 a for 2 d in the formula then, by subtracting the latter )
Therefore, by substituting
of these expressions from > D* o cP a a (D* d1 ) =
as' 2a the former, we obtain )
'
,
we obtain --H for the solidity of the for the solidity of the shell.
o * f
This rule may be thus expressed in words:
segmental dome, independent of the diameter of the section.
This rule may be expressed thus :
Multiply the difference of the areas of the bases by the
altitude of the dome, and the product will give the solidity
To half the area of the square base, multiplied into the of the shell.
altitude, add two-thirds of the cube of the altitude, and the
Example. Suppose the side of the base, between the
sum will be the solidity of the dome. external convex surface, to be 20 feet, and the side of the
Let us take the same example as at first, and we shall find
base of the internal cavity, or bason, to be 18 feet, the
the side of the square of the base to be 16 feet therefore, :

16 4 solidity of the shell is required.

18 20
,16 4
f_ 18 20
96 16 [surface.
4 144 400 area of the base contained between the convex
16

256 square of the

4 altitude.
base. 64 cube of the
2
altitude.
18

324
-324 area of the base contained between the concave

76
surface.
difference of the areas of the bases.
6
2)1024 3)128
456 solidity of the shell, as required.
512
42 To jind the convex surface of a dome.
Let the diameter B o =d
554 j cubic feet, as before, in the segmental dome. B A = a;

The solidity of any dome whatever may be found by the and c A =y

following general rule : B c =z
To the areas of the two ends, add four times the area in we by similar triangles,
have,
the middle ; then, one-sixth of the sum multiplied by the Ao c and CED, CA:CO:: CE:CD
altitude, gives the solid contents. This rule applies to all d di
domes whose vertical section is contained between any two
opposite arcs of the same circle, and two parallel lines,
and but since the fluxion of the surface whose sections are circu-
will even apply to those domes which are the segment of a lar isdenoted by 2 p y z, where p is equal to 3.1416 ;
In the seccond example, the side of the square of
sphere. therefore, we have Zpyz=:pdx
the base being 20, and of the top 16, the middle area will be
found to be 304.
and the fluent of 2pyz =
pdx: therefore, the
superficies of the segment of a hemispheric dome is equal to
20 16 364 the convex surface of a cylinder of the same altitude, and of
20 16 4 a diameter equal to the diameter of a great circle of the

400 area of base. 96 sphere ; now, when the segment becomes a hemisphere, then
16 p dx = p but since p = 4 X .7854, we shall have
256 area of top. = 2 X .7854rf* that the convex area of the hemi-
; is,
21 12 solidity.
Because multiplying and dividing by 6, gives the same spheric dome is its base ; and since the
double the area of
number. area of any segmental dome is the same as that of a cylinder
To find the solidity of a hollow square truncated dome, the of the same altitude, and of a diameter equal to that of its
great circle ; it follows also, that the convex surface
shell being of equal thickness, supposing each edge of the base of any
equal to the diameter of the circle of which the tection is truncated dome is equal to the surface of a cylinder of the
a part. same altitude, and of a diameter equal to the great circle of
We found before, supposing d = the side of the square the sphere.
 DOM 287 DOM
To find the convex surface of the segment of a dome, inde- segment cut off; but the difference between the areas of the
pendent of the diameter of the great circle. curved surfaces of these two segments is equal to the curved
Let D =
the diameter of the great circle, surface of the solid contained between the two parallel planes;
a =
the altitude of the dome, therefore, c A c a C(A =
a) is the surface of the sphere
d =
the diameter of the base of the dome ; contained between the parallel planes.
It would, however, be very desirable to have another sub-
then, by the property of the circle, D a a' = , stitute in terms of the upper and lower diameter of the solid,
in place of the diameter of a great circle ; for this purpose,

therefore D =a+ we shall here give the following rules :

,
4a
Given any two parallel chords in a circle, and their distance,
But p D a is equal to the convex surface therefore
;
to find (hedistance of the greater chord from the centre.

= p o* + pd* To the square of the distance between the chords add the
pDa TP = the area of the convex surface
4 square of half the lesser chord. The difference between this
sum and the square of half the greater chord, divided by
). Therefore, twice the distance of the chords, gives the distance from the
greater chord to the centre.
To find of the segment of a dome :
the area
Example. Suppose the greater chord, c n, is 48 feet, and
Multiply the sum of the square of the altitude and the the lesser, A B, 30 feet, and their distance, E a, 13 feet ; what
fourth part of the square of the diameter of the base, by
is the distance, B F, from the centre to the
greater chord, CD?
3.1416, and the product will be the superficies of the dome.
13 30 = 15 48 = 24
Example. What is the superficies of the segment of a 13 15 24
2"
dome, the diameter of the base being 17.25 feet, and the
height 4.5 feet 1
75 96
39
17.25 4.5 13 15 48
17.25 4.5
[chord. [chord.
169 225 square of the less 576 square of greater
8625 225 169 square of distance. 394
3450 180
12075 394 26) 182 (7 dist. required.
1725 20.25 182
Given the chord of a circle, and its distance from the centre,
4)297.5625 tofind the radius of the circle.
[base's diameter.
74.3906 the fourth part of the square of the To the square of the half chord, add the square of the
distance from the centre, and the square root of the sum will
20.25 square of the altitude.
be the radius required.
94.6406 the sum. Example. Given the chord c D, 48 feet, and its distance
3.1416 E F from the centre, 7 feet, the radius of the circle is
required.
5678436 7X7=49
48
946406 =24
3785624 2 24
946406
2839218 96
48
297.32290896 feet, the surface required.
576
To show that the superficies of any portion of a sphere, 49
contained between any two parallel planes, is equal to the
product of a circumference of a great circle into the dis- 625 (25 the radius required.
tance of the parallel planes; that is, equal to the surface of
a cylinder, the base of which is equal to the great circle of
the sphere, and the altitude equal to the distance of the
:
45) 225
parallel planes 225
Let A equal the altitude of the segment of the sphere,
Suppose, then, that we would wish to obtain the area 0.
including both the altitude of the segment wanting, and the
the curved surface of a dome, contained between two parallel
distance of the parallel planes ; also, let a equal the altitude
of the segment wanting ; and let c be the circumference of planes, the greater of which is 30 feet diameter, and the
lesser 20 feet diameter, and the distance between them being
the great circle.
5 feet.
Then, whether the segment include the part contained be-
tween the parallel planes, or be the segment cut off, the area 10 X 10 = 100 15 X 15 = 225
of the curved surface will still be expressed by the product 5 X 5 = 25 125
under the circumference of the great circle and the height
of the segment ; therefore, c A is equal to the superficies of 125 1,0) 10,0 the difference.
the segment, including that of the solid contained between 10. feet,

the two parallel planes ; also, c a is the superficies of the the distance of the greater chord from the centre.
 DOM 288 DOO
(15)'
= 225 The second rule for finding the radius of the circle, is
(10)' = 100 to find the hypothenuse of a
right-angled triangle
only
the two
:

sides containing the right

angle being given, the square of the
325 ( 18.02 the radius of the circle. hypothenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two
sides by the 47th
Proposition of Euclid.
DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE, that department of the
28 225 art which relates
) especially to the design and erection of edi-
224 fices adapted to private
purposes as distinguished from those
erected for public uses, more particularly of such as are em-
3602 10000 ployed as private dwellings. Although holding an inferior
. .
)
7204 position in the scale when compared with other branches of
the art, domestic architecture is of sufficient
importance at
.2796 the present day to merit the greatest attention of the profes-
then, that the diameter is 36 sional man. Amongst the ancients this department held a
Say feet, omitting the very
small fractional part .02. very low position, all the energies of the architect being em-
Then 36 X 3.1416 = 113.976 the circumference of a ployed on the public buildings and temples. Such a term
great circle.
would scarcely have been understood amongst the Greeks and
Therefore 113.976 5 X
569.880 feet, the superficial = Egyptians, and but little amongst the earlier Romans, their
content of the dome. private dwellings scarcely deserving the name of buildings.
Figure 2. In order to show the truth of the above rule, As luxury increased at Rome, the houses of private indivi-
for finding the above diameter of a circle, from the two duals increased in size and magnificence, as well as in accom-
chords,
and the distance between them being given ; modation, and the country-residences of the higher classes
Let y = F the height of the lesser seem to have been buildings of some importance;
Pliny's
= F B, the distance between thesegment;
i,
villa contained thirty-seven
h chords ;
apartments on the ground-floor.
x = B D, the distance from the nearest chord A o, to Specimens of Roman houses exist at Herculaneum and
the centre i
;
Pompeii, as well as some few elsewhere. There is a villa at
=A
B, half the greater chord A G;
c Bignor in Sussex, which contains 74 rooms, and covers an
E F, half the lesser chord ;
c
art-a 630 feet in length, by 335 feet in breadth.
Of English Domestic we need say little in
Then, by the property of the circle, we have architecture,
= this place; the term can scarcely be applied to any habitable
F i X f K E F'= c'
buildings erected previous to the reign of Henry VII., and
and BIX B K = B A* = c' the buildings of this date will be dilated upon when
But F =y i
treating
of the style known, after the name of the reigning family, as
and F K = y + 2x + 2A the Tudor style. Up to the period in which this style pre-
also B = y + h i
vailed, all the larger residences in England were fortified
and B K = y + h + 2j. more or less. For an account of the earlier of these edifices
Therefore y X (y + 2z + 2 = equation /()
c* first we refer to CASTLES. See also HOUSE, TUDOR or ELIZA-
X (y + k + 2x) = c' the second equation;
;

(y + li) BETHAN ARCHITECTURE, VILLA, ROMAN ARCHITECTURE, &c.

y' + 2xy + 2 h y = c\ the actually multiplied; first
DOMICIL, or DOMICILE, (domicilium, a mansion), in
y* + hy + 2zy + hy + A' + 2/ix = c the second
1
,
general, the place of residence of an individual or family ;
multiplied. in a more restricted sense, where a person resides
only for
Then by putting n in the place of x + h in each of these a time.
equations, DONJON, or DONGEON, the principal tower of a castle
the first becomes y' -+- 2 n y c* = usually raised on a natural or artificial mound, in the inner-
and the second y'-f-2ny-r-2A;r = c* A* most court or ballium. Its lower part was used as a prison,
and it was frequently called the donjon-keep. Hence the
y' + 2 ;i
y + n1 = c' + n 1 by completing modern term dungeon.
the square of the first. Therefore DOOKS, pieces of wood, about nine inches in length, in-
first value of y
(c ')
= + n serted in stone or brick walls ; the term is used in Scotland,
and is of the same import with the London term, plays, or
y' -f 2ny = c' As 2 h x second trans- wood bricks.
posed ;
DOOR, (from the Saxon dor), the gate of a house, or the
therefore y' + 2 n y + n' = c' A' 2 h x + n' passage into an edifice, apartment, <kc.
y + n = (c' - A' - 2 A * + n')$ the ; The construction of doors naturally divides itself into two
second
branches, viz., the formation and proportion of the aperture,
value of y = (c A' 2 h x + n')
9
n. or opening, which, in outer walls, belong to the mason or
Then by making the first and second value of y which the
equal to bricklayer; and framing of the gate or leaf, by
each other, and by taking
away the negative quantity , entrance is to be secured, together with its appurtenances,
which is common to both sides, and
squaring the equation, which appertains to the joiner's department.
we obtain The proportion of the aperture must always be according
= e+ 2A*

_ +
' '
<,' A* to the size and intention of the building, and should be
= c* or c' A* 2Ax attended to above every other consideration : in general the
or2Aar = c'

and consequently x =
c

which expression agrees with the

-- 1

2 A
c
c A*c'
A*

= (A*+
2A
e
1
)
dimensions may be in the ratio of one to two, for large doors,
and from three to seven in those of less size.
Entrances are of two kinds ; doors and gates. The former
are used only for the passage of persons on foot; the latter
rule. admit horsemen and carriages. Doors are used for churches,
 DOO 289 DOO
public edifices, dwelling-houses, and apartments :
gates only an inferior building, it should never be richer than the
serve as inlets to cities, fortresses, parks, gardens, &c. front of the house. As for instance, where the front of
Apertures of gates, being always wide, are usually arched ; the latter is ornamented with Doric columns, the Ionic should
while the figure of doors is generally a parallelogram. not be found in the piers ; and it would be better to omit
According to Vitruvius, the hypothyron, or aperture for columns altogether, than use the Tuscan order for piers in
" The
doors, should be as follows :
height from the pave- any case. If the Ionic or Corinthian orders be used in the
ment to the ceiling of the temple being divided into three front of the house, the Doric or Ionic may be with
propriety
parts and a half, two of the whole parts were allowed for introduced in the piers. Niches are almost always introduced
the height of the door. These two parts were subdivided into piers, for which reason the columns do better on pedes-
into twelve smaller parts, of which five and a half were tals, because the continued moulding from their cap forms
allowed as the width of the door at the base ; and the upper an agreeable ornament under the niche.
part was contracted according to the following rules if not : The wooden closures by which the apertures are opened
more than 10 feet high, the contraction was one-third of the or closed, come within the province of the joiner these are
:

width of the jamb on the face if the height was more than
; properly the doors, and are either framed, battened, or
10 and not more than 25 feet, a fourth part of the width of ledged, as described in the following articles. In ordinary,
the jamb only was employed; and from beyond 25 feet, and and even in good houses, frequently, the doors are of deal ;
not exceeding 30 feet, one-eighth only." Vitruvius, book iv. in noblemen's mansions,
they are often of mahogany, solid
Public buildings, palaces, and noblemen's mansions, where or veneered, and sometimes of wainscot, especially when the
a great concourse of company may be expected, should have building is in the antique style. Apartments reserved for
doors of much greater dimensions than those of buildings of the reception of money, plate, jewels, &e. are usually secured
inferior rank ; from six to twelve feet may be taken for the with iron doors ; and in the descriptions of ancient temples,
width of the outer entrance, and from four to six feet for we read of doors of ivory, brass, silver, and gold.
those in the interior; in private houses, the latter, if they DOOR, Baize, the inner door of an apartment, covered
have but one k'af, should never be more than three feet and with baize for securing the room from the influx of the
a half in breadth, nor less than that of the windows. In all cold air.
cases their height should bo proportioned to that of the story DOORS, Batten, though formerly much in use, are now
in which they are placed, except where they are used for confined to buildings in the pointed style of architecture.
laying two apartments into one in which case they will be
; They consist of boards glued together, to the size of the
of a height less than double the width. aperture, with styles, rails, and munnions, made of battens,
Vitruvius, as we have before observed, has prescribed nailed upon them, so as to give the appearance of a framed
rules for Attic, Ionic, and Doric doors, all of which have door. This may be done, either on one or both sides ; and
their apertureswider at the bottom than at the top examples
;
the door is accordingly denominated single or double battened.
of this may be seen in the ruins of the temple of
shape The vertical joints should be hid by the munnions of the
Minerva Polias at Athens, the temple of Vesta at Tivoli, framing ; and the latter, instead of being glued, should be
and in other Greek and lloman remains. These doors bolted through to a framing behind, which will make them
possess the advantage of shutting themselves, to which they very strong. The large gates and doors of ancient British
probably owe their invention and they may be conveniently
;
edifices are thus constructed. The practice o/ imitating the
adopted in modern houses, as they rise in opening, and will framing of Grecian and Roman doors, is not, however, to be
clear a carpet, though when shut, they go close down upon recommended in modern times, especially if no bolts be used :

the floor. for the stuff, however well seasoned, will be subject to the
The principal entrance to a building of any magnitude influence of the atmosphere, and shrink or swell, as the air
should be in the centre, as productive of the greater symmetry is dry or damp. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that this

of appearance, and as communicating more readily with the evil will be enhanced in proportion as the wood is less
various apartments of the interior. In the principal rooms, seasoned.
the door should be two feet, at least, from the return of the DOORS, Framed, which are either single, folding, double,
wall, to admit of furniture being placed close up in the or double margin, are employed in all descriptions of build-
in most cases,
corner. ings, and consist of styles, rails, panels, and,
The lintels of exterior doors should always range with of munnions also. The framing includes all the parts but
those of the windows. Apertures placed in blank arcades, the panels, and is held together with mortices and tenons.
are usually placed at the same height as the springing of the The styles are the vertical parts of the framing at the sides.
arch : when they have dressings, the head of the architrave, The rails are the horizontal pieces, tenoned into the styles.
or cornice, is generally on the level of the impost. Munnions are parts of the framing, tenoned into the rails.
The decorations of a door-way commonly consist either of The panels fill up the holes left in putting the framing
cut in the internal edges
an architrave surrounding it, with or without a cornice, or together, and are let into grooves
with a complete entablature consoles are sometimes intro-
: of the styles, rails, and munnions. Doors are generally
duced, flanking the architrave jambs, and supporting the framed in rectangular compartments ; though other forms,
ends of the cornice. When the architrave jambs are flanked as circles, ellipses, lozenges, &c. may be adopted, according
with pilasters, whether of the orders, or of some emblematical to the fancy of the proprietor, or the taste of the builder.

form, the projections of their bases and capitals are always Framed doors are either square or moulded ; the former are
less than that of the surrounding architrave, and the archi- used only in common houses. Mouldings are of various
trave over the capitals is similar to that over the door itself. forms, some confined within the framing, and others project-
Doors are sometimes decorated with one of the five orders, ing beyond it. The mouldings
and form of the panels of the
and in very considerable buildings, the entrance is adorned door, generally regulate those of the window-shutters.
with a portico, so as to resemble an ancient Grecian Folding doors, or doors of communication, are made in two
temple. breadths, and have a pair of styles to each leaf.
In embellishing the piers of gates, or outer doors, it should The Building Act (7 and 8 Viet. cap. 84) requires that open-
be remenibered. as a general rule, that as the pier is itself ings through party walls
be secured by wrought-iron doors.
37
 DOR 290 DOR
" Such
openings must not be made wider than six feet, nephew of Dorus, and chief of the lonians, led an Athenian
nor higher than eight feet, unless in each case, and upon colony into that part of Asia Minor which was afterwards
special evidence of necessity for convenience
or otherwise, distinguished by his name, and there built a temple, after
the official referees shall authorize larger the fashion of those in the Dorian states, the columns of
previously
which were six diameters in height, taking the proportion
openings.
" And the the head of every such from the ratio that a man's foot bears to the height of his
floor, and the jambs, and
opening, must be composed of brick or stone, or iron work body.
The Doric distinguished, in general appearance, from the
throughout the whole thickness of
the wall. is
" bold and massy proportions, as well
And every such opening must have a strong wrought- succeeding orders, by its

iron door on each side of the party wall, fitted and hung to as by its comparative want of ornamentation ; all its parts are
such opening without wood-work of any kind ; and such bold and prominent, its details few and imposing.
doors must not be less than one-fourth of an inch thick in Its origin is stated by Vitruvius to have been derived

the panels thereof. from the primitive buildings of the Greeks, which were
"
And each of such doors must be distant from the other made of timber ; but others derive the style from the stone
not less than the full thickness of the party wall." structures of Egypt, and others from those of Persia and the
Double doors are contrived to close against each other, in East. It would be the more natural method to discuss this

opposite di reel ions,

the one opening outwards, the other subject ere proceeding farther, but as the discussion could
the apartment warm the not be readily understood without some previous acquaintance
going inwards, in order to keep
:

inner door being generally covered with baize. with the details and general character of the order, it may
Doulile maryiit doors, are single doors, with a broad piece be as well to turn our attention to these matters first of all.
This order then consists, like the others, of column and
running vertically down the middle, called the staff-style,
imitating the two internal styles
of folding doors when shut. entablature, but differs from them in this, that the first men-
Whatever kind of door be adopted, it should, for the sake tioned division comprises only two members, the shaft and
of uniformity, be used in all the apartments of the same capital;
the base, which is indispensable in the other orders,
being omitted in this, at least in the earlier and purer
story.
Farther particulars may be seen under ARCHITRAVE, and examples, as practised by the Greeks. The reason of this
JOINERY. omission has been accounted for in various ways by different
The term door is sometimes applied to the gates of locks writers ; Vitruvius will have it, that the base was first intro-
or sluices. duced in the Ionic order to represent the sandal or covering
DOOUWAY, the entrance or aperture in which the door of a woman's foot, and that in the Doric, which resembled in
is hiiiis*. Doorways are usually rectangular in shape, but some wav or other a strong muscular and barefooted man,
sometimes arched. In the early styles previous to the intro- this member was not appropriate. Some are of opinion that
duction of the arch, all apertures consisted by necessity of the omission was occasioned by the close proximity of the
an horizontal lintel supported by two vertical jambs, although columns in this order, which would not admit of any excres-
not unfrequcntly the jambs inclined converging upwards. cence at the base. It is true the intercolumniation is very

Doorways were enriched in a variety of ways, often by a contracted, and the addition of any base, especially of a square
and
lintel, and sometimes one with its angular corners, would render the passage
platband running round the jambs
by an entablature above the lintel. An elaborate work upon between the columns extremely narrow and inconvenient ;
the subject has been published by Professor Donaldson. indeed, even without a base, the space was inconveniently
Soon after the introduction of the arch, that form was small, and was felt to be so, as we gather from the fact that
the intercolumniation of the portico opposite the entrance-
applied to doorways, the form of the arch, whether semi-
circular, pointed, or otherwise, being determined by the date
door was increased in width, evidently to afford readier access
and style of the building. Of the first form, the Romanesque to the interior ; notwithstanding, we can scarcely bring
ourselves to conclude that this was the reason of the absence
style affords us some very beautiful specimens;
witness that
of the Temple Church, London, which is a very fine example, of a base. We
rather incline to believe that a base had as
and consists of a compound arch, that is to say, a series of yet never been thought of, the idea had not yet suggested
concentric and receding arches, each arch with its pier being itself; in Egyptian temples, from which we believe the
Doric order to have emanated, the columns were usually
profusely adorned with pillars and enriched mouldings of all
kinds. These doorways seem to have been admired in devoid of bases, and it is but reasonable to presume that in
all ages, for frequently, when all the rest of a church has been their earlier essays, the Greeks aimed at nothing more
and did not think of addition or
pulled down to make room for one of a more elaborate or
than a copy, either
more fashionable style of architecture, the old Romanesque improvement.
doorway has been preserved, and worked up in the new The Doric shaft then rises immediately from the platform
structure. For exquisite examples of doorways in the on which the building stands, but this platform was usually
raised on a series of three or more steps or gradations, the
pointed styles, we have only to refer to the magnificent
western entrances of the Continental cathedrals, and the risers of which are proportioned not to the capacity of
smaller and less elaborate, though not less beautiful, examples the human step, but to the magnitude of the building.
in our own country. The shaft, when compared with those of the other orders, is
DOORWAY-PLANE, a term sometimes applied to the of stunted and massy proportions, its height being only
space between the doorway properly so called, and the larger 5 or 6 times greater than its lower diameter ; the upper
door archway within which it is placed. This space is diameter, however, is of much smaller dimensions, the
frequently ornamented with sculpture, &c. column converging rapidly towards the capital, a circumstance
DORIC ORDER, the most ancient Grecian order of archi- which gives an appearance of great stability. Towards the
tecture, was first used in building the temple of Juno at a narrow channel is carved out round
top of the column,
Argos, at the period when Dorus, father of the Dorians, the shaft, so as to form an annulus in recession, and this
reigned in the Peloponnesus ; though, according to Vitruvius, marks the division between the shaft and capital, although
its symmetry and proportions were not fixed till Ion, the a portion above thisis in form nothing more than a continuation
 DOtt 291 DOR
of the shaft. The shaft was almost universally fluted, very of the curve of the echinus of the capital. The same
few exceptions to the contrary existing ; the number of the kind of termination takes place in the temple of
Apollo, at
flutes is either 16 or 20, and their profile is that of a seg- Cora, in Italy ; but in this example, the conic termination
ment of a circle less than a semi-circle, being much broader of the flutes is not immediately under the abacus, but at a
and flatter or shallower than those of the succeeding orders. small distance down the shaft, leaving a small portion
quite
These flutes meet each other in a sharp arris, without the a plain cylinder, and thus forming the hypotrachelium or
intervention of fillets, which are universal in the later orders ; neck of the capital. Palladio and other Italian authors have
a slight fillet, however, is to be found in examples at Eleusis, terminated the flutes of the shafts of their design of Doric
Sermium, Khamnus and Thoricus, but so narrow as to be columns in the segments of spheres tanged by the surfaces
insignificant. Much pains have been taken by various of the fluting. In some few instances the shaft is fluted only
authors to account for the introduction and use of those at the upper and lower extremities, the other part being left
flutes, but in our opinion without success; one supposes plain, although probably with the intention of being orna-
that they are imitations of the crevices in the stems of the mented in a similar manner at some future time. Examples
trees out of which the timber-huts, the primitive models of of this are to be found at Eleusis and Thoricus in Attica,
the stone structures, were constructed ; another, that the idea at Egesta and Selinus in Sicily, at the temple of Apollo at
was occasioned by the rain-streak running down the shafts Delos and at Rhamnus, which last forms a peculiar instance,
of the columns ; and a third, that (lutings were hollowed out the columns of the pronaos being fluted the whole length of
for the purpose of resting spars in the crevices. Such the shaft in front; with eleven channels, having at the back
hypotheses are doubtless very ingenious, although not to all nine plain surfaces. We
have above stated the number of
minds equally convincing ; for our own part, we do not see channels to be 16 or 20, but the latter is by far the more
the absolute necessity there is to account for the reason and usual ; examples of which practice are, the Parthenon,
origin of every small member or ornamental detail. We Theseum and Propyliwi at Athens, with others at Corinth,
require no further reason for the use of flutes, beyond the Delos, Eleusis, Rhamnus, Thorieus, Bassan, Agrigentum, and
efl'ect produced by them as a means of decoration, and as in the temple of Ceres, at Pajstum. There are but few
such we think their origin very easily accounted for. In the examples with only 16 channels, of which number are those
majority of Egyptian examples, from which to prejudge at Sunium, and the upper range of the interior columns in
the question we suppose those of Greece to have been the temple of Neptune at Poestum, in which last mentioned
derived, the columns were reeded, or ornamented with pro- building there are specimens of columns with as many as
jecting staves instead of recessed flutes; nor are the two 24 flutes. The channels were not always circular, but
methods of decoration so dissimilar and unconnected, for we sometimes semi-ellipses, and at others eccentric curves.
have only to remove the staves to produce the flutes and : Doric antaj were never fluted.
besides these methods we find another, in which the columns The first object which attracts notice in passing the eye up
are what is called canted, that is to say, have their horizontal the column, and which breaks the outline of the fluting, is
sections rectilineal polygons, the faces of the polygon or sides what is termed the hypotrachelium, or under-necking of the
of the column being flat, instead of convex or concave. capital. This consists of one or more channels cut in reces-
Thus we have three kinds of polygonal columns, the first of sion round the upper part of the shaft ; in some instances, as
which seems to possess the primitive form, and the others at the temple of Minerva at Sunium, in the Agora at Athens,
to be merely enriched variations of the same. At Amada and in most of the examples at Agrigentum ;
this division is
in Nubia, there is a very curious illustration of the progress so fine as almost to escape notice, and in others is very pro-
made in the improvement and enrichment of columns, where minent, the channels varying both in size and number. In
in the same building we find one column a mere pier or the Parthenon, and in the Propylaea at Eleusis, and at
simple parallelepiped, and another and adjoining one both Rhamnus, there is a
single rectangular groove ; at the Pro-
rounded off at the corners and fluted ; this last bears a pyltea at Athens, a groove chamfered on the upper edge,
remarkable resemblance to the Grecian Doric, on which and at the Theseum, a groove chamfered on both edges, so
account we shall have to refer to the subject again ere the as to form an acute angle at the meeting of the chamfers.
close of this article. Specimens of Doric canted columns At Corinth there are three channels similar to those in the
are to be found in the portico of Philip, king of Macedon, Propyloea at Athens, having a fillet between each two, as
and in the temple of Cora; the flutes, however, are the most also at the temple of Apollo at Basste, but in this example
prevalent, as they are the most beautiful means of enrich- the channels are of a curvilinear section. At Pacstum there
ment; the pleasing effect produced by them is attributable are three fine channels, which, at their junction with the
mainly to the diversity of light and shade so created, but arrises of the flutes, are cut into the shape of diamonds, the
this is not their only advantage ; they likewise give a variety projecting edge of the arris being chamfered ofF. The hypo-
and lightness of appearance to the column, which would trachelium of three channels ie considered a mark of antiquity,
otherwise appear heavy, and at the same time, by the diminu- for although they are not of necessity found in all ancient
tion of the breadth of the channels as viewed by the eye, add examples, yet they are never inserted in those of later date.
to the apparent circularity of the column. Wehave no Some writers consider those channels as the commencement
specimens of reeded columns in this order. The flutes of the capital, while others are inclined to think them but a
diminish in width as they reach the top of the shaft, to continuation of the shaft. In the other orders the correspond-
correspond with the diminution of the shaft ; they are carried ing member is between the two parts,
certainly the division
above the necking of the capital, and usually terminate all above being giving to the and all below to the
capital,
immediately below the annulets, butting upon a plane surface shaft ; the difficulty in this case arising from the fact of the

perpendicular to the axis of the columns, or parallel to the continuation of the flutes above this point, the space between
horizon, as in the Propylaea at Athens. In other cases, as the hypotrachelium and annulets being precisely similar to
in the temples of Theseus and of Minerva at Athens, as well the lower portion of the shaft, yet at the same time it isdiffi-
as in the Portico of Philip, in the island of Delos, the upper cultHo assign any other reason for the introduction of the
ends of the flutes terminate upon the superficies of a cone, grooves, except they serve to mark the division between
immediately under the annulets, in a tangent to the bottom the two members of the column. Without the intervention
 DOR 292 DOR
of such a mark as this the capital would have spreading out from above the annulets, serves to support the
appeared stunted
and heavy, but, as it is, the shadow produced by the sinking, overhanging abacus. In the best examples it is usually very
marks to the eye a distinct division, and, in appearance at flat in profile, being little more than a frustum of an inverted

least, increases, at the same time, the length and comparative cone, having its base rounded oft' at its edge, and quirked, as
lightness of the capital. it were, where it meets the abacus. Its use seems to have
Above the hypotrachelium, the shaft, with its fluting, is originated from an imitation of the cushion-capitals of the
continued for a short distance, and meets the annulets of the Egyptians, the lower portion only being reserved in Grecian
capital in a curve or apolkesis ; this portion forming, accord- buildings. The diameter of the top of the echinus is equal
ing to our notion, the necking of the capital. The annulets to, or somewhat greater than, the lower diameter of the
come next, and form the lower portion of what may be termed column. We refer again to the writer above alluded to.
the capital-proper, about which there exists no difference of "In those buildings which belong to the best age of
opinion. The following particulars of the number and form of Grecian art the days of Pericles, and his chief architects,
annulets in different examples are furnished by a contributor to Callicrates and Ictinus as seen at Athens, Bassoe, Sunium,
" The
Builder," to whose valuable writings, on this subject, we Thoricus, Eleusis, Rhamnus, and elsewhere, we shall find
shall have occasion to advert more than once in this article: that the echinus has its lower part either very slightly curved
'The annulets, in Grecian Doric colums, vary as well in or else perfectly straight ; whilst, in buildings of later date,
their profile as in their number. Some examples may be and of equivocal taste, we find that the moulding nearly re-
interesting, to show the exhaustless genius of the Greeks, sembles an elongated or ovate quarter-round, as in the Agora
even in details the most minute, and that the
although general at Athens, and in a building at Cadachio. Professor Donald-
principles of art in the Doric order are the same, yet that son has drawn notice to the general principle which " directed
they could produce great variety in their details. In the the Greeks in composition of their Doric capitals. From
Parthenon, that best and purest of all examples, we find, the necking to the abacus, the outline is that of a cy ma-reversa.
under the echinus of the capitals in the porticos, five
rings, having a projection that varied according to the era, or style
placed oil a slope, continued, as it were, from the lower link of art peculiar to the country ; the existing Attic examples
of the echinus, and in the columns of the pronaos of the same
being but slightly projecting, while the immense abacus of
edifice, there are but three rings. In the temple of Theseus, the orders now remaining at Corinth, Ptestum, and in Sicily,
the profile of the annulets is somewhat similar to that of the
gives a bolder profile to the capital." Some idea may be
Parthenon the rings arc four in number, and the under side
; formed of the vast proportions of the temple of Jupiter, at
of the lower arris of each ring is slightly undercut. In the Agrigentum, when we find that the echinus of each column is
example from the portico at Athens, presumed to belong to formed of two stones, each weighing 21 \ tons, held together
the Agora, or market-place, we see how widely the artist
by plugs or dowels by the centre stone of the abacus, which
departed from the graceful and flowing outline of earlier pat- is in three pieces. In the capitals of the antte of Greek
terns this, of the age of Augustus, is one of the latest known
;
examples the echinus is generally undercut, so as to form
examples of Grecian-Doric, yet in many points it cannot be that remarkable moulding called the hawk's-beak, or bird's-
safely recommended for modern imitation. In the temple of beak moulding. The proportionate depth of the abacus
Apollo Epicurius, at Bassas, a building of the pure age and echinus to each other, is not always the same ; but,
of Greek art, the annulets are four in number,
resembling in as a general rule, it may be held, that the former member
their contour those in the Parthenon, excepting that the should have the greatest depth. In the Parthenon, the rela-
second and third rings recede a little from a line drawn from tion, in this respect, is as 11 to 9 ; at Sunium and at Bassre,
the first to the fourth. At Rhamnus, where are two temples, as 7 to 6 ; at Thoricus, as 6 to 5 at Eleusis, as 12 to 9. -In
;

at Sunium, and in theDodecastyle portico of Ceresat Eleusis the best examples with which we are acquainted as, for
the rings are three in number, profiled like the best examples instance, in the Parthenon and Theseum the echinus has
at Athens at Egesta and Selinus, they are three in number
; ; nearly the same projection as the abacus (it is actually the
at thetemple of Jupiter Olympus, at Agrigentum, of same in the temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Bassos) ;
and we
Apollo in the isle of Delos, and in the portico of Philip shall find, that the sharper is its outline that is, the more it

at the same place, at Corinth (where the annulets have a is remote from the quarter-round the more it is held in
great projection, and are very deeply undercut), in the estimation ;
and that, as it approaches the ovolo in form, so
Hypaithral temple at Ptestum, in the temple of Diana, in it may be traced to belong to a declining period, or one nearer
the Propyloea at Eleusis, in the Propylaea at Athens (an to the time of the Roman use of the Doric order. If we
excellent example) and at Thoricus, the rings are four in grant for a moment, that timber construction afforded the first
number. At the latter place the annulets are remarkable, hints for architectural composition, and that the origin of the
and probably singular in their way. In the capital from the abacus may be traced to the intervention of a cube of wood
Pseudodipteral temple at Ptestum, in which many pecu- between the column and its entablature; where will the
liarities are observable the immense size and projection of
; advocates of this system find the prototype of the echinus 1
the abacus seem to crush the echinus, which has beneath it To the Greeks we must look for adoption of this beauti-
two rings, under which the flutings curl in the form of leaves. ful moulding, which connects, in such a happy manner, the
At Selinus, Mr. Woods noticed some remarkable features in square abacus with the circular shaft ;
and truly may it be
the capitals 'The shape of these capitals is very peculiar;
:
said to be their own invention, even if we are compelled to
admit, that some slight hint for it is to be
I have seen nothing like them in
Greece, except a fragment found among the
on a very small scale which I noticed at Corfu. The common heavy capitals of Egypt. Professor Hosking
has well ob-
Grecian-Doric capitals in the best examples form a sort of " Greek architecture is
served : distinguished for nothing
ogee, and we find this curve at the third temple, but in the more than for the grace and beauty of its mouldings; and it
great temple, and in two of the three smaller ones, a deep may be remarked of them generally, that they are eccentric,
hollow interrupts the flow of the lines.' These capitals were and not regular curves. They must be drawn, for they can-
each cut out of a block of stone thirteen feet square." not be described, or struck ; so that, though they may be
The next member of the capital is the echinus, which is called circular, or elliptical, it is seldom that they are really
similar to an ovolo, or quarter-round so ; not but that they may be ; but if they are, it is consider-
moulding, and which,
 DOB 293 DOR
ably the result of chance, not of design. Hence, all attempts of the entablature and the frieze above it. The guttse are
to give rules for striking mouldings are worse than useless, for six in number, of a conical form, and are said to represent

they are injurious ; the hand alone, directed by good taste, drops of rain that have trickled down the channels of the
can adapt them to their purpose, and give them the spirit and triglyph, and settled beneath the teenia ; others again suppose
feeling which render them effective and pleasing." them to represent the heads of nails, or screws, used in the
The abacus at the top of the capital is of the simplest wooden structure. The channels of the triglyph are of a tri-
description, being merely a square slab of stone, of consider- angular section, and are not continued the entire height of
able thickness, harmonizing well with the massy appearance the block, although at the bottom they butt against the Ui-nia.
of the entire column. It projects considerably beyond the Each triglyph is surmounted by a capital, or slightly -project-
upper part of the shaft, and sometimes even beyond the ing band, which, in the Greek examples is of very slight
projection, and is not returned at
lower diameter, and always advances in front of the general the sides, except in the case
surface of the epistylium. Where the abacus overhangs be- of triglyphs at the angles of the building. The position of
yond the foot of the column, it is considered as an indication these ornaments is such, that there shall be one over the centre
of the antiquity of the building examples of which occur
;
of each column, and one midway between every pair of
at Corinth, Piestum, Egesta, and elsewhere. This completes columns ; but there is an exception to this disposition at the
the description of the column. angles of buildings, where the triglyph is not placed over the
It
may be well to mention in passing, that Doric antte centre of the column, but is brought up quite to the edge or
differ from columns, in maintaining the same width from top outer angle of the frieze, so that a line dropped perpendicularly
to bottom, which equals the average diameter of the column. from the outer edge of the corner triglyph, would touch the
They have a simple moulding and groove at their base the ;
base of the column. This disposition gives occasion for an
capital likewise is very simple, and the abacus and other alteration of the intercolumniation between the two end
mouldings are much narrower than in the capital of the columns, these being brought closer together by the space of
column. Ante are never fluted. half a triglyph ; an advantage is obtained by this means, inas-
The Doric entablature consists as usual of three members, much as an appearance of greater strength is given to the
architrave, frieze, and cornice, the first or lowermost of extremities of the colonnade.
which, otherwise termed the epislylium, is simply a plain The spaccs-between the triglyphs are called metopes, and
fascia surmounted by a broad fillet termed the loenia, which are usually up with sculptures in bas-relief, from which
filled
forms the separation between it and the frieze, and to which circumstance the frieze was called by the Greeks zoophorus,
another fillet, with small cylindrical guttae depending from because it contained representations of living figures, men or
it, is attached in separate portions beneath each triglyph of animals. These metopes are usually of a square form, their
the frieze. The epistylium recedes from the face of the breadth being equal to the height of the frieze, but there is
abacus, projecting beyond the upper diameter of the shaft, a slight variation in different examples. In the Doric portico
but falling short of the extremity of the lower diameter, at Athens, the breadth of the metope is 3',, 3" and 3',, 3".6,
so as only partially to overhang the column. A line dropped while the height is 3',, 0". 7, including the band or capital
vertically from the face of the architrave would cut the abacus, over it or without the band, 2',, 9" 05 in the temple of
;
.
;

pass without the upper portion of the shaft, but fall within Minerva at Athens, the height of the metope, without the
it ere it reached the base. The average height of this mem- band, is 3',, 11" 15, and its breadth 4',, 3" 35 in the Pro-
. . :

ber, inclusive of the tsenia, is equal to the upper diameter of pyloea, the breadth is 3',, 8" .25, and the height 3',, 9'' .85,
the column. including the band and the bend over it and in the Theseum,
;

Above the architrave is the frieze, which forms the most the breadth is 2',, 6" .475, and the height 2',, 5", without the
characteristic feature in the whole entablature, Each metope is surmounted with a band, or capital,
although of band.
no greater dimensions than the epistylium. The height of similar to that of the triglyph, though not of equal width
the two members is nearly equal, with but slight varia- or projection.
tions in any example, the frieze being
seldom, if ever, the The entablature belonging to the monument of Thrasyllus
deeper, more frequently the shallower of the two. The peculiar is an
exception to the general rule, the frieze being without
ornamentation of this portion of the entablature gives it its the characteristic addition of triglyphs, their place being
specific character ; being divided into a series of projecting filled up with wreaths ; the guttas, however, are retained, but
and recessed panels. The distinguishing feature is the tri- instead of being disposed at intervals, they are continued un-
glyph, which is a slightly projecting tablet, somewhat wider interruptedly beneath the fillet.
than the semi-diameter of the base of the column, and chan- The Doric cornice consists of few but bold parts, the most
nelled vertically with three grooves, or yhvQec;, whence the characteristic of which are the mutules. These are a series
name triglyph. These channels are so disposed, that there of shallow plates attached to the soffit of the corona,
shall be a space in the centre of the
projecting slab, with a sloping forward, so that the bottom of the mutule in front
channel on each side of it, and beyond these again, on either is considerably lower than at the back, and having their

side, another equal space, with a half-groove outside, on the soffits studded with cylindrical or conical guttoe ; these guttas

edge of the slab, which indeed is nothing more than a cham- were eighteen in number, and placed in three rows of six
fered edge. The two channels, and the two halves on the each. A mutule was placed over each triglyph, and an inter-
extremities together make up the three grooves, or glyphs. mediate one over each mutule ; their width being equal to
Beneath each triglyph, and attached to a fillet, are a series of that of the triglyphs. Under the mutules was generally a
guttse or drops, immediately under the tsenia of the architrave. plain band, but sometimes an ogee is found in this place. The
This decoration we have alluded to in. corona Is a boldly-projecting flat moulding, of somewhat
describing the episty-
lium, but although it is attached to that member, it belongs, greater depth than the abacus of the capital, and is generally
strictly speaking, to the triglyph, of which it is a conti- finished off above with a small ovolo and fillet supporting the
nuation ;
its position, however, in this
place, serves a very cymatium, which consists of two similar mouldings, but of
useful purpose, for it both more imposing dimensions. In raking cornices the mutules
gives a variety to the otherwise
monotonous surface of the architrave, and, at the same time, are omitted, but a new moulding, termed the epitithedas, is
presents to the eye a sort of connection between this portion added as a finish, which is either an ovolo or cymatium.
 DOR 294 DOE
When used, the epitithedas was continued a little way at the lature -jSy of the column, or divide the whole height into 13

angles, and terminated against a carved block. The pedi- parts, of which give 10 to the column, and 3 to the entabla-
ment in this order is of a low pitch, and always about the ture. The upper diameter of the column is f o f the lower.
same height, whatever the span may be ; upon an average the
The capital a diameter, which, being divided into 5 parts,
height equals that of the entablature, more or less, but
is 2 are to be given to the abacus, 2 to the ovolo and annulets,
scarcely ever so great as to make the tympanum higher than
and 1 to the necking. The length of the abacus 1J- diameter.
the entablature. The entablature is to be divided into 8 parts, giving 3 to
the architrave, 3 to the frieze, and 2 to the cornice.
Having completed this general description of the order, it In
may be as well to a few words about the proportions
say dividing the cornice, take f for the cymatium, fillet, and
observed in the different parts. moulding, |- for the corona alone, and leave 1 for that part
The height of the column varies from four times the lower of the fascia which appears below a horizontal line drawn
diameter, as in the earliest existing example at Corinth, from the lower front edge of the corona. The whole projec-
to 6^ times, as at the portico of Philip, but in the purest tion of the cornice is 1 diameter, reckoning from the centre

examples the height is about 5^ times the lower diameter, of the column. The capital of the triglyph to be of the
the upper diameter being ^ less than the lower. The entab- whole height of the frieze. The capital or fillet of the archi-
lature varies from IT to 2 diameters in height, of which f trave to be ^ of the height of the architrave. The architrave
go to the epistylium, | to the frieze, and the remainder to the to overhang the upper part of the shaft by J the difference
cornice. between that and the lower diameter. In distributing the
To afford more detailed information, we give the following triglyphs, take 1^ diameter, or 75 minutes for the width of
the triglyph and metope, and of this give |- to the former,
proportions from the temple at Sunium, and the accompany-
ing table, as prepared by Air. Brown. and ^ to the latter, or nearly 28 and 47 minutes. Thus a
" The 60=90
proportions of the temple at Sunium are thus monotriglyph intercolumniation will be 75+75
ordered make the column 6 diameters high, and the entab-
: minutes, or 1J diameter."

A Table of the Proportions of some of the Grecian Doric Orders, according to the Module of Sixty Paris,
formed at the bottom of the Shaft of the Column.
 DOR 205 DOR
The following useful, though somewhat different table, is the compilation of the writer to whom we have previously
alluded.

This table exhibits at one view the proportions of the columns in some of the principal buildings in Greece and
concluding with the scale which the Moman and Italian
its colonies, schools assigned to the Doric.

Date of Erection.
 DOR 290 DOR
that the shafts converge so rapidly towards the upper diam- delight of all who have seen it. With the words of the
eter as to leave a space under the soffit of the architrave, even noble author before quoted, all will probably agree. ' In
in such instances equal to more than twice the upper diam- the majestic simplicity of its general design, the grandeur of
eter. its proportions and the exquisite taste and skill displayed in
has already the execution of its ornamental parts, it is undoubtedly the
peculiar position of the extreme triglyph
The
been noticed in speaking of that member, as also the effect most perfect, as well as deservedly the most celebrated,
produced by it in lessening the extreme intercolumn by
the production of Grecian art.' (Lord Aberdeen's Inquiry,
of half a but there still remains to notice p. 142.)
space triglyph ;
"
another peculiarity, which was published by Mr.
first When Sir George Wheeler and Dr. Spon visited this
Donaldson ;
we allude to the inward inclination of the outer edifice, A. D.1676, the temple was entire. In the year 1087
columns. Athens was besieged by the Venetians, when a shell falling
" The axis of the columns of the on the structure, the Parthenon was reduced to the state in
Parthenon," says he,
" both on the flanks and on the which it was seen by Stuart and Revett.
fronts, as well as those of the This celebrated
temple at Egina, and of Concord at Agrigentum, have a con- temple had at each end a portico of 8 columns in front, and
siderable inclination inwards (a circumstance I am not aware on the sides were 30 more, making 46 to the colonnade
to have been before noticed) though not to such a degree as which surrounded the cell of the building. The breadth of
required by Vitruvius, and not confined, as he directs, to the the front of the building is 101 feet, the length 227 feet on
columns of the peristyles only." Vitruvius thus directed : the upper step, and the height 65 feet. The columns are 6
''
The bases being thus completed, we are to raise the feet 1 inch in diameter, those at the angles are 2 inches more,
columns on them. Those of the pronaos and posticum are and the distance from column to column is 7 feet 11 inches.
to be kept with axes perpendicular: the angular ones The sculptures of the Parthenon extended to a range of 1,100
excepted, which, as well as those on the flanks right and left, feet, consisting of upwards of 600 figures. Behind the
are to be so placed, that their interior faces towards the cella great porticos, there are two of smaller dimensions, which
bo perpendicular. The exterior faces will diminish upwards, are called the pronaos and posticus ; these inner porticos
as above mentioned. Thus the diminution will give a pleas- have in each 6 columns. The portion of the building en-
ing effect to the temple." closed by the columns was divided by a cross wall into two
Mr. Bartholomew alludes to the same circumstance thus :
parts, whereof the larger, called the cella
or naos (ship)
"The ancients, knowing how much more secure were their answered to our nave ; the smaller part, in which was the
fabrics when made to settle together and consolidate by their public treasury, was called the opisthodomus. In this part,
own gravity, set the lateral columns of their temples with according to Wheeler, were six columns, but no vestige re-
their axes falling towards the cells, so that the inner faces of mains of them. The cell, where was placed the famous
the shafts of the columns should be perpendicular, and the statue of Minerva by Phidias, was open to the sky in the
outer faces of them receding the whole quantity of columnar centre (whence such a temple was called hypsethral from the
diminution, in order to afford to the building a more solid, Greek VTTO, under, and alOftf, cclker, air), having a colonnade
pyramidal, and graceful appearance and by this shrewd
;
round it, supporting a gallery above, in which was a second
device they rendered the avenues between the side-walls row of columns. These have all likewise disappeared, but
and the colonnades of their temples no wider next the soffits the circles were traced by Stuart on the pavement whereon
of the architraves than down upon the pavement ; and it is the lower range of columns had stood. The sculptures in the
not improbable, that the preservation of this symmetry led pediment of the eastern front represented the introduction of
to the omission of the inner columns of the ancient Pseudo- Minerva among the assembled gods, giving us an admirable
dipteral temples ; whereas the moderns, in general, not idea of the mythology of the ancients, each of the deities
attending to his dynamic and optical nicety in architecture, being distinguished by his or her peculiar symbols. The
so set their columns, that when we walk down a modern metopes or spaces between the triglyphs, recorded the bat-
collonnade, we cannot divest ourselves of the idea that the tles between the Centaurs and the Lapitha, a fruitful subject
axes of all the columns are falling outwards : and, indeed, of illustration among poets as well as sculptors, and a favour-
accurate admeasurement would often find this to be no illu- ite theme with the Greeks, from their famous heroes Her-

sion, since the work, not erected so as to fall together, will, cules and Theseus bearing a prominent part in the contest ;
in genera], with the slightest inevitable settlement, expand at fifteen of these metopes are in the British Museum. The
its upper part." It is worthy of remark, that, in many in- western pediment contained a representation of the contest
stances, the angular columns are made somewhat thicker between Minerva and Neptune (in the opinions of Colonel
than the others, so as to give them an appearance of much Leake and Mr. Cockerell, this contest was in the eastern ped-
greater strength. iment) ; but the most celebrated sculpture is that which re-
Having arrived thus far, we cannot do better than give presents the Panathenaic procession this composition is 3
:

descriptions of some of the more noted edifices belonging to feet 4 inches high, and was continued in the frieze quite
this order, amongst which are the Parthenon, Theseum. the round on the outside wall of the cell of the temple. The
ancient temple at Corinth, the Propylasa at Athens, and the figures of these groups, which occupy
a length of 520 feet,
Poseidonium at Passtum. The following accounts are are generally allowed to be of finer execution than those
selected from Mr. Godwin's lectures on Architectural in the metopes.
"' With
Antiquities." respect to the beauty of the basso-relievos,' says
" The
the great Flaxman, they are as perfect nature as it is pos-
'
Parthenon, or the temple dedicated to the virgin-
goddess Minerva (the Greek word TrapOevoc;, signifying a sible to put into the compass of the marble in which they
virgin), was designed by Ictinus and Callicrates, about the are executed, and that of the most elegant kind.' Another
year 438s. c., whilst Phidias wrought the marble figures them 'jewels.'
sculptor, Rossi, calls
into life by his magic touch. This temple, erected upon the " The Panathenaic procession, which, with fifteen of the
site of the old Hecatompedon destroyed
by the Persians, is metopes, formerly likewise belonging to the Parthenon, now
justly looked upon as the finest example of the Grecian adorns the British Museum, under the name of the Elgin
Doric, and has excited for 22 centuries the admiration and Marbles, consists, as before observed, of many hundred
 DOR 297 DOR
figures. Among them are several equestrian figures, which There is here no division in the internal
part, where it is
are designed in the most admirable manner, and are remark- presumed that the remains of Theseus were buried. This
able for the varied attitudes of the horses, and for the ease temple is 104 feet long, 45 feet wide, both dimensions being
and grace of the riders. Other figures in the procession are taken on the upper step, and 25 feet 2 inches high the
;

charioteers in their cars, one of whom is supposed to be the diameter of the columns is 3 feet 3 inches. The sculptures
victor in a chariot- race, as a man is about to crown him. in the metopes were
representations of the exploits of The-
Then follow men carrying trays ; then the sacrificers and the seus, and of the labours of Hercules, who appears to have
oxen, each Athenian colony sending an ox to this great festival. been honoured in this temple, as well as Theseus, his kins-
Females are also present ; some carrying dishes or pateras, man and friend. The frieze of the wall behind the eastern
others bearing pitchers of water. Two of the young females portico was adorned with a representation of a battle and
had situations of great importance, their office being to carry victory, in which six of the divinities are present; three of
the sacred baskets. Several gods and goddesses are likewise whom are Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Among the com-
introduced they are seated to denote their dignity.
: These batants is one of superior stature and dignity, hurling at his
figures are all in high relief, so that they are visible at some assailants a stone of prodigious size ; he is supposed to be
distance ; and although it is impossible now to decide how Theseus, in the act of overthrowing the Persians at Mara-
much was the actual work of Phidias himself, it is highly thon. The battle between the Centaurs and Lapithie was
probable that they, as well as the other sculptured decorations sculptured on the wall behind the western portico. The
of the temple, were all designed by the great master. (It is sculptures (of which are casts in the British Museum) are,
known, he practised the art of painting previously to that of according to Pausanias, supposed to be the work of the
sculpture.) It has been ascertained, that
they are as carefully famous Michon.
"
finished behind as before, and in places which could not bo It has been discovered of late
years, that the Parthenon,
visible when once they had reached their destination; hence, and nearly all the buildings at Athens, had colours applied
it is
justly inferred, that all these sculptures had to undergo to their different enrichments ; but it does not
appear that
the ordeal of a searching criticism of the public eye, before the advocates of Greek polychromy have clearly made out
they left the artist's .studio. that this practice belongs to the pure
age of Pericles and
embellishments already described, which It is much more
'
In addition to the Phidias. likely to have been introduced
adorned the temple, Phidias made the celebrated statue of long after their time.
" The
Minerva which stood in the cell, or open part of the build- temple of Corinth is probably the most ancient spec!
ing. This figure, formed of ivory and gold, was thirty-seven ment of the Doric order in existence. It is built of a rough
feet high. Pausanias says that it stood erect; the goddess porous stone, and is supposed to have had porticos of six
was represented with her garments reaching to her feet, hel- columns, five of which remain in the western front, and six
meted, and with a Medusa's head on her breast in one hand
;
are seen on one flank ; its arrangement, perhaps, was similar
she held a spear, and on the other stood a Victory of about to that of the temple of Theseus the columns are 5 feet 10
;

four cubits high. Monsieur Quartreinero de Quincy, who inches in diameter, and their shafts, 21 feet in height, are
bestowed great pains in investigating the subject of ancient composed each of a single stone. There is no sculpture upon
the temple, as all above the architrave has long since disap-
sculpture, has calculated, that the value of the gold employed
un this famous statue was equal to 1:50,000 sterling. peared. Since Stuart's time, five of the columns which
" A fiic-simile of the Parthenon, as far as the architecture is appear in the flank, in his work, have been blown into frag-
concerned, has been erected at Edinburgh, on the Gil ton- ments by gunpowder, to assist in building the house of a
governor of Corinth. Lord Aberdeen observes, It has
'

hill, in a situation resembling the Athenian Acropolis. Mr.

Bankes proposed it as the model for the Fitz William Museum, been said, that this temple was dedicated to Venus ; but, in
at Cambridge. The proportions of its Doric order are imi- ftict, no information isbe obtained respecting its origin.
to
tated in the portico of Covent Garden Theatre. Whatever may have been its destination, no one can doubt,
" from the appearance of'the ruins alone, that they formed part
The Temple of Theseus which is generally reckoned to
of a structure of the most remote antiquity.
belong to the age of Pericles, and earlier in date than the "
Parthenon, is one of the noblest monuments of Athenian One
of the noblest efforts of the genius of Ictinus is to
the time of Stuart, was one of the be seen temple of Apollo Epicurius, in Arcadia. It
in the
magnificence, and, in the
most perfect. 'The sanctuary of Theseus was raised. by the offers many architectural peculiarities, and exhibits a greater
Athenians after the Medes were at Marathon, when Cirnon, variety of details than are usually met with in the Grecian
the son of Miltiades, expelled the people of Scyros, a retri- temples.
li
bution for the death of Theseus, and carried his bones to Pausanias, speaking of this building, which is at Bassse,
Athens.' (Pausanias.) near Phigalia, states, that ' the temple of Apollo Epicurius
" Plutarch
places this event at a date which is generally (the deliverer), which, together with the roof, is of stone,
considered equivalent to the year 467 B.C. The Parthenon surpasses all the temples which are in Peloponnesus (with
is, by some writers, believed
to have been commenced about the exception of that in Tegca) in the beauty of the stone,
448 B. c. (the year in which Cimon died), and to have occu- and harmony of the proportions.'
"
pied sixteen years in erection. In the opinion of Lord Aber-
The entrance to the temple was facing the north, contrary
deen, The temple of Theseus may be considered as nearly
'
to the usual practice. The temple was 47 feet broad, 125
coeval with the buildings of the Acropolis, or perhaps of an feet long, and ascended by three steps. There were six
origin somewhat earlier.' (Inquiry, p. 143.) The Theseum columns in each front, and fifteen on each flank, all 3 feet 7
is built of Pentelic marble, and is raised upon two steps, inches in diameter, and 19 feet 6 inches high. In the interior

being peculiar in this respect. The portico at each end con- of the cell were attached columns, of the Ionic order, of a very
sists of six columns in front ; at each side are eleven columns, ancient character, (together with a single insulated column of
not counting the angle-columns of the portico ; so that the the Corinthian order,) over which, on the four sides of the
building is surrounded by thirty-four columns. Behind the cell, ranged the sculptured frieze. The columns and walls
are constructed of the hard and beautiful limestone of the
porticos are others, consisting of only two columns between
antse ; there are three deep recesses, which lead to the coll. country, but the sculpture and roof are of marble. It would

38
 DOR 298 DOR
not appear, from Mr. Donaldson's description, that any deco- liarity of not being fluted from top to bottom, as Doric
rations existed in the pediments, or metopes. 'The arrange- columns usually are, but their shafts plain throughout their
ment of the engaged columns of the cella is very peculiar. whole height, with the exception of a part at their top and at
A similar disposition has never hitherto been found, though, tho bottom of each, about 7 inches high, which is fluted.
perhaps, in the temple of Apollo Didymoous, at Branchidae, Within the temple, according to a passage in Plutarch, it is
near Miletus, the projecting pilasters conveyed the same imagined there were two ranges of columns, with others over
effect, less distinctly expressed. The spaces between the them. The architect of this building was Xenocles.
"
Ionic columns seem to afford admirable situations for statues, In front of the Eleusinian Propylsea was the temple of
as they would be secured by the columns on each side, and Diana Propylaaa, presenting an arrangement in its porticos
by the soffits above, from the occasional inclemencies of even differing from any examples we have hitherto noticed ;
instead
that mild atmosphere.' of columns at its angles, antse, which are often improperly
The Propyhua, a Doric structure, forms the only entrance called pilasters, terminate its fronts the distinction between
';
:

to the Acropolis of Athens. Pausanias says, 'There is only the Greek antse and Roman pilasters is very great. The
one entrance to the Acropolis, it being in every remaining part former were never diminished (or so slightly as not to appear
of its circuit a precipice, fortified with strong walls. The so to the eye), and were not fluted, their capitals consisted
entrance was fronted by a magnificent building, called the of straight linos ;
whereas the Roman pilasters were
Propyltea, covered with roofs of white marble, which sur- diminished like their columns, frequently fluted, and their
passed, for beauty, all that he had before seen. This was capitals generally resembled those of the accompanying
begun during the ministration of Pericles, B.C. 437, and was columns. The temple of which we are speaking, was small,
finished in five years (Mnesicles being the architect), at an with a front measuring only 20 feet 10 inches on its upper
expense equivalent to 404,000. The front of the Propylasa step ; its length 39 feet 9 inches, and its height to the top
consisted of six columns, and at the back of the building was of the cornice 20 feet 6 inches the building was of Pentelic
;

a small portico ; between the two was the wall, in which marble, but with roof-tiles of baked clay.
"
were five gates. The centre reached from the platform to At Olympia, in the Peloponnesus, once existed a magni-
the height of the entablature ; it was 13 feet wide, and was ficent hexastyle temple of Jupiter, of which the dimensions
used on solemn occasions for the chariots. The road-way are presumed to have been 230 feet by 95 feet. Mr. Dodwell
was between two rows of Ionic columns ; a gate of 6 feet measured a column, of which the diameter was 7 feet 3 inches.
wide, and of less height than the centre, occupied each Within this building was enshrined the master-piece of
side, and beyond them were two smaller doorways, which Phidias, his statue of Jupiter, of gold and ivory, 50 cubits
were used for ordinary passage. On the right of the Pro- high.
"
pylaia was a building called the temple of Victory-without- At Rhamnus in Attica, on the sea-coast, is a fine Doric
wings. On the left, was an edifice adorned with paintings, temple of Nemesis, which stands in a noble situation, elevated
the work of Polygnotus ; the subjects chiefly from Homer ; 300 feet above the sea. Pausanias says that it was built by
and it is supposed, that herein stood a group of the Graces, Alcemenes, the pupil of Phidias. This temple, and a smaller
draped, the performance of the celebrated Socrates, who pur- one adjoining it, dedicated to Themis, were inclosed by a
sued his father's profession of a sculptor, until he devoted the waH of white marble, remains of which are yet to be traced.
energies of his wonderful mind to the study of philosophy. The temple of Nemesis had at each end porticos of 6 columns,
li
Similar in plan to the building at Athens, is the Propyhca and flanks containing 12 each the external columns, like
;

at Eleusis, and, in design, little inferior to its Athenian pro- those to the temple of Ceres, were only fluted at top and
totype. was erected, together with the Temple of Ceres,
It bottom. It is ascertained that the mouldings of the cornices
to which served as a vestibule, and the connected Temple
it were painted red, a practice adopted by the Greeks in other
of Diana-Propykea, by Pericles, for the solemnization of the temples. The details in this building are very fine. Close
Mysteries of Ceres, the most sacred among the religious rites to it is the small building which bears the name of Themis,
of Greece. but which is supposed to be the original temple of Nemesis,
"
The Propylcea bears a striking resemblance to that at injured by the Persians and the Greeks not caring to repair
;

Athens, having at each end a portico of six columns, five a structure desecrated by their enemies, chose rather to erect
gates, and two rows of Ionic columns within. To make the another. The smaller building is in fact of an earlier style,
central opening large enough to admit, chariots, the usual ar- being one of the class called in antis, a mode of building
rangement departed from, by the addition of a triglyph in
is well known to be of great antiquity. It is very similar to
the frieze over the space between the central columns. The the small temple of Diana at Eleusis.
"
pavement, the steps, and every part of the superstructure, At Sunium, which is a promontory forming a southernmost
were of fine Pentelic marble ; the roof, also, was covered point of Attica, are the remains of two Doric buildings ;
one
with marble slabs, worked into the shape of tiles ; the joints is a Propylsea, the porticos of which have two columns placed
of these tiles were covered with others, which follow the slope between antse. The other building is a temple dedicated to
of the roof, to prevent the admission of water. This inge- Minerva-Sunias. The portico consisted of 6 columns, and
nious contrivance was the invention of Byzes, of Naxos ; 10 have been ascertained on the flanks but the building is
;

and it was so highly appreciated by the Greeks, that they so much in ruins, that the exact number cannot be clearly
honoured the inventor with a statue. The termination of made out. The structures are of marble, highly finished,
the joint-tiles was formed and belong to the best ages of Grecian architecture.
'
The
by an upright tile, on which was
striking remains of the temple of Minerva
on the promontory
painted the lotus. Byzes lived 580 years before the Chris-
tian era. of Sunium are, in all probability, to be attributed to the
"
After passing through the Propylsea at Eleusis, the vota- same authors.'
" of Cape
ries had to enter another building, forming a second vestibule AtThoricus, about eight miles to the north
to the grand mystic temple. The order in this building was Sunium, are the remains of a singular Doric building, which
the Ionic. Beyond this vestibule was the Temple of Ceres, was found half-buried in the sand, which being cleared, a
which was protected by the sacred inclosure, or wall. In portico was discovered, having
14 columns on each front,
front was a portico of twelve columns, which have the pecu- and 7 in each return ; and as no remains of walls were
 DOR 299 DOB
discovered within the area, it is conjectured that the building columns in each front, and 14 on each flank ; the columns
was not a temple, but an open portico, perhaps an agora ; were 7 feet in diameter at bottom, and only 4 feet 10 inches
these columns are only fluted at their upper and lower below the capitals, showing a very great diminution.
extremities. "At Selinus, or Selinuntium, (so called from the great
"
Leaving Attica, we shall now pass into Sicily, where we quantity of parsley, aefavov), on the southern coast of Sicily,
find the remains of one of the most astonishing specimens of were six magnificent Doric temples, probably the largest
Doric architecture, surpassing in magnitude all that we have ever erected in this style, and which appear to have been over-
hither to noticed. This is the celebrated temple of Jupiter thrown by an earthquake. One of these is believed to have
Olympius at Agrigentum, now called Girgenti, and which been 331 feet long, and 161 feet broad, with columns CO feet
It was
Virgil styled, from a neighbouring river, Agragas. high a stone, which is supposed to have formed part of an
;

the wealthiest and most powerful city of Sicily, and accord- architrave, is 40 feet long, 7 feet deep, and 3 feet thick, and
ing to Diogenes Laertius, contained within its territory some of the columns were found to be 12 feet in diameter,
800,000 persons. 'The temples of Agrigentum, numerous and others 10 feet 10 inches, and 48 feet high. Near these
and costly as they are, appear to have arisen during little ruins were the remains of a hexastyle-peripteral temple, com-
more than a single century. The prosperity and independ- puted to have been 186 feet long, and 7(5 feet broad on its
ence of the city commenced with Theron, about 450 years upper step, and to have had 30 columns in all, 6 feet 8 inches
before Christ after the battle of Himera (fought on the
;
in diameter. Another temple, not far from these, was 232
same day as that of Salamis), his thoughts were entirely feet by 83 feet on its upper step, with fluted columns, 6 in
turned to its decorations, and the Carthaginian prisoners each front, and 16 on the Hanks. The other three temples
were made to assist by their labour in the erection of trophies are supposed to have been unfinished when they were thrown
to perpetuate the glory of their conquerors. The Agrigen- down. One of these had porticos of 7 columns in front with
tines continued in this employment until a second and more 17 on each flank another had 6 columns in the porticos,
;

successful invasion of the Carthaginians found them occupied and 10 on each flank. In the quarry near Campo Bello,
in completing the temple of Jupiter Olympius, the greatest whence it is presumed the materials were derived, arc yet
in the island, and one of the most stupendous 'monuments of some shafts of columns, 10 feet in diameter, and one of
ancient times.' 12 feet, still joined to their natural bed of stone. Mr.
"The temple of Jupiter was, in its proportions, truly Wood measured one block of an architrave, 20 feet 2
colossal, and it ranked among ancient Greek temples as inches long, 4 feet 9 inches wide, and feet 10 inches high.
second only to that of Diana at Ephesus, (which was 425 The city was, 409 u. c., nearly destroyed by the Carthagi-
feet long, and 220 feet in breadth) it was 309 feet in length,
;
nians.
" At
its breadth 182 feet, and its height 120 feet, in which dimen- Segeste, the ancient jEgcsta, is a famous Grecian -
sions Mr. Cockerell is of opinion that it exceeded the build- Doric temple, almost entire, standing in a splendid situation
ing at Ephesus. Unlike other Doric structures, in this on the brow of a precipice. There are 6 columns in each
temple the columns are not detached from the walls, thus front, and 14 at each side, making 36 in all these are about
;

they present only the appearance of half-columns; these, 30 feet high; the length of the building is 190 feet, its
however, are 13 feet in diameter, so that if the columns had width 78 feet ; the stones composing the architrave are of
been disengaged, their circumference would have been more great size, and one extends over two columns the date of :

than 40 feet, a dimension exceeding the largest columns in it erection, as well as the nature of its dedication, are
Egyptian architecture. (The Roman-Doric column, erected unknown. The columns, which are fluted, are 6 feet 7
by Sir Christopher Wren, called the Monument, is only 15 inches in diameter at the base, and 4 feet 1 1 inches below
feet in diameter, though of a proportion much loftier). The the capital.
echinus of the capitals is formed of two large stones, each "In a notice of Grecian-Doric architecture, we must not
weighing 21 J tons ; the triglyphs are in single stones, each omit to speak of some ancient temples in Italy, namely, at
weighing 12 J tons ; few of the stones employed in the entab- Psestum, the ancient Posidonium, so denominated from its
lature weigh less than 8 tons ; and a man could stand in one tutelary God, Neptune, who, by the Greeks, was called
of the flutings of the columns. As compared with a modern Iloaetduv. From its unhealthiness, the place had, in very
building, we may observe, that the width of the cell is two early times, fallen into decay, and Augustus visited the
feet more than the nave of St. Paul's, and the height exceeds temples as venerable antiquities in his day ; but they were
it
by 18 feet. The front portico, in which were 7 columns, had completely forgotten, until in 1755 discovered by an artist
the battle between the Gods and the Titans represented in the of Naples. Among the ruins, which are very extensive, are
pediment; and in that of the other portico was sculptured a three buildings of imposing character, two of them are tem-
representation of the siege of Troy, in which each hero was ples. The temple of Neptune, raised on 3 steps, was 194
distinguished by the peculiarity of his dress and arms. (Dio- feet long, and 78 feet broad, having 6 fluted columns in each

dorus). In the interior was a double row of pilasters rang- front, and 14 (including the angular ones) at each side.
ing like the pillars of a cathedral ; the attic story above the The entablature and capitals were equal to half the height of
pilasters was supported by the figures of the rebellious and the columns, of which the shafts only were 27 feet, the lower
defeated giants, most appropriately placed there to con- diameters 6 feet 10 inches, the upper diameter 4 feet 8 inches,
tribute to the glory of Olympian Jove, whose power they and with 24 flutings ; the intercolumns are 7 feet 7 inches
dared to oppose. The proportions of the Titans are as wide. The cell is 90 feet by 43 feet, having 14 columns in
vast as the other parts of the structure being 25 feet in
: 2 rows, with shafts 16 feet 11 inches high, 4 feet 9 inches in
height ; with heads alone 3 feet 10 inches, and chests 3 feet diameter, and with 20 flutings. These columns support a
across. deep architrave, on which rises another set of columns, about
"
The other temples of Agrigentum were very numerous ; 11 feet high. The largest stone in this building is 13 feet
in the year 1790, by Sir Richard Colt Iloare, 11 could be 8 inches by 4 feet 8 inches by 2 feet 3 inches. Professor
traced in different stages of dilapidation. The next in size Wilkins, in this temple, detects a close resemblance to the
to that of Jupiter was one dedicated to Hercules, which was temple of Solomon, (Prolusiones). The temple of Ceres is
154 It is 108 feet
feet long, and 55 feet broad, having 6 Doric fluted in a lighter style than the former building.
 DOE 300 DOH
long, and 48 feet broad, with the same number of columns, extreme parts, then built up the interjoist, and, to give the
as in the temple of Neptune the diameter of the columns is
;
work a pleasing appearance, adorned the top with a cornice
at bottom 4 feet 3 inches ; at top, 8 foet 3 inches and their and fastigium then, as much of the joists as
; ;
projected beyond
shafts have 20 flutings. The third building is called a the wall they sawed off, which,
appearing unhandsome, they
Basilica, because there is no appearance of a cell, or altar. made tablets, like triglyphs now in use, fixed them against the
It is 170 feet long, and 80 broad ;
and it is raised on three sawed ends of the joists, and painted them in wax, that the
steps,having nine columns in each front (the only example sectures of the joists might not offend the
sight. Thus, the
of such arrangement), and eighteen on each side, with the triglyphs, interjoists, and opae, in Doric work, had their
lower diameter 4 feet 6 inches, and 20 flutings. Both fronts origin from the disposition of the timbers of the roof.
have a vestibule, and the interior was divided by columns. "Afterward, in other works, some made the canthers, that
The date of these structures is unknown. One of the most were perpendicularly over the triglyphs, to project outward,
ancient Doric temples in Greece is in the island of Egina ; and carved their projecture hence, as the ; triglyphs arose
this was a hexastyle temple, dedicated to Jupiter Panhelle- from the disposition of the joists, so the mutules under the
"
nius. It is said by Pausanias to have been built by Eacus, corona were derived from the projecture of the
canthers;
considerably before the Trojan war, a story wholly incredi- wherefore, in stone or marble structures, the mutules are
ble, but which serves to prove that it had outlived all tradi- represented declining, in imitation of the canthers ; and,
tion of its real origin. It is still
nearly entire." There were also, on account of the droppings from the eaves, it is proper
twelve columns on each flank, making thirty-six in all, of a they should have such declination.
"
porous stone, covered with a thin stucco, and the architrave From this imitation, therefore, arose the use of triglyphs
and cornice were painted in colours. Fifteen statues, for- and mutules in Doric work ; for it cannot be, as some erro-
merly belonging to this temple, are now at Munich: they are neously assert, that the triglyphs represent windows; because
supposed to represent the Greeks and Trojans contending triglyphs are disposed in the angles, and over the quarters of
for the body of Patroclus they have been restored by
;
the columns, in which places windows are not
permitted ;
Thorwaldsen. Illustrations of the Temple of Jupiter for, if windows were there left, the union of the angles of
have been published by Mr. C. R. Cockerel!, and have buildings would be dissolved ; also, if the triglyphs are sup-
proved a valuable addition to our knowledge of Doric posed to be situated in the place of the windows, by the
architecture. same reason, the dentils in Ionic work may be thought to
Modern examples of this order are to be seen in Covent occupy the places of windows ; for the intervals between the
Garden Theatre the Corn Market, Mark Lane, where the
; dentils, as well as between the triglyphs, are called melopce ;
details of the monument of Thrasyllus are copied; in the the Greeks calling the bed of the joists and assers, opas
(as
new and entrance of the British Museum, where
galleries we call it cava, columbaria'); so, because the interjoist is
polychrome is introduced; and at the entrance-gateway to between two opce, it is by them called met-opce. As the tri-
the Terminus of the North Western Railway. glyphs and mutules Doric order are founded upon those
in the
The origin of the Doric order has ever been a disputed principles, so the dentils, in the Ionic, derive their proper
point amongst writers upon the subject, some following one origin from the workmanship; and as the mutules represent
theory, and some another. Vitruvius, whose opinion is valua- the projectures of the canthers, the dentils in the lonoic order
ble, as coming from the oldest writer upon architectural are in imitation of the projecture of the assers."
matters, will have it, that the earliest stone temples of This theory is a very plausible one, so far as it goes and ;

Greece were but imitations of the wooden structures previously were we unable to account for such matters in a different
employed, and that the members of the Doric order, both way, it might be passed over as correct, but for one objection,
structural and ornamental, owe their origin to similar parts in and that alone atonce throws discredit upon the whole account.
the less permanent building. This primitive mode of build- The difficulty may be put in this way if the prototype of
:

ing is supposed to have been similar, in some respects, to the the stone structure were constructed of timber, how comes
log-houses erected by colonists of the present day, consist- it, that the proportions of the former are of so heavy and

ing of trunks of trees fixed vertically in the ground, at short massive a character ? and how is it, that the columns are so
distances from each other, and forming the support to the thickly set? Timber construction would have led to very
several members of the roof. From the various portions of different results ; slenderness and lightness are the charac-
this timber construction, are supposed to have been derived teristics of buildings of such material, and so, necessarily, of
those of the later stone edifice. The following opinion as to its antitype. The reverse, however, is the case and not ;

some of the corresponding parts of the two kinds of structures, only so, but we find, that
the older the edifice, (and therefore
is given by Vitruvius : the more similar to its prototype) the heavier, also, its
"
In the upper part of all edifices, timbers, called by proportions ; whereas, if Vitruvius's theory be correct, the
various names, are disposed, which, as in names so in uses, contrary should be observable. But, besides this, we can
differ. The trabes are those laid over the columns, parastatse account for all the details alluded to by Vitruvius in a very
and antac, in the contiguations and floors. If the span of the different, and, to our mind, far more satisfactory manner, as
roof is great, under the culmen, in the top of the fastigium, we shall attempt to explain presently.
are disposed columens (from whence columns derive their As regards the date of the introduction of this style of
name), transtrae, and capreols; but if the span is small, building into Greece, nothing can be stated with certainty ;
columens and canthers, projecting to the extremities of the neither can it be satisfactorily ascertained in what locality it
eaves. Above the canthers are the templats, and over them, first appeared: great differences of opinion exist on both
but under the tiles, are the assers, projecting so far as to shel- subjects. Vitruvius, as usual, decides the matter without
ter the walls. Thus each, according to its use, has its proper any apparent difficulty. He says :

" The most ancient and first invented of the three kinds
place and order. This disposition of the work, the artificers,
when they erected sacred edifices, imitated in sculptures of of columns is the Doric; for, when Dorus, the son of
stone and marble ; and this invention the ancient workmen Hellenus, and the nymph Opticos, reigned over all Achaia
thought proper to pursue. Thus, whenever they constructed and Peloponnesus, the temple of Juno, in the ancient
city of Argos, was erected, and this
order happened to be
any building, they laid the joists from the 'interior walls to the
 DOR 301 DOR
used in the fane. The same order was also used in the for supposing that the temples here were far in advance of
other cities of Achaia before the laws of its symmetry were those in Greece-proper.
established. In whatever part of Greece the Doric order was first
"
Afterward, when the Athenians, according to the re- employed, there seems very good reason to believe that it
sponses of Apollo and Delphos and the common consent of had its origin in Egypt, or rather perhaps that the temples
all Greece, transplanted, at one time, thirteen colonies into of that country suggested the idea nor is there any prima
;

Asia, apportioning to every colony a leader, they gave the facie grounds for rejecting this supposition, for we know, in
chief command to Ion, the son of Xuthus and Creusa, whom the first place, that Greece was, at least, to some extent, colo-
also the Delphian Apollo acknowledged for his son. These nized from Egypt ; Cecrops was from that country, and
colonies he conducted to Asia, seized on the territory of Cadmus from one not far distant ; and besides this, we know

Caria, and there founded many large cities, as Ephesus, that in after times the Greeks were in the habit of trading
Miletus, Mynuta, (which last was formerly overflowed with with Egypt, and were held in so great esteem by Amasis,
water, and its rites and privileges, by Ion, transferred to that he gave them the city of Naucratis, and afforded them
the Milesians), Priene, Samos, Teos, Colophon, Chios, every encouragement and convenience. Another internal
Erythrae, Phocis, Clazomence, Lebedus, and Melite. This evidence of the connection of the two people is afforded in
latter, on account of the arrogance of the citizens, was the identity of their mythology.
destroyed in the war declared against it, by the unanimous But let us consider the architectural features observable in
determination of the other cities, and, in its place, by the the buildings of the two countries. In general appearance
favour of king Attalus and Arsinoe, the city of Smyrna was they agree ; they are both of massive proportions, and both
received amongst the lonians. When those cities extirpated consist of similar parts, columns, entablature, and such like.
the Carians and Leleges, they, from their leader, Ion, called Nor are they less similar in detail ; in Egyptian temples we
that territory Ionia. have an entablature consisting of three members, architrave,
" There
they began to erect fanes, and constitute temples frieze, and cornice, the first of which, like the Doric, is com-
to the immortal gods. Eirst, they erected the temple of paratively plain, and the last simple, but bold. The simi-
Apollo Panionias, in the manner they had seen it in Achaia; larity of the frieze in both styles is remarkable, extending
which manner they called Doric, because they had seen it even to triglyphs and mutules, and in both styles are those
first used in the Dorian cities. In this temple they were desi- features equally essential. The similarity of the columns may
rous of using columns, but were ignorant of their symmetry, not be at first so apparent, although we can point out many
and of the proportions necessary to enable them to sustain Egyptian columns without bases, with square plain abaci,
the weight, and give them a handsome appearance they
: and may suggest the probability of the Grecian echinus
measured the human foot, and finding the foot of a man to being copied from the lower portion of the bulging or cushion-
be the fifth part of his height, they gave that proportion capitals of Egypt : the annulets round the necking of the
to their columns, making the thickness of the shaft at the capital are likewise of very frequent occurrence in that coun-
base equal to the sixth part of the height, including the try. As regards the rest of the column, it is true, speaking
capital. Thus the Doric column, having the proportion, generally, that Egyptian specimens are not fluted, neither do
firmness, and beauty of the human body, first began to be they diminish, like the Greek, from the lower to the upper
used in buildings." diameter ; instead of concave flutes, however, we have
The former part of this statement may or may not be convex rods, or probably reeds ; and if the latter, we have
correct, but if its credit stands upon an equal footing with only to divide them vertically down the centre, and we
that of the latter part, we shall not be justified in placing have the Doric flutes. But even if this last idea be too
much confidence in it ; for ere we can give credence to his fanciful, the difference between a cabled and fluted column
opinion respecting the proportions of the order, we must isnot so great, the ornamentation is decidedly of a similar cha-
suppose the men of that age to have been of a very different racter ; end even if this be disallowed, there are specimens of
description to those of the present day. fluted columns in Egypt, and specimens which altogether
If Vitruvius be correct in his bear a very marked resemblance to the Grecian-Doric. These
supposition regarding the
introduction of the order, we must suppose several temples columns were first noticed by Mr. Barry, who considers them
to have been erected in this style before Homer's time, but, if of greater antiquity than any Grecian specimens. The first
so, it would appear strange that one, generally so minute in is a portico of two fluted columns in ajitis, about
5^ diame-
his descriptions of persons and places, should not have ters in height, and surmounted by a plain abacus the flutes
given ;

us some description of them. It is true, that he alludes to are 20 in number, and of shallow contour ; the columns are
three or four temples, to those of Minerva at Athens and without bases. The next example is from Kalaptchic on tho
Troy, and of Apollo and Neptune at Delphi and jEgeea, Nile, the abacus of which is square, and 1 1 inches thick ;
still he has not the shaft, which has a trifling diminution, is 7 feet 8 inches
respectively, given any description of them,
and leaves us entirely to conjecture according to the account
:
high, and 3 feet 2 inches diameter. The circumference is
of Pausanias, the temple at Delphi was nothing better than in 24 divisions, whereof 4, which are at right angles with
a hut covered with laurel and branches. But if we discard each other, are flat faces, covered with hieroglyphics, and the
the account given by Vitruvius, we shall not be much nearer other intervening ones are sunk into flat elliptical flutes a
the goal, having no data to work upon. If we allow the quarter of an inch deep. Another specimen is to be seen at
name of the order to give us some clue as to its origin, we Amada in Nubia, consisting of two columns, one of which
are still in the same predicament, for many provinces bore is a
simple parallelepiped, and the other, at the corner of the
the name of Doris ; and at best, as Lord Aberdeen remarks,
building, is both cylindrical and fluted, leaving, however, a
a name is often the least satisfactory mode of accounting for square abacus similar to that of the parallelepiped, which, in
the birth of the thing which bears it.
Many are of opinion this case, is the only capital ; the base is also of a
square
that the order was first employed in the cities of Corinth, Of these two columns, the former is evidently the
plan.
Sicyon, and Argos, shortly after the return of the Heraclidae, earlier design, the latter, previously of the same shape, whe-
but 9thers suppose it to have originated amongst the colonists ther for convenience or otherwise, has been rounded off at
of Asia Minor, and there certainly does
appear some reason the corners and somewhat ornamented.
 DOR 302 DOR
Were it allowable to select portions from these examples similar to the old one, with some slight exceptions, the
and place them together at discretion, there would be no great mutules being frequently filled with ox-skulls and patteras,
difficulty in forming a very perfect specimen of Grecian- and sometimes left plain the capitals of the triglyphs are of
;

Doric, but even without such a metamorphosis, we suggest, greater projection than before, and are returned at the ends.
there can be no difficulty in perceiving a great and indubi- The triglyphs besides are in Roman examples, invariably
table similarity between the structures of Egypt and the
placed over the centre of the columns, so that the ends of the
earlier ones of Greece, the likeness being more striking in frieze are finished with half-metopes, and not with triglyphs
some examples than in others, yet not being entirely as in the Grecian order. In the Coliseum, the triglyphs are
absent in any. We may conclude, therefore, we presume, entirely omitted.
that there is a very strong probability of the Doric order The cornice differs, considerably from the Grecian, having

having been derived from the architecture of Egypt. and the mutules square, with a similar interval
its soffit flat
This order, as practised by the Romans and Italians, differs between them. In Grecian examples, the guttse generally
in some essential particulars from that above described, and
appear in front below the mutules but in the Roman, they
;

in process of time its original character seems to have been do not so, and are sometimes even omitted ; sometimes the
all but entirely lost, the identity being evidenced only by the mutules entirely disappear, as in the Theatre of Marcellus,
remains of some few details. The few points in which where dentils with an ogee bed-mould are substituted in
the resemblance between the Greek and Roman orders is their place, and the Basilica at Vicenza, designed by Paladdio,
preserved, are the employment of triglyphs and metopes has merely a bold ogee and ovolo in their place. The inter-
in the frieze, and of mutules in the corona, the
fluting with vals between the mutules are frequently enriched with panels
arrises instead of fillets, when indeed flutes were introduced, and sculpture. The mutules and band are surmounted by
and the general form of the capital consisting of echinus and a small ogee moulding, and under them is an ogee or ovolo
abacus. Thedistinctions are much more numerous, amongst
forming a bed-moulding. The mutules support
the cornice-
which be mentioned the elongation of the shaft and
may an ogee and fillet, and a
proper, consisting of the corona,
the not unfrequent absence of flutes ;
the addition of a base, cavetto finished at the top with a fillet.
variations in the form of the capital and of the several mem- With Vitruvius's account of the order, we conclude this
bers of the entablature, the amplification of mouldings and article ; it runs as follows :

such like so that were two examples, one of each kind, " Some "
:
architects," says he, have maintained that tem-
placed before a person unacquainted with the subject, he ples should not be built of the Doric order, because it occasions
would have greater difficulty in tracing their resemblance, an imperfection and an inconvenience in the symmetry ; for
than in pointing out their incongruities. this reason it was rejected by Tarchesius, Pytheus, and also
The height of the column is increased from six to eight the latter, after he had prepared marble
by Hermogenes :

diameters, and in some cases, as recommended by Vitruvius materials for a Doric temple, altered them, and from the
for porticos, to eight and a half. It is either fluted or left same materials, raised an Ionic temple to Bacchus. How-
plain, and sometimes is partially fluted, the channels extend- ever, it was not because the appearance
was unhandsome, or
ing about two-thirds of the shaft, the remaining portion the manner or form ignoble ; but because it impeded the
below, from the base upwards, being left blank. distribution, and the arrangement of the triglyphs
and
The addition of the base follows very naturally the elonga- lacunars was unsuitable to the design ; for it is necessary
tion of the shaft, for were it still to be omitted, the lower that the triglyphs should be disposed over the middle quarters
portion of the column would look too small, and would give of the columns ; the metopes which are between the triglyphs,
to the edifice an appearance of weakness ; the columns would be made as long as high ; and the triglyphs over the angle
seem unsteady ; whereas in the Greek examples, the massive columns he placed at the extremities, and not over the
proportions and the rapid spreading of the shaft from the middle quarters. So that the metopes which adjoin the angular
capital downwards, gives the effect of strength and stability. triglyphs, are not square, but more oblong by half the breadth
The base generally used is that termed the attic, and consists of a triglyph. Those who would make all the metopes equal,
of a plinth, a torus, a hollow moulding or scotia with a fillet contract the extreme intercolumn half the breadth of a triglyph -,

above and below it, upon the uppermost of which is another but whether it is done by lengthening the metope, or by
this,
torus and fillet, out of which the shaft rises with an apophyge ; contracting the intercolumn,
is a defect. On this account,
a simpler base, however, is sometimes made use of, comprising the ancients avoided the use of the Doric order in sacred
only a torus and two shallow fillets above it, and occasionally edifices. however, our method, we shall give the
Following,
merely a plinth and simple fillet. as we have received it from
explanation of this order,
In the capital, the sunk annulets of the Greek examples the masters ; so that those who attend to these precepts will
are converted into projecting fillets in the Roman ; the shaft here find described the rules by which they may erect a tem-
is
separated from the cap by an astragal which gives much ple in the Doric manner,
without fault or imperfection.
temple, where the columns are
" The front of the Doric
greater distinctness to the necking, which again is sometimes
relieved with resets and buds, or other ornament. Above if divided into 28 parts ; if hexastyle,
erected, is, tetrastyle,
the neck are three flat annular fillets, and these above the into 44. Of these parts one will be a module, called in
ovolo surmounted by the abacus. The ovolo, however, is of the whole work
Greek, embates, by which the distribution
not of so much importance as in the Greek order, nor of the is regulated. The thickness of the column is two modules ;
same severe contour ; the abacus likewise is much shallower, the height, including the capitals, 14. The thickness of the
and has the addition of mouldings on its top. The height of one module, the breadth two and the sixth part of a
capital
the capital is equal to a diameter, or 1 module, but this module. The thickness of the capital is divided into three
is not
always the case, for in the Theatre of Marcellus at parts, of which one is for the abacus with its cymatium,
Rome, it is 33 minutes, and in the Coliseum as much as 38. another for the echinus with its annulets; and the third for
in the same
The architrave is often similar in appearance to the Greek, the hypotrachelion. The columns are diminished
but isof less height, being equal to only two-thirds of the manner as described for Ionic columns in the third book.
or half a diameter ; in a few instances, the architrave " The with the tenia and guttse
frieze, height of the epistylium
is composed of two fascias. The new frieze is also very is one module. The tenia is the seventh part of a module.
PLATS I
 DORIC ORDKR, PLATE 2.
FROMSfP C H S MH K
I'l'JI, L.J .' -V
r
i; S.

71

IJnntn Iv
"'
Vt.li /' yj
 DOJRIC OREH a PJLATTE.IH,
MO IDE R Z\T.

by 1'-.\ickolton.
 '.B O 1R 1C 1R]
FROM THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS AT ROMP:.
i 'i. ATI-: n.

Drn>tn ly P Nicholson.
 DOR 303 DOU
guttse, under the tenia, coincides with the
The length of the sides are equal to the interval of a striae in the centre of
;

the square, the central point of the

perpendicular of the triglyphs. Their height, with the regula, and a
compasses is
placed,
The breadth of the bottom of circular line drawn touching the
is the sixth
part of a module. angles of the square ; and
the epistylium answers to the hypotrachelion at the top that portion of the curve which is between the lines of the
of the columns. circle and the square, forms the hollow of the striae.
Thus,
" the Doric column will have its proper kind of striature.
Upon the epistylium, the triglyphs, having the metopes
between them, are placed ; being one module and a half With regard to the swelling -which it has in the middle, it is

high, and one module broad in front ; they are so distributed, thesame as has been described for Ionic columns."
that those which happen over the angle, as well as over the To exemplify this order, and illustrate the true Grecian
intermediate column*, may be perpendicular to the middle Doric, we have chosen that beautiful specimen from the
quarters thereof; two are left in the intercolumns ; and in magnificent portico of the Parthenon, at Athens, exhibited
the middle intercolumn of the pronaos and of the posticus, in Plate I. the proportions are numbered in minutes, in the
:

three ; for, by this enlargement of the middle interval, the usual way. The outline exhibits the profile of the flank,
approach to the image of the god is rendered more commo- and the finished order shows the profile on the front of the
dious and free from impediment. portico, adjoining that represented by the outline.
" The breadth of the Plate II. Outline of the modern Doric.
triglyph is divided into six parts ; of
which, five are placed in the middle, two and a half being Plate III. A
finished plate of the same, from Sir Win.
on either side. The middle one makes thu regula, or femur, Chambers, who took, his example from Vignola.
which the Greeks call meros. On either side this, are the Plate IV. Roman Doric, from the theatre of Marcellus,
channels, sunk as if imprinted with the elbow of a square. at Rome ; showing both the outline and finished plate.
To the right and left of these, another fernur is formed, and DORMAN, a cross beam.
at the extremities, semi-channels are slanted. DORMAK-TKEE, a joist, or sleeper.
" The
triglyphs being thus disposed, the metopes, which are DORMANT, or DORMER, a window made upon the slop-
between the triglyphs, are as high as long. At the extreme ing plane, or side of a roof, with a glass frame perpendicular
angles, semi-metopes are impressed, half a module broad.
to the horizon.

Thus, the metopes, intercolumns, and lacunars, being regu- Dormer windows occur frequently in domestic edifices of
larly distributed, all defects will be avoided. The capital of the Gothic stylo, in which they form a very picturesque fea-
the triglyph is made the sixth part of a module. ture. Their frequency is especially remarkable in the old
"
Over the capital of the triglyphs, is placed the corona, halls, &c., of France and Flanders.
projecting the half and the sixth part of a module, having a DORMANT-TREE, see SUMMER.
Doric cymatium below, and another above. The thickness DORMITORY, a sleeping room.
of the corona, with the cymatiums, is half a module. In the DORON, the Grecian palm, whence their bricks were
under part of the corona, perpendicular to the triglyphs, and called tetradoron, and pentadoron.
to the middle of the metopes, the directions of the vice, and DOS D'ANE (French), an obtuse ridge, formed by the
the distribution of the guttse, are to be so contrived, that intersection of two inclined planes. The term is synonymous
there may be six gutUe in length, and three in breadth. with our word, coped.
The remaining spaces (the metopes being broader than the DOSEL, or DOSER, a rich hanging of tapestry or other
triglyphs) are left plain, or have the sculptures of thunder- stuff, or screen of ornamental woodwork employed to deco-
bolts. Near the edge of the same corona a line is enchased, rate the back of an altar, -throne, &c.
which is called scotia. The tympan, sima, corona, and the DOUBLE VAULT, two vaults of brick or stone, carried
rest, are executed in the same manner as has been described up separately, and including between them a hollow or cavity,
for the Ionic order. such as that of St. Peter's, at Rome.
" The the method for composing diastyle
is DOUBLE BUILDING, one in which tho walls are car-
foregoing
works ; but if the structure is to be made sistyle and mono- ried up double ; sometimes cellars are carried up with double
triglyph, the front of the temple, if tetrastyle, is divided into walls, and double vaults, so as to include a cavity of air
twenty-three parts ; if hexastyle, into thirty-five. Of these, in order to keep the wine cool.
one part will be a module, by which the work is to be regu- DOUBLE COLUMN. See COLUMN.
lated, as before written. Then, over every epistylium, two DOUBLE CURVATURE, the curvature of a curve, of
metopes and triglyphs are disposed. In the angles, this which no part can be brought into a plane, such as the
species is larger than the former by as much as the space cylindro-cylindric curve, &c.
of the bisected hemitriglyph. So that there happens in the DOUBLE DOORS, those where two doors are made in
middle epistylium, under the fastigium, the space of three thesame aperture, in order to keep the apartment warm. See
triglyphs and three metopes, for the enlargement of the DOOR.
middle intercolumn renders the entrance of the temple more DOUBLE FLOOR, one constructed of binding and bridg-
spacious, and gives an appearance of dignity towards the ing-joists. See FLOOR.
statue of the god. DOUBLE-HUNG SASHES, are those where the window
" two moveable by means
Upon the capital of the triglyphs the corona is to be consists of sashes, each of which is

placed, having, as before said, a Doric cymatium at bottom, of weights.

and another at top. The thickness of the corona, with its DOUBLE MARGIN DOOR, that which represents two
cymatiums, is half a module. The under
part of the corona, doors in the same breadth, but is, in fact,only one door. See
perpendicular to the triglyphs and to the middle of the DOOR.
metopes, is to be divided, for the direction of the vise, and DOUBLE TORUS. See MOULDIXO.
the distribution of the guttte ; all the rest are the same as DOUBLE WINDING STAIRS. See STAIRS.
has been mentioned in the diastyle species. DOUBLING, the same as eaves-boards ;
the term is
" The columns are to be used Scotland.
wrought in twenty strice, which, in
if made flat, form
twenty angles ; but if they are hollowed, DOUCINE, or DOUCHINE, (from the French), the
they are to be thus performed A
square is described whose
: sima-recla.
 DRA 304 DRA
DOVE-COT, a small building or box in which domestic roofs, at theend of Godfrey Richards' Palladia, where that
pigeons breed. author says, " 3. Dragon-beams for the hip to stand on," and
"
DOVE-TAIL, in joinery, a piece of wood formed like the immediately following, he says, 4. Beam or summer, where-
of a dove. referring at the same time
tail in the dragon-beams are framed ;"

DOVE-TAILING, the method of fastening one piece of to Figure c, or Plate c ; see also our review of carpentry,
wood to another,by projecting pins, cut in the form of dove- at the end of Godfrey Richards' Palladia. The sense ir
tails in one piece, and let into hollows of the same form in which Godfrey Richards uses the term, is the same as that
the other. Dove-tailing is either exposed or concealed ;
con- now in use. It is true, that Moxon explains dragon-beam
cealed dove-tailing is of two kinds, lapped and mitred. in the same way as Neve, but he refers to no figure. The
DOVE-TAIL MASONRY. See MASONRY. second edition of Godfrey Richards' Palladia is dated 1676,
DOVE-TAIL MOULDING. A moulding used in Nor- and the first edition must be much more early. The first
man buildings, so called from the shape of the running orna- edition of Neve's Builder's Dictionary is dated 1703 ; we
ment employed in its decoration, which consists of a fillet, have also the corroboration of Batty Langley, see Plate II.
tracing in its progress the form of a dove-tail, the alternate of the Addenda, consisting of fourteen plates of roofs, at the
dove-tails being inverted, and having one side common end of his designs, where he says, "a e, b e, c e, d e, dragon-
"
to both. pieces to receive the feet of the hip-rafters so that Godfrey
DOVE-TAIL NOTCH, a common dove-tail notch is that Richards and Batty Langley apply the same meaning to the
where the bottom is in the form of a
trapezoid. term. We have been thus particular, because a proper ex-
An undercut dove-tail notch is that where the bottom planation of the word, as it is used, has not been given, and
is a
parallelogram of greater breadth than the width of the to show that it is an injury to a work, to describe a term
parallelogram cut out of the surface ; the excess in breadth which has no existence, or, if it has, must be confined to
being alike on both sides. some remote corner.
DOVE-TAIL SAW, a\saw used for dove-tailing. Its DRAIN, a subterraneous passage for water. If a build-

plate is about 9 inches long, and has about 15 teeth in every ing is obliged to be erected in a damp soil, it will be proper
inch a rigid iron or brass back is added, to give stiffness to
;
to drain the ground before the foundation is laid. In large
the plate. buildings, there must be one principal drain, and several
DOWEL, the pin or tenon used in joining together two smaller ones, depending on the extent of the ground ; and
pieces of This pin or dowel is of wood or
any substance. observe, that those with circular bottoms are better than
iron, and is thus used. Holes corresponding to each other those which have straight ones, as the water will run much
are made in the boards to be joined ; one-half of the pin is deeper in the former, than in the latter, and will consequently
inserted into the hole in the one piece, and the other piece is clear away the sediment much easier. The large drain
then thrust home on it. ought to be of sufficient height to admit a person to clean it
DOWELL1NG, or DOWELING, the fastening together two with case. Circular, barrel, or cylindric drains, are much
stronger than common drains, in which the sides are
boards by the method above described. formed
DRAG, a term applied to anything bearing down, or rub- by vertical walls. See DRAINAGE and SEWERAGE.
bing upon another ; thus, a door is said to drag, when its DRAINAGE. As we shall have occasion to treat this

hinges are so loosened, that the lower edge rubs upon the important subject at some length, and as, in so doing, it
is

floor and the term is also applied in masonry to a thin plate

: desirable to consider the question both in its more compre-
of steel indented on the edge, used for finishing the dressing of hensive and general sense, as well as in its details, we shall
soft stone which has no grit. refer the reader to the article SEWERAGE. Under that head,
DRAGON-PIECE, a beam bisecting the wall plate, for we methods of house drain-
shall enter fully into the various

receiving the heel or foot of the hip-rafters. It is most com-

suggested by the improved knowledge
of modern
age, as
monly a very short piece of timber, fixed at right angles into times, and describe the extensive works which have been
another piece, called the angle-tie, or diagonal-tie, which is constructed for this purpose in the metropolis. See CLOACA,
again supported by each adjoining wall-plate being cocked SEWER, SEWAGE.
down thereon. DRAUGHT, in architecture, the representation of a
various parts of the
DRAGON-BEAMS, according to Neve, are said to be building on paper, explanatory of the
" two exterior and interior, by means of plans, elevations, and sec-
strong braces or struts, that stand under a bressummer,
tions, drawn to a scale, by which all
the parts are represented
meeting in an angle under the shoulder of a king-piece."
Neve's Builder's Dictionary. The writers of the present in the same proportion as the parts of the edifice intended to
work have never heard the term applied to story-posts and be executed. All the horizontal parts are explained by plans ;
bressummers, nor have they been able to learn any such the faces of the vertical parts are represented by elevations
application of it ; the word learn is improper for any piece of and sections ; when the plane of delineation is
particularly,
timber, that stands slanting as a brace or strut. Neve's parallel to the faces to
be represented. The vertical dimen-
Builder's Dictionary was an original work ; and it is proba- sions of buildings upon circular and polygonal plans are
ble that the author, who subscribes himself " Philomath," understood from the elevations and sections. In complex
and sections,
(a lover of learning) instead of architect, carpenter, joiner, buildings, besides the general plans, elevations,
mason, &c., might have been misinformed by the workmen, a set of drawings should be made to show the detail of the
among whom he made his inquiries. The Builder's Dic- small parts.
tionary, in two volumes, was copied from Neve, as was the In addition to the drawings which are used in conducting
Dictionary of the first volume of the Builder's Magazine ; the work, a perspective representation of the exterior should
and we may farther add, most of the Cyclopaedias and Ency- be furnished by the architect, in order to show the general
of the intended edifice to the employer,
clopaedias have applied the term in the same way as Neve, appearance and effect
and have used the same words in describing it. But with and perhaps, in some instances, two or more perspective
regard to the application of the term dragon-piece, as it is representations will
be necessary, in order to bring more
defined above, we can refer the reader to the oldest books into view, which should be drawn to such points as
parts
that are published see page 230, in the Rules for framing
;
those in which the building will be most generally seen.
 JURA 305 DRA
When several stories of a building differ in their construc- and in wet docks, swing bridges, that turn horizontally upon
tion, each story requires a separate plan. The sections are one end as an axis, have almost wholly superseded draw-
generally parallel to the sides of the edifice, taken through bridges. See IRON BRIDGE.
the most complex or principal part. Most buildings require DRAWING, in its strict meaning, may be defined as the
at least two sections, some many more. When the sides of art of representing objects, on any convenient surface, by
a building are dissimilar, as many elevations will be neces- lines describing their form and contour. This is independent
sary as the edifice has sides. of colour, and even of shadow because, notwithstanding
;

The number, the form, and disposition of rooms are shown form may be expressed by outline alone, shadow, while
by the plans. The architect who gives the design of a build- giving surface and substance, must be dependent upon form,
ing, ought to be well acquainted with the constructive parts and, in many cases, requires to be accurately defined accord-
of carpentry, masonry, and bricklaying, before he commits ing to the rules of perspective.
his ideas to paper, or otherwise he may be liable to public Before proceeding to describe the process of ordinary
censure. See DESIGN. architectural drawing, we shall venture to insert some caustic,
DRAUGHT, in mechanics, the force or power necessary to though just observations of Mr. Bartholomew, on this neces-
move any machine, as a horse-mill, waggon, cart, plough, &c. sary study.
"
DRAUGHT, in carpentry and joinery ; when a tenon is in- There is no small boasting,
the present day, of archi-
in
tended to be pinned to the cheeks or sides of a mortise, and tectural drawing. An draw too well ; but
architect cannot
when the hole through the tenon is put nearer to the when he obtains much practice, he will find, that, besides
shoulder than the holes through the cheeks of the mortise designing the form and the details of his works, he has little
from the abutment, which receives the shoulder of the tenon, time for drawing ; in general, he has as little time for making
or which conies in contact with the shoulder of the tenon, the clean and fair copies of his drawings as the sculptor has
the pin is said to draw, or have a draught. for the stone-cutting department of his art ; while, if he
DRAUGHT, in masonry, a part of the surface of the stone cannot design, and is unacquainted with the other many
hewn to the breadth of the chisel on the margin of the stone, branches of knowledge which he should possess, he should
either according to a curve or straight line, as the surface of cease to call himself an architect.
the stone is to be reduced to a plane or curved surface. " In
making drawing his sole study, (but with the inter-
When the draughts are formed round different sides of the ruptions which business will naturally bring,) the pupil
stone, the intermediate part is wrought to the surface, by becomes only a bad artist, and no architect at all. The
applying a straight-edge or templet. In large stones, par- pernicious folly of imagining, that he who can make an
ticularly when the substance is required to be much reduced, architectural drawing must of necessity be able to make an
sometimes several intermediate parallel draughts, dividing architectural building, has wrought largely towards the ruin
the stone equidistantly in its length, are made, and thus the of real architecture, and has tended more than anything else
intermediate parts may be hewn down nearly by the eye, to fill our metropolis, and other places, with white-washed
without the application of the straight-edge or templet. and even stone ruins, which the weak have mistaken for
DRAUGHT COMPASSES, those provided with several architecture, and has led to that general disregard to struc-
moveaule points, to draw line lines in architecture. See the tural propriety, which is the besetting sin of modern works.
words COMPASS and MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS. "
Now, the time spent in learning to draw badly ; a work
DRAW-BORE, when a mortise and tenon is intended to without truth, without philosophy, without art, without
be pinned, by piercing the hole through the tenon, nearer to structural excellence, without geometrical ground-work,
the shoulder than the holes through the cheeks from the without adaptation to its purpose, without real beauty, either
abutment, in which the shoulder is to come in contact, the abstract or obvious this time, so misemployed, might have
;

mortise and tenon is said to be draw-bored : see the follow- been successfully employed by him (were architectural edu-
ing word. cation such as it should be) in, by the age of twenty-five or
DRAW-BORE PINS, pieces of steel, made in the form thirty years at the utmost, learning thoroughly all the known
of the frustum of a cone, but rather taper, and inserted in arts of trussing, of roofing, of vaulting, of doming, of
handles, with the greatest diameter next to the handle, for framing arches, pyramids, and all other parts of architecture
driving through the draw-bores of a mortise and tenon, in in structural perfection. This safe ground-work, with the
order to bring the shoulder of the rail close home to the necessary growth of mind, expansion of power, freedom of
abutment on the edge of the style ; when this is effected, the ability, would lead the professing architect to soar aloft, over
draw-bore pins, if more than one be used, are to be taken all the chained spirits who fancy a few water-colours alone
out one at a time, and the holes immediately filled up with can raise them above San Micheli and Palladio above Wren
wooden pegs. and Chambers. They know they cannot surpass RafTaello
DRAVV-BlvIDGE, in general, a bridge constructed of and Buonarotti in drawing ; yet they do not consider that
several boards nailed or bolted to a frame. This being fas- they might with ease surpass them both in architectural de-
tened at one end, by means of strong hinges, to a beam laid sign and construction thus they choose that competition in
:

horizontally, and parallel to the frame, and being acted upon which they cannot succeed, and neglect the one in which
by levers, or by
at its other extremity chains, worked either they might gain an easy victory. They might be the first
by wheels or by hand the platform
;
thus constructed may of architects, but they choose rather to be the last of artists :
be raised to a perpendicular direction. Drawbridges are instead of gazing with an astonished ignorance upon ancient
usually placed over narrow ditches, in fortresses, at the ends buildings, they might as much surpass them as the science
of great bridges, and especially over the excavations close to of the moderns surpasses that of the ancients." ' Bartholo-
the gates, so that they may be raised or let down at pleasure. mew's Specifications for Practical Architecture.' However
When drawbridges are made close on the outside of the severe these strictures may appear, there is great truth in
as to admit of the
gates, the masonry ought to be sunk so them, and they deserve the serious attention of the student.
whole depth of the frame to lie within it else the oblique
; Drawing is the basis of architecture, engraving, and
fire from the besiegers' batteries would act on the edge of the painting ; and may be divided into outlines and shadowing.
frame, and soon render it unserviceable. In canal navigation, The outline, or contour, represents the boundaries of an
39
 DRA 306 DRA
object, as they appear to terminate against the back ground ;
throw a stronger shadow than insulated columns
pilasters will
the outline, as its nameimplies, takes in all the parts of the upon the wall behind, and the projections of the shadows of
body. The interior parts are marked by lines, if such be insulated columns will be darker, and more defined upon
distinct on the body, and the different inclinations of the their edges, than those which are placed at a greater distance
surface are defined by depth of colour, in proportion to the from the wall, and, again, the middle part of the shadows
inclination. will be darker than the edges.
lu fanciful objects, whatever the figure may be, the general The shadow of a plane figure falling upon a plane parallel
form should be first sketched out slightly, that what is found to it, will form a figure similar and equal to that which
to be amiss may be more easily removed, and corrections more throws it, as the shadow of all lines on a plane, parallel to
easily Estimate as nearly as you can the principal
made. these lines, will also be parallel to the same lines which pro-
points of the original, and fix dots at proportional distances, ject them. Besides what has been already hinted above,
disposed at equal apparent angles on your paper; then draw there is another method, which is excellent for mouldings,
your lines carefully to them, beginning at the upper part, particularly when small, viz., to use very little ink in the
and working cither from the right to the left, or in the con- pencil ; let us, for example, suppose we were to shade a
trary direction, according to their tendency downwards. moulding take the camel-hair pencil with so little ink that
:

Put in the divisions first, and when these are nearly right, it cannot run, or that it will dry the instant it is put on
mark in the smaller parts then, having got your work alto-
;
the paper, and run it the whole length of the moulding, upon
gether, examine scrupulously, rubbing it gently with a
it that part which requires to be the darkest ; then repeat the
piece of bread, in order to render the lines more obscure :
process in the same manner, by making the tint broader, or
revise and correct the whole as often as it may be found to spread farther over ; repeat in this manner, by making the
necessary. Compare all the parts of the copy with the last tint spread over each edge of the preceding, keeping the
original, in every direction, first horizontally and then verti- edges of every tint as straight and parallel as possible, until
cally, from a given point, which may be supposed to be the the moulding has acquired its full variety of tints, so as to
centre of the picture. represent all the various inclinations of the original surface.
Beginners should make their drawings of the same size as If any part appear too light, it is only necessary to go over
the original, in order to exercise the eye in measuring with that part again, touching only the part that is too light. Or,
exactness ; after some practice, however, it will be better to the learner may begin the reverse way, by making the broad
vary the size from the original, in order to acquire the habit tints first, and proceed to make narrower and narrower tints
of estimating distances, that, when combined, will form each time.
parts, similar to the whole, as also to the whole mass or In shadowing a cylinder of considerable width, begin at
jener.il contour. the line of demarcation of light and shade, where a plane
After the outlines are finished, the learner may proceed to from the luminary would touch the curved surface in a
the shadows ; the first lesson should be
simple, only indi- straight line of contact, and having gone the whole length of
cating the principal projections. The simplest method of this line with a tint, soften the edges with water. Proceed
forming these is, by repeated lines nearly parallel to the out- in the same manner the second time with a broader tint,
line, and as he advances with more
shades, these lines should covering the edges of the former, and washing off the edges
be crossed by other equidistant lines. This manner of as before, thus continually spreading each repeated tint,
sketching constitutes that peculiar manner of drawing called until you come to the line of light, viz., where a plane
hate/tiny, a mode very well calculated to give freedom of extended from the luminary to the axis of the cylinder,
hand in any style of drawing. The chief things to be at- included in the plane, would cut the surface of the cylinder.
tended to are, that the lines conform as much as possible to Then from the opposite edge of the representation of the
the original, bearing all their inflections in the same ratio ;
cylinder, lay a light tint close to the line, as narrow as it can
the intersections should not be too be put on, and soften the edge of it next to the line of light ;
violent, nor the lines so
strong as to have the appearance of net-work. lay a broader tint next time, and soften the edge in like man-
In architectural
drawing, the shadows are made out by ner, next to the line of light ; proceed in this manner, until
washing or tinting the paper with Indian ink, sepia, or you come again in contact with the line of light ; observing,
bister, laid on with a camel-hair pencil this may be done in
: that the depth of colour in receding from the line of light in
two different ways ; the one is by laying down the shades as the parts which represent equal distances', should be the same,
nearly in their places as possible, with tints sufficiently dark, or of an equal degree. In washing towards the line of light,
and softening off the edges with a clean pencil and water, and the washes must be lighter and lighter, .as too much colour
when dry, the process may be repeated again, as often as will destroy the delicacy necessary to be preserved in the
may
be found necessary ; the other is should appear to be too
by working with very light light part. If, after all, any part
tints at first, in blotches
placed near each other, then blending light, the defect may be made up by tinting that part only,
these by a faint wash over the
whole, and when nearly dry, with very little ink in the pencil. For other information,
strengthening them by filling up the interstices with other concerning the manner of preparing the tints, we shall refer
blotches :
thus, by repeated blotches, the surface will acquire to the article SHADOWING.
the degree of tint This mode an edged tool, made sharp at the
required in the various parts. DRAWING-KNIFE,
is called
stippling, and in the hand of an artist is perhaps the end, for cutting a deep incision into the wood, along a straight-
best, at least for finished drawings. In the shadows of any- edge, the edge of a square or templet, in order to enter the
thing projecting from a surface, we shall, for the sake of saw without ragging the wood. A chisel or firmer is some-
example, suppose a pole projecting from the surface of a wall, times used instead of the drawing-knife. In joinery, the
at a considerable distance from it
;
the outline of the shadow drawing-knife is useful in rebating across the grain, cutting
next to the foot of the pole will be dark and the shoulders of tenons, grooving across the fibres.
very definite,
but proceeding towards the extremity, the edge becomes
in
DRAWING-ROOM, a principal apartment of a great
more penumbral, and at last, in a nobleman's house, to which it is usual for
very extended shadow, is mansion, or
hardly definite. All shadows are darker nearer to the body company to withdraw after dinner, and in which formal visits
than those which are more remote attached columns and are received. See DINING-ROOM. In small houses, the draw-
;
 DRI 307 DRO
ing-room may communicate with the dining-room, but in DROPS, in architecture, small pendent cylinders, or the
large houses, it will be no detriment, and might even be pre-
frustums of cones attached to a vertical surface, the axis of
ferred by many, if'the library, or an ante-room should inter- the cylinders or cones having also a vertical position, and
vene. The term is frequently written withdrawing-room. their upper ends attached to a horizontal surface.
See ROOM. Drops are used in the cornice of the Doric order under
DRAWING-SLATE, a soft stone of fine grain, used as the mutules, and in the architrave under the triglyphs.
a marking or drawing material. It is sometimes called black Each mutule has three rows from "front to rear, with six
chalk. drops in each row, disposed at equal distances, in lines
DRAWINGS, Working, See WORKING DRAWINGS. parallel to the front. The drops upon the architrave are
Dli AWNTHROUGH OR ALONG THE AxlS, Or THROUGH OR also six feet under each trigylph, disposed also equidistantly.
ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE, is when a plane meets a straight Drops in the form of frustums of cones, are only peculiar to
line, so that all parts or points in the line are also in the Roman architecture, and to some of the temples of Pusstum ;

plane. there are some Grecian-Dorics, however, wherein the drops

DREDGING. The operation of removing mud, silt, and in their vertical section have the upper part nearly parallel,
other depositions from the bottom of harbours, canals, rivers, and terminate below with a concavity, the part above being
docks, &c., by means of a DREDGING MACHINE. a tangent to the curve. In the Roman-Doric, the surface of
DRESS, in masonry, to prepare stones for building. the metopes is the same with that of the architrave, and the,
DRESSED, the preparation that a stone requires before vertical surface of the trigylph projects at the same distance
it is ready to be used in building, &c. Stones are dressed as the drops, which arc hung from the tcnia. In the Grecian
sometimes by the hammer only, thence termed hammer- Doric, the faces of the triglyphs are generally disposed in
dressed ; sometimes by the mallet and chisel, the face after- the same vertical surface with the, face of the epistylium,
wards being rubbed smooth. In Scotland the term is only and consequently, the regula and drops pending therefrom
understood of hammer-dressing. project. The Doric portico at Athens, the portico of Philip
DRESSER, a kind of bench or table, with drawers, set king of Maccdon, and the temple of Apollo in the island of
in the kitchen, used for culinary purposes it is generally
:
Delos, are instances wherein the surface of the epistyle is
reckoned as a fixture of the building, or a part thereof. within the surface of the triglyph ; but it is to be observed,
DRESSING-ROOM, a room adjoining a sleeping-room, in the two latter examples, that there is a drop in each angle
used for dressing in, as its name implies. A dressing-room common to every return face. All examples of the Doric
ought to have two doors, one to communicate with the order, except the portico of the Agora, or Doric portico, at
sleeping-room, and another to communicate with the passage, Athens, have the sides of each extreme drop under the
for the valet, or servant. regula in the same vertical line as each edge of the triglyph
DRESSINGS, all kinds of mouldings projecting beyond above, and the whole six drops are contained within the
the naked of walls or ceilings, are called by the general perpendiculars, by producing the edges of the triglyphs.
name of dressing. In joinery, the architraves of apertures, In all the drops of the Doric architraves to be met with,
or other appendages, as also the projecting moulding used the horizontal sections are circles, increasing towards the
as a finish,called a dressing, and frequently facing.
is bottom of the drops, or of a cylindrical form, except in the
DRIFT, the horizontal push or force, which an arch exerts instance of the temple of Apollo at Cora, in Italy, where
from the gravitation of the stones, which are kept from the soffits of the drops in the architraves arc inclined. It is

descending by the inclination of the beds of the arch, and singular, that in this example, the drops pending from the
the resistance of the pier. The terms shoot and thrust, are corona are continued equidistantly without interruption in
also employed to express the same idea. three rows, two behind the front row; and that those pend-
DRIP, the edge of a roof; the eaves; the corona of the ing from the corona are perfectly cylindrical, with level
cornice. See LARMIER, CORONA. soffits, while those pending from the regula are conical,
and
DRIPPING EAVES, when the slope of a roof is con- have inclined soffits, which form an obtuse angle with the
tinued downwards, so as to project over the roof of a build- face of the epistyle. In the choragic monument of Thrasyllus,
ing, the part thus projecting over is called dripping eaves, the tenia of the epistylium has a continued row of drops, but
in contradistinction to those roofs that have blocking courses, thisexample cannot be accounted a Doric order, having no
which run above the slope of the roof, and which have other peculiarity to the Doric composition.
gutters behind for carrying off* the water. Dripping eaves The drops pending from the soffits of the mutules, have
are prohibited, in the city of London, by the Building acj. their soffits in a plane parallel to the soffits of the mutules,
DRIPS, steps made in flat roofs, to walk upon. This and consequently, inclining ; while those of the epistyle have
way of building is much used in Italy, where the roof is not their soffits in a horizontal plane.
quite flat, but a little raised in the middle, otherwise the The height of the drops in the cornice of the Doric portico
steps would have no rise. at Athens, is little more than one quarter of their diameter,
DRIPSTONE, the projecting moulding or cornice over while those of the epistyle have their height more than half
windows, doorways, &c., is called a dripstone. Its use is to their diameter.
throw off the rain, and in some of the old buildings in the In the peripteral temple at Psestum, the corona has no
country, it has been made of an ornamental character. The pending mutules, nor any drops. In the theatre of Marcellus
dripstone is of various forms, and when a head is not used at Rome, there are no mutules, the interstices between the
as a termination or support, a simple moulding is adopted. drops are formed by excavating upwards into the soffit of
It is also called label, weather-moulding, and water-table. the corona, and are covered on the front with a moulding,
The term dripstone, however, is more particularly applied which has its soffit in the same inclined plane with the
to the boss at the termination of the moulding from which soffits of the drops, so that the drops show no geometrical
the rain drips, after being conducted down the moulding ;
elevation. In the enneastyle, or nine-column temple at
the latter is
distinguished by the appellation of weather- Psestum, the cornice is destroyed, and the architrave
moulding. seems to have been originally without either mutules
DRIVER, Pile. See PILE DRIVER. or drops.
 DRY 308 DRY
The term guttoe is also applicable to what we have copper, or zinc. Patents have been granted for various appli-
called drops. cations of the latter, as preventives of the dry-rot, the dis-
DROVED ASHLAR, a term used in Scotland for chiseled, tinguishing features of the processes therein employed consist-
or random-tooled ashlar. It is the most inferior kind of hewn ing in first preparing the timber by a good steaming, or drying
work used in building. It is true, that what is there called out of the sap, and afterwards injecting, soaking, or boiling
broached work, is sometimes done without being droved, but the timber in a solution of copperas, or other metallic salt.
in good broached work, the face of the stone should be The following observations on this important subject were
previously droved, and then broached.
See the article some time since addressed to the editor of the " Engineers
MASONRY. and Mechanics' Encyclopedia," by Mr. John Gregory, who
DROVED AND BROACHED, a term used in Scotland, is an
experienced and observant shipwright and as they
;

in a more specific manner than that of broached work ;

see appear to mark out clearly the true cause of, and to suggest
the preceding word. a very simple remedy for, the evil, it is right to give them a
DROVED AND STRIPED, work that is first droved place in this work. Mr. Gregory says, " Instead of squaring
and then striped: the stripes are shallow grooves done with a piece of timber according to the usual method, by leaving
a half or three-quarter inch chisel, about an eighth of an inch the heart of the tree in the centre, my plan is to saw it right
deep, leaving the droved interstices prominent. These kinds down the middle, through the heart, into two equal parts,
of hewn work arc not used in England, or at least very immediately after the tree is felled and my reasons for this
;

work I will now endeavour to

seldom ;
the is either regularly tooled, or rubbed explain, to the best of my ability.
smooth. It is, I believe, a well-known fact, that a tree does not,
DRUIDICAL TEMPLE, stone pillars, arranged in the literally speaking, die on receiving the final stroke of the axe,
circumference of the circle, surmounted with an architrave but that continues for a long period afterwards to vegetate,
it

or entablature, such as Stonehenge. See CELTIC ARCHI- though less vigorously. At length, however, the sap ceases
TECTURE. to circulate, the pores become closed, and the juices of the
DRUM, a cylinder, generally formed of cast-iron, but tree thus shut up undergo decomposition, and lay the foun-
sometimes of wood, and used on the inclined planes of rail- dation of dry-rot. It is well known, that a man, who dies
in a full habit of body, soon decays ; the same effect takes
ways, for receiving the rope which is wound round the sur-
face ofits
periphery, by which movement the waggons are place in a tree full of sap, unless we adopt the same method
conveyed along the line. Drums are used when the plane is with respect to it as the Egyptians practised with the human
worked by a single rope. body, viz., that of depriving it of all moisture, which process
DRUM, of the Corinthian and Composite capitals, the solid would give to our timber a durability almost everlasting.
part, in the form of a vase, to which foliage, stalks, and My mind has been long impressed with this idea, which has
caulieoli are attached. The drum is otherwise called vase. been confirmed by my having recently noticed, that several
DRUM. See DOME. of the timbers, in a very ancient public building, which had
DRY-ROT, a highly destructive vegetable disease, affect- been sawn originally in the manner I have proposed, were
ing the timber in the foundations, and other parts of build- perfectly sound, although they had withstood the dilapidating
ings, in particular soils and situations. It affects the wood, hand of time for seven hundred years ; while other timbers in
or ligneous parts, in such a manner, as to leave it connected the same building, which had not been so cut, but apparently
by nothing but the small hard fibrous portions, which give it squared out with the heart in the centre, were perfectly rot-
a curious tremulous appearance, but all of which, when ten. That the dry-rot is certainly caused by the juices being
touched by the hand in the more advanced stages of the dis- enclosed in the heart of the timber, I have had frequent
ease, readily moulder into a brownish snuff-like dust. It is opportunities of observing during my long practical expe-
attended with a peculiar earthy smell, similar to that which rience in the repairing of ships. In the frame of a ship in
issues from wood fresh dug up after having lain some time which such large quantities of timber are employed, 1 have
in the ground in contact with decaying animal matter, and is uniformly noticed First, that the decay commences in the
:

materially different from that natural sort of decay which takes run fore and aft, which is owing to the timbers being fitted
place iu wood from the presence of wetness. so close together at the heels or lower ends. The evil being
On the causes of this decay numerous volumes have been thus enclosed in the hearts of the timbers, and the air having
written, and equally numerous have been the nostrums for its no access to the exterior of them to carry off the moisture by
"
prevention or cure." There can be little doubt that, in very evaporation, internal decay is the necessary consequence.
many cases, dry-rot has been engendered by the extreme I have sometimes witnessed these parts of the frame of a ship
wetness of the timber, caused by its long immersion in the in such a rotten state, as to have been justly compared by the

water, in docks, canals, &c. In our hastily-constructed build- workmen to a heap of manure. Secondly, those timbers in
ings, the timber, after having been thus swelled by soaking the midships that have been bored off with the outside
too much beyond its former and its ultimate bulk, is frequently planks, are not so affected, which I attribute to the circum-
framed together while in this wet state, and it cannot be sur- stance of the holes admitting a current of air through them,
prising that the dry-rot soon appears as a natural consequence the destructive juices being thereby carried off. Thirdly, it
of such unwise proceedings. frequently happens, that the floor-timbers of an old ship are
It has been said, that moist and warm situations, where the found, on breaking up, to be nearly as sound as they were
circulation of the air is impeded, is the generating cause of when first put in. Their preservation seems to be owing to
this disease ; that the effluvia from timber so diseased, will the effect of the salt water, which constantly laves over them,
or it may be,
carry their effects to the circumjacent timber ; and that any causing them to become, in a manner, pickled ;
sort of wood, dry as well as
damp, so exposed, will be soon that the salt entering into the composition of the wood, the
destroyed. Timber once infected cannot be restored, and the destructive effects of its natural juices are thereby prevented.
the timbers,
only remedy lies in cutting away the diseased parts, to pre- Fourthly, the planks in the bottom, nearest to
vent the extension of the evil to the remainder ; and to effect take the infection first ; and where the tree-nails are not close,
even the latter, a free circulation of air must be admitted, the disease rapidly extends endways of the grain. Fifthly,
and the parts be washed over with a strong solution of iron, those parts of the deck-planks that lie upon the beams are
 DUN 309 DUN
those which are first infected with the rot, the cause of which same time bestowed on them their natal name of " a
borg,
is evident, as those parts that are between the beams are defence or castle," a Suco-Gothic word ; and the Highlanders
generally quite sound. Sixthly, in the beams of ships the universally apply to these places the Celtic name dun, signify-
decay usually commences in the internal parts, which is ing a hill defended by a tower, which plainly points out
decidedly owing, in my opinion, to the erroneous method of their use. They are confined to the countries once subject
preparing the timber, as before-mentioned ; but when timber, to the crown of Norway. With few exceptions, they are
so prepared, is used, I would recommend, as the best preven- built within sight of the sea, and one or more within sight of
tive of the rot, that a few holes be bored through the beam the other ; so that on a signal by fire, by flag, or by trumpet,
fore and aft, and, what would still add to the benefit, to bore they could give notice of approaching danger, and yield a
another hole lengthways of the grain, to meet those which mutual succour. In the Shetland and Orkney islands, they
are bored crossways. But the best preventive, I am con- are most frequently called wart or ward hills, which shows
fident, would be the adoption of my mode of preparing the that they were garrisoned. They had their wardmadher, or
timber, viz., to saw it lengthways right through the heart, watchman, a sort of sentinel, who stood on the top, and
by which not only greater durability would be obtained, but challenged all who came in sight. The gackman was an
great economy in the consumption of the timber." officer of the same kind, who not only was on the watch

Though, as we have before observed, volumes have been against surprise, but was to give notice if he saw any ships
written on the subject of dry-rot, the causes of it are still, in distress. He was allowed a large horn of generous liquor,
perhaps, as little understood as ever ; and, as was stated by which he had always by him, to keep up his spirits. Along
Mr. Bramley, of Leeds, in a paper read to the Society for the the Orkney and Shetland shores, they almost form a chain ;
"
Encouragement of Arts, &c., to bring the matter to the test and by that means not only kept the natives in subjection,
by experiments, would require the observations of a long but were situated commodiously for covering the landing of
" Wood used for
period, and in selected situations." the their countrymen, who were perpetually roving on piratical
" is
general purposes of man," he observes, cut down at expeditions. These towers were even made use of as state
difll'rent periods ;
and although it
may be foiled at the proper prisons for we learn from Torfirus, that after Sucno had
;

season, or when most free from sap or moisture, it is not surprised Paul, count of Caithness, he carried him into
always to be effected. Nay, even admitting it to have been Sutherland, and confined him there in a Norwegian tower.
cut down in the most favourable situation, it still abounds Out of our own kingdom, no buildings similar to these
with such an extra proportion of moisture, as to require a are to be found, except in Scandinavia. On the mountain
regular exposure to the air prior to its being applied to use, Swalberg in Norway is one the Stir-biskop, at Upsal in
;

if we wish to guard against that shrinking which Sweden, is another and Umseborg, in the same kingdom,
always ;

takes place where this precaution has not been taken. And is a third.
although the fir-kind contains less of this watery portion, yet In these buildings, there is no appearance of an arch ; the
it
assuredly possesses a considerable share ; and it is in this wall, which consists of the best flat stones the workmen could
species, he apprehends, that the evil, called the dry-rot, most find, is well laid, thickness about 14 feet, and in some
is in

generally occurs; as, from the facility of working the same, instances not more than 12
feet high ; the structure of a dun
it ismost generally applied to buildings. But, supposing it is
upon a circular plan, about 20 or 30 feet in diameter.
to be fir, or any other species, wood felled when abounding The door of entrance is very low, and was shut up occasion-
with any extra proportion of sap, and applied to use without ally with a broad flat stone. In some instances, where the
*,he proper seasoning or exposure to a free current of air, stones were not flat or well bedded, the wall is found propped
until such extra moisture has had time to exhale, is most up with heaps of stones, like buttresses, on the outside ; so
liable to the disease in question ; and the cure, or principal as to give the whole more the appearance of a mount, than
prevention against it, would be the precaution of felling all of a building, as is particularly the case with one at Loth-
wood only at the proper season, or when the sap is not in beg, in the parish of Lothis. The most entire dun is that at
circulation. The next mode of prevention would be to use Glenby, not far from Inverness, and described by Mr. Pen-
such wood only as has been for a considerable period exposed nant, in his voyage to the Hebrides from whoso very
;

to the influence of a free current of air, or, where conveni- curious and original account, the following particulars are
ence will admit, to that of air heated to a moderate degree ; extracted :

such air extracting, with greater facility, the enclosed mois- "It is placed about two miles from the mouth of the
ture, and in a more certain ratio than the irregularity of our valley. The more entire side is about thirty feet six
atmosphere will allow under other circumstances." inches in height, and was, some years ago, about ten feet
This is not the place for examining into the comparative higher. The whole structure appears to have been, on the
merits of the different processes which have been introduced outside, of a conical form ; but on the inside, the surround-
for seasoning timber. The most noted of these are Kyan's, ing wall is quite perpendicular ; so that it must have been
Burnett's, Payne's, and Bethell's, all of which have been much thicker at the bottom than at the top. It enclosed a
described by their advocates as perfect preventives of dry-rot ; small circular area of thirty-three feet and a half in diameter ;
it is sufficient to
say, that they have all been found successful, and was constructed merely of flat stones neatly placed one
and have also all failed. The best preventive of dry-rot, in upon another, without any cement or mortar. At ten feet
our opinion, is to have the timber thoroughly dry before it is from the ground it was found to be seven feet four inches
converted, and to let plenty of air get to it when the building thick ; and within this thickness were two surrounding
is completed. galleries ; one quite in the lower part of the tower, about six
DUBBING, in bricklaying, is replacing and making feet two inches high, and two feet five inches wide at the

good any decayed brickwork, when the wall is to be bottom ; but made narrower at the top ; and flagged and
repointed . covered with great flat Atones. And the other gallery was
DUN, or BUKGH,the name of an ancient species of placed directly over this, having these flag-stones for its
buildings, of a circular form, common in the Orkney and floor, and being only five feet six inches high, and only
Shetland Islands, the Hebrides, and northern parts of Scot- twenty inches wide at the bottom ; but covered at top, in
land. The latter term points out the founders, who at the like manner, with other great flat stones.
 DUO 310 DUO
" This
upper gallery, in which a man could barely make Example 2.
his way, went quite round the tower, without any division or Multiply 6. .5' ..4" by 3. .6'
ft-
partition ; but the lower gallery, underneath this, is parted
/ /,

G..5..4
off into separate spaces,
by great flag-stones placed upright ; 3..6
which several spaces, or little cells, were in general acces-
sible only by means of holes in the floor or gallery above ; 3..2..8..0=6..5..4 x 6
so that nothing can be more obvious, than that these cells 19..4..0 =6..5..4X3
were intended for the keeping and preserving of stores ;
whilst the upper gallery cannot but remind us somewhat Answer 22 ..6.. 8..0
In the first example, there is only one
of the little gallery within the wall of the round tower at place of duodecimals
Brunless. in each factor ; there are, therefore, two places in the product.
" Besides these on the inside of the In the second example, there are two places of duodeci-
galleries, there were,
circular wall, open to the circular enclosed apartment, four mals in the multiplicand, and one in the multiplier, which
make together three there are, therefore, three denomina-
perpendicular rows of small cavities, or, as they have been ;

described by others, four stages or nests of small square open tions in the product.

holes, dividing the interior circular wall into four parts, and Example 3.
ft lv Vi
turning up from the lower part of the tower to the top ; each What
little hole, or nest, in the row, divided from that beneath
the product of 4.. 3 .2. .8 .9, 3 by
T Tl Tli

only by a sort of shelf, or flag-stone, and forming a little 3..0..5..0..0..6..2

ft IV V Tl
cupboard.
" The 4..3..2..S..9..5..3
appearance of this sort of little cupboards, as well
as that of the sections of galleries, is similar to those in this 0.. 3..0.. 5..0..0.. 6. .2
tower, as they are seen in the wall of another dun, in the 8.. 6.. 5.. 5.. 6.. 10..
same neighbourhood. And these square cavities seem obvi-
2..1 .. 7..4..4..S..7.. 6
ously to have been intended to hold the drinking horns, and 1..9..4.. 1..7.. 11. .2. .3
other utensils for banqueting in these rude dens."
1..0..9..8..2..4..3.. 9
DUODECIMALS, a term applied to an arithmetical me-
thod of ascertaining the number of square feet and square 1..0..11..5..6..8..2.. 1..1..2..2..4..6 0..
inches in a rectangular space, whose sides are given in feet In this example, because there are
no feet in the multiplier,
and inches. the place is supplied by the cipher. The multiplicand has
In this series of denominations (beginning with every six places of duodecimals, and the
feet) multiplier seven there ;
unit in the preceding denomination makes twelve in that of duodecimals in the product.
are, therefore, thirteen places
which succeeds it that is, every foot contains 12 inches, or
:
The first place of figures is feet, and the succeeding are the
firsts ; every first, 12 seconds ; and so on. There will be as duodecimal places the product is one foot, no inches, eleven
;

many denominations in the product as in both factors taken seconds, five thirds, &c. But, independently of the consi-
together. deration of there being as many places of duodecimals in the
Feet are either marked with or without an /; inches are
product as in the multiplier and multiplicand, the method of
called firsts by the mark thus (') being placed above ; seconds
placing the denominations of the factors gives the correct
by the mark thus ('') being placed above ; thirds thus ('"), places of the product, since like parts of the product stand
and so on. In multiplying any two single denominations under like parts of the multiplicand it also shows the affinity, ;

together, the value of

the product will be known by adding not only between duodecimals, but between decimals and

two every series of denominations, of which the same number in

the indices of the factors. Thus, suppose 7 to be mul-
/// T any place makes one of the next towards the left hand. The
11, then the product is 77, or 77 fifths, because consideration is also useful, in discovering readily what kind
tiplied by " '" of product arises by multiplying any two single denomina-
adding the index of the seven to the index of the eleven,
tions together.
produces v or fifths.

To multiply duodecimals together. Write the multiplier When the number of feet runs very high in each factor, it

under the multiplicand, so that the place of feet may stand will be much better to reduce all the denominations in both into
under the last place of the multiplicand the lowest, then multiply the factors, so reduced, and divide
begin with the ;

right-hand denomination of the multiplier, and multiply it by 12 as often as there are duodecimal places in the product.
by every denomination of the multiplicand, throwing the Example 4.
twelves out of every product, and carrying as many units to ft - ,< ft ,

the next; place the remainders, if any, under the multiplier, Multiply 6 .. 5 .. 4 by 3 .. 6 as in Example 1.

so that like parts in the product may be under like parts of 6 5. .4 3..6
the multiplicand proceed with every successive figure of
;
12
the multiplier, towards the left, in the same manner, always
~77 42
placing the first figure of the product under the multiplier ; 12
then the sum of the products will be the total.
928
Example 1. 42
Multiply 6. .9' by 3.. 6' 1856
ft. , ,
3712
S... 12)38976
3..4..6=6..9X6 12)3248
20..3 = 6..9X3 12)270 . 8
Answer 23 ..7. .6 ~22~ 1; 8 the same as before-
 DUO 311 DUO
Example 5. Example 7.

Multiply 3..6..I.. 6.. 5*..

by 0..6..5..3 Multiply 23 .. 4 .. 6 .. 7 by 7 .. 8 .. 5 .. 10
. - ft , ,< ...

5..3 3..6..4..6..S
12 12 23 ..4.. 6.. 7
7..8.. 5.. 10
63 42
12 Proofs by duodecimals, 163 ..7. .10.. 1
ft ' IT
,
15 ..7.. 0.. 4. .8
508 S..6..4.. 6.. 5
9.. 8.. 10 ..8. .11
12 0..0..5..3
1.. 9.. 5. .9.. 5.. 10

6102 0.. 10.. 7.. 1.. 7. .3

180 ..2.. 4..10..2.. 4.. 10
12 1..5.. 7..10..8..1

Proof by the first method.

73229 1..6.. 6.. 5..9..S..3
63
23 ..4.. 6.. 7
219687
7. .8.. 5.. 10
439374
1.
9.. 5.. 9. 5.. 10
12)4613427 9.
8.. 10 ..8, 11
15 ..7. 0.. 4.. 8
12)384452 .. 3 163 ..7. .10.. 1

12)32037 .. 8 180 ..2.. 4.. 10 ..2.. 4.. 10

12)2669 .. 9
is the same number of figures in each operation, but
There
12)222 .. 5 in the last the products are inverted. The first method,
which is here used to prove the second, issimilarto the com-
12)18 ...6 mon method of multiplication of integers, the first place of
figures of every product being placed under the second deno-
12)1 ..6 mination towards the left.
When and inches only are concerned, the reader
feet
0..1..6..6..5..9..8..3 is referred to the articles CROSS MULTIPLICATION, and
the product, the same as by duodecimals. PRACTICE.
In this example, because there are seven places of duode-
D WANGS, a term used in Scotland, for the short pieces
of timber employed in strutting a floor.
cimals in the two factors, viz., four in the multiplicand, and
three in the multiplier, the product 4613427 is divided seven
DWARF WALLS, low walls of less height than the
story of a building. Sometimes the joists of a ground-floor
times successively by 12.
rest upon dwarf walls ; and the enclosures of courts are fre-
There is another method of duodecimals, almost equally
convenient. The rule is as follows First. Under the :
quently formed by them with a railing of iron on their top :
indeed, any low wall used as a fence, may be termed a dwarf
multiplicand, place the corresponding denominations of the
wall.
multiplier.
Then multiply each denomination, from right to left, of the DWELLING-HOUSE. See BUILDING and HOUSE.
DYE,the plain part of a pedestal, contained between the
multiplicand, by each term of the multiplier successively base and cornice, in the form of a square prism, approaching
from the left to the right, placing the first denomination of
each row, or product, one place nearer to the right, and carry- frequently to a cube or dye, whence the name originates.
The dye of a pedestal is generally placed in the same ver-
ing one from every twelve in the product of any denomi-
ticalplane with the vertical sides of the plinths of columns ;
nation, to that which succeeds it towards the left, up to the
there is, however, an instance in the dye of the pedestals of
place of feet ; then the sum of all the like products will be the columns of the Stoa, or Portico, at Athens, where the
the total.
dye recedes within the vertical sides of the plinths of the
6.
bases. The practice of using pedestals under columns, is
Example
bad at the best ; but in this instance their employment is still
4 5 by 7 ..8.. 3 more ridiculous, being contrary to the rules of true taste and
Multiply 10 .. ..

ft philosophy.
10.. 4..-5 Multiplicand. DTK, is also used for a cube of stone, placed under the feet
7.. 8.. 6 Multiplier. of a statue and beneath its pedestal, to raise, and show it to
more advantage.
72.. 6.. 11 DTK. See DADO.
6. .10 ..11. .4 DYNAMOMETER, (measurer of power), a term which
5.. 2..2..6 has been applied to an instrument for measuring force or
power. The Dynamometer has been used by engineers for
79.. 11 .. 0.. 6. .6 ascertaining the tractive power required in drawing carriages
 ECB 312 ECC
and also in the resistance and in the moving force, which render the
upon roads or vessels, upon canals, for measuring
the relative force of men and other animals. These effects indications very uncertain. A
very ingenious application of
are usually manifested by the compression or distension of the Dynamometer was made by Sir John Maoneill, to the
a strong spring, or by a steel-yard upon the principle of a Road indicator, in experiments on the comparative condition
bent lever balance ; but in both these constructions the instru- of different descriptions of roads.
ment is subject to great vibration, owing to the inequalities DYPTERON. See DIPTERON.

E.
ECB ECC
EARS. See CROSETTES and ANCONES. The site of Ecbatana has been a matter of dispute ; but
EAGLE, in architecture, a figure of that bird anciently the dispute has arisen solely because those who have discussed
used as an attribute of Jupiter, in the capitals and friezes of the question, either did not know the evidence on which the
the columns of temples consecrated to that deity. question must be decided, or did not understand it. The
Also a lettern, or reading-desk, used in churches, from route of commerce between the low country in the ancient
whence the lessons are read. It is so called from its form, Seleucia, and the modern Bagdad and the high table-land
which is that of an eagle with outspread wings, on which of Iran, is determined by the physical character of the country,
the book sometimes represented as trampling under
is laid, and has continued the same from the earliest recorded history
foot a serpent. The material is generally brass, and the of those countries, to the present day. The places marked
image is supported on a stem of similar material, pierced and in the " Itinerary" of Isidore, as lying between Seleucia and
otherwise enriched. See LETTERN. Ecbatana, are the places indicated by modern travellers as
EARTH-TABLE, the course of masonry or other work lying on the route between Bagdad and Ilamadan.
level with the ground. ECCENTRICITY, the distance between the foci of an
EARTHEN FLOORS. See FLOORS. ellipsis ; it is otherwise called ellipticity.
EATING-ROOM. See DINING-ROOM. ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE. Under this

EAVES, (from the Saxon,) the margin or edge of the our intention to inquire into the nature of the places
title it is
roof of a house, which overhangs the walls, in order to throw of worship employed by the early Christians, to consider the
off the water from the face of the masonry or brickwork. origin and progress of buildings devoted to this purpose, with
EAVES LATH, or EAVES BOARD, an arris fillet, or thick a cursory glance at their history, and to describe generally
feather-edged board, placed at the eaves of a roof, for raising their form, distribution, and structural arrangement.
the bottom of the first course of slates above the sloping Information on such subjects is to be sought for amongst
plane of the side of the roof, so as that the next course may the patristic writings, the early ecclesiastical historians, more
be properly bedded that is, when the lower ends rest firmly
:
especially Eusebius, and the early Christian writers generally.
upon those which form the eaves-course. It is sometimes Collateral evidence corroborative of the testimony afforded
also called eaves catch. from such sources, is to be found amongst cotemporary heathen
EBONY, a species of hard, heavy, and durable wood, authors in their occasional and incidental reference to such
which admits of a fine polish or gloss. The most usual subjects. Evidence on this matter from all sources has been
colour is black, red, or green ; but the best i sa jet black, carefully collated, and much valuable information gained by
free from veins and rind, very heavy, astringent, and of an the patient and learned research of Bingham, who has included
acrid pungent taste. and it in his most elaborate work, the Origines Ecclesiastical
Ebony is
wrought into toys, is ;
much used for mosaic and inlaid work. to which we shall have occasion frequently to refer in the
ECAT^EA, statues erected to the goddess Hecate, for following pages.
whom the Athenians had a great veneration, believing her Of the forms of churches for the first three centuries,
to be the overseer and protectress of their families. during the time of persecution, we know butJittle; and it
ECBATANA, the capital of ancient Media, and the resi- is probable that during the very earliest penod, when the
dence of the Median and Persian kings. It was situated in Christian church was in a normal state, so to speak, whilst
a plain, about twelve stadia from mount Orontes. Diodorus she numbered but few advocates, and they poor and of little
says it was 250 stadia in circuit. The walls were seven in influence,when "not many wise, not many noble were called ;"
number, built upon a circular plan, rising gradually above it is probable, we repeat, that Christians had no fixed form

each other, by the height of each wall conforming in a great or arrangement of parts in their places of public worship,
measure to the situation of the ground. In the book of but that a dwelling-house of some member or even a portion
Judith, we read that they were 60 cubits in height, and of such house, was set apart for the purpose. It is nearly
50 in breadth; that the towers over the gates were 100 certain that no structures were built for the especial purpose,
cubits in height, and the breadth of the foundation 60 cubits, during the first division of this period ; for not only would
and that the walls were built of hewn and polished stones, they have attracted attention and suspicion, but would have
each stone being 6 cubits in length and 3 in breadth. The been destroyed together with the worshippers the earliest
:

royal palace and treasury were within the inmost of the Christians were compelled to secrecy and obscu rity,at least they
seven walls. Diodorus says, the timber of the palace was did not bring themselves offensively or ostentatiously forwards
cedar or cypress ; and various parts of it were cased with into notice, although not shrinking from an open avowal of
gold or silver. There are no monuments remaining of this their faith when called upon for it ; for be it remembered, they
superb palace, where the monarchs of Asia generally passed were to be " wise as serpents, and harmless as doves."
their summer ; and it is rather to be lamented that a "
disagree- In the Sacred Writings, more especially in the Acts of
ment should exist among modern travellers, about the site on the Apostles," and in the epistles to the various churches, we
which this stately metropolis stood. not unfrequently meet with the word church, or
 ECC 313 ECC
which must in some
cases undoubtedly apply to the edifice inquiries of the learned Mode, who has treated this particular
or room iu which was customary for the Christians to
it subject at considerable length :

assemble ; we know besides that it was a practice with the " A very singular paradox has been advanced by some
" that for
early Christians of the apostolic times to assemble together learned man," says Bingham, the three first
in some appointed place for the purpose of worship and devo- centuries after Christ, (i. e.) before Constantino ascended
tion. It is evident from the accounts of the evangelists, that the throne of the Roman empire, A.D. 306, when he estab-
the eleven continued together after their Master's crucifixion, lished Christianity, and soon after abolished paganism, the
whether engaged in prayer and fasting, we cannot say but ; Christians, owing to the cruel persecutions to which they
they were certainly in one place when the women came and were exposed by the pagans in these centuries, first under
told them of the resurrection. In the evening of the same day, the tyrant Nero, A.D. 64 and next under the Roman emperor
;

likewise, it is mentioned that they were assembled together Domitian, A.D. 94, had no such places of worship as
in one place, and with closed doors, for fear of the Jews ;
and churches. This statement is grounded upon some mistaken
eight days afterwards, they were again together with closed passages of Origen, Minutius Felix, and Arnobius, who say
doors. These would seem somewhat to invalidate the supposi- that the Christians had no temples, which they take as a
tion of their being collected together for prayer, or at least denial of their having any churches; which opinion, though
public prayer, for it is mentioned that after the return of the advanced with some show of learning by Vedelius, Suicerus,
"
apostles from Bethany, they were continually in the Temple and others, is altogether without foundation, contradicted by
praising and blessing God." Again on the day of Pentecost, the authors which they allege, and by themselves in the
they were all together in one house, and, as it is noticed, with arguments they produce. Dr. Mode has given us an elaborate
one accord, which expression would seem to express the exist- disquisition on the subject, in confutation of this opinion,
once of some object, reason, or purpose of their being together, wherein he has collected the authorities of the ancients, which,
and what more likely than for common prayer? yet they still for the three first ages, prove the existence of Christian
attended the public services of the Temple, for it is related churches.
that after this, "Peter and John went up together into the
"
We shall briefly, for the sake of those who have not that

Temple at the hour of prayer, being the ninth hour." After learned author, give the substance of his proofs, and add some
the incident which occurs at this time in the Temple, and others of our own observation. In the first place, he shows
when Peter and John were released from custody, they that the ancient authors, St. Austin, St. Basil, St. Jerom,
returned to their companions, who were assembled together and St. Chrysostom, and those under the name of Sediilius,
probably in the same place as before and after relating CEcumenius, Theophylact, in their comments on that passage
"
the circumstances, it is told us that they prayed and spake of St. Paul, (1 Cor. xi. 22,) Have ye not houses to eat and
'

the word of God with boldness." Some time subsequent to drink in? or, despise ye the church of God?' all took the
these events, it is related of Paul and Barnabas, while word church there, not for the assembly, but for an assembly-
at Antioch, that for a whole year they assembled themselves room, or place expressly set apart for sacred devotional pur-
with the church, and taught much people. This was in all poses. Nowthe apostles, at stated seasons, were in the habit
probability in a stated place set apart for the purpose. Still of meeting together for prayer, and supplication for the pros-
stronger is the probability with regard to the house of Mary, perity of Christianity, upon mount Zion, at Jerusalem, the
where Peter fled after hisescape from prison, and where Hyperoon, or upper room, so often mentioned in the Acts of
many Christians were gathered together praying one might
;
the Apostles, (Acts i. 13,) and where they were gathered
suppose that a room in her house had been given by Mary together when the Holy Ghost came upon them, (Acts ii.)
for the purpose of public worship. Lydia probably made a and where our blessed Lord also celebrated his Last Supper,
similar gift. But, not to multiply instances, we would par- and where he appeared to his disciples on two successive
ticularly allude to a circumstance which occurred while Paul sabbaths after his resurrection, to their great amazement,
was staying at Troas; for it is related that "upon the first and at a time when the doors were close shut and barred,
day of the week, when the disciples came together to "break for fear of the Jews, (John xx. 19.) Here the seven deacons
bread," in other words, to celebrate the eucharist, Paul were elected and ordained, (Acts vi. 3,) and here the first
preached unto them, ready to depart on the morrow, and council of the churches was held at Jerusalem, (Acts xv.)
continued his speech until midnight. And there were many This place becoming holy and sacred by these meetings, was
lights in the upper chamber, where they were gathered afterwards inclosed within a goodly edifice, called the church
together. Now there sat in a window, a certain young man of mount Zion ; and in the time of Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem,
named Eutychus, being fallen into a deep sleep ; and as Paul it was called the
high church of the apostles.
was long preaching, he sunk down with sleep, and fell down "
This was the olico$, or same house of assembly at Jeru-
from the third loft, and was taken up dead ;" upon which Paul salem, that is mentioned, (Acts ii.
46,) where the apostles
goes down to him, and restores him to life. This is probably met for the breaking of bread, when they had all things in
the most minute description of the place, time, and mode of common. Some think the word KO.T olitu is not to be trans-
worship recorded in the Sacred Writings. It will not lated from house to house, as in our version, but in the house
escape remark that the room in this instance is said to have or room where the Christian assembly was used to meet
been an upper room, and there is reason to believe that it together. The next argument is drawn from what Eusebius
was a practice amongst Christians, to use the upper room, or observes of the iJepoTrevTot in Egypt, whether Essenes, or
Hyperion, for this purpose it will be remembered that it was
; Christians, they had their ae\iveia, or places appropriated for
an upper room in which the Saviour celebrated the passover divine worship, from the days of St. Mark, and that such
and instituted the eucharist, and it may possibly have been places are to be understood in all such passages of St. Paul,
for some reason of this kind, rather than from the situation as " Salute ye the churches " in such and such an house ;
and nature of the place, that the upper room was adopted. that is, the congregation which meet in the houses of such
It has been maintained that the early Christians had no pious Christians, who had generally some part of their dwell-
places set apart for public worship but as Bingham combats
; ing, or upper rooms, or housetop, (see Acts x. 9,) remote
this argument, it may be as well to let him speak for him- from noise, set apart for the church to assemble in, or, like
self. His remarks are for the most part a summary of the that of Lydia's, (Acts xvi. 15.) At Macedonia was such an
40
 ECC 314 ECC
end of this century, also uses the name Ecclesia, for the place
appropriated room, (see Acts xx.,) where St. Paul, on the
first day of the week, preached to an immense multitude, and of the assembly, as well as the congregation for, speaking of ;

continued his discourse till midnight, when a young man, the church, he says, ' I call not now the place alone by this
named Eutychus, sitting in the window where the lattice was name, but the congregation of the elect people, the church ;'
open, being overcome by sleep, fell from the upper story,
and and so, in his famous homily, Quis dives Salvetur, he brings
was taken up dead, but whom St. Paul again restored to life. in the Asian bishop, to whom St. John committed the young
That there were devotional places, or oratories, set apart man be trained up in the Christian discipline, complaining
to
in the first century, I think that the youth was become a villain and a robber, and,
expressly for Christian worship
we have sufficient evidence ; whether we call these places instead of following the church, had now betaken himself to
churches or not. The following century is, however, more the mountains, with a company like himself. By this it is
clear, where they are sometimes by the name of
called plain, that, in his time, the word Ecclesia was taken for
Coenaculiim; at others, by that which we have before men- a church, or sacred place, as well as for the Christian assem-
tioned, as Hyporoon. Thus we find Lucian, a pagan, or who- bly themselves, and that such a building as a church must
ever was the author of the dialogue called Philopatris, about have been known and understood. have also the Scrip- We
the time of Trajan, one of the pagan emperors, bringing in ture accounts of the seven Apocalyptic churches, in Asia
one CVetias, telling how the Christians carried him into a Minor, to whom St. John the Divine, wrote from the isle of
Ilyperoon, the place of their assembly, with a design of Patmos, where he was banished by the emperor Domitian,
making him a proselyte to their religion. lie argues further, A. D. 96. These churches were Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos,
from the tradition of the church, derived from the ancient Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea, (Revelation
author of the Recognitians, under the name of Clemens Ro- ii. and iii.) ;
some of whose ruins, as travellers inform us,
inanus, which says, that Theophilus, to whom St. Luke is now remain.
" In the third
supposed to have inscribed his Gospel at Antioch, where the century, the testimonies are both more numer-
name of Christians was first given to the followers of Christ, ous and certain respecting the churches of the Apostolic
did convert his house into a church and the like is reported
; Christians, though a succession of Roman emperors had passed
of the house of Pudcns, a Roman senator and martyr, in the edicts against them of a more severe and cruel nature, with
A eta Pudentis, that it was turned into a church after his the exception of that of Nero's. The persecuting emperors
martyrdom. lie concludes this first century with the of this century were Septimius Severus, A.D. 203; Maximi-
testimony of Clemens Romanus, in his genuine epistle to the nus Thrax, A. D. 236 ; Decius, A. D. 250 ; Callus, A. D. 203 ;

Corinthians, who says, that God has ordained well-appropriate Valerianus. A. D. 258 ;
and
lastly, Diocletian, A.
D. 302.

places, where at appointed times and seasons he would be

" We have a testimony, in this age, of the existence of
solemnly served, so that all things might be done religiously Christian churches, from a heathen author. Lampridius, in
and orderly. the life of Alexander Severus, reports, 'that there happening
" In
the second century, while the persecutions were still a dispute between the Christians and victuallers about a cer-
rifeagainst the Christians, more cruel acts were passed under tain noted public place, each party challenging it as their
Trajan, A. D. Marcus Aurelius, A. D. 1(56, against
107, and own, the emperor's rescript determined it thus, in favour of
them, by which became necessary for them to act with
it the Christians that it was better th:.t God should be wor-
:

firmness, and in compact. Thus Ignatius, in his epistle to shipped there after any manner, than that it should be given
the Magnesians, exhorts them to meet together in one place, up to the victuallers.' About the middle of this period
which he TO vaov OE, the temple of God, and, in his
calls lived the famous Gregory of Neocsesarea, surnamed Thau-
epistle to the Philadelphians, he informs us, that at this time maturgus, who himself built several churches in Neococsarea,
there was one altar in every church, and one apostolic bishop, and the adjacent parts of Pontus, as Gregory Nyssen reports
or head, appointed with his presbytery and deacons. The in his life. St. Cyprian, about the same time, speaks of the
present Greek copies, indeed, read it a little different from place where the church assembled, under the
name of Domini-
Dr. Mode, leaving out the word church, but the mentioning cum, the Lord's house; and, in another, opposes the church
one altar is sufficient to intimate they had then a stated place and the capitol the altar of the Lord's house, and the altars
for their ecclesiastical or Christian assembly. Tertullian, of images and idol-gods, to one another for, speaking against ;

who lived in the following century, has clearly intimated some that had lapsed, and, without due contrition, were for
'
had churches, when, com- If this were
that the Christians, at this time, intruding themselves into the church again
plaining against those who followed the trade of idol-making, once permitted,' says he, what then remains but that the
'

(for the Gentiles excused themselves, that they did not wor- church should give way to the capitoI, and the priests with-
ship them,)
'
he says, the zeal of faith cannot declaim all draw and take away the altar of the Lord with them, and let
the day long upon this point, bewailing that any Christians the images and idol-gods, with their altars, succeed, and take
should come into the house of God from the shop of the possession of the sanctuary, where the venerable bench of
enemy, and lift up their hands to God the Father, which our clergy sit?' About this time, also, Dionysius, bishop
were the mothers or makers of idols.' In another place he of Alexandria, speaks of the churches as appropriate to the
calls the church Domus Columbce, the house of the dove, service of God.
meaning either Christ, or his dove-like religion. And again, "It appears further, from the rescript of Gallienus the
he restores the Chris-
he expressly distinguishes between the baptistry and the emperor, recorded by Eusebius, where
church, which in those days were places separate from each tians their churches, under the name rcmot OpT/crj/Adjuot, wor-
has been noted before, out
other. In this age, Pius, bishop of Rome, wrote two short
shipping places ; and from what
epistles to Justus, bishop of Vienne in Gaul ; in the first of of the letter of Aurelian, which chides the senate for demur-
which mentioned one Euprepia, a pious matron, who as if they had been con-
ring about opening Sibylline books,
is is
said to have consigned the title of her house over to the
sulting, not in the capitol,
but in a Christian church. As
church, in which was to be celebrated Divine offices of wor- also that other rescript of his, in Eusebius, that the request
ship. And in the other epistle is named one Pastor, a pres- of the council of Antioch ordered Paulus Samosatensis to
byter, who is commended for erecting a titulus, that is, a be turned out of the house of the church. But the testi-
small Christian church ;
Clemens Alexandrinus, towards the mony of Eusebius goes further beyond all others; for,
 ECC 315 ECC

speaking of the peaceable times which the Christians enjoyed of this nature, the very tenor of the imperial edicts, which
from the persecutions of Valerian to that of Diocletian, he raised the last persecution, is undeniable evidence, that the
observes, that the number of Christians so grew and mul-
'
Christians, in all parts of the world, had their public churches,
tiplied in that fifty years, that their ancient churches were to which they resorted so long as they had opportunities to
frequent them ; for Eusebius says,
'
not large enough to receive them, and therefore they erected, the edicts of the em-
from the foundations, more ample and spacious ones in every perors of Rome were sent to all the Roman provinces, even
city.'
to Britain, commanding the churches of the Christians to be
" The only all this, made with any show of levelled with the ground, and the Bibles to be given up and
objection against
probability, is drawn from some of the ancient apologists burnt.' This was the last persecution, when Diocletian
Origen, Minutius Felix, Arnobius, and Lactantius, who boasted that he had annihilated Christianity, and proclaimed
seem to say,
'
Christians, in their time, had no
that the the extirpation by exulting inscriptions Nomine Chris-
temples or altars, nor ought to have any ;' but, as Dr. Mede tianorum deleto qui templa evertebant; and, Sitperstitione
shows at large, this is only spoken against such temples, as Christi ubique deleta. But the flame was not extinguished ;
it was
the heathens pleaded for in the notion of encloistering the again to break forth, for the mouth of the Lord had
Deity by an idol, otherwise the very authors from whom the spoken it. Diocletian had now become hateful ; soon after
is drawn, must which he .abdicated the throne, and Constantino the Great
objection largely contradict themselves for ;

Arnobius owns they had their conventicula, houses of assem- assumes the imperial sway of the Roman umpire."
bly, which he complains were barbarously destroyed in the To these remarks we would add some further ones of
last persecutions. And Lactantius says the same, giving Mede, and likewise give, at length, some passages referring
them also the name of the temples of God, which Diocletian to this subject, drawn from the writings of the early fathers
ordered to be demolished, at Bithynia. And Origen himself who were living during the period we are speaking of.
speaks of adorning the Christian churches and altars, in one Basil, speaking of the passage before alluded to, of Hare
of his Homilies upon Joshua. Lactantius, in another of his ye not houses to eat and to drink in ? &c., says, that we ought
Institutions, speaks of one of the Christian conventicula in not to dishonour sacred places or things by the mixture of
a town of Fhrygia, which the heathen had burnt, with the things of common use ; and in answer to the question as to
whole assembly in it. And in his book de Morlibus Perse- whether the Eucharist may be celebrated in a common house
cutorum, he gives a more particular account of the destruc- says, that as the word doth not allow that any common vessel
tion of the churches throughout the heathen world for ho not ;
or utensil shall be brought into places that arc sacred, so like-
only mentions the demolishing the stately churches of Nico- wise doth it forbid that the holy mysteries should be cele-
incdia, in the kingdom of Bithynia, but intimates, that the brated in a common house ; for neither would the Old Testa-
same fate attended the churches over all the world ; however ment permit any such thing to be done, nor our Lord, who
it was, both Eusebius and Lactantius said, "There is here one greater than the temple ;" nor the
agreed in this one point,
that there were churches before the last persecution. apostle, saying, "Have ye not houses to eat and to drink
"
As a further proof of the existence of Christian churches in," &c. Whence we may learn, that we ought not to take
in the middle of this century, we have a remarkable our common supper in the church, nor should we dishonour
story told
by Eusebius concerning the martyr Marinus, A.D. 259, in the the Lord's supper by eating it in a private house. But if
time of Gallienus Marinus, who, being a candidate for a Roman one be necessitated to communicate in private, let them choose
office at Cossarea, was informed against as a Christian, out the most clean and decent room for such a purpose, and
by an
antagonist, who pleaded that he ought not to have the oflice, withal see that he do it in the fittest and most seasonable
upon that score. The judge, upon examination finding it to be time. St. Chrysostom says, on the same subject, " Behold
so, gives him three hours to consider whether he would quit his a further change, that not the poor only, but also the church
religion or his life. During this space, Theotecnus, bishop of itself is injured. For, as hereby thou makost the Lord's
Caesarea, meets with him, and, taking him by the hand carries supper a private supper, so thou dealest no better with tho
him to the church, and sets him by the holy table, then offers place, in that thou usest the church as a private and ordinary
him a Bible and a sword, and bids him take his choice. He house." So again, Theodoret, " If ye come together to feast
readily, without demur, lays his hand upon the Bible, where- it, do this in your own houses, for to do thus in the church

upon the bishop thus bespake him: 'And here,' says he, is a manifest
contempt, a plain dishonour done to the church.
'adhere to God, and in his strength enjoy what thou hast For how can it but seem a thing wholly indecorous and
chosen, and go in peace :' with this he immediately returned absurd for you to fare deliciously in the temple of God,
from the church to the judge, makes his confession, receives where the Lord himself is present, who hath prepared for us
his sentence, and dies a martyr. a common table, when at the same time those Christians that
"
Optatus takes notice of forty churches in Rome before the are poor are hungry, and out of countenance by reason of
last persecution, which, being taken from the Christians, were their poverty 1" The author of the commentaries upon the
afterwards restored to them by order of Maxentius, as St. the same " Ye
epistles, alluding to text, says, despise the
Austin has more than once informed us. We
have also read church of God, making it a place for common feasts and
of some Christian churches in Africa, that were demolished banquetings," and in the same track follow Theophylact and
in thispersecution ; as at Zama and Furni, noticed iu the OZcurnenius.
Gesta Purgationis of Cecilian and Felix. Others were taken With regard to the nature of the earliest churches, and
"
away ; and, in the mean time, till they were restored again, more especially to tho Hyperoon, Mede says, For the first it
both councils and church-assemblies were held in private isnot to be imagined they were such goodly and stately struc-
houses, as Optatus observes of the council of Cita. And tures as the church had after the empire became Christian,
St. Austin after him says, It was not to be wondered at,
'
and we now, by God's blessing, enjoy ; but such as the state
that a few bishops should hold a council in a private house, and condition of the times would permit , at the first some
in the heat of persecution, when the martyrs made no scru- capable and convenient room within the walls or dwelling oi
ple, in the like case, to be baptized in prison, and Christians some pious disciple, dedicated by the religious bounty of the
meet in prison to celebrate the sacrament with the martyrs, owner to the use of the church, and that usually an A.vdjyeov,
as well as in secluded places.' But not to multiply instances orTrrepuov, an upper room,such as the Latins call Caenaculum,
 ECC 316 ECC
being, according to their manner of building, as the most ness of heart. For so tear' olnov may be rendered ; for
large and capacious of any other, so likewise the most retired ev olnu, and not domatim or per domos, house by house, as
and freest from disturbance, and next to heaven, as having we translate it, and so both the Syriac and Arabic render
no other room above it. For such uppermost places we find it, and the New Testament elsewhere uses it."

they were wont then to make choice of, even for private It would seem from this last Mede sees no
passage, that
devotions, as may be gathered from what we read of St. difficulty in reconciling theattendance of the apostles on the
Peter, (Acts x. 9,) that he went up to the housetop to pray ; public service of the Jewish Temple, with the supposition
for so <5o>fia signifies exusu Helleiiistarum, and is accordingly that they likewise celebrated a common
worship in their own
here rendered by the vulgar Latin, in superiora. chapels or consecrated places ; and if we look into the matter,
" Such an as we was that remembered this double service will not
Hyperoon speak of, appear extraordinary, for as yet
by the name of Ceenaculum Sion, where, after our Saviour they adhered to their Master's practice of worshipping at the
was ascended, the apostles and disciples assembled together Temple, while at the same time there were many peculiar
in prayer and supplication, and where, being thus and distinctive services in their new religion, which
daily they
assembled, the Holy Ghost came down upon them in cloven could not perform in the Temple. For instance, the celebra-
tongues of fire at the feast of Pentecost. Concerning which tion of the Holy Eucharist was an essential no less than a
there hath been a tradition in the church, that this was the peculiar rite, which they would not have been allowed, even
same room wherein our blessed Saviour, the night before his supposing them willing, to have celebrated in the Temple ;
passion, celebrated the Passover with his disciples, and insti- they were necessitated therefore to fulfil this command in
tuted the mystical Supper of his Body and Blood for the their own places of worship. This seems to have formed a
sacred rite of the gospel ; the same place where, on the day continuation and completion of the Temple service.
"
of his resurrection, he came and stood in the midst of his Such as these, I suppose," continues Mede, " were the
disciples, the doors being shut, and, having showed them places at first set apart for holy meetings, much like to our
private chapels now in great men's houses, though not for so
'
his hands and his feet, said Peace be unto you,' &c; the

place where, eight days, or the Sunday after, he appeared in general a use.
the same manner again unto them, being together, to satisfy "
In process of time, as the multitude of believers increased,
the incredulity of Thomas, who the first time was not with some wealthy and devout Christian gave his whole house or
the rest ; the place where James the brother of our Lord mansion, either while he lived, if he could spare it, or
was created by the apostles, bishop of Jerusalem ; the place bequeathed it at his death, unto the saints, to be set apart
where the seven deacons were elected and ordained the ;
and accommodated for sacred assemblies and religious uses.
"
place where the apostles and elders of the church at Jerusalem At length, as the multitude of believers still more in-
held that council, and pattern of all councils, for decision of creased, ind the Church grew more able, they built them
that question whether the Gentiles which believed were to structures of purpose, partly in the cemeteries of martyrs,
be circumcised or not ;
and for certain, the place of this partly in other public places; even as the Jews whose
Coenaculum was afterwards enclosed with a goodly church, religion was no more the empire's than theirs had, never-
known by the name of the church of Sion, upon the top of theless, their synagogues in all cities and places where they
which it stood ; insomuch that St. Jerome, in his Epitaphio lived among the Gentiles."
I'uulcc, made bold to apply that of the Psalm to it,'IIer founda- The following quotations from writers of the period will
tions are upon the holy hills ; the Lord loveth the gates of Sion give some insight into the general use and nature of distinct
more than all the dwellings of Jacob.' How soon this erec- places of worship in their days. In the second century,
tion was made, I know not; but I believe it was much more lijnatius speaking to the Magnesians, says, in the passage
ancient than those other churches erected in other places of alluded to above, " All of you meet together for prayer in
that city by Constantino and his mother, because neither one place, let there be one common prayer, one mind, one
Eusebius, Socrates, Theodorct, nor Sozomen, make any hope in love, in the immaculate faith in Jesus Christ, than
mention of the foundation thereof, as they do of the rest. which nothing is better. All of you as one man run together
It is called by S. Cyril, who was bishop of the place, the to the temple of God, as to one altar, to one Jesus Christ, the
upper church of the apostles ; and says he, The Holy Ghost High Priest of the unbegotten God."
'

descended upon the apostles in the likeness of fiery tongues, In the third century Hippolytus, describing the state of the
here in Jerusalem, in the upper church of the apostles.' world at the coming of antichrist, says, " the temples of God
" If shall be as common and ordinary houses ; churches shall be
this tradition be true, it should seem by it that this

Coenaculum, from the time our blessed Saviour first hallowed utterly demolished everywhere ; the Scriptures shall be
it
by the celebration of his mystical Supper, was thenceforth despised :" thus showing the esteem in which churches were
devoted to be a place of prayer and holy assemblies. This then held.
is the more
easy to be believed, if the house were the posses- Gregory of Neocsesarea, surnamed Thaumaturgus, who
sion of some disciple at least, if not kindred also to our middle of the third century, describing the five
lived in the
Saviour according to the flesh, which both reason persuades, degrees or admission of penitents according to the discipline
and tradition likewise confirmeth it to have been. of his time, says, 1st. Weeping (the first degree of penance)
"And if this were so, why may not I think that this was without the porch of the oratory, where the mournful
Ceenaculum Sion, or upper room of Sion, was that olnog sinners stood, and begged of all the faithful as they went in
whereof we read, concerning the first Christian society at to pray for them. 2d. Hearing (the second degree) was
'
Jerusalem, that they continued daily in the Temple, and, within the Porch, in the place called Narthex, the place
breaking bread (/car' olicov)
in the house, ate their meat with where these penitent sinners (being now under the/er/a or
gladness and singleness of heart ?' the meaning being, that censure of the church) might stand near to the catechumens,
when they had performed their devotions daily in the temple and hear the Scripture read and expounded, but were to go
at the accustomed times of prayer there, they used to resort out before them. 3d. Prostration or lying along on the
immediately to the Ceenaculum, and there having celebrated Church-pavement. These prostrate ones were admitted some
the mystical banquet of the Holy Eucharist, afterwards took what further into the church, and went out with the cate-
their ordinary and necessary repast with gladness and single- chumens. 4th. Standing or staying with the People or
 ECC 317 ECC

Congregation. These Consistentes did not go out with the remarkable circumstance, 'that it had been dedicated
Catechumens, but after they and the other penitents had left, before by one Aurelius, a heathen high-priest, with this
remained, and joined in prayer with the faithful. 5th. Par- inscription, Aurelius pontifex dedicavit, which our author
ticipation of the Sacraments." This is a somewhat remarkable says was left in the frontispiece, to be read by all the people,
passage, to which we shall have occasion again to refer. because, by God's providence, it was fulfilled again in Aure-
In the rescript of Galienus the churches of the Christians lius the bishop, for whom it served as well as the former
are mentioned as Torroi Qpi)OKev(ji[toi or Places of Worship. Aurelius, when he had once dedicated it to the use and ser-
Gregory Nyssen, speaking of the success of Gregory of vice of the Christian religion, and set his chair in the place
" How of the goddess. Not long after this, Honorius published
Neocsesarea, relates, that, becoming all things to all
men, he had in a short time gained a great number of converts two laws in the Western empire, forbidding the destruction
through the assistance of the Divine Spirit, and that hereupon of any more temples in cities, because they might serve for
he had a strong desire to set upon the building of a temple ornament, or public use, being once purged of all unlawful
or place for sacred assemblies ; wherein he was the more furniture idols and altars, which he ordered to be destroyed

encouraged by the general forwardness he observed among wherever they were found.
" These
the converts to contribute both their moneys and their best laws, as Gothofred rightly observes, seem to have
assistance to so good a work. This is that temple which is been published at the instance of the African fathers, who, as
to be seen even at this day." Eusebius, speaking of the long appears from one of the canons of the African code, peti-
peace which the Church enjoyed before the persecution of tioned the emperor, that such temples as were in the country
" How shall
Diocletian, says, any one be able to express those only, and private places not serving for any ornament, might
infinite multitudes of Christians assembling in every city, be destroyed. Arcadius published such another law for the
those famous meetings of theirs in their oratories or Eastern empire, which relates only to the destruction of tem-
churches? and therefore they, not being content with those ples in country-places, and not in cities, where now there was
smaller churches which before they had, (those their ancient no such danger of superstition, since they might be converted
edifices not being large enough to receive so great a number,) to a better use. And upon this ground the author, under the
took care to erect from the very foundation fairer and more name of Prosper, commends Honorius for his piety and devo-
spacious ones in every city." tion, because he gave all the temples, with their adjacent
Soon after this dreadful persecution Constantino succeeded places, to the church, only requiring the idols to be destroyed.
to the government, and having been fully convinced of the 'Tis true, indeed, after this we find a law of Theodosius
truth of the Christian faith, with hearty and unremitting zeal Junior commanding all temples to be destroyed ; but, as
" the
set about its establishment, nor to any thing did he give more Gothofred seems rightly tointerpret it, word destroy-
constant attention than to the erection and adornment of ing, in that law, is to be understood only of despoiling them
churches. Before, however, entering upon a description and of their superstition, because it follows in the same law,
examination of these edifices, it may be as well to say a few that they were to be expiated by placing the sign of the
words respecting a subject which has not been agreed upon cross upon them, which was a token of their being turned
amongst the learned ; it is this, whether the early Christians into churches. And his observation may be confirmed fur-
made use of heathen temples for the performance of their pub- ther from what Evagrius reports of Theodosius that he
lic services. Bingham enters into the subject at some turned the Tycocum, or Temple of Fortune at Antioch,
length,
from whom we quote the following: into a church called by the name of Ignatius. The like was
" At when
the reformation from heathenism was in its done by a great temple at Tunis in Egypt, as Valesius has
first,

infancy, no idol-temples were made use of as churches, but observed out of the Itinerary of Antonius the martyr.
" Cluver
were either permitted to the heathen for some time, or else also, in his description of Italy, tikes notice of
shut up or demolished. Till the twenty-fifth year of Constan- a place in the Jerusalem Itinerary, called Sacraria, betwixt
tine, A.D. 333, the temples were in a great measure tolerated, Fulginum and Spoletum, near the head of the river Clitumnus,
but in that year he published his laws commanding temples, which he thinks was no other than the temple of Jupiter
altars, and images to be destroyed, which laws are sometimes Clitumnus, though another learned antiquary makes it some-
referred to in the Theodosian code. And pursuant to these what doubtful as to the present church now standing there.
laws, a great many temples were defaced in all parts of the However, we have seen instances enough of this practice,
world, and their revenues confiscated, as appears not only from and Bede tells us, that 'Gregory the Great gave Austin
the Christian writers, St. Jerome and Eusebius, and others, but the monk instructions of the same nature about the temples
also from the complaints of the heathen writers, Eunapius, here among the Saxons in Britain, that if they were well
Libanius, and Julian. In some of the following reigns also built they should not be destroyed, but only be converted
the same method was taken to shut up or to deface the tem- from the worship of devils to the service of the true God.'
ples, as is evident from the account which Ruffin gives of the And so he observes it was done at Rome, where, not long
general destruction of them in Egypt by the order of Valen- after, Boniface the Fourth turned the heathen temple, called
tinian. But in the next reign, in the time of Theodosius, the Pantheon, into the church of All Saints, in the time of
another method was taken with some of them. For as the emperor Phocas. Sometimes the temples were pulled
Gothofred observes, out of the Chronicon Alexandrinum :
down, and the materials were given to the church, out of
'
Theodosius turned the famous temple of Heliopolis, called which new edifices were erected for the service of religion,
Balanium, into a Christian church, (e-rtoiTiaeavro eKKX.Tjaiav as Sozomen and Ruffin particularly observe of the temples of
Xpioriavuv.) And about the same time Socrates tells us, Bacchus and Serapis at Alexandria. I have already shown
'
That when Valens had banished the two Macarii, the heads out of Antonius, that the Roman halls or basilica were like-
of the Egyptian monks, into a pagan island, they converted wise turned into churches. The like is reported of some
all the inhabitants, and turned their temple into the form of Jewish synagogues by the author of the Chronicon Alexan-
a church.' The like was done by the famous temple of the drinum, who takes notice particularly of a synagogue of the
Dea Celestis at Carthage, by Aurelius, the bishop, in the time Samaritans, in a place called Gargarida, which Zeno the
of Honorius, A.D. 399, which the author of the book, de emperor converted into a large Christian church.
" And
prcedictionibus, under the name of Prosper, tells, with this though it is not agreed by learned men whether the
 ECC 318 ECC

temples said to be built by Hadrian were intended for the the meritorious act of saving and converting the majestic
worship of himself, or the worship of Christ ; for Casaubon structure of the Pantheon.' In casting the account of the
and Pagi think he designed them for himself, whilst Huetius merits and demerits of the Christian hierarchy, such a pon-
"
defends Lampridius, his relation, who says, He designed tiff as
Gregory the Great would have been ill inclined to
accept the encomium.
'
them for the honour of Christ ;" yet it is certain, that after In the gergo of Gibbon, fanaticism'

they had been used to other purposes, they

were at last, some is piety, and
'prudence' unbelief. The 'meritorious act,'
of them, turned into Christian churches for Epiphanius
: thankful as we may be for the result, was a single item, by
'
There was a great temple at Tiberias, called the no means influencing the general balance of praise or dis-
says,
Hadrianum, which the Jews made use of for a bath ; but praise; it was the solitary performance of Boniface IV.; it
Josephus Comes, the converted Jew,
in the time of Constan- was an act from which no consequences resulted. With the
tino, turned it into a church.' And the like was done by exception of the Pantheon, we fail to detect any real example
another of them by Athanasius at Alexandria, having before in Rome, of a temple which can be said to owe its preserva-
been the hall or place of Licinius, as the same Epiphanius tion, in the proper sense of the term, to the Christian clergy.
informs us. So that now, partly by the munificence of the They had no thought of the kind they took no pleasure in
emperors, and partly by
their orders for converting heathen such antiquities. They sought no credit for such care.
temples into churches, and partly by the great zeal and libe- Antiquaries, with eager zeal, have collected about ten examples
rality of private Christians in times of peace, churches in which this preservation is asserted. Even in the cases
became another thing from what they were in former ages, that which are least dubious, no further merit can be claimed for
is, more
noble and stately edifices, more rich and beautiful." the hierarchy than the accidental preservation of a portico,
Thus far Bingham, who seems to conclude from the above a cella, or a wall, an encumbrance which it was troublesome
quotations of the early writers, that to con vert heathen tem- to remove a fragment which saved some expense, built up,
ples into Christian
churches was not an uncommon prac- concealed, marred, or deformed by the new erection to which
tice :a writer, however, in the Quarterly Review, in a cri- it was unwillingly conjoined.
" It could not be otherwise.
tique on the publications of Knight and Bunsen, on Eccle- In the early Christians, any
siastical Antiquities, arrives at a very different conclusion ; participation in our modern worship of heathen art, would
and as he has evidently given more than ordinary attention have been false and unnatural. All the opinions, all the
to the subject, it may not be amiss to refer to his remarks, habits, all the feelings, all the conscience, of the early Chris-
in this place : tians strove against the preservation of the memorials of
" "
The antipathy," says he, borne by the early Christians heathenism. Neither beauty nor convenience, if they had
to the fine arts, debased by the pollutions of heathen idolatry, possessed the latter requisite, would, save in some few special
can neither be denied nor concealed and the same causes
; cases, like that of the Pantheon, plead for the preservation
which prevented the cultivation of the arts, ensured the of the relics of classical antiquity. They considered the
degradation and sub version
of their proudest and most splendid idols as accursed. No object which had in anywise been
monuments. Excluding for the present the consideration of connected with the worship of idols, or could be supposed to
other agencies, the first paragraph in the rise of Christian have been employed in their service, was to be used without
architecture, must narrate the fall of the structures devoted exorcism. Thus, in the ritual of the church of Durham,
to the superstition, which it was the end of the gospel to there is a form of prayer for hallowing the vase found in the
obliterate and destroy. Roman encampment, which could not be employed for any
"The heathen temples were doomed to inevitable ruin. Christian use until subjected to such purification. Nor was
Laws had been promulgated by Theodosius for their preser- this belief confined to the rude Northumbrian peasant, or to
vation conducive to the decoration of the city, they might
;
a barbarous age. Let us place ourselves before the portal
be perhaps rendered useful for the purposes of civil society. of St. Peter's, fresh from the workmen's hands. Four
Some may have been thus respited, though not rescued, until months have been employed in removing the huge obelisk of
the decayed remains crumbled to the ground ; they were Sesostris from the ruins of Nero's Circus to the front of the
never respected or honoured by public opinion, and could great Basilica. Eight hundred workmen, toiling at creaking
rarely be adapted to the objects pointed
out by the imperial winch and groaning capstan, heave up the mass whilst the
;

law, without such alterations as in most cases amounted to breathless crowd watch the slow rising of the gigantic beam.
destruction. Others were accidentally preserved in desolate It stops; when the one cry, 'aqua allefuni? which subjects

or secluded situations, in the forest or the marsh, or the the individual who suggests the happy expedient, to the pain
mountain-glen, or on the shore, whence
the inhabitants have of death, enables the maestro to complete his task ; amidst
the thunder of the cannon, the guglia' stands firm and erect
'
been extirpated, or chased away. Such are the columns of
Poestum the heavens are yet as bright as when the garlands its basement. But is the work complete 7 No : the
:
upon
hun<r down from the ruined architrave ; the sea as azure as trophy of the victory of Christianity over heathenism cannot
its former
when the waves were ploughed by the painted prows ; the yet be received as such, until all connection with
In solemn proces-
crushed herbs beneath your feet, still send up their rich slavery to the fiend has been destroyed.
works of art are still as noble, so
perfume. To the senses, the sion, the supreme pontiff exorcises the magnificent work,
the works of nature as sweet and gay ; but the whole scene long dedicated to the foul superstition of Misraim, and devotes
mourns under the curse inflicted upon scoffing, lascivious, it to the honour of the Cross, performing the rites which

corrupted Hellas. Language, people, race

their very name were deemed to expel the evil spirit. Those who may not
has disappeared. The wasting pestilence still hovers, and share in the belief which dictated these ceremonies, must,
will ever hover, marking the vengeance which has fallen on nevertheless, respect the sentiments contained in the simple
of the
the deserted shore. majestic language, commemorating the consecration
"Few temples were ever adapted for the purposes of spoils of heathenism to the service of the Cross. Ecce '

Christian worship ; fewest of all in the capital of the Chris- Crux Domini Christus vincit Christus regnat Christus
tian world. 'Of the Christian hierarchy,' says Gibbon, the '
imperat Christus ab omni malo plebem suam defendat

bishops of Romewere commonly the most prudent and the Vicit Leo de tribu Juda.'
" Thus did Pope Sixtus record his triumph. Yet there
least fanatic; nor can any positive charge be opposed to
 ECC 319 ECC
was a greater triumph felt
by the zeal which taught the early came to be applied to the place in which they met; this
Christians to glory in casting down the altars and the high word is very common. Another appellation is Kvpianov,
places devoted to sin ; deeming we will not presume to Dominicum, or Domus Dei, which is met with in Eusebius
judge whether rightly or wrongly that such a testimony and two or three councils Domus Columbce used by Ter-
;

to the truthwas imperatively enjoined upon them. By their tullian, is a similar term. Other terms found in Eusebius,
deeds they contemned the temporizing policy of the emperors. Socrates, Sozomen, and others, are npoaevKTrjpia and olnot.
They sought the actual and visible victory of literally erect- but one very
evTijpiot, ; frequent in the writers of the fourth
ing the temple of the Lord upon the ruins of the habitation and though scarcely seen before, is Basilicas.
fifth centuries,
of the demon. The statues were broken, to be buried in the The word temple was seldom or never used in this sense
foundations hence few sculptures have ever been found at
; during the first three centuries.
Rome, which did not, like the Venus of the Medici, show earliest descriptions of early churches, now extant,
The
by their defacement and fractures, the aversion of which are to be found in the writings of Eusebius, who gives some-
they had been the objects. Amongst the great congregation what lengthened accounts of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem,
of the faithful, the distaste, the horrors excited by paganism and of the church of Paulinus at Tyre, which we proceed to
its structures, monuments,
glories, charms were uncon- notice. The descriptions are not very lucid they show us ;

querable and paramount. Idols might have been removed, how richly churches were adorned, and throw some little
and the building consecrated by tho rites, which, according light upon their structure and arrangement, although the
to the primitive belief, would drive away the demon ; yet no account is in many places confused ; still it gives us some
lustration could entirely heal the leprosy of the walls. The idea of the buildings, and, by comparison of this with other
language of the Virgin Martyr was echoed in every accounts, and with the remains of what are supposed to be
heart earlier churches, we are enabled to decide
:
pretty nearly their
'
Tour gods, your temples, brothel-houses rather ;
original form and distribution. He commences with a des-
Or wicked actions of the worst of men, cription of the Holy Sepulchre.
Pursued and practised. Your religious rites 1 The Empress Helena, after a long search, succeeds in
Oh! call them rather juggling mysteries,
discovering the place of the Holy Sepulchre; which had
The baita and nets of hell
been covered over by the pagans, and polluted by their rites,
Tour Venus whom you worship, was a harlot
the place having been dedicated by them to Venus, a statue
Flora, the foundress of the public stews,
And has for that her sacrifice. of which goddess was erected over the Sepulchre. Constan-
Tour Jupiter, a loose adulterer, tino having destroyed all the remains of heathenism, and
Incestuous with his sister. Head but those
That have canonized them. Tou will find them worse having had the place purified from such abominations,
Than in chaste language I can speak them to you.' proceeds to consider the erection of a suitable church upon
the spot, and sends directions to Macarius, bishop of Jerusa-
" Whatever had been touched by paganism, seemed, and lem, upon the subject, aportion of which, as given by Eusebius,
can we say unjustly be reeking with impurity."
? to we transfer to these pages.
On we "
this subject towards the opinions of the
incline Moreover, I would persuade you to that which is clear
reviewer, notwithstanding the evidence adduced by Bingham ; and evident, namely, that we ought to take especial care that
at the same time we do not mean to deny the occasional this place, which we have purified and cleansed from
super-
application of pagan temples to Christian uses under peculiar stitious idols, and which God and
good men, from primitive
circumstances, as in the case of Austin and the Saxons at times accounted sacred and holy, and which was afterwards
a later date, yet we do think the instances of such application so esteemed for the attestation and confirmation it gave to
were comparatively few, and formed the exception rather our belief in Christ's passion, should be honoured by
erecting
than the rule. For not only were the feelings of the early a church thereat. It is meet therefore that
your wisdom
Christians enlisted against every
thing connected with the should so dispose of this work, and prudently provide all
worship of the heathen deities, or devils, as St. Paul calls things necessary thereto, that the beauty of the temple may
them, but the form also of pagan temples was totally un- excel all other churches, and the several parts of it
may
suitable for churches. Temples were little more than cells exceed the chief churches in other cities. Know therefore
for the reception of the idol and the stood that we commit the care of erecting, building, and
priests, people curiously
outside. The
services of the Christian church
required a adorning the walls thereof, to our friend Dracilianus and the
very different arrangement ; here you required accommodation president of your province. For out of our gracious bounty
for worshippers within the walls" as the
very name eKK^aia, we have commanded them that they should have recourse
assembly, implies ; there is here a communion or organized to your wisdom to know what artificers and workmen shall
congregation. Christians came together not merely to behold be necessary to the building thereof, and accordingly shall
as it were a spectacle, but to And
pray together, and to hear the straightway provide them, and send them thither.
"
Gospel read to them. The Christian temple," says Pro- when you have cast and contrived what marble pillars, or
fessor Willis, " was a heathen other marble works, will be necessary, either to adorn it, or
temple turned inside out ;"
in the heathen temples the colonnade was
outside, in the make more durable, look that you certify us by your
it
Christian church it was necessary to transpose it to the inside, when we understand what shall be necessary,
letters, that
to obtain greater internal space, as we see was the case in we may provide accordingly. For this, which is the most
their later structures. Taking all this into consideration, special place of all the world, ought to be adorned with all
we think there is some reason to decide that the examples of kinds of work of cost and curiosity.
"
the adaptation of temples to the purpose of Christian
worship, I would have you certify me whether the roof of the
formed but exceptions. The very term temple was never sanctuary should be arched, or built in some other form but ;

used by the earlier writers, when speaking of the church ; if itbe built archwise, it may be conveniently gilded. It
the terms were distinctive of the religion to which remains therefore that your holiness should speedily signify
they
belonged, the former when used, implying always heathen unto those whom we have appointed to be overseers of the
temples. The term employed in contra-distinction to this work, both what artificers and labourers will be necessary
a, which, from being the name of the assembly, soon and what charge it will require ; and also to certify us not
 ECC 320 ECC
only concerning the pillars and other marble work, but also that it might be a most secure bulwark to the whole work.
concerning the wood-work of the roof, if you think fit that Then raising a large and lofty vestibule, he extended it
it should be built in that form." towards the rays of the rising sun ; and, on entering the
Then follows a glowing description of the building when gates, he has not permitted you to enter immediately, with
completed, from which we extract the following :
impure and unwashed feet, within the sanctuary, but leaving
" First of an extensive space between the temple and the vestibule, he
all, then, he adorned the sacred cave itself, as
the chief part of the whole work, and the hallowed monu- has decorated and enclosed it with four
surrounding por-
ment of which the angel radiant with light had once declared ticos, presenting a quadrangular space, with pillars rising
to all that regeneration which was first manifested in the on every side. Between these he carried round the frame-
Saviour's person. This monument, therefore, first of all, as latticed railing, rising to a proportionate and suitable
height ;

the chief part of the whole, the emperor's zealous magnifi- leaving, however, the middle space open, so that the heavens
cence beautified with rare columns, and properly enriched can be seen, and present the splendid sky irradiated by the
with the most splendid decorations of every kind. The next beams of the sun. Here, too, he has placed the symbols of
object of his attention was a space of ground of great extent, the sacred purification, by providing fountains built opposite
and open to the pure air of heaven. This he adorned with the temple, which, by the abundant effusion of its waters,
a pavement of finely-polished stone, and enclosed it on three affords the means of cleansing, to those that proceed to the
sides with porticos of great length. For at the side opposite inner parts of the sanctuary. And this is the first place that
the sepulchre, which was the eastern side, the church itself receives those that enter, and which, at the same time, pre-
was erected, a noble work rising to a vast height, and of sents to those that need the first introduction, both a
splen-
great extent both in length and breadth. The interior of this did and convenient station.
structure was floored with marble slabs of various colours, "After passing this, he has made open entrances to the
whilst the external surface of the walls, which shone with temple, with many other inner vestibules, by placing again
polished stones exactly fitted together, exhibited a degree of three gates on one side towards the rising sun. Of these he
splendour in no respect inferior to that of marble. With constructed the middle one, far exceeding those on each side
regard to the roof, it was covered on the outside with lead, in height and breadth,
embellishing it, at the same time, with
as a protection against the rains of winter. But the inner exceedingly splendid brazen plates bound with iron, and deco-
part of the roof, which was finished with sculptured fretwork, rated with sculpture, superadding them, as guards and
extended in a series of connected compartments, like a vast attendants to a queen. In the same way, after disposing
sea, over the whole church ; and being overlaid throughout the number of the vestibules, also with the porticos on each
with the purest gold, caused the entire building to glitter as side of the whole temple, he constructed above these different
it were with rays of light. openings to the building, for the purpose of admitting more
" Besides
this, were two porticos on each side, with upper light, and these lights or windows he also decorated with
nnd lower ranges of pillars corresponding in length with the various kinds of ornamental sculpture.
" But
church itself, and these also had their roofs ornamented with the royal temple itself he has furnished with more
gold. Of these porticos, those which were exterior to the splendid and rich materials, applying a generous liberality
church were supported by columns of immense size, while in his expenses. And here it appears to me to be super-
those within these rested on piers of stone beautifully adorned fluous to describe the dimensions, the length and breadth of
on the surface. Three gates placed exactly east were intended the edifice, the splendid elegance, the grandeur that surpasses
to receive those who entered the church. description, and the dazzling aspect of the works ; for when
"
Opposite these gates, the crowning part of all was the he had thus completed the temple, he adorned it with lofty
hemisphere, which rose to the very summit of the church. thrones in honour of those who preside, and also with seats
This was encircled by twelve columns, (according to the decently arranged in order throughout the whole, and at last
number of the apostles of our Saviour,) having their capi- he placed the holy altar in the middle. And that this again
tals embellished with silver bowls of great size, which might be inaccessible to the multitude, he enclosed it with
the emperor himself presented as a splendid offering to frame-lattice work, accurately wrought with ingenious sculp-
his God. ture, presenting a beautiful appearance to the beholders.
" In the next place he enclosed the atrium, which occupied And not even the pavement was neglected by him, for this
the space leading to the entrances in front of the church. too he splendidly adorned with marble, and then proceeded
This comprehended first the court, then the porticos on each to the rest and to the parts outside the temple. He provided
side, and lastly the gates of the court. After these, in the spacious exhedree and oeci on each side, united and attached
midst of the open market-place, the entrance-gates of the to the church, and communicating with the entrance to the
whole work which were Of exquisite workmanship, afforded middle of the temple."
to passers-by, on the outside, a view of the interior, which Of the above structures, the former is still in existence ;

could not fail to inspire astonishment. not indeed the identical building, but, as there seems reason
" This to believe, a building similar in general form and arrange-
temple, then, the emperor erected as a conspicuous
monument of the Saviour's resurrection, and embellished ment. The text of Eusebius is difficult and obscure, and
it throughout on an imperial scale of magnificence. He conveys but an indefinite idea of the edifice. Strange to say,
further enriched it with numberless offerings of inexpres- we have a plan and description, which may be relied upon as
sible beauty, consisting of gold, silver, and precious stones genuine, in our own isles.
in various forms; the skilful and elaborate arrangement At lona flourished abbot Adamnan, so distinguished by
of which, in regard to their magnitude, number, and his participation in the great paschal controversy, A. D. 705 ;

variety, we have not leisure at present to describe par- and he supplies the architectural antiquary with the know-
ticularly." ledge so much desirrd. We owe. the information to a sin-
The following our author's description of the church of
is
gular contingency. After a long pilgrimage and continued
Paulinus at Tyre, in his letter to that bishop : residence in the Holy Land, a Gaulish bishop, named
" Thus
Arculphus, driven to the Hebrides, became
then, embracing a much wider space, he strength- the guest of
ened the outer enclosure with a wall to compass the edifice, the Culdee monastery. Here he related his perils, describing
 ECC 321 ECC
the holy places he had visited ;
and the " Sebellus de Locis circular without. All such buildings seem to have been
Sanctitf contains his narrative. simply baptisteries or sepulchral chapels the form is totally
;

Rarely has any work been transmitted with more pecu- unfitted for the requirements of the Christian liturgy,

liarity and authenticity. Adamnan wrote upon his tablets, nor do they seem to have been employed for such pur-
from the actual dictation of the stranger the notes so taken
; pose, with the exception, perhaps,
of the church of the
became the book we now possess. The Holy Sepulchre, as Holy Sepulchre, and this was not purely circular, but had
might be anticipated, was the main object of Adamnan's parts of different plan attached to it, something like to the
curiosity and in addition to the verbal description, Arcul-
; Temple Church, London. The form is very suitable for a
phus drew a plan of the buildings upon the tables with his baptistery. See ROUND CHURCHES.
own hand. This plan Adamnan copied in his manuscript ; The more usual plan of Christian churches is that of a
he speaks of his drawing with extreme humility, calling it a parallelogram, which form is said to have been derived from
vile figuration but, as will be seen by comparing it with the
;
the heathen courts of justice; but ere entering upon the
plan of San Stefano Rotondo, it aflbrds valuable information. consideration of this matter, it will be well to give some
The church was wholly of stone, of " wonderful rotundity," description of the parts and arrangement of the early Chris-
tian churches, as collected from the descriptions of Eusebius
supported by twelve columns having, as it would seem, three
;

aisles; it was entered by four doors; and the sepulchre itself above given, and from the writings of other authors who
was illuminated by twelve lamps, burning day and night in allude to the subject.
honour of the twelve apostles. Since Adaionan speaks of From such authorities, it would seem that churches of this
three walls, we must suppose that the interior circle marks period consisted not merely of a building for public service,
the columns, and the lines were probably staircases, leading but also of exhcdrw or out-buildings, employed for the secular
to an upper church or gallery. When Aculphus saw the as well as religious concerns of the church; such as
Holy Sepulchre, it had been somewhat damaged by the schools, libraries, houses of residence for the clergy, &c. ;
Persians, and it was subsequently ruined by the Arabs ; the whole being surrounded and enclosed by an outer wall.
yet, as the existing church still retains the original shape, This arrangement is very similar to that of our existing
we do not doubt but that it was rebuilt upon the original cathedrals. That all within this outer wall was considered
foundations. as belonging to the church, and consecrated ground, is evident
Other churches were built by Constantino, at Jerusalem, from the fact of its being acknowledged as a sanctuary in
Antioch, Nicomedia, Mambre, Heliopolis, Home, and Con- after times. The position of the church within this enclosure,
stantinople, but few remain to the present day, few, at least, was generally east and west, having the altar toward the
that have not been materially altered. cast; but this custom was not always observed, as we meet
Perhaps the most
perfect specimen remaining is the church of S. Constant ia ; with many exceptions. That such a custom did prevail in
the burial-place of the daughter of Constantino ; it is circular spite of such exceptions, we have the authority of several
in plan, and divided
by concentric rows of pillars, from which writers. Socrates, noticing an example of the contrary
spring arches to support the roof. The model from which it practice, says, that the church at Antioch stood in a different
was constructed was evidently identical with that of the Holy position to other churches, for that the altar did not look
Sepulchre, even were it not that structure itself. It is the towards the east, but to the west; and a similar observation
opinion of some, that the form of circular churches was is made by Paulinus Nolanus,
respecting one of his own
derived from that of heathen temples of the same kind, such churches, and he gives the reason for his departure from the
as those of Vesta, or Minerva Medica; this, however, does usual custom, namely, that the structure was made to look
not seem to be the case, fur although towards another, in memory of the Saint in whose name the
they are both circular
in plan, they are of
entirely different construction and latter was dedicated. The Apostolical Constitutions direct
arrangement. The temple has its columns on the exte- that churches should be built toward the east, but Walafridas
rior, supporting an entablature, while the church has its Strabo says, "The ancients were not nicely curious which
detached columns arranged in concentric circles within, con- way their churches stood, but yet the most usual custom was
nected by arches springing from the capitals,
forming one or for Christians to pray toward the east, and therefore the
more aisles; the arrangement, it will be acknowledged, is greater proportion of churches were built with respect to
totally dissimilar, and the mere outline cannot have much that custom."
weight in the consideration". Allowing this custom to have prevailed then, we shall
But some have gone still further, and claimed the very struc- have our first or outer entrance in the west wall of (he
tures themselves for heathen enclosure, and this is called by Eusebius the TrpoTri'Aov fieya
temples the building mentioned
:

above is supposed by such to be an ancient and TrpOTt] uao&r). Through this vestibule, admittance was
temple of Bac-
chus ; but as Mr. Knight, in his beautiful work on this sub- obtained into a large quadrangle or open area, surrounded
ject, says, "This opinion is principally founded on the by cloisters, which is called by Eusebius, aiOpiov and av^rj,
.
mosaics with which the ceiling of the aisles is adorned, and and by the Latins, atrium; the cloisters being distinguished
which represents vine-leaves and grapes. But the vine is a in the former ease by the name of oroai, and
consisting of
Christian emblem, and is so a covered way,the roof supported by pillars or an
frequently introduced in the open arcade.
decoration of Christian places of worship, that little The object of this court seems to have been to receive the peni-
weight
can be attached to this circumstance. The architecture of tents of the first order, or mourners, who were not
permitted
this to enter the main body of the church ; in after times it was
building is in conformity with the style of the time
of Constantino, and not in conformity with that of a much used for a place of burial, but then only for persons of
earlier date." The fact is, the circular is the most natural distinction ;kings thinking it a great honour to be buried
form sepulchral chapels, where the chief object is a tomb,
for within the gates. This place was sometimes named imphtvivm.
placed in the centre. Other similar chapels are still in In the centre of the open area was a fountain or large basin
existence, of which, probably, the most remarkable, is that of water, inwhich it was customary for the Christians to
of S. Stephen. Baptisteries were likewise frequently of the wash their hands and face, and perhaps their feet, ere they
same form, as is that of S. John Lateral), but more fre- entered the church, such practice being a symbol of the
quently octagonal, and sometimes octagonal within and purity of heart which should attend them" there. Tertnllian
41
 ECC 322 ECC

speaks of the absurdity of going to prayer with washed allowed to remain during the celebration of the Eucharist,
hands and a polluted soul. A similar custom still prevails although not to participate.
in the Romish church, borrowed doubtless from primitive At the farther end of the nave, was the choir, which was
divided from it by a low wall or wooden partition ; here were
practice, although differing in the intention and object
for
which it is observed. The fountain is called indifferently, located the singers, and here also the gospel and epistles
fad^T] <f>peap, nymphceum, cant/tarns, and leonturium, the were read from the ambo, or pulpit. This was an elevated
latterterm supposed to have been applied from the spouts desk, ascended by Several steps, which S. Cyprian calls
being sometimes in the form of lions' heads. Socrates, pulpitum and tribunal eccleslce, and which was elsewhere
speaking of the skirmish between the Catholics and the called (3r)na yvuoTuv. Bona cites Prudentius to prove that
Macedonian heretics, says, " Such a slaughter was made, that the bishops and priestsmade their sermons from this pulpit,
the court (avhrj) was rilled with blood, insomuch that the but this seems
be a mistake, for the bishops anciently
to
fountain (fipeap) was overflowed therewith, and ran through addressed the congregation from the steps of the altar, as is
the adjoining cloisters (aroai) even into the street." Exam- evident from Valesius. S. Chrysostom. it appears, did preach
ples of the atrium in its primitive shape are yet preserved
from the ambo, but only in order that he might be the more
in the churches, of San Clemente, San Lorenzo, San Paolo, audible to the people; such was not the usual custom. A
San Gcorgio in Velabro, Sta Maria in Trastevere remodelled
; very perfect example of the form and arrangement of the
in San Giovanni Laterano, and Sta Maria Maggioro, and choir still remains in the church of San Clemente.
rebuilt in modern shape in St. Peter's. At San Ambrogio, We now arrive at the last division, which answered to the
Milan, the atrium is fully as largo as the nave. holy of holies of the Jewish temple, being appropriated to
Entrance was obtained from thy atrium into the pronaos the priests and the celebration of the most sacred offices of
or narthex, through three gates, of which the central one the church. Eusebius calls this place ayiaapa ; and it is
was frequently the largest and most important. The narthex elsewhere named a-yiov, or the sanctuary. The Latins call
formed the first division in the body of the church, and was it sacrarium. The term -dvaiaar^pLov, which is more par-
used as the station for the catechumens, and such of the ticularly applied to the altar, is sometimes used to denote
penitents as came under the title aKouo^eiw, or hearers, so the whole sanctuary, as is evident from the decrees of the
called from the circumstance of their being allowed to listen council of Laodicea, which forbid lay persons entering the
to the lessons and sermon, to which privilege also Jew's, dvaiaarripiov. A more common appellation is that of ftrjfia,
heathens, heretics, and schismatics were admitted, in this which is so employed from the circumstance of this part of
part of the church. Here also, somewhat in advance, stood the church being elevated above the nave by a series of
the sultstrati, or third cla^s of penitents, so called from the steps. A further separation was effected by means of mils,
custom of prostrating themselves before the bishop, after or lattice-work, named caneelli ; whence our term chancel.
sermon was ended, to receive his benediction. There were In his description of the church of Panlinus, Eusebius states
frequently more narthcces than one in a church, that of Sta the office of these cnncelli to be the rendering the sanctuary
Sophia is said to have had no less than four. inaccessible to the multitude ; and the council of Trullo
We have m>\v arrived at the vaof, or nave, the principal directs, "that no layman whatsoever be permitted to enter
division of the church, in which the body of the faithful, the place of the altar, excepting only the emperor, when he
those who were under no censure, and in full communion makes his oblation to the Creator, according to ancient cus-
with the church were congregated. This part was separated tom." A
similar order of the council of Laodicea has been
from the narthex by rails of wood, and was entered by gates given above. From this practice, the sanctuary obtained the
which are distinguished by writers as rru/W a/laj, or J3aoiM- epithet advra, avafiara, inapproachatile. This part of the
Kai, the beautiful or royal gates, so named perhaps from the church was usually of a semicircular plan, around the cir-
circumstance of kings laying aside their crowns at this place, cumference of which, in close proximity to the wall, were
ere they proceeded further into the church. Leo Grammaticus ranged the seats for the bishop and clergy. The throne of
notices it as a flagrant want of reverence in the emperor the bishop was in the centre, immediately behind the altar,
Michael, that "when he came to the royal gates, he did not and raised to a greater elevation than those of the presbyters,
Jay aside his crown, as kings were used to do." which were ranged on either side of him. Gregory Nazi-
It was a practice with the early Christians to separate the anzen speaks of himself, as bishop setting upon a high
sexes in public service, one portion of the church being allotted throne, with the presbyters, on lower benches, on either side.
to the males, and another to the females. The author of the The altar was situate in the centre of the chancel, in front
Apostolical Constitution speaks of this separation as usual of the bishop's throne, so as to allow of a passage all round
"
in his time, for he says, Let the doorkeepers stand at the it ;
it was named error, altare, -dvaiaarri^iov and
indifferently
gate of the men. and the deaconesses at the gate of the /3o)juof ; thehowever, qualified by the addition of
latter,
women ;" and S. Cyril says, " Let men be with men, and avaijiaKrov. The most ancient altars were of wood, as we
women with women, in the church." Socrates also remarks learn from several passages in the Fathers: amongst others,
of Helena, that " she always submitted to the laws of the S. Austin, speaking o an outrage by the Donatists against
church in this respect, praying with the women in the a Catholic bishop, says, "They beat him cruelly with clubs,
women's place." In-some cases, the women were placed on and such like weapons, and at last with the broken pieces of
the north side of the church, but probably this was not an the wood of the altar." Optatus, again, speaking of the
universal practice ; in the Greek church the galleries were Donatists, says, "They brake the altars in such pieces as
reserved for the women. Besides this, there was a further would afford them plenty of wood to make new but where ;

subdivision, distinct
positions being allotted to virgins, there was a scarcity of wood, they contented themselves with
widows, and matrons. In the Apostolical Constitutions, the scraping them, by way of pretended expiation." When stone
virgins,widows, and aged women were placed in the highest altars began to be employed, is very uncertain all that can
;

rank, and the matrons behind them. In this manner were be determined upon this point is, that the material was in
the communicants disposed in the nave, but besides them the use for such purpose in the time of Gregory Nyssen, but
fourth or last order of penitents were admitted into this part how long before we cannot tell. Gregory, speaking of the
of the church; they were called Consistentes, and were sacred character of the church and its furniture, says, "This
 ECC 323 ECC
altar whereat we stand is by nature only common stone, distinguish it from the larger building of the same name and
uses outside the church.
nothing different from other stones, whereof our walls
are
mado and our pavements formed ; but after it is consecrated Under the general term exfieJrce, are comprehended all
and dedicated to the service of God it becomes a holy table, the buildings that were contained within the outermost en-
an immaculate altar which may not promiscuously be touched closure, but without the walls of the church, properly so
these were many in number consisting of schools,
by all, but only by the priests in the time of divine ser- called :

vice." In the next century, a decree was passed at the residences for the priests, &c. ; but we shall here only take
council of Epone, that no altars should be consecrated, notice of the more important.
but such as were of stone. The Pontificals speak of silver The Baptistery, during the first five centuries, formed a
altars dedicated by Constantino. The early wooden altars separate building outside the church, as we gather from
were similar in shape to tables, but when stone was em- Eusebius, Paulinus of Nola, and Gregory of Tours. It was

ployed for this purpose they assumed a somewhat different a large and capacious edifice, containing several apartments,
appearance, consisting either of slabs supported by a cen- some perhaps for the catechumens, and was not unfrequently
tral pier, or of a structure built up similar to a sarcophagus, octagonal in plan. It was necessary that these buildings

or tomb. should be somewhat extensive, for the sacrament of baptism

The altar was covered by a canopy, supported by pillars, was but seldom celebrated, the two seasons set apart for the
frequently twelve in number, in allusion to the number of purpose being Easter and Pentecost so that a large number
;

the apostles, and having their capitals adorned with silver of persons were congregated together at the same time ; and
bowls. The canopy which was spherical, was surmounted there is reason to suppose that there was but one baptistery
with a cross and the space between the pillars hung with to each city, however numerous the churches may have been.
veils, which served to conceal the altar. These are, perhaps, In the centre of this building was the font, which was largo
the veils alluded to by Chrysostom, where, speaking of the enough for immersion.
"
consecration of the elements, he says, When you see the The Secreiarium, or Diaconicum, was a building in which
veils withdrawn, then think you see heaven opened, and the all the property belonging to the church, such as vestments,

angels descending from above." Curtains, however, were vessels, offerings, &e., were deposited when not in use, and
used in other parts of the church, before the doors, and at whence they were carried into the church when required.
the, entrance to the sanctuary, which were sometimes It was called diaconicum from the fact of the deacons having
richly
adorned with gold, as was that given by Chosroes to the charge of all matters contained therein.
church at Antioch. Epiphanius relates his tearing to pieces Another outbuilding was the Library, as we learn from
a veil suspended before the doors of the church, because it Eusebius, who tells us that he was greatly indebted to that
had a picture on it; and Athanasius, speaking of the enormi- founded by Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem, in procuring
ties of the Arians, says, '"They took the bishop's throne, and materials for the compilation of his history; and Julius
the seats of the presbyters, and the table which was of wood, Africanus is said to have founded another at C'ajsarea. The
ami the veils of the church, and whatever else they could, largest library was probably that belonging to the church of
and carried them out and burned them." Sometimes a silver Sta Sophia, Constantinople, which is said to have contained
dove was suspended over the altar. The canopy was turned one hundred thousand books, and was burned down by the
ciborium, or m'pyor. In later times, crosses were set upon firing of the city in a proper tumult. That Sc/tool.i were
the altar, but the time of their introduction is not known : attached to the church, we may know from what Socrates
Sozomen and Evagrius are among the first who allude to says of Julian, "that, in his youth, he frequented the, church,
the practice. The altar was covered with a linen cloth, as where, in those days, the schools were kept."
isevidenced by Optatus, who, in allusion to the extravagant Amongst the exhedrre are likewise reckoned the mita-
pretensions of the Donatists in purifying everything that torium, gazophylacium and jxistophoria but of these we
had been touched by the Catholics, says " that if anything know little or nothing.
was polluted, it must be the covering, and not the tables ;" As regards the decoration of the interior of the church,
and adds, that they pretended to wash these palls. Some- we may gather, that the walls were sometimes coated with
times such coverings were of richer stuff, for Palladius has marble, and most frequently adomed with inscriptions of
reference to some Itoman ladies, who bequeathed their silks passages of Scripture, or other religious writings appro-
to make coverings for the altar. The sacred vessels were of priately disposed. Thus S. Ambrose speaks of the text,
various materials. We learn from Irenteus, Epiphanius, and " There is a difference between a wife and a
virgin," &c.,
Jerome, that chalices were made of glass in their time but ; being written on the walls near the virgins' seats ; Paulinus
there can be no doubt that silver and gold were frequently mentions several passages applied to the same purpose, as do
employed for this purpose ; for it is related of Laurcntius, also Sidonius and Apollinaris. The roofs were enriched with
who was martyred in the time of Valerian, that he would mosaic, or what is called lacunary or panel-work, and in this
not deliver up the plate in which they were used to celebrate case gilding and colour were employed ; in the church of
the sacred mysteries and in an inventory delivered up at
; Sta Sophia is an instance of the former practice, and in that
the same period, by Paul, bishop of Cirta, we find mention of Constantino at Jerusalem, an example of the latter, where
made of two gold cups, six silver cups, and various other the roof was panelled, and covered with gold. S. Jerome
vessels of the same materials. likewise speaks of lacunary golden roofs, walls adorned with
In many churches, besides the altar, was a side-table, in a marble, pillars with capitals of shining gold, gates inlaid with
recess, on one side of the bema, where the offerings of bread ivory and silver, and altars set with precious stones and gold.
and wine were received, and which is called by various Such was the arrangement and decoration of an early Chris-
names, TraparpaTre^a, prothesis, paratorium, oblalionarium, tian church.
and corbaii. In the recess on the opposite side of the bema, We have already considered the question relative to the
was the Scenophylacium, which was a sort of vestry in conversion of heathen temples to the purposes of Christian
which the priests robed, and where the deacons brought the worship ; but there is yet another building in use amongst the
vestments and vessels from the Diaconicum, previous to pagans, which lays claim to the same honour, and with some
service. It was likewise called the Diaconicum Bematis, to greater show of probability, it is the basilica. The Roman
 ECC 324 ECC
basilicawas the hall of public justice, the court in which, find from one of those incidental notices which often are
during the early history of that nation, the kings sat to hear more instructive than the set narrative of history, that the
and decide the causes of their subjects it was, in fact, at
;
basilicahad been given up, bodily, for the purpose of Chris-
that period a royal palace situate in the Forum, whence the tian worship. A
poet, but also a rhetor, addressing an
name. The word, however, Greek, and was first applied
is emperor, tells him that these structures, heretofore wont to
to the portico in the Athenian Ceramicus immediately be filled up with men of business, were now thronged with
beneath the Pnyx the custom, as well as the building, was
;
votaries praying for his safety ; '
Basilica olim negotiis
borrowed by the Romans. Such edifices varied in form in plena, mute votis pro tua salute susceptis.' This occupation
different instances, but not to any very great extent, the of the Roman basilicae was, nevertheless, only transitory.
same disposition seems to have been universally observed and They did not become the abiding-places of the faith. \Vhv was
was as follows : this privilege denied them 1 In situation they were most con-
The plan was an oblong, terminated at one, or sometimes venient, placed in the centre of business and population ;
both ends, with a semi-circle the semi-circle was occasionally
;
their plan and form so convenient as to invite the purposes
omitted, and sometimes there were two or three of different of worship. Unpolluted by the idol or sacrifice, they were
dimensions. Internally the breadth was divided into three free from the recollections rendering the heathen temple
rarely into five by two or four rows of columns running odious. With the smallest proportionate expense or labour,
down the length of the church ; at the extreme end WHS the the basilica: of the Forum might have been rendered the
semi-circular apse, in the midst of which was the seat of the most stately and dignified of sanctuaries. Yet they fell !

praitor, whence he administered justice ; this was the tri- Only one example can be found of a secular basilica actually
bunal. On cither side of the pnctor, but lower down, were converted into a Christian church and that example, memo-
the benches for his assessors, the centumviri, and other rable as it is, docs not e.xist in Rome. As if for the purpose
officers, and all these were separated from the other part of of constantly demonstrating to mankind the visible triumph of
the building by an enclosure of lattice-work, to which was the spiritual kingdom, every stage in the early development
given the name of cancelli. Outside of this screen was of the empire of Christianity seemed destined to efface the
a place allotted to the notaries and advocates, the remainder honours of heathen sovereignty. The Christian basilica,
of the building being occupied by the people. though entirely modelled upon the heathen basilica, and con-
We have here a three-aisled structure, the divisions being structed with the spoils of the basilica, was therefore fated to
formed by two central rows of columns and two outer walls, be its ruin and destruction.
"
the columns frequently supporting a gallery in the outer divi- A single cause suffices a cause of which we now can
sions. The central portion was generally lighted from win- scarcely appreciate the potency. Veneration for the graves
dows or openings in a wall raised above the columns, thus of the martyrs, as an almost irresistible motive, attracted the
forming a sort of clcre-story. This roof was invariably of Christian basilica away equally from the precinct of the secu-
wood, and did not always cover the whole building. For a lar basilica as from the site of the heathen temple. By
further description see BASILICA. determining the locality assigned to the Christian edifice, this
Some writers suppose that several such buildings were feeling necessarily determined the neglect, ruin, and destruc-
delivered by Constantino into the hands of the Christians, tion of the proud monuments of senators and Crcsars. The
and were employed by them as churches, or places of public demolition of earlier structures, for the purpose of furnishing
worship. Some go so far as to assert, that they were the pro- materials, had already been long practised. Thus the interior
totype of the succeeding churches, not only in form but in of the Coliseum displays the friezes and fragments, mixed
the division and disposition of the parts. The writer we have up in confusion, amidst the masonry of the beautiful yet
had occasion to quote in a previous
part of this article speaks appalling circuit of its walls. These, perhaps, may have
thus : resulted from the removal of other buildings
" Had the previously
basilica, such as we have described it, been existing on the site ; but under Constantino similar demo-
planned for the express reception of a Christian congregation, litions proceeded, as it should seem, equally from the desire
it
scarcely could have received a more convenient or appro- of sparing expense, and the increasing inability to execute
priate form none more happily combining magnificence with works of art. The splendid Forum of Trajan, which had
utility none more consonant to the ideas which then pre- excited Constantino's admiration, fell at his command, and
vailed. The general shape of the church as prescribed by furnished by its spoils the decorations of the arch of the first
the Apostolical Constitutions, was to be an oblong like unto a Christian emperor. Abandoned for more hallowed ground,
ship, that is, to the vessel of the ark. Does not the outline the civil basilicas were destroyed, and the columns which
of the ground-plot of the basilica entirely meet the sugges- supported them transported to the new sites, where they
tion 1 and the terms nave, nef or vaisseau, applied to the arose in lengthened perspective and barbaric splendour.
main portion of the edifice, show how enduringly the idea By their very aspect, such of the Christian churches as
prevailed in subsequent ages. The apse in which the prtetor retain their original features, show the haste and unskilful-
administered justice, surrounded by the centumviri and other ness with which they are reared ; one capital cut through and
judges offered a dignified tribunal for the bishop and his deprived of the lower range of the acanthus, to fit it into the
clergy ; the dark chambers below suggested the subterraneous required space ; another projecting over the shaft ; a third
chapel, in which might be deposited the remains of saint or shrinking within ; a fourth, the leaves blocked, and prepared
martyr. The enclosures, the aincelli for the notaries and for the touch never to be given of the chisel that was to
advocates, might receive the singers of the choir. The have imparted Corinthian elegance; the columns them-
lengthened aisles would furnish space for the congregation selves of unequal circumference or unequal height, deprived
of the faithful the galleries seclude the women ; and the
: of their due proportions, or rudely stilted to attain the neces-
porch fronting some of the basilicas, or the uncovered por- sary elevation. The richest materials are mixed with others
tion which, if separated from the rest by a wall, would con- of inferior quality ; pavonazzo and verd antique, the products
stitute a court, was prepared for those who had been of the quarries of Syene or of Paros, and the homely Traves-
sepa-
rated from the rest of the congregation by their sins, or were tine, are intermingled without choice or discrimination."
not yet allowed to participate in the sacraments. Hence we This writer is of opinion that the heathen basilicas were
 ECC 325 ECC
not actually converted into Christian temples ; there are many, to afford materials for new structures in other sites. The
however, who hold the contrary, amongst whom is Mr. Hope, principal cause of their destruction or removal, is to be
who cites, as examples of such adaptation, the Sessorian basi- sought in the veneration of the Christians for the graves
lica, and that in the palace of the Lateran, which he says of the martyrs. On this subject, Mr. Knight says :

were given to the church by Constantino. The strongest "From the custom which had originated in the catacombs
argument on this side, is, we think, the triumphant decla- from the habit which the primitive Christians had acquired
ration of Ausonius, that the ancient halls of justice were of visiting the graves of the martyrs ; it became a matter of
filled with Christian worshippers; the above-mentioned necessity to associate the church with the tomb, and to pro-
reviewer alludes to this passage in the following words : vide a place of worship below ground, as well as above.
" We have already seen that no one of the Christian This, in several instances, was accomplished at Rome by
basilicas at Rome, resulted from any
adaptation of the civil placing the church immediately above a part of the cata-
structures of heathenism to religious purposes. The columns combs, as at San Lorenzo and Santa Agnese or, as at St.
;

fell, to rise in new localities. Rome furnishes no example Peter's, by placing the altar immediately above the spot to
of a basilica preserved by its application to Christian worship. which the mortal remains of the apostles had been removed.
No confirmation is given in the ancient capital to the orator's "The practice of associating the churches with the graves
assertions, exulting, in the presence of Gratian, at the crowds of martyrs, was the cause of their being frequently placed
which filled the ancient halls of justice, then, as he boasts, in situations which had little reference to public convenience ;

resounding with hymn and praise; yet we can point out one namely, without the walls of the cities to which they be-
city in which his assertions are not a rhetorical phrase, but longed ; for, as executions usually took place without the
a truth. Do we seek for the verification of the words of the walls, and as the martyrs were often buried, or supposed to
'

poet-rhetor, Basilica, olim negolus plena, mine votis pro tua have been buried, where they were put to death, the wish
salute susceptis?' Here we find that which at Rome we of that age could not be accomplished without frequently
search for in vain. Here alone can we behold the one placing the churches in remote and insulated situations.
example of a basilica consecrated as a Christian church, in Thus it was that Constantino placed the church of St. Peter
which you enter, and sec the Corinthian capitals just display- adjacent to the circus of Nero, though the city of Rome was,
ing their graceful foliage, mutilated and yet distinct through at that time, at some distance from the Vatican Hill. Theo-
the rude wall which encircles them whilst the shaft of dosius, for similar reasons, placed the church of St. Paul at
another, displaced and broken, lies in gigantic bulk before an equal distance from the city on the opposite side. At
the portal of the edifice. This indeed is the very city in that time, a liability, which afterwards exposed insulated
which the poet-rhetor was speaking for he is Ausonius churches and their frequenters to much peril, did not exist.
and the city is Troves. The ancient capital of the Roman At that time, the interior of the empire was still inviolate,
empire beyond the Alps, furnished the model for the struc- and those who built the churches never imagined that the
tures, which, far more than those of Rome herself, assisted in
day might conic, when their descendants could not go out of
the development of Christian architecture." the walls without being liable to attacks, and when the
We cannot think this a satisfactory method of getting over churches themselves would be exposed to insult and injury.
the difliculty ; Ausonius seems to speak of such facts as well Little did Constantino imagine, that men of a newer religion
and universally known he is describing the general effect
;
than his own would ever reach and deface the cathedral
of Christianity, and glorying in its success his arc sweeping
;
which he had planted within sight of the metropolis of the
assertions, not applicable to merely individual instances, but world."
to general custom. Besides, if the Christians at Troves The existence of such a feeling amongst the early Chris-
converted basilicas into churches, why should they not do tians, coupled with the circumstance of the tombs of martyrs
the same elsewhere ] and especially in the metropolis, where being usually without the walls, and the prevalent custom of
there was a larger proportion of such buildings, and
greater employing the materials of old buildings for the construction
need of churches. of new, will account, as we think, satisfactorily for the want
While saying this, we do not mean to deny that there of more tangible evidence of the conversion of the heathen
was a strong repugnance amongst the early Christians to basilica to Christian uses.
everything that had been connected with paganism, and While we contend thus far, we do not wish to ally our-
that the application of the basilica was rather a matter of selves with those who maintain, that the arrangement of
necessity than of choice. When Constantino legalized churches was derived from that of the civil basilica there
:

Christianity, the Christians numbered somewhat considerably, is no doubt a similarity of distribution and a certain analogy
and no doubt increased rapidly upon that event; many who between the purposes which each division in either building
previously favoured that religion, but were fearful of the served ; still, there are strong grounds for believing that
consequences of an avowal, now openly professing it. such disposition in the churches arose from the natural
Churches were needed more than ever, and they had not requirements of the religion, rather than from any extra-
skill wherewith to erect them what could be done ? where
;
neous influence. The description of the several orders of
were churches to be found, while new ones were building? penitents, and of their positions in the church, as above
were there any existing buildings that could be adapted to given, is sufficient proof of such being the case, for that was
such a purpose ? The pagan temples were not fitted for written during times of persecution, before Constnntine had
such uses, even had there been no repugnance to their ascended the throne ; the division into parts, therefore,
origin but the basilicas would answer the purpose well, as
;
was determined long ere any basilicas were given up for
far as their construction was concerned, nor were there Christian worship. It is not improbable, however, that the
equal
objections to them on the score of their previous employment. form of later churches was derived from that of the basilica;
What more likely than that they should bo used at least for for it must needs be, that either some existing form was

a time, new
structures could be erected ?
until copied, or an entirely new idea originated. That the latter
The counter-argument arising from the absence of any was the case is very improbable, from the nature of things,
examples of such adaptation of the civil basilica, may be almost all novelties having emanated, in some degree or other,
accounted for without much difficulty :
they were destroyed, from things previously existing :
but, besides this, such an
 ECH 326 ECH
Occurrence was more especially improbable at the period section, generally carved into ornaments representing trun-
alluded to, when art was falling
O to decay, J
and its influence cated spheroids, or eggs, with the upper ends cut off, the
j

was not strong enough oven to retain previous acquirements, upper part of the axis projecting, and the lower part receding.
much less to originate new. The inain features in the Each truncated spheroid is surrounded with a border, of an
churches erected immediately after the establishment of elliptic figure, in close contact, showing something more than
Christianity, with the exception of Constantino's circular
a semi-ellipsis, the shorter axis being horizontal.
there were some The projecting edge of the border is in the surface of the
buildings, were those of the civil basilica
:

few alterations and additions, it is true, to adapt the form to moulding, previously wrought, as is also the curvature of
the requirements of the church; but these were at first not the upper part of the spheroid. Every two adjacent borders

very considerable, although extended farther in after times. contain a space equal to the thickness of the border at the
Of these were the atrium and out-buildings; and, in later top, and gradually receding towards the bottom. In each
times, transepts. With regard to the latter, it has been recess, or space, is an anchor, or tongue ; the front edge of
argued by some, that they are to be found in the civil struc- which comes in contact with the surface of the original
tures at least, in the internal arrangement
;
but this we
; moulding, and is in a vertical line cutting the surface of
think almost too nice a similarity. There was, indeed, a the moulding at right angles.
cross-passage at the end of the nave, so to speak, but we can InGrecian architecture, the front of each border, and also
scarcely set it clown as the prototype of the transept. The the front of each tongue, or anchor, is wrought to an angle,
cross-form originated in Christian symbolism nor does it
;
the section of which inclines equally to the surface. The
appear even in churches of the earliest date. The Apostolical bottom of the spaces on each side of the tongue, on the
Constitutions allude to churches as being in the form of a under side, is nearly in the same surface as the recess on
ship, and such seems to have been the actual shape of the the sides of the eggs.
first buildings. The cross-plan was a gradual development. In Roman architecture, the general contour is the segment
At first, we find the cross a prominent feature in the inter- or quarter of a circle, and the fronts of the surrounding bor-
nal decoration, as at St. Clement's, where the paving of the ders are not brought to an angle, but remain as part of the
nave is arranged in that form ; and afterwards forming an moulding, either plain or with a hollow sunk between the
essential office in the construction, as in the Byzantine edges, leaving a fillet next to each edge.
churches, and the later basilicas. We
arc of opinion, then, Its situation in an order, is in the entablature or capital,

that, at the onset, civil basilicas were employed for Christian but never in the base.
worship, though rather as a matter of necessity than choice; In the original Doric order, the ovolo, which crowns the
that the division and disposition of parts observable in the cornice, and that of the capital, are never carved. In the

early churches was not derived from the basilica; but that Ionic and Corinthian entablatures, it may either be carved or
their form and construction was so derived and that hence
; not, but in the antiques it is generally carved. The ovolo
was developed the form of churches in after ages. in the capitals of these orders, is, however, always carved
As regards the styles of architecture employed, the earliest into the ornaments we are describing. The French call this
constructions can scarcely be said to belong to any style ; moulding, quart de rond ; the. English, qnarter-round, or
they were composed of the ruins of heathen structures, pro- faulting; the Italians, ovolo; the Latins, ovi/m, from its
miscuously heaped together; columns from one building, being usually carved with the figures of eggs ;
and the
entablature from another; or even one column from one French, for the same reason, sometimes call it ostif.
building, and the next from a second and not unfrequently
;
ECHO, (from the Greek, J?,YC> sound, of the verb, ??;\;e,
the shall or base of one column with the capital of another : / soitntl.) the reverberation of sound, occasioned by the
columns of different heights and proportions were huddled particular construction of a vault or wall, tho section of
into the same row, and the difference of level made up either which is most commonly of an elliptical or parabolical figure.
by stilting or cutting short. The Byzantine churches, with The method of making artificial echoes, is taught by the
their square plans and spherical roofs, are the first buildings Jesuit Blancani, in his Echometria, at the end of his book
which can be said to possess any style, and these were chiefly On t/n-
Sphere.
confined to Asia Minor, having little influence in Italy until We are informed by Vitruvius, that in various parts of
the sixth century. (See, BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE.) Greece and Italy, there were brazen vessels, ingeniously
Shortly after this, the Lombards established themselves in arranged under the scats of the theatres, to render the sound
Italy ; and although they brought with them no architecture of the actors' voices more clear, and make a kind of echo ;
of their own. they gave a somewhat novel character to the by which means the prodigious multitude of persons pre-
buildings erected by them, the difference being principality in sent at their spectacles were enabled to hear with ease and
detail. This style prevailed in the north of Italy up to the pleasure.
end of the twelfth century, at tho commencement of which The distribution of sound in public edifices, so that the
some marked alterations were introduced. (See, LOMBARDIC echoes may be most advantageously brought to strengthen
ARCHITECTURE.) To
this succeeded that most perfect form the original sound, is a subject practically deserving much
of Architecture, pre-eminently termed the
Ecclesiastical attention. In Sir J. Hcrschel's Treatise on Sound, the
Christian style, which has prevailed, with some interruptions, reader will find some sensible observations on the errors of
ever since ; we need scarcely add, we allude to the Gothic, architects in this respect. The inattention of the latter to
or pointed, which for its solemn grandeur, as well as for the effect of the reverberation of sound, was curiously
its perfect construction, is, of all, the most
appropriate for exemplified in the cathedral of Girgenti, where the con-
a Christian temple. fessional was placed in a focus conjugate to another and
We have now arrived at the conclusion of this inter- unenclosed part of the church ; by which unlucky error the
esting subject, and for any further information must refer echo was instrumental in informing a husband of the infi-
to such articles as CHURCH, CATHEDRAL, GOTHIC, and SAXOK of his spouse. In many of our public buildings,
delity
ARCHITECTURE, &c. though professedly erected for purposes where the proper
ECHINUS (from e%ivoc, a word denoting the prickly distribution of sound is of paramount importance, it is no
cover of a chesnut) a convex moulding in the form of a conic uncommon occurrence, that one part of the audience pos-
 ECH 327 ECH
sesses a monopoly, while the remainder witness the ceremony those two lines will be found to make equal angles with the
or performance in dumb show. surface. Hence it appears, that in the reflection of sound,
Sounds are reflected by certain configurations of bodies, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
like the reflection of lightfrom polished surfaces so that if ; Therefore, if a person wishes to hear the echo of his own
a person situated before one of these bodies utter a word, he voice in the best possible manner, he must stand in a direc-
will in a short time after hear the echo, or repetition of the tion perpendicular to the reflecting surface. And this shows,
sound. The vibratory motion of the air, which constitutes that though sound proceeds from an original sounding body,
sound, is reflected by hard bodies, and, in certain cases, even or from a reflecting surface, in every direction ; yet a greater
by fluids. Thus the sides of a hill, houses, rocks, banks of quantity of it proceeds in some particular direction than in
earth, the large trunks of trees, the surface of water, espe- any other, which is probably owing to the original impulse
cially at the bottom of a well, and sometimes even the clouds, being given to the air more forcibly in one direction than
have been found capable of reflecting sounds. The confi- in another, or from want of perfect freedom in the aerial

guration of the surface of these bodies, is much more con- fluid.

cerned in production of the echo than their substance.
the. Several phenomena may be easily explained upon the
A smooth surface reflects sounds much better than a rough above-mentioned property of sound : for instance, several
one. A
convex surface is a very bad reflector of sound a flat ; reflecting surfaces are frequently so situated with respect to
one reflects very well ; but a small degree of concavity, par- distance and direction, that a sound proceeding from a certain
ticularly when the sounding body is in or near the focus of point is reflected by one surface first, then by a second, soon
concavity, renders the surface a much better reflector, and the after by a third, and so on, but by all in one direction; in
echo is heard considerably louder. which case a multiplied tautological echo is produced that is
;

Thus, in an elliptical apartment, if the sounding body be to say, the same word is heard repeated several times succes

placed in one focus, the sound will be heard much louder by sively in the same tone and accent; the expression of one
a person situated in the other focus of the ellipsis, that in Ho! will appear like a peal of laughter a musical instru-
;

any other part of the room. In this case, the effect is so ment, properly played, will produce an agreeable repeti-
powerful, that even when the middle part of the room tion of as many instruments of the same sort, imitating each
is wanting, the sound expressed in one focus will be heard other.

by a person situated in the other, but hardly at all by those According to the various distances of the speaker, a reflect-
who stand in the intermediate space. ing object will return the echo of several, or of a few sylla-
Without attempting to explain the manner in which the bles, for all the syllables must be uttered before the echo of

vibrating air impinges upon, and is sent back by, the reflect- the first syllable reaches the car; otherwise it will make
ing body, which would lead us too far into the science of a confusion. The farther the reflecting object is, the greater
acoustics, we shall briefly notice the following ascertained number of syllables will the echo repeat ; but the sound will
facts. be enfeebled nearly in the same proportion, till at last the
If a person standing before a high wall, a bank, a rock, syllables cannot be heard distinctly. When the reflecting
&c., at a certain distance, and uttering a word with a pretty object is too near, the repetition of the sound arrives at the
strong voice, or producing by a hammer, stone, &c., any ear whilst the perception of the original sound still continues,
short, sharp sound, hear a repetition of that word or sound, in which case, an indistinct sounding noise is heard. This
he will find that the time elapsed between his uttering the effect may especially be observed in empty rooms, passages,

word, or striking with the hammer, and hearing of the echo, &c., because, in such places, several reflections from the wall
is equal to the time that a sound is known to employ in going to the hearer, as also from one wall to the other, and then to

through an extension of twice the distance between him and the hearer, clash with each other, and increase the indistinct-
the reflecting wall, rock, &c. for the vibratory motion of the
;
ness.
air must proceed from the sounding person to the wall, &c., From what has been said, it will be easily conceived, that
and back again from the latter to the former. Now, sound with respect to echoes, a vast variety of effects may be pro
is known to travel at the rate of about 1,125 feet in a duccd, by varying the form, the distance, and the number of
secoud of time therefore, if the person who expresses the
; reflecting surfaces;
and hence we hear of various surprising
word, or any sound whatever, stand at the distance of 1,125 echoes being met with at different places.
feet from the echoing wall, &c., two seconds of time must In Woodstock Park, near Oxford, there is a famous echo,
elapse between his uttering the sound and his hearing the which repeats seventeen syllables in the daytime, and twenty
echo. If the distance be equal to 4,500 feet, then eight at night, when the air is somewhat more dense. On the north
seconds of time must elapse between the uttering of the side of Shipley Church, in Sussex, there is another remark-
sound, and the arrival of the echo ; and so on. But the same able echo, which, in favourable circumstances, repeats twenty-
original sound and the echo may be heard by persons at one syllables. At llosneath, near Glasgow, in Scotland, is
different distances, both from the original sounding-place, and an echo, that repeats three times, completely and distinctly,
from the reflecting body. The effect, however, will not be a tune played with a trumpet.
exactly uniform, for those who are nearer to the reflecting Whispering-places, are those where a whisper, or other
body, will hear the echo sooner than persons more remote. small noise, is conveyed from one part to another, at a great
A situation may be easily found, from which they will hear distance. They depend upon this principle, that the voice,
both the original sound and the echo at th'e same instant, and being applied to one end of an arch, easily passes by a repe-
as both sounds coalesce, they will only appear as one loud tition of reflections to the other.

sound, without the echo. Hence sound is conveyed from one side of a whispering-
But though several persons, in different situations, may gallery to the opposite one, without being perceived by those
hear the echo of the same sound, yet the echo will be heard who stand in the middle. The form of a whispering-gallery
better in one particular direction than in any other ; now if is that of a sphere, or the segment of a sphere. The principle

two straight lines be drawn from the middle of a reflecting of whispering being that of continued reflection. If a person
surface, one to the place from which the original sound pro- whisper softly against a wall, the rays which proceed from his
ceeds, and the other to the above-mentioned best direction, mouth issue in all directions against the wall ; we shall only
 EDD 328 EDD
take the rays which emanate from the whisperer's mouth water ; and in 1700 he completed it. So confident was this
(which we shall suppose to be a point) in a horizontal plane, ingenious mechanic of the stability of his edifice, that he
then it is evident, that they will proceed to the right and to declared his wish to be in it during the most tremendous
the left, and each particle of sound, as we may call it, for storm that could arise. This wish he unfortunately obtained,
want of a more specific name, will cut off equal segments of for he perished in it, during the dreadful storm which de-
the circle which forms the section of the wall ; or, in other stroyed it, November 27, 1703. Another light-house, of a
words, will pass along equal chords; and there will bean different construction, was erected of wood, on this rock,
infinite number of such reflections; each particle describing by Mr. John Rudyerd, in 1709; which
being consumed by
chords different from those described by another, and an in- fire in 1755, a third, of stone, was begun by the justly cele-
definite number of these will divide the semi-circumference brated Mr. John Smeaton, April 2, 1757, and finished
into parts all equal to each other, in the same system of August 24, 1759, which has hitherto withstood the attacks
chords therefore, all the describing particles of sound passing
;
of the most violent storms. The following account of this
"
along the equal chords, will meet upon the other extremity building, taken from Mr. Smeaton's Narrative," must be
of the diameter opposite the whisperer, and thus form a loud read with interest, as a noble instance of the triumph of
whispering noise. It is evident, that polished surfaces are the skill, science, and perseverance over obstacles of the most
most favourable for this purpose. Accordingly, all the formidable character:
contrivance requisite in whispering-places is, that near the Mr. Smciiton begins his account with a general description
a smooth arched wall,
person who whispers, there may be of the Eddystone rocks, the course of the tides, their situa-
either evlindric or cylindroidic though a body with circular
; tion, component matter, and the proper season for visiting
sections will do, but not so well. them. Tie then takes an ample view of Mr. Winstanley's
The must considerable whispering place in England, is edifice, to whom he ascribes great praise for having under-
the whispering gallery in the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral, taken and achieved what had been generally deemed imprac-
London, where the ticking of a watch may be heard from ticable ;
and after deploring that gentleman's disaster, goes
side to side, and a very easy whisper be sent all round the on to describe the second lighthouse, built by Mr. Rudyerd,
dome. The famous whispering-gallery in Gloucester Cathe- as a most complete edifice of the kind, being of timber, in
dral, is no other than a gallery above the east end of the the course of which he details the best methods of fixing iron
choir, lending from one side thereof to the other. It consists chains, and securing limber-work to rocks, which we shall
of five angles, and six sides, the middlemost of which is a give in his own words.
naked window; yet two whisperers hear each other at the "As nothing would stand upon the sloping surface of the
distance of twenty-live yards. rock without artificial means to stay it, Mr. Rudyerd judi-
ECIIOMETRY, the art of constructing vaults to produce ciously concluded, that if the rock were reduced to level bear-
echoes. ings, the heavy bodies to be placed upon it,
would then have
ECPIIORA, or ECPIIORAN (from KK, out. and (fiepu, Hear,) no tendency to slide ; and this would be the case, even
the projeeture, or distance between the extremity of a mem- though but imperfectly executed; for the sliding tendency
ber, or moulding, and the naked of the column, or other part being taken away from those parts that were reduced to a
it projects from. level, the whole would be much more securely retained by
Some authors, however, account the ecphora, or projeeture, the iron bolts or branches, than if, for the retention of the
from the axis of the column, and define it to be a right line whole, they had depended entirely upon the iron-work as ;

intercepted between the axis and the outermost surface of a manifestly appears to have been the ea*e with the building
member, or moulding. The word is used by Vitruvius, in of Mr. Winstanley. According to Mr. Rudyerd's print, the
Chapter III., book iii., iu the explanation of columns and inclined surface of the rock was intended to have been
their ornaments. See PJ-.OJECTUKE. reduced to a set of regular steps, which would have been
ECTYPE (from the Greek) up%R~vrrov, denotes the
: attended with the same good effect, as if the whole could
original, or model ; evrvxov, the copy or image, moulded or have been reduced to one level ; but in reality, from the
struck in creux ; and EKTVTTOV, the image in relievo, or em- hardness of the rock, the shortness and uncertainty of the
bossed. intervals in which this part of the work must have been per-
EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE, a celebrated building formed ; and the great tendency of the lamince whereof the
erected upon a cluster of very dangerous rocks, situated in rock is composed to rise in spawls, according to the inclined
the English Channel, in latitude 50 3' N., and longitude surface, when worked upon by tools, urged with sufficient
40 21' \V. These rocks are about fourteen miles from force to make an impression ; this part of the work, that is,
Plymouth Sound, and, lying nearly in the track of vessels the stepping of the rock, had been but imperfectly performed,
going up or down channel, have been the cause of many though in a degree that sufficed.
shipwrecks. To guard against these disasters, it was deemed "The holes made to receive the iron branches, appear to
necessary to erect a lighthouse ; but to effect this in a com- have been drilled into the rock by jumpers, making holes
plete and permanent manner, so as to resist storms and afford of about 24; inches diameter; the extremities of the two
light, was a task of extreme difficulty. holes forming the breadth for the branch, at the surface of
The Eddystone rocks are so peculiarly exposed to the the rock, w ere about 7 inches and these holes were
;

swell of the ocean from the south and west, that the heavy directed so that at their bottoms they should be separated
seas break upon them with uncontrolled fury. Sometimes, somewhat better than an inch more, that is, so as to be
after a storm, when the sea is apparently quite smooth, and full 8 inches. In the intermediate space, a third hole was
its surface unruffled by the slightest breeze, the ground-swell, bored "between the two former and then if the three holes
;

or under-current, meets the slope of the rocks, and the sea were broken into one, by square-faced pummels, this would
beats tremendously upon them, and even rises above the make the holes sufficiently smooth and regular. By this
light-house, overtopping it for the moment, as with a canopy means he obtained holes of a dove-tail shape, being 24; inches
of frothy wave. Notwithstanding this awful swell, Mr. wide, 7 broad at top, 8 at bottom, and 15 and 16 inches
Henry Winstanley undertook, in the year 1696, to build a deep ; and as these could not be made all alike, every branch
light-house on the principal rock, for the rest are under was forged to fit its
respective hole. The main pieces of
 EDD 329 EDD
each branch, were about 4 inches broad at the surface of the fixed twelve great irons in the rock, in his first year's work,
rock, and G at the bottom ; and this being first put down yet he gives no intimation of any particular mode of fixing
into the hole, the space left for a key would be 3 inches at them, but the common way with lead ; and the stump of one
top, and 2 inches at bottom, which would admit it to be of the great irons of Mr. Winstanley's, that was cut out in
driven in so as to render the whole linn, and the main branch the course of the work of the summer of 1756, was fixed in
fixed like a dove-tail or lewis. that manner ; but we remarked, that the low end of this bar
"The holes being each finished, and fitted with their or stanchion, was a little club-ended, and that the hole was
respective branches, and cleared of water, a considerable somewhat under-cut ; so that, when the lead was poured in,
quantity of melted tallow was poured into each hole the : the whole together would make a sort of dovetail engraft-
branch and key being then heated to about a blue heat, and ment however, when these irons, by great agitations, became
:

put down into the tallow, and the key firmly driven, all the loose, and the lead yielded in a certain degree, they would
space unfilled by the iron, would become full of tallow, and be liable to be drawn out ; as the orifice by which they
the overplus made to run over when this was done, all
: entered must have been large enough to receive the iron club.
remaining hot, a quantity of coarse pewter, being made red- Mr. Rudyerd's method, therefore, of keying and securing,
hot in a ladle, and run into the chinks, as being the heaviest must be considered as a material accession to the practical
body, would drive out the superfluous melted tallow and so :
part of engineer} ; as it furnishes a secure method of fixing
effectually had this operation succeeded, that in those ring-bolts and eye-bolts, stanchions, &c., not only into rocks
branches which were cut out in 1750, and had remained of any known hardness ; but into piers, moles, &e., that have
fast, the whole cavity had continued so thoroughly full, that already been constructed, for the safe mooring of ships or ;.

not only the pewter, but even, in general, the tallow, remained fixing additional works, whether of stone or wood.
"
apparently fresh: and when the pewter was melted from the In this way, by building stratum super stratum, of solid
irons, the scale appeared upon the iron, as if it had come squared oak timber, which was of the best quality, Mr. Uud-
from the smith's forge, without the least rust upon it. yerd was enabled to make a solid basement of what height
" All the iron
branches, which are shown, as I found he thought proper but in addition to the above methods, lie
:

them, in Plate I, having been fixed in the manner above- judiciously laid hold of the great principle of engineery, that
mentioned, they next proceeded to lay a course of squared weight is the most naturally and effectually resisted by weight.
oak balks, lengthwise upon the lowest step, and of a size to lie considered, that all his joints being pervious to water,
rea'.-h
up to the level of the step above. Then a set of short and that though a great part of' the ground-joint of the whole
balks were laid cro.sssvise of the former, and upon the next mass was in contact with the rock, yet many parts of it
step compounded ly, so as to make good up to the surface of could not be accurately so ; and therefore, that whatever
the third step. The third stratum was therefore again laid
parts of the ground-joint wore not in perfect contact, so as
lengthwise, and the fourth crosswise, ecc., till a basement of to exclude the water therefrom, though the separation was
solid \\oud was raised, two complete courses higher than the only by the thickness of a piece of post-paper, yet if capable
highest part of the rock ; the whole being fitted together, of receiving water in a fluid state, the action of a wave upon
and to the rock, as close as possible, and the balks, in all it edgewise, would, upon the principles of hydrostatics,
their intersections with each other, trenailcd together.
They produce an equal effect towards lifting it upwards, as if it
were also lilted to the iron branches where they happened acted immediately upon so much area of the bottom as was
to fall in ; for the branches do not seem to have been not in close contact.
placed
with any complete regularity or order, but rather where the " The more
effectually therefore to counteract every
strength and firmness of the rock pointed out the propercst tendency of the seas to move the building in any direction,
places for fixing them ; they were, however, to appearance he determined to interpose strata of Cornish moor-stone
disposed so as to form a double circle, one about a foot within between those of wood; and accordingly having raised his
the circumference of the basement, and the other about three foundation solid, two courses above the top of the rock, he
feel within the former; besides which, there were two
large then put on live courses, of one foot thick each, of the moor-
branches fixed near the centre, for taking hold of the two stone. These courses were as well jointed as the workmen
sides of a large upright piece of timber, which was called the of the country could do it, to introduce as much weight as
mast; by which two branches it was strongly fixed down; possible into the space to contain them they were, however,
:

and being set perpendicular, it served as a centre for guiding laid without any cement ;
but appears that iron cramps
it

all the rest of the

succeeding work. were used, to retain the stones of each course together, and
" The
branches were perforated, in their respective upper also upright ones lo confine down the outside stones.
parts, some with three, and some with four holes ; so that,
li
When five feet of moor-stone were laid on, which,
(collectively called a brunch) there would be at according to the dimensions, would weigh 120 tons ; he then
in every pair
a medium seven holes ; and as there were at least thirty-six interposed a couple of courses of solid timber, as before the;

original branches, there would be 252 holes, which were use of which was plainly for the more effectual and ready
fastening of the outside uprights to the solid, by means of
about seven-eighths of an inch in diameter ; and, conse-
quently, were capable of receiving as many large-bearded jag-bolts, or screw-bolts; and that these bolts might the
spikes, or jag-bolts, which being driven through the branches more effectually hold in the wood, in every part of the circle
into the solid timber, would undoubtedly hold the whole (which could not be the case with timbers lying parallel to
mass firmly down ;
and the great multiplicity of trenails in each other, because in two points of the circle, opposite
the intersections, would confine all the strata closely and to each other, the timbers would present their ends towards
compactly together. the bolt) he encompassed those two courses with circular,
" 1
cannot omit here to remark, that though the instrument or what are technically called compass timbers, properly
we now call the lewis, is of an old date, yet, so far as appears, scarfed together, and breaking joint one course upon the
this particular
application of that idea, which Mr. Kudyerd other. We must not, however, suppose, that these courses
employed in fixing his iron branches firmly to the rock, was were composed wholly of circular timbers to the centre, but
made use of for the first time in this work for though : that the circles of compass timbers on the outside, were
Mr. Winstanley mentions his having made twelve holes, and filled up with parallel pieces within ; and that the compass
42
 E 1 ) D 330 EDO
timbers were, in the most favourable points, jag-bolted to water of the waves mounted in bad weather, we may very
the interior parallel pieces. well suppose that Mr. Rudyerd regulated the height of his
" The two
uppermost courses, after clearing the rock, and solid from that information.
before the five moor-stone courses came on, were furnished "We have already seen, that the two compass courses of
with compass timbers, as well as some others below. wood, which capped the first bed of moor-stone, and termi-
"
The two courses of wood above the moor-stone courses nated the entire solid, were forcibly screwed down by ten large
terminated the entire solid of the basement ; for a well-hole iron bars, or bolts, to the beds of timber below the moor-stone,
was begun to be left upon these courses for stairs in the and these by the trenails and branches to the rock. must We
centre, of G feet 9 inches in the square ; and hereupon was suppose this precaution to have been taken to prevent any de-
fixed the entry door, or rather, one course lower, making rangement from the heavy strokes of the sea in stormr. and
a step up, just within the door ; in consequence of this, the hard gales, which were liable to happen in the very finest part
entire solid terminated about 9 feet above the higher side of of the season, before there was any proper opportunity of con-
the base, and 19 feet above the lower side thereof. necting the upper part of the work with the lower, by means of
"In Mr. Winstanley's house, the entry was from the rock the upright timbers that were to form the outside case; be-
into an internal staircase, formed in the casing upon the cause, till the work was brought to that height, there could be
south-east side he therefore needed only a few external
;
no proper means of beginning to fix them and as we do not ;

steps. Hut Mr. Rudyerd's entry door, being full eight feet find any traces or mention of binding the
upper courses with
above the highest part of the rock, would consequently need the lower, after the staircase was set forward, we must sup-
a ladder. This he made of iron, of great strength; and pose that the outside casing had been then begun from the
being open, whenever the seas broke upon this side of the rock, and carried on progressively, so as to become a bond of
house, they readily found their passage through, without the upright kind ; for, all such timbers as were high enough
making any violent agitation upon it. having been screwed fast to the compass courses, would be
" The two
compass courses terminating the entire solid, thereby secured to the lower courses ; otherwise, from what
having been established, as already mentioned, he again I have
myself experienced of the situation, I should have
proceeded with five moor-stone courses ; nearly the same as expected, that whenever the two courses of compass timber
the former allowing for the necessary difference resulting
; were put upon the second bed of moor-stone, if a hard gale
from there now being a central well-hole for the stairs, and should have come on at south-west, it would not only have
a passage from the entry door, as described, to the well-hole: lifted up and carried
away the timber beds, but possibly
this passage was 2 feet 11 inches wide, and, as it appears, would have deranged the moor-stone courses, notwithstand-
took up the whole height of the five courses. The weight ing the upright cramps to the outside stones.
of these five courses, according to the dimensions, amounted "
The solid being in this manner completed, the upper
to 80 tons.
part of the building, comprehending four rooms, one above
"
He then again proceeded with two compass courses, another, was chiefly formed by the outside upright timbers ;
covering the door-head and passage, so as now to leave no having one kirb or circle of compass timber at each floor, to
other vacuity than the well-hole ; and upon these he laid which the upright timbers were screwed and connected, and
four moor-stone courses, the weight of which amounted to upon which the floor timbers were rested. The uprights
sixty-seven tons. He then proceeded with two compass were also jag-bolted and trenailed to one another, and, in
courses, and after that, with beds of timber, cross and cross, this manner, the work was carried on to the height of 34 feet
and compass courses interposing ; and, last of all, with one above the store-room floor, and there terminated by a plank-
compass course, upon which he laid a floor over all, of oak ing of three inches thick, which composed the roof of the
plank three inches thick, which made the floor of the store- main column, as well as served for the floor of the lantern,
room. and of the balcony round it.'
"
The height of
this floor above the bottom of the well, "Thus the main column of this building consisted of
was near IS above the foot of the mast, 33 feet above
feet; ;
one simple figure, being an elegant frustum of a cone, un-
the rock on the higher side, 27 feet; and above the foot of broken by any projecting ornament, or anything whereon
the building on the lower side, 37 feet. In all this height, the violence of the storms could lay hold being, exclusive ;

no cavity of any kind was intended for any purpose of of its sloping foundation, 22 feet 8 inches upon its largest
depositing stores. &c. From the rock to the bottom of the circular base, 61 feet high above that circular base, and
well, all was solid, as we have shown but as the building
;
14 feet 3 inches in diameter at the top so that the circular
;

increased in height, and consequently was more out of the base was somewhat greater than one-third of the total height,
heavy stroke of the sea, a less degree of strength and solidity and the diameter at top was somewhat less than two-thirds
would be equivalent to the former, and therefore admit of of the base at the greatest circle.
"
the convenience of a staircase within the building, with a The junction of the upright timbers upon each other
passage into it which last, being made upon the east side,
: was by means of scarfs, as they are technically called in
would be withdrawn from the heavy shock of the seas from ship-building and carpentry ; that is, the joining of timbers
the south-west quarter, and the rock being there highest, end to end by over-lapping. The timbers were of different
the ascent bv the iron stair outside, would be the
upon the lengths, from 10 to 20 feet, and so suited, that no two join-
least ; the whole therefore, to the height of the store-room ings or scarfs of the uprights might fall
together. The
floor, as above-mentioned, having been made with all possible number of uprights composing the circle was the same from
solidity,was denominated the solid. top to bottom and their number being
; seventy-one, the
"The height of Mr. Rudyerd's store-room floor was fixed breadth at the bottom would be 1 foot nearly ; their thickness

as high as the floor of Mr. Winstanley's state-room, which there was 9 inches ; and, as they diminished in breadth
was over his store-room and as many were doubtless still
; towards the top, they also diminished in thickness. The
living who had seen and examined Mr. Winstanley's light- whole of the outside seams were well caulked with oakum,
house, during the four years that it stood in a finished in the same manner as in ships and the whole payed over
;

state ; and as in that time there would be an opportunity of with pitch; consequently, upon a near view, the seams run-
knowing, from experience, to what height the unbroken ning straight from top to bottom in some measure resembled
 EDD 331 EDD
the flutings of columns; which, in so simple a figure, could fury of the sea, because, in four years after its completion, it
not fail to catch the attention of the beholder, and
prove an was totally demolished thereby but Mr. Rudyerd's building
:

agreeable engagement of the eye. having sustained the repeated attacks of that element, in all
" The whole of the its fury, for upwards of forty-six years after its completion;
building was, indeed, a piece of ship-
wrightry : for it is plain, from the preceding account, that and then being destroyed, not by water, but by fire we ;

the interposed beds of moor-stone had nothing to do with must conclude, it was of a construction capable of withstand-
the frame of the building, it being entire and complete ex- ing the greatest violence of the sea in that situation. And
clusive thereof: the beds of moor-stone could therefore only by withstanding it there, this light-house proves the prac-
be considered in the nature of ballast, and amounted, from ticability of a similar erection in any like exposure in the
what has been before stated, in the whole, to the weight of known world.
" hands of one of the present
above two hundred and seventy tons. I have seen a paper in the
" All
the windows, shutters, and doors, were composed of proprietors, upon which were put down the quantities of
double plank, cross and cross, and clinked together which ;
materials said to have been expended in the construction of
falling into a rebate when shut, their outside formed a part this building :
viz., 500 tons of stone, 1,200 tons of timber,
of the general surface, like the port-holes in a ship's side ; 80 tons of iron, and 35 tons of lead and of trenails, screws,
;

without making any unevcnncss or projection in the surface. and rack- bolts, 2,500 each."
There were, however, two projecting parts terminating this Mr. Smeaton then proceeds to detail the means by which
frustrum one at the top, and the other at the joining with
;
the erection of the new lighthouse fell into his hands, his
the rock ;
thu utility of which seems to render them indis- several interviews with the proprietors, and various other pre-
pensable. They had each a projection of about inches. liminary occurrences, among which the following remarks on
The top projection, which is in the nature of a cornice, con- the difference in structure of stone and wood, and on the bond
sisted of a simple bevel, and the use of it was very great ; of the stones to the rock and to each other, are particularly
for in times of storms and hard gales of wind, when, accord- worthy of notice.
" In
ing to the accounts of Mr. Winstanley's building, the broken reflecting upon the late structure, it appeared most
sea rises to a far greater height than the whole structure, it evidently, that had it not been for the moor-stone courses,
would be likely to break the windows of the lantern, unless inlaid into the frame of the building, and acting therein like
there was something to throw it ofT, as their use does not the ballast of a ship, it had long ago been overset, notwith-
admit of any defence by shutters. Therefore Mr. lludycrd standing all the branches and iron-work contrived to retain
applied this simple cornice, judging it sufficient to have the it and that, in reality, the violent agitation, rocking, or
:

effect of throwing ofT the sea in times of storms ; and yet vibration, which the late building was described to be subject
not so much projection as that the sea, at the height of 71 feet to, must have been owing to the narrowness of the base on
above the foot of the building, could have power enough to which it rested ; and which, the quantity of vibration it had
derange it. been constantly subject to, had rendered, in regard to" its
"The bottom projection, which has been called the kant, seat, in some degree rounding, like the rockers of a cradle.
and which fills up the angle formed between the uprights It seemed therefore a primary point of improvement, to pro-
and the sloping surface of the rock, so as to guard the foot an enlargement of the base, which, from
cure, if possible,
of the uprights from that violence of action which the waves the models before me, appeared to be practicable. It also

naturally exert when driven into a corner, was certainly a seemed equally desirable, not to increase the size of the pre-
very useful application but I am inclined to think it was
;
sent building in its waist; by which I mean that part of the
not there upon the first completion. building between the top of the rock and the top of the solid.
"
Upon the flat room of the main column, as a platform, If therefore I still kept strictly to the conical form, a neces-
Mr. Iludyerd fixed his lantern, which was an octagon of sary consequence would be, that the diameter of every part
10 feet C inches diameter externally. The mean height of being proportionably increased by an enlargement of the
the window-frames of the lantern above the balcony floor, base, the action of the sea upon the building would be greater
was nearly 9 feet ;
so that the elevation of the centre of the in the same proportion ; but as the strength increases in pro-

-lightabove the highest side of the base was 70 feet that ; portion to the increased weight of the materials, the total
is, lower than the centre of Mr. Winstanley's second lantern absolute strength to resist that action of the sea, would be
by 7 feet but higher than that of his first by 24 feet. The
; greater by a proportional enlargement of every part, but
width of Mr. Rudyerd's lantern was, however, nearly the would require a greater quantity of materials on the other ;

same as that of Mr. Winstanley's second but, instead of

; hand, if we could enlarge the base, and at the same time
the towering ornaments of iron work, and a vane that rose rather diminish than increase the size of the waist and upper
above the top of the cupola no less than 21 feet, Mr. Rud- works ; as great a strength and stiffness would arise from
ycrd judiciously contented himself with finishing his building a larger base, accompanied with a less resistance to the acting
with a round ball, of 2 feet 3 inches diameter, which termi- power, though consisting of a less quantity of materials, as
nated at 3 feet above the top of his cupola. The whole if a similar conical figure had been preserved.
" On this
height of Mr. Rudyerd's lantern, including the ball, was occasion, the natural figure of the waist or bole
no more than 21 feet above his balcony floor ; whereas of a large spreading oak, presented itself to my imagination.
that of Mr. Winstanley's including the iron ornaments, was Let us for a moment consider this tree suppose at 12 or 15:

above 40. feet above its base, it branches out in every direction, and
" The forms a large bushy top, as we often observe. This top, when
whole height, then, of Mr. Rudyerd's lighthouse,
from the lowest side to the top of the ball, was 92 feet, upon full of leaves, is subject to a very great impulse from the agi-
a base of 23 feet 4 inches, taken at a medium between the tation of violent winds yet, partly by its elasticity, and partly
;

highest and lowest part of the rock that it covered. by the natural strength arising from its figure, it resists them
" I
have endeavoured to describe this building with all all, even for ages, till the gradual decay of the material dimi-

possible minuteness, because it affords a great and very useful nishes the coherence of the parts, and they suffer piecemeal
lesson to future engineers. We are sure that a building such by the violence ; but it is very rare that we hear of such a
as Mr. Winstanley's was not capable of resisting the utmost tree being torn up by the roots. Let us now consider its par-
 EDD 332 EDD
ticular figure. Connected with its roots, which lie hid below utmost consequence to avoid this, even by any quantity of
ground, it rises from the surface thereof with a large swell- time and moderate expense, that might be necessary for its
ing base, which at the height of one diameter is generally performance on shore ; provided it prevented hinderance of
reduced by an elegant curve, concave to the eye, to a dia- business upon the rock because of time upon the rock, there
;

meter less by at least one-third, and sometimes to half of its was likely to be a great scarcity, but on the shore a very
original base. From thence its taper diminishing more slowly, sufficient plenty. This made me turn my thoughts to what
its sides, into a perpendicular, and for some
by degrees, come could be done in the way of dovetailing. In speaking how-

height form a cylinder. After that, a preparation of more cir- ever, of this as a term of art, I must observe, that it had been
cumference becomes necessary, for the strong insertion and principally applied to works of carpentry ; its application in
establishment of the principal boughs, which produces a the masonry way had been but very slight and
sparing ; for
swelling of its diameter. Now, we can hardly doubt but that in regard to the small
pieces of stone that had been let in
every section of the tree is nearly of an equal strength in with a double dovetail, across the joint of larger pieces, and
proportion to what it has to resist and were we to lop off'
:
generally to save iron, it was a kind of work even more
its principal bough-;, and expose it in that state to a rapid cur- objectionable than cramping ;
for though it would not require
rent of water, we should find it as much capable of resisting melted lead, yet being only a superficial bond, and consisting
the action of the heavier fluid, when divested of the greatest of far inore brittle materials than iron, it was not likely to
part of its clothing, as it was that of the lighter, when all its answer our end at all. Somewhat more to purpose, I had
my
spreading ornaments were exposed to the fury of the wind :
occasionally observed, in many places in the streets of Lon-
and hence we may derive an idea of what the proper shape don, that, in fixing the kirbs of the walking-paths, the long
of a column of the greatest stability ought to be, to resist the pieces, or stretchers, were retained between two headers, or
action of external violence, when the quantity of matter is bond pieces ;
whose heads being cut dovetail-wise, adapted
given whereof it is to be composed. themselves to, and confined in, the strechcrs ;
which expe-
"
In Plate V. Figure 1, is a sketch, representing the idea dient, though chiefly intended to save iron and lead, never-
which I formed of this subject. It is farther observable, in theless appeared to me capable of more firmness than
any
the insertions of the boughs of trees into the bole, or of the superficial fastening could be ; as the tye was as good at the
branches into the boughs, (which is generally at an oblique bottom as at the top, which was the very thing I wanted ; and
angle) that those insertions arc made by a swelling curve, of therefore if the tail of the header was made to have an ade-
the same nature as that wherewith the tree rises out of the
quate bond with the interior parts, the work would in itself
ground and that the greatest rake or sweep of this curve is
;
be perfect. What I mean will be rendered obvious by the
that which fills up the obtuse angle ; while the acute
angle inspection of Figure 3, in Plate V. Something of this kind
is filled
up with a much quicker curve, or sweep of a less I also remembered to have seen in Belidor's
description of
radius and Figure 2, of the same Plate, represents my con-
: the stone floor of the great sluice at Cherbourg, where the
ception of this matter. In this view of the subject, I imme- tails of the upright headers are cut into dovetails, for their

diately rough-turned a piece of wood, with a small degree of insertion into the mass of rough masonry below. From these
tapering above and leaving matter enough below, I fitted it
; beginnings I was readily led to think, that if the blocks them-
to the oblique surface of a block of wood, somewhat resem- selves were, both inside and out, all formed into large dove-
bling the sloping surface of the Eddystone rook ; and soon tails, they might be managed so as mutually to lock one an-
found, that by reconciling curves, I could adopt every part of other together being primarily engrafted into the rock and
;
:

the base upon the rock to the regularly turned in the round and entire courses, above the
tapering body, top of the rock,
and so as to make a figure not ungraceful ; and at the same thi-y might all proceed from, and be locked to, one large
time carry ing the idea of great firmness aud solidity. centre stone. After some trials in the rough, I produced a
"
The next thing was to consider how the blocks of stone complete design, of which Figure 5, Plate V., is the exact
could be bonded to the rock, and to one another, in so firm copy the dotted lines representing the course next above or
;

a manner, as that, not only the whole together, but below, which in the original was drawn from the same centre,
every indi-
vidual piece, when connected with what on the other side of the paper ; so that looking on each side
preceded, should be
proof against the greatest violence of the sea. separately, each course was seen distinctly ; or, looking
"
Cramping, as generally performed, amounts to no more through the paper, the relation of the two courses, showing
than a bond upon the upper surface of a course of stone, how they mutually broke joint upon one another, was clearly
without having any direct power to hold a stone down, in pointed out: and this method of representation was pursued
case of its being lifted upward by an action greater than its throughout; but not being practicable in copperplate work,
own weight as might be expected frequently to happen at
;
I am under the
necessity of introducing the method by dotted
the Eddystone, whenever the mortar of the ground-bed it was lines, though attended with some degree of confusion of the
set upon was washed out of the joint, when attacked main
by the design.
sea before it had time to harden ; and though upright " is obvious, that in this method of
cramps, It
dovetailing, while
to confine the stones down to the course below,
might in some the slope of the rock was making good ; by cutting the steps
degree answer this end, yet, as this must be done to each (formed by Mr. Rudyerd) also into dovetails, it might be
individual stone, the quantity of iron, and the said, that the foundation-stones of every course were engrafted
great trouble
aud loss of time that would necessarily attend this method, or rather rooted in, the rock which would not only
into, ;

would in
reality render it
impracticable ; for it appeared, that all the stones in one course together, but prevent the
keep
Mr.Winstanley had found the fixing twelve great irons, and courses themselves (as one stone) from moving or sliding
Mr. Rudyerd thirty-five, attended with such a consumption of
upon each other. But after losing hold of the rock, by getting
time (which arose, in a great
measure, from the difficulty above it ; then, though every stone in the same course would
of getting and be bonded in the strongest manner with every other, and
keeping the holes dry, so as to admit of the
pouring in of molted lead) that any method which required might be considered as consisting of a single stone, which
still much more, inputting the work together upon the rock, would weigh a considerable number of tons, and would be
would inevitably, and to a very great degree, procrastinate farther retained to the floor below by the cement, so that,
the completion of the 'it therefore seemed of the when completed, the sea would have no action upon it but
building,
 EDD 333 EDD
edgeways ; yet, as a force, if sufficiently great, might move hiscommission to proceed on the work. He then went back
it,notwithstanding its weight, and the small hold of the sea toPlymouth, and, on the 3d of August, landed with the first
upon it, and break the cement before time had given it that company of workmen on the rock, where he began to fix the
hardness which it might be expected to acquire afterwards ; centre and lines of the work. After describing the difficulties
1 had formed more under which he laboured from the uncertainty of the weather,
expedients than one for fixing the courses
to one another, so as absolutely to prevent their shifting ;
and the necessity in which the workmen were placed, of
but 1 shall not trouble my reader with a recital of those ex- returning to shore every tide, till a vessel fit for their recep-
pedients at present, as they will more properly come in tion could be properly moored off the rock, Mr. S. observes
along with the reasons of my choice, in the detail of the upon his preference of the use of picks and wedges for
actual proceedings." operating upon the rock, that "it might seem, at first sight,
Mr. Smeaton made his first voyage to the Eddystone on that a greater dispatch would have been by the use of gun-
the 2d of April, 1750, but was prevented from landing by powder, in blasting the rock, in the same manner as is usual
the weather; but on the 5th of the same month he was more in mines, and in procuring limestone from the marble rocks

successful, and staid upon the rock about two hours and a in the neighbourhood of Plymouth but though this is a very
:

half, during which time ho observed, "such traces of the ready method of working hard and close rocks, in proportion
situations of the irons fixed by Mr. Winstanley, as that it to the dispatch that could be made by picks and wedges ;
would not be difficult to make out his plan, and the position yet, as a rock always yields to gunpowder in the weakest
of the edifice; from whence it appeared very probable that part, and it is not always easy to know which part is weakest ;
Mr. Winstanley's building was overset all together; and it
might often have happened, if that method had been
that it had torn up a portion of the rock itself with it, as far pursued, that, instead of forming a dovetail recess, such as
as the irons had been fastened in it. He also " perceived
: '
was required, the very points of confinement would have
that Mr. Rudyerd's iron brunches, as then called, were much been lost. Besides, the great and sudden concussion of gun-
smaller and shorter than he had described them to be at the powder might possibly loosen some parts that it was more
bottom of his print ; that many of them were loose, and some suitable to the general scheme should remain fast. For
broken and bent: and that, in regard to the steps, described these reasons, I had previously determined to make no use
to be cut upon the rock, there were only five of them, of of gunpowder for this purpose.
" On
which the traces were remaining so that there was but one
: the 7th of September," says Mr. Smeaton, " I sent
flat or trend of a step above the centre of the house and the ;
to Portland the draughts for the six foundation courses, that

upper part of the surface of the rock above that, was a sloping were to be employed in bringing the rock to a lovel ; which,
plain, as it had been at first. Three steps, of the five now with the draughts for eight that I had before dispatched,
remaining, seemed to have been but faintly cut, and the completed the order for the whole quantity of Portland stone
to be used in the solid up to the entry door; being all that
uppermost but one was so imperfect, that he supposed a large
.pawl or splinter had come from it; and this appeared the we could expect to set in place the next season. The rock
more probable, as the uppermost step was so shaken, that was not indeed yet ready for completing the exact moulds
another large spawl might have been easily raised from it, by for those stones that were to lit into the dovetails made
a slight action of a wedge. Above the uppermost step the in itbut, by ordering the stones large enough, and being
;

rock seemed to be of a softer nature, was cracked in many scappelled something near their proper form, it would prevent
loss of time in waiting to get the true figure from the rock,
places, and probably had received some damage from the fire.
None of the steps appeared to have been cut with much as well as unnecessary waste.
"
regularity, either as to level or square; but to have all the Nothing happened to prevent the companies from work-
marks of hurry upon them. In the centre of the house a ing every tide from the 27th of August, till the 14th of
in which time they had worked one hundred and
slight footing was cut
for the mast, suitable to a square of September,
18 inches, with large iron branches, answerable to two of its seventy-seven hours upon the rock. In this interval,
having
sides, and a small hole bored in the centre, of about 1^- inch procured a carpenter to be applied to that purpose, I began
diameter, being inches deep. By consulting Plate I., many to make the moulds for the exact cutting of the stones to
of tbe above matters will be made apparent to the eye. their intended shapes. This was done by laying down, in
" " chalk-lines upon the floor of a chamber, the proposed size
then," says Mr. Smeaton,
1
proceeded to try the degree
in which the rock was workable, and found that from a flat and figure of each stone, being a portion of the plan at large
surface, indifferently taken, I could, with a pick, sink a hollow of the intended course; and the carpenter having prepared
minute and could cut or
at the rate of five cubic inches per ;
a quantity of battens, or slips of deal board, about three
drill a hole with a jumper of 1$ inch diameter, at the rate inches broad, and one inch thick, shot straight upon the edges
of one inch deep in five minutes. I also tried a method of by a plane ; those battens being cut to lengths, and their
two holes by a square flat-faced bruiser, or
into one, edges adapted to the lines upon the floor, and properly fitted
forcing
pummel ; there should
so that, if be occasion, I might be able together, became the exact representatives of the pieces of
to make a continued groove ; or let in an iron branch, in the stone whose figure was to be marked from them, when their
manner of Mr. Rudyerd, and I had the satisfaction to find beds were wrought to the intended parallel distance.
" It is obvious that there was no
that the whole succeeded to wishes." my necessity for making
In the choice of materials, Mr. Smeaton was determined moulds for a whole course after the work became regular ;

in favour of moor-stone or granite, for the outside work, and as was the seventh course, after the six foundation courses
Portland stone for the inside. The latter was not eligible brought the rock to a level; it was sufficient to make one
for the outer surface, on account of its liability to be destroyed mould to each circle of stones, beginning with the centre
stone ; but as the six foundation courses were adapted to
by a marine insect ; and the moor-stone was too hard and
the particular irregularities of the rock, and consequently
expensive in the working to admit of its being used through-
out the building. could not be strictly regular, it was necessary that a separate

By the 15th of May, Mr. Smeaton had made ten voyages mould should be made for every separate stone composing
of observation to the Eddystone, and then returned to Lon- that part of the work.
" this interval, visited the rock, and on arriving
don, where having settled with the proprietors, he received
I
During
 EDD 334 EDD
there the 8th of September, was informed by Mr. Jessop, appeared very evident ;
had been so great
for the pressure
that the preceding evening, there being a very strong tide, by the rock's closing upon as before suggested, that the
it,

and no wind, a West-Indiaman, homeward bound, and a links in their intersections were pressed into each other, as
man-of-war's tender, were in great danger of driving upon completely as if they had been made of lead
though the
;

the north-east rock; but that he timely perceiving thoir bolt-iron composing thec hain had been at least five-eighths of
not aware of it, ordered an inch in diameter.
danger, though they themselves were-
out the seamen and hands, who towed them off. "On Thursday, the 16th,again went off to the rock,
I
" and found the work
On this visit, 1 staid two days for as the working com-
;
in the The lowest
following situation.
new step (the most difficult to work upon, because the lowest)
pany had begun to take down the upper part
of the rock, it
was necessary to concert, and put in practice, the proper with its dovetails quite completed. The second
step rough-
means of doing that, without damage to what was destined bedded, and all its dovetails scappelled out. The third step
to remain. I have already mentioned my resolution of not (being the lowest in Mr. Iviidyerd's work) smooth-bedded,
for the sake of dis- and The
using gunpowder; yet it was necessary,
all the dovetails roughed out. fourth in- the like
to employ some means more expeditious than the state. The rough-bedded, and dovetails scappelled out
fifth :
patch,
slow way of crumbling off the matter by the blunt points of and the sixth smooth-bedded, and all the dovetails roughed
It has been already noticed, that the lamina: com- out. Lastly, the top of the rock, the greatest part of the
picks.
were to the inclined surface and bulk whereof had been previously taken down by the key-
posing the rock
it
parallel ;

was very probable that the chasm into which Mr. Winstan- and-feather method, as low as it could be done with propriety,

ley's chain had

been so fast jambed, that it never could be was now to be reduced to a level with the upper surface of
disengaged, extended farther into the rock than the visible the sixth step the top of that step being necessarily to form
;

disunion of the parts :this made mo resolve to try a method a part of the bed for the seventh, or first regular course ; so
sometimes used in this country, for the 'division of hard that what now remained, was to bring the top of the rock to
stones, called the key and feuther, in order to cross-cut this a regular floor by picks: and from what now appeared, (as
upper stratum of the rock. The construction and operation all the,upper parts, that had been damaged by the fire, were
of the key and feather is as follows: Aright line is marked cut off,) the new building was likely to rest upon a basis
upon the surface of the rock or stone to be cut, in the direc- even more solid than the former had done.
tion in which it is intended to be divided. Holes are then "On Thursday, the 30th, I traced the outlines upon the
drilled by a jumper, at the distance of six or eight inches, upper part of the rock for the border of the seventh course,
and about one inch and a quarter in diameter, to the depth all within which was to be sunk to the level of the
top of the
of about eight or nine inches; the distances, however, of the sixth, and all without to be left standing, as a border for
holes, and their diameters, as "ell as their depth, are to be defence of the ground-joint of the work with the rock and ;

greater or less, according to the strength of the stone, in the measuring the height of the top step above the bed of the
estimation of the artist directing the work. The above first, I found it to be eight feet four inches which would now
:

dimensions were what we used on tins occasion. The key be the difference of level between the west or lowest side of
is a long tapering wedge, of somewhat less breadth than the the new building, and the east or highest."
diameter of the holes, and so as to go easily into them; the The setting in of the equinoctial winds prevented much
length being three or four inches more than the depth of the farther progress in the work for this season; but on the 7th
holes. The feathers are pieces of iron, also of a wedge-like of November, the weather being somewhat moderate, Mr.
shape the side to be applied to the key being flat, but the
;
Smeaton went off in the Eddystone boat, with battens, and
other side a segment of a circle, answerable to that of the the carpenter, to mould off the dovetails from the rock,
holes ;
so that the two flat sides of two feathers being when he found "four or five of the dovetails in the upper
applied to the two flat sides of the key, and the thick end step wanting some amendment, that would employ as many
of the feathers to the thin end of the key, they all together men at each, for about four or five hours. The greatest part
compose a cylindric, or rather oval kind of body which in
;
of the top of the rock was now brought to a regular floor,
this position of parts is too big to go into the holes by at but some part of the north-east side wanted bringing down
least one-eighth of an inch; that is, in the direction of a to a level." And here the operations for the year ended ;

diameter passing through the three parts; but, in the other for, on the 15th of the month, the workmen left the rock,
direction, is no broader than to go with ease into the holes. having been able to make only thirty-eight hours and a half
A key and a pair of feathers is made use of in each hole ; since the2nd of October.
and the feathers being first dropped in, with the thick ends Mr. Smeaton occupies the interval between this period and
downward, the keys are then entered between them the ;
the next working season with describing the regulations of
flat sides of all the keys and the feathers being set parallel to his mason's yard, the size of the stones, &c., among which
that line in which the holes are disposed ; the keys are then the following remarks may be useful to the reader.
"
From the beginning 1 always laid it down as a funda-
driven by a sledge-hammer, proceeding from one to another,
and being forced gradually, as in splitting of moor-stone, the mental maxim, that on account of the precariousness of
strongest stones are unable to resist their joint effort ; and the weather to suit our purposes, (and without its being favour-
stone is split according to the direction of the original line, able, I think it has already sufficiently appeared, that nothing
as effectually, and much more regularly and certainly, than is to be done upon the Eddystone,) if we could save one

could be done with gunpowder, and without any concussion hour's work upon the rock, by that of a week in our work-
of the parts. Had our rock been entirely solid, this way of yard, this would always prove a valuable purchase ; and that
working might not have been applicable, on account of the therefore everything ought to be done by way of prepara-
crack's going too deep ; but here, when it arrived at the joint tion, which could tend to the putting our work together with
where the chain was lodged, the split part became entirely expedition and certainty, in the ultimate fixing of it in its
disengaged from the rest; and in this way we were enabled proper place ; and for this purpose, it was necessary to make
to bring off the quantity of several cubic teet at a time: and use of as large and heavy pieces of stone as, in such a situa-
thus the chain was released, after a confinement of above tion as the Eddystone, were likely to be capable of being
fifty years.
The impossibility of disengaging it before now managed without running too great a risk.
 EDD 335 EDD
" The common run of modern of the taken asunder, could be replaced in the identical position in
buildings, even
not exceeding which it lay upon the platform, within the fortieth part of an
largest size, are composed of pieces in general
five or six hundred-weight, except where columns, archi- inch. Nor was this alone sufficient ; for every course must
traves, cornices, and other parts are to be formed, that indis- not only be tried singly together upon the platform, and
pensably require large single pieces ; because stones
of this marked, but it must have the course next above it put upon
size and bulk are capable of being handled without the use it, and marked
in the same manner, that every two conti-
of tackles, or purchases, unless where they are to be raised guous courses might fit each other on the outside, and prevent
an irregularity in the outline and this indeed, in effect,
yet it appeared to me, that this choice of
:
:
perpendicularly
general magnitude resulted only from the
workmen's not amounted to the platforming of every course twice: so that,
in this way of working, every stone must be no less than six
having commonly attained all that expertness in the manage-
ment of the mechanic powers that they might have ; in con- times upon the carriage : 1st. When brought into the yard

sequence of which, they avoid, wherever they can, the neces- from the ship, to carry it to the place of deposition, till
sity of employing them. This arises
not from the real nature wanted 10 be worked- Sndly. When taken up and carried
of the thing, when properly understood ; for a stone of a ton to the shed to be worked. Srdly. After being wrought, to
weight is, when hoisted by a proper tackle, and power of be returned to its place of deposition. 4tlily. When taken
labourers, as soon and as easily set in its place, as one of a up to be carried to the platform. 5thly. When finished on
quarter of that weight; and, in reality, needs much less
hew- the platform, to be returned to its plact? of deposition. Cthly.
ing than is necessary for the preparation of four stones to
When taken up to be carried to the jetty, to be loaded on
board a vessel to go to sea.
fill
up the same space ; nor need this reasoning stop at stones
of a ton weight, but it might proceed even to as large sizes "It might, at first sight, appear superfluous to try the
as are said to be found in the ruins of Balbec, if there were courses together upon each other, as the under and upper
not inconveniences of other kinds to set on the opposite side sides of all the courses were planes :
and, in case the work
of the question, as well as the want of quarries in this king- could hare been put together upon the rock in the same way
dom to produce stones of that magnitude. that common masonry generally is done, it would have been
" The size of the stones that could be used in the so that is, if we could have begun our courses by setting
Eddy- :

stone lighthouse seemed limited by the practicability of hind- the outside pieces first, then it would have been very practi-
but small vessels, that cable to have regulated the inside pieces thereto but as our
ing them upon the rock for as nothing
: ;

were easily manageable, could possibly deliver their cargoes hope of expedition depended upon certainty in every part of
alongside of the rock, with any reasonable prospect of safety ; our progress, this required us to be in a condition to resist
so no small vessels could deliver very large stones, because the a storm at every step : the outside stones therefore, uncon-
sudden rising and falling of the vessels in the gut amounted nected with the inner ones, would have scarce jiny fastening
frequently to the difference of three or four feet, even in besides their own weight, and would be subject to the most
moderate weather, when it was very practicable for a vessel immediate and greatest shock of the sea; and, after com-
to lie there; so that in case, after a stone was raised from pleting the outward circle, the inner space would be liable to
the floor of the vessel, her gunnel should take a swing, so as become a receptacle for water the necessity therefore of fix-
:

to hitch under the stone, one of such a magnitude as we are ing the centre stone first, as least exposed to the stroke of the
now supposing, on the vessel's rising, must infallibly sink sea, and of having sure means of attaching all the vest to it,
her and hence it appeared, that much of the safety in deli-
;
and to one another, rendered it indispensable that the whole
vering the cargoes would depend upon having the single of the two courses should be tried together ; that if any
pieces not to exceed such weight as could be expeditiously defect appeared at the outside, by an accumulation of
hoisted, and got out of the way of the vessel, by a moderate errors from the centre, it might be rectified upon the plat-
number of hands, and by such sort of tackles as could be form.
"
removed from the rock to the store-vessel each tide and on : The moor-stone, though very hard with respect to its
a full view of the whole matter, it appeared to me very prac- component parts, yet being of a, friable nature, is extremely
difficult to work to an arris
ticable to land such pieces of stone upon the rock, as in (or sharp corner,) or even to be
general did not much exceed a ton-weight ; though occa- preserved, when so wrought by great labour and patience:
sionally particular pieces might amount to two tons. that is, with sharp tools, and small blows; it therefore soon
" The general of our building stones being thus
size appeared to me, that we sliould make very rough and coarse
determined upon at a ton-weight, those would have been far work of it, the finishing of the pieces were left to the
if

too heavy to be expeditiously transferred and managed, even workmen of the country where produced: for, though care-
in the work-yard, unless our machinery rendered that easy, fully wrought there in their place, yet in loading and unload-
which would otherwise be difficult, without too great an ing from their carnages, and again putting on board, and
expense of labour and as the moving and transferring the
:
unloading from the vessels, the arrises would be very subject
pieces of stone in the work-yard would be greatly increased to damage. Therefore, to have as much done in the country
in quantity, by the very mode of attaining a certainty in as possible, and to save weight in carriage (leaving the finish-
putting the work together upon the rock this consideration
;
ing part to be done at home) rough moulds were sent for each
made it still the more necessary to be able to load upon a size and species of stone, which were to be worked by them

carriage, and move the different pieces from one part of the to a given parallel thickness, and with length and breadth
yard to the other, with as much facility (comparatively speak- enough, when so bedded, (as it is called) to be cut round all
ing) as if they had been so many bricks for, that we might
: the sides to the true figure of the finishing mould but they
:

arrive at perfect certainty in putting the work ultimately were to reduce them as near the size as they could safely do
together in its place upon the rock, it did not appear to be it
by the hammer; and, that they might not leave an unne-
enough, that the stones should all be hewn as exactly as pos- cessary waste, they were to be paid no more for either stone
sible to moulds that fitted each other; but it was farther or carriage, than what the mould measured upon the thick-
necessary, that the stones in every course should be tried ness given ; and if they were wanting of substance sufficient
together in their real situation in respect to each other, and to make the figure complete, it should be at our option to
so exactly marked, that every stone, after the course was reject them when they came home."
 EDD 336 EDD
Our author next proceeds to detail his experiments on west, but landed again on Saturday morning's tide, the 18th.
cements but as they constitute no part of the building pro-
; However, we had not been long there before a great swell
cess, the reader is referred to the articles CEMENT and MOR-
arose from the south-west ; and though there had been no
TAR, where the subject is duly considered. wind apparently to occasion it, yet it came upon us so fast,
On the 5th of June, 1757, the operations on the rock were that we were obliged to quit the rock before we could
get
recommenced, and by the 10th all the preliminary matters our work into so satisfactory a posture of defence as I wished.
were settled so that "on Saturday, the llth of June, the
;
It was, however, as follows: No.
1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, were
first course of stone was put on board the'Eddystone boat, completely fixed as intended ; No. 6 and 7, were fitted, and
with all the necessary stores, tools, lowered upon their mortar-beds No. 8, was simply got into
(see Plate III. Fiijure 1,) ;

and utensils. Welanded at eight on Sunday morning, the its

place, with a weight of lead of five hundred weight upon
12th of June, and before noon had got the first stone into its it
; which, in all such trials as had hitherto been made
place, being that upon which the date of the year 1757 is thereof, had lain quietly. Not having time to get the stone,
inscribed, in deep characters; and the tide coming upon us, No. 9, into its place, we chained it upon the top of the rock
we secured it with chains to the old stanchions, and (hen to the slide-ladder, as we had done before on
Tuesday. In
this condition we left the rock,
quitted the rock till the evening tide, when it was fitted, having staid till we were all
bedded in mortar, trenailed down, and completely fixed and ;
wet from head to foot.
"
all the outward joints coated over with plastcr-of-paris, to The storm continued till Tuesday morning about noon
:

prevent the immediate wash of the sea upon the mortar. of that day," says Mr. Smeaton, " the wind and sea having
This stone, according to its dimensions, weighed two tons and become still more moderate, I judged it practicable to row
a quarter. The weather serving at intervals, it was in the ahead against it, so as to get to the westward of the rock,
evening of Monday, the 13th, that the first course, consisting and reconnoitre our damages accordingly, taking four oars
:

of four stones, was finished and which, as they all presented

;
in the light yawl, it
being then near low water, 1 observed,
some part of their faces to the sea, wore all of moor-stone. when the sea fell away from the rocks, (every sea then
" The
next day, Tuesday the 14th, the second course (see breaking bodily over it,) that No. 9, and the slide-ladder to
Plate 111. Fii/iire 2,) arrived; and some of it was imme- which it was chained, were both gone; that the two pieces
diately landed, proceeded with, and in part set the same tide : of moor-stone. No. 5 and 0, which had only been let down
the loose pieces being chained together by strong chains, upon their mortar-beds, without farther fastening, were also
made on purpose for this use, and those ultimately to the stan- gone that No. 3 had broke its cramp, and was gone ; and
;

cheons, or to lewises in the holes of the work Course I. that that the five hundred weight of lead, that had been laid upon
had already been fixed.The sea was uncommonly smooth the most projecting part of the piece, No. 8, had, by the force
when we got upon the rock, this evening's tide, but while we of the sea acting edgewise upon it, been driven to the east-
were proceeding with our work, within the space of an hour ward, till it was stopped by the rise of the third step, against
and a half, the wind sprung up at north-east, and blew so which it seemed abutted ; so that having thereby quitted the
fresh, that the Weston, lying to deliver the remainder of her piece, No. 8, upon which it was laid, that was gone also :

cargo, had some difficulty in getting out of the gut; and, had we therefore, as it appeared, had lost five pieces of stone ;
it not been for the
transport buoy, to which she had a fasten- the loss of which was, in the first instance, alleviated by
ing by a rope, it would probably have proved impracticable finding that the first course appeared so thoroughly united
to have got her out again. And we soon saw it was necessary with the rock, that its surface began to look black, with dark-
to get everything in the best posture time and circumstances coloured moss fixing upon it, and giving it the same hue as
would admit, in order to quit the rock with safety to our- the rock itself: also, that our shears and windlass were all
selves, and security to what we must necessarily leave standing, without the least derangement.
"
behind us. I did not wait for the
subsiding of the winds and seas,
"
The pieces that were fixed and trenailed down, were so as to enable us to land, and look out whether or no we
supposed to be proof against whatever might happen but ;
could recover any of the lost pieces ; I immediately made for
the loose pieces, and those that were simply lowered down Plymouth in the light yawl, and landed at Mill Bay, at five
into their dovetail recesses, were considered as needing some, o'clock on Tuesday evening, the 21st; and, having collected
additional security, to prevent their being carried away by the moulds of the stones we had lost, and chosen proper spare
the violence of the sea. Of the thirteen pieces of which blocks, I set a couple of men to work upon each piece of
Course II. consisted, five only were landed No. 1 was
:
stone, day and night, till finished. This disaster, though it
completely set ; No. 2 and 3 were lowered into their places, furnished a few reflections, yet they were not of the unpleasant
and secured by chains; and No. 4 and 5, which lay at the kind ; for, as every part of the stonework that was completed
top of the rock, were chained together, and also to the slide- according to its original intention, appeared to have remained

ladder, which was very strongly lashed down to the eye-bolts, fixed, itdemonstrated the practicability of the method chosen ;

purposely fixed on the rock for that intent. and at the same time shewed the preference of wedging to
"
In the evening (of June 15,) we made a short tide upon cramping, as the cramp had failed and also the utility of
:

the rock, and had the satisfaction to find that no material trenails, as a security till the mortar was become hard.
"
damage had happened to anything; we therefore proceeded At four o'clock on Monday morning the 27th, the
with our work, and completely fixed No. 2 of Course II. weather serving, I went out with Richardson and company,
On the morning of Friday the 17th we again landed for a in the Eddystone boat we got to the buss at ten, and found
;

short time ; and, notwithstanding we did not meet with any- the Weston at the transport buoy, but could not land till the
thing amiss on our return to the rock on Wednesday even- afternoon's tide, being a complete week since we had been
ing, after the hard gale of wind, yet this morning we found last upon the rock. We
first replaced the ladder, and after
a part of the rock in the border of our work, that secured wards proceeded, without more than usual interruptions, till
a corner of No. 3, was gone we therefore, to secure that
: the 30th in the evening, when we closed and completed the
stone to its neighbour, applied an iron cramp, of which we Course No. II., and began upon Course III. The execution
had some in readiness in case of accident. We
were prevented of these two courses had taken us up from the 12th to the
landing in the evening, by a fresh wind and rain at north- 30th inclusive, and though they consisted of no more than
 EDD 337 EDD
seventeen pieces of stone in the whole, yet I found myself no the stone while the faces were working afresh ; and which,
ways disheartened for, in establishing these two courses,
;
from the mortar of our first and second course, we found was
I considered the most difficult and arduous part of the work likely to be the case before the close o'f the season. One of
to be already accomplished, as these two courses brought us the dovetails had also given way in driving a trenail, owing
to a flaw in the stone ; for the remedying whereof we applied
up to the same level where my predecessor Mr. Rudyerd
had begun. a cramp.
" "The 8th of August,
Friday, July the 1st, we were able to land. I observed, at noon, the weather being exceeding
that during the last tide, the swell had washed some of the fine,with a low neap tide, I took the opportunity of drawing
pointing out of the exterior joints, and also some of the a meridian line upon the platform of Course VI. the sea
grouting out of the upright joints ; but as a heavy sea seemed never going over the work during the whole tide, which was
likely to come on with the tide of flood, I judged it to be to the first time it had not washed over all, since we began to
no purpose to repair the cement while a violent swell con- build: we therefore took this favourable opportunity of care-
tinued ; I therefore employed the company in cutting off" the fully making good all our pointings and groutings, wherever
iron stancheons belonging to the former building, as they now the water had washed during the bad weather that had
began to be in our way, and as the hold we got of them succeeded the last departure of the Eddystone boat; and
ceased to be of use, in proportion s we got more fastening which was the case with it, in places where it had not had
from the. lewis holes of our own work. time to set before a rough tide came on ; but I observed, with
" much satisfaction, that whatever, not only of the original
The weather having become more favourable, on Sunday
morning, the 3d of July, 1 went on board, accompanied by work, but of the repaired pointing, had once stood a rough
Mr. Jessop and his party, to whom, as they had never had tide without giving way, the same place never after failed.
the opportunity of setting a stone, it behoved me to attend. I also observed, that as in
mending the pointings we had in
We, however, not only met with a repulse this day, but could some places made trial of Dutch tarras as well as puzzolana,
not make any farther attempt to go out till Tuesday, the interchangeably, the puzzolana, for hard service, was evidently
5th; and then the wind, though gentle, being contrary, had superior to the tarras and some particular joints had proved
:

not the company on board the buss come with their two so difficult, that I was obliged to try other expedients; the
yawls and towed us thither, in all probability the day would best of which was to chop oakum very small, and beat it up
have been spent in fruitless attempts. Our difficulty was along with the mortar. This was our last resource, and it
considerably increased by the coming on of so thick a fog, never failed us.
"
that, all our efforts united, wo had much ado to regain the Upon the llth, I again went out in the vessel that con-
buss. Richardson told me they had had such bad weather, tained the remaining pieces of Course VI. those I saw fixed ;
:

that the slide-ladder had again broke its

lashings and driven and that course, consisting of thirty-two pieces, closed in the
away ;
that they had, however, got all the irons cut off close to same evening. (See Plate JJI.) This completing our six base-
the rock ; but that the last tide, though there was
only a breeze ment courses, brought our work upon the same level to
at south-west, the swell was so great, and came on so suddenly, which we had, the preceding season, reduced the top of the
as to put them in great danger of being washed off from the rock and upon this, as a common base, the rest of the struc-
;

top of the rock, before they could quit it. ture was to be raised by regular entire courses. The time
'
At two day we landed, and Jessop's company
o'clock this this part of the work (consisting of one hundred and
twenty-
set six pieces of stone, and effectually repaired the cement; three pieces of stone) had taken up, was from the 12th of
and next day a proportionable dispatch was made, though the June to the llth of inclusive, being a space of sixty-
August
weather was not very mild. one days. We now
considered our greatest difficulties to be
"On Monday, the llth, I again went out; Course III. successfully surmounted, as every succeeding course had
consisting of twenty-five pieces, was closed on the following given us more and more time, as well as more and mure
day, and Course IV. begun. room ; and this will appear from our proceedings fur it has
;
"
Thursday, the 14th of July, the company pursued the work already been noticed, that the two first courses, consisting of
of Course IV.; and now, both companies being nineteen pieces of stone only, had cost us seventeen days.
fully instructed
in the method of
setting the basement courses, I returned to "Having now got the work to this desirable situation, I
Plymouth ;
from whence I
proposed to visit each company as apprehend it will be agreeable to my reader to be more par-
often as should seem expedient, but always once in each ticularly acquainted with the method in which the stones
company's turn, if wind and weather should permit. were set and fixed. I have intimated, that when each separate
"Contrary winds, ground-swells, and heavy seas for several piece, of which a course was to consist, was separately
days, interrupted the regularity of our proceedings however,; wrought, they were all to be brought to their exact places with
taking such opportunities as we could, the Course IV., con- respect to each other, upon the platform in the work-yard, and
sisting of twenty-three pieces of stone, was closed in the so marked, that, after being numbered and taken to
pieces,
morning's tidu of the 31st of July, (see Plate III.); and in they could again be restored to the same relative position.
the evening's tide five pieces of Course V. were set. Our This was done upon the complete circular courses by draw
ing
work went on regularly for some days together; and, visit- lines from the centre to the circumference,
passing through
ing the work upon the 5th of August, I found the Course V. the middle of each set of stones; and likewise concentric cir-
containing twenty-six pieces, closed in, (see Plate III.) ; but cles through the middle of each tier or circle of stones, so as
that by some inadvertency in proceeding with the interior to indicate to the eye their relative position to each other :

part, the masons had been obliged to set two of the outside but to render the marks not easily delible, where those lines
pieces so as to be farther out than they should have been crossed the joints, a nick was cut and sunk into the surface
by an inch each. However, as I found the work was sound of the two adjacent stones ; for doing which, a piece of thin
and firm, I thought it better to cut off the
superfluous stone plate-iron was employed, with sand, upon the principle that
from the outside, than to disturb the work by the violence stones are sawn ; so that not only the
sight, but feeling, could
that must have been used in be employed
unsetting the pieces I there- ; bringing them together again exactly ; for
in
fore determined to let them stand as the same or a
they were, till the similar plate being applied to the nick, the
cement was become so hard as to support the of least irregularity of its position would be'discoverable. In a
edges
 EDD 338 EDD
similarmanner the stones of the base courses were marked "The stone to be set being hung in the tackle, and its bed
linesdrawn parallel to the length of the steps, and others of mortar spread, was then lowered into its place, and beat
by
perpendicular to the same, the crossings being
sawn in, as down with a heavy wooden maul, and levelled with a spirit
before described. There was, however, a nicety in this part level: and the stone being brought accurately to its marks, it
of the work, that required particular attention, and that was was then considered as set in its place. The business now
in forming a provision for setting the four radical stones, was to retain it exactly in that position, notwithstanding the
that occupy the four radical dovetails into which each step utmost violence of the sea might come upon it before the
was formed, as may be observed in the several figures of mortar was hard enough to resist it. The carpenter now
Plate 111. Those stones were formed, from the work of the dropped into each groove two of the wedges already described,
rock's being actually moulded oft', and from the manner, one upon its head, and the other with its point downward, so
those moulds to agree after that the two wedges in each groove would then lie heads and
already described, of bringing
they were brought home
from the rock, those stones were points. With a bar of iron of about two inches and a half
laid upon the platform thereby, and then marked with lines broad, three-quarters of an inch thick, and two feet and a
upon their own substance, in the manner just
mentioned and : half long, the ends being square, he could easily (as with a
as the distances of each of those stones were then ascertained rammer) drive down one wedge upon the other, very gently
while upon the platform ; it at first, so that the opposite pairs of wedges being equally
by gauge-rods of white fir-wood,
must be expected, as each step was reduced to a level plain, tightened, they would equally resist each other, and the stone
as the platform was, that when laid upon the rock in their would therefore keep its place ; and in this manner those
due positions and distances, by the gauge-rods, they would wedges might be driven even more tight than there was
nearly fit the dovetails that had been cut in the rock to occasion for; as the wood being dry, it would by swelling
receive them ;
and where there was the least want of fitness, become tighter ;
and it was possible that by too much driving,
as might possibly happen with bodies of so rigid a nature, and the swelling of the wedges, the stones might be broken ;

either the stone or the rock was cut, till each stone would and farther, that a moderate fastening might be effectual, a
come into its exact relative position, and then all the rest couple of wedges were also, in like manner, pitched at the
would follow one another by their marks, in the same manner top of each groove, the dormant wedge, or that with the point
as they had done upon the platform. upward, being held in the hand, while the drift wedge, or
i;
It is necessary to be noticed, that the waist of each piece that with its point downward, was driven with a hammer the ;

of stone had two grooves cut, from the top to the bottom of whole of what remained above the upper surface of the stone
the course, of an inch in depth, and three inches in width : was then cut off with a saw or chisel and generally a couple
;

applicable to those grooves were prepared a number of oak of thin wedges were driven very moderately at the butt-end of
wedges, somewhat less than three inches in breadth, than one the stone ; whose tendency being to force it out of its dove-
inch thick at the head, nearly three-eighths thick at the point, tail, they would, by moderate driving, only tend to preserve
and six inches long. The disposition of these grooves is the whole mass steady together ; in opposition to the violent
shown in tho courses of Plate III. where the little black agitation that might arise from the sea.
" After a stone was thus
parallelogram figures, placed along the lines describing the fixed, we never, in fact, had an
joints of the courses, represent the tops of the grooves, and instance of its having been stirred by any action of the sea
their place on the right hand or left of the joint line show in whatever; but, considering the unmeasured violence thereof,
which stone the groove is cut. It is also to be noted, that the farther security by .trenails will not seem altogether
where the flank side of a stone was not more in length than unnecessary, when we reflect, that after a stone was thus
a foot, or fourteen inches, one groove was generally deemed fixed in its place by wedges, a great sea coming upon it,
sufficient ;
but those of eighteen inches or upwards had, (often in less than half an hour) was capable of washing out
all the mortar from the bed underneath it, notwithstanding
generally, in themselves or the adjoining stone, a couple of
grooves. every defence we could give it by plaster or otherwise and ;
" Tlio was prepared a very that when the bed of mortar was destroyed, the sea acting
mortar for use by being beat in

strong wooden bucket, made for the purpose; each mortar- edgewise upon the joint, would exert the same power to lift it
beater had his own bucket, which he placed upon any level part up, that the same sea would exert to overset it, in case its
of the work, and with a kind of rammer, or wooden pestle, broad base was turned upright to oppose it ; and as the
first beat the lime alone, about a quarter of a peck at a time, wedges only fixed and secured the several pieces of which
to which, when formed into a complete, but rather thin paste, each course consisted, to each other, and had no tendency to
with sea-water, he then gradually added the other ingredient, keep the whole course from lifting together, in case the whole
keeping it constantly in a degree of toughness by continuance should lose its mortar bed ; it seemed therefore highly neces-
of beating. When a stone had been fitted and ready for sary to have some means of preventing the lifting the whole
setting, he whose mortar had been longest in beating came of a course together, till the solidity and continuity of the
first, and the rest in order: the mason took the mortar out of mortar should totally take away that tendency. Adverting
the bucket; and, if any was spared, he still kept on beating; now to what was said, that a couple of holes, to receive oak
if the whole was exhausted, he trenails of one inch and three quarters in diameter, were
began upon a fresh batch.
The stones were first tried, and heaved into and out of their bored in the work-yard through the external or projecting end
recesses, by a light movable triangle, which being furnished of every piece of stone we must now suppose these stones
:

with a light double tackle, the greatestnumber of all the pieces set in their places, and fixed by wedges; then one of the tin-
could be purchased by the simple application of the hand ; ners, with a jumper, began to continue the hole into the
and this made our stones to be readily manageable by such stone of the course below, and bored it to about eight or nine
machinery as could commodiously be moved and carried back- inches deep : but this hole was bored of a less size, by one-
ward and forward in the yawls every tide. To the first stone, eighth of an inch in diameter, than the hole through the
and some few others, we took the great tackle, that we stone above ; in consequence, the trenails, having been pre-
might hoist and lower them with certainty and ease ; but viously dressed with a plane till they would drive somewhat
there were not in the whole above a dozen stones that freely through the upper hole, would drive stiffly into the
required it. under one, and generally would become so fast as to drive no
 EDD 339 EDD
farther before their leading end gotdown to the bottom; and like manner wedged (with wedges on each side of the plug)
if so, they were sufficiently fast but as they sometimes
: and every remaining cavity filled with grout. By this means,
happened to drive more freely than at others, the following no force of the sea, acting horizontally upon the centre stone,
method was used to render them fast, for a certainty, when less than what was capable of cutting the marble
plug in two,
they got to/the bottom. The leading end of every trenail was able to move it from its place and to prevent the stone
:

was split with a saw, for about a couple of inches, and into this more effectually from being lifted, in case its bed of mortar
split was introduced a wedge, about one-eighth of an inch happened to be destroyed, it was fixed down in the manner
less in breadth than the diameter of the trenail it was a full ;
above described, by four trenails which being placed near
;

quarter of an inch in thickness at the head, and sharpened to to the comers of the large square of that stone, they not
an edge when therefore the head of the wedge touched the
; only effectually prevented the stone from lifting, but aided the
bottom of the hole, the trenail being forcibly driven thereupon, centre plug in preventing the stone from moving angularly,
would enter upon it. till the whole substance was jambcd so or twisting, which it might otherwise have done, notwith-
fast, that the trenail would drive no farther; and as the wood standing its weight, which was two tons nearly.
"
would afterwards swell in the hole, and fill the little irre- After setting the first centre stone of Course VII. we
gularities of boring by the juniper, it became so fast, that, as immediately proceeded to set the four stones that surround
itseems, they could sooner be pulled in two than the trenails it, and which were united thereto, by four dovetails, project-
be drawn out again. The trenail (originally made somewhat ing from the four sides of the centre stone. These stones
too long) being then cut off even with the top of the stone, being fixed in their dovetails by a pair of wedges on each
its upper end was wedged cross and cross. There being side at bottom and top, as has already been mentioned, and
generally two trenails to each piece of stone, no assignable held down by a couple of trenails to each surrounding stone,
power, less than what would by main stress pull these tre- and still farther steadied by joint wedges at the head of the
nails in two, could Jilt one of these stones from their beds dovetails, and also in the mitre, or diagonal joints between
when so fixed, exclusive of their natural weight, as all agita- each surrounding piece the whole formed a circular kind of
;

tion was prevented by the lateral wedges. The stone being stone of ten feet diameter, and above seven tons weight and :

thus fixed, a proper quantity of the beat mortar was liquefied, which being held down by a centre plug and twelve trenails,
and the joints having been carefully pointed up to the upper became in effect one single stone whose circumference was
;

surface, the grout so prepared was run in with iron ladles, sufficient to admit of eight dovetail recesses to be formed
and was brought to such a consistency as to occupy every therein, so as to be capable of retaining in their places a
void space anil though a considerable part of this was water,
;
circle of eight pieces of stone, of about twelve hundred

yet that being absorbed by the dry stones, and the. more con- weight each, in the same manner, and upon the same
sistent parts settled to the bottom, the vacuity being at the principle, that the radical pieces of stone were engrafted into
top, this was repeatedly relilled till all remained solid the : the dovetail recesses of the rock and which being in like
;

top was then pointed, and, when necessary, defended by a manner wedged and trenailcd, we proceeded with circular
coat of plaster. tiers of stone, in the manner shown in Plate IV. Fiyure 1.
It is, however, to be remarked, that the mode of
11
The several courses, represented in Plate III. are shown applying the
as they would appear, when completed with the whole of wedges and trenails being sufficiently explained in the seve-
their wedges and trenails and besides these, there being also
: ral figures of Plate III. and also in Plate IV. Fiyure 1, to

generally two lewis holes upon the upper surface of each avoid a repetition of small work, the several succeeding figures
stone, those served as temporary fixtures for the work of the simply show the general shapes and disposition of the diffe-
succeeding course. rent pieces composing a course, and other incidental larger
"It was the same evening's tide, of the llth of August, matters wholly omitting the particular application of the
that the basement was completed and the centre stone of wedges and trenails yet it is to be observed, that they were
;

Gwrse VII. was landed. Of the preceding courses, each was everywhere equally applied, till we got to the top of the
begun by the stones that engrafted in the dovetail recesses solid.
"
cut in the. rock ;
these stones, therefore, being immovable My much esteemed master and friend, Mr. Weston, who
by any assignable force acting horizontally, rendered those came from London to be witness of our proceedings, arrived
so likewise that depended upon them but having now at Plymouth during this interval. 1 went oil' with him
; early
brought the whole upon a level, we could not have this on Wednesday morning, the 17th, attended by Mr. Jessop and
advantage any longer; it therefore became necessary to his company, and landed upon the rock at ten Richardson :

attain a similar advantage by artificial means. For this and company were then about to begin to set the fifth tier,
purpose, the upper surface of Course VI., (Plate III. or circle of stone, which was to contain the eight cubes
Fi'jiire 6,) had a hole of one foot square cut through the before described. These cubes were so disposed upon the
stone that occupied the centre and also eight depressions, of
;
surface of Course VI. that the cavities cut on the under side
one foot square, sunk into that course six inches deep, which of Course VII. to take the upper half of each cube, should
were disposed at regular distances round the centre these :
constantly fall in the broad part of the stones of the fifth
cavities were for the reception of eight cubes of marble, in circle which will appear plain by considering the dotted
;

masonry called joggles. As a preparation for setting the lines relative to Course VII. upon the surface of Course VI.
centre stone of Course VII., a parallelopiped (which, for (see Plate III. Figure 6.)
There could consequently be no
shortness sake, I will call the plug) of strong hard marble application of wedges in the upper course, to the fastening of
from the rocks near Plymouth, of one foot square and twenty- the circle of stones, (No. 5,) upon their respective cubes:
two inches in length, was set with mortar in the central when therefore the stone respectively came upon them, we
cavity, and therein firmly fixed with thin wedges. Course put as much mortar upon the top of the cube as would in
VI. being thirteen inches in height, this marble plug, which part make good the joint between it and its cavity, but not
reached through, would rise nine inches above it; upon this, enough quite to fill it ; because, if too lull, there was no
the centre stone (see Plate IV. Course VII.) having a hole ready way for the superfluous mortar to escape ; but a hole,
through its centre of a foot square, was introduced upon the of the size of those for the trenails, being previously bored
prominence of the plug, and, being bedded in mortar, was in through each of these pieces, answerable to the middle of
 EDD 340 EDD
each cube ; when the stone was set, wedged and trenailcd, rough, we had got set five pieces of Circle VI. and had
then it was very practicable, by dressing a trenail so as to landed the remaining three ; as also one of the largest
pieces
become a ram-rod, to drive as much mortar down the hole of moor-stone for the east side (see Plate IV. Figure
1.) This
as would completely fill every vacancy between the stone and evening's tide we worked with links, and it began to blow so
its cube: insomuch that we soon
perceived, that if this was we Jiad much ado to keep them in, being obliged
fresh that
attempted before the stone was completely trenailed down, it to make a
fire of them
upon the surface of the work. We
would very easily raise the stone from its bed, as might were under the necessity, at last, to quit the rock with some
indeed be expected from the principle of hydrostatics: but, precipitation, and were very glad to get into our yawls;
being done after such completion, it brought the whole to the things being left in the following posture Two of the pieces,
:

most solid bearing that could be wished and, when the

;
Tier G, were simply dropped into their
places, on the north-
cement was hardened, answered the end quite as effectually west side, while the third piece, being about a ton, and the
as if they had been wedged. piece of moor-stone near upon two tons, were chained toge-
It
may here be very properly said, that since those cubes ther, and to the work of Course VII. that was already set ;
could be of little use in keeping the work firmly together, these two loose pieces
being upon the top of that course,
before the mortar was hardened and after that had taken near the east side the triangles we lashed down
; ; upon the
place, they could be of no use because the number of one
;
floor of the work, as we had
practised several times before.
hundred and eight trenails, of which one of these courses The sea became so rough in the night, that the Weston, at
consistedwhen complete, being supposed sufficient to keep it the transport buoy, was obliged to and make for a
slip
from and moving out of its place as the mortar
lifting ;
harbour. The bad weather continued to increase till the
hardened, and every additional course was an addition of its 28th, when there was a violent storm at south-west.
own weight upon the former, if those cubes could have been "The 29th, I perceived with my telescope, from the Hoa,
dispensed with in the first instance, they miAt have been the buss to ride safe, but could not see the shears, or indeed
so ever after. This reasoning 1 can very wjnl admit to be anything else upon the rock distinctly, except the breakers.
true ; yet, when we have to do with, and to endeavour to The day following being more clear, and the sea somewhat
control, those powers of nature that are subject to no calcu- subsided, 1 immediately went on board the Eddystone boat
lation, 1 (rust it will be deemed prudent not to omit, in such to reconnoitre. The wind being north-west, I passed the
a ease, anything that can without difficulty be applied, and rock several times under sail, but there was no possibility
that would lie likely to add to the of landing. observed, that not only all the work which
security. It
may farther I

be remarked, that as this building was intended to be a mass had been completely set was entire, but that the two stones
of stone, held together by the natural and artificial union of mentioned to have been simply lowered into their places, also
its parts, it would have been out of
character, that, when remained therein, and that the five hundred weight still
completed, it should be beholden to certain parts of wood for rested upon the stone whereon it was left. The west face of
its consolidation. the building had got so complete a coat of sea-weed, that it
" I
have mentioned, that I originally conceived more than was only distinguishable from the rock by its form but the
;

one way of preventing the courses from shifting place upon shears and triangles were entirely gone; the two pieces of
one another. My first conceptions were to form a rise (or a stone, that had been chained together and to the work, were
depression) of three inches, bounded by a circle somewhat also gone; the windlass frame broken and much damaged,
about the diameter of that in which the joggles are placed ;
and the roll gone; the fonder piles and the transport buoy,
which step, or depression, would have formed a socket, however, remained in their places.
'
It was the 3rd of
whereby the courses would have been mutually engrafted, September before the company could
not much different from what nature has pointed out in the make a landing to do anything upon the rock so that, since
;

basaltine columns of the- Giant's Causeway but, considering

;
the 18th ult., there had been an interval of fifteen days, in
how much unnecessary trouble, and intricacy would be hereby which we had been totally interrupted by bad weather, in
introduced, by one part of the bed of the same stone being the very prime part of the season. However, everything
liable to be three inches higher than the other, I judged that having been expedited on shore, to get refitted for work, this
the end would be very sufficiently answered by the much day I went out therewith, and began to set up our new
more plain, easy, and simple method of joggles; especially shears, windlass, &c., and with the shears got up the piece
as, for this purpose, the firmest and toughest kind of stone of Portland, of Circle 6, which was set, as also the others
might be chosen, and the number multiplied at pleasure. that had been left loose in their dovetails ; but the tide of
One plug in the middle, of a foot square, and eight joggles flood coming on, had deepened the water too much before we
of a foot cube each, of the hardest marble, disposed in the could try to get up the other.
';
manner described, seemed to me, along with the additional September the 5th, the seventh circle was finished and the
strength and security arising from the trenails, as also from eighth begun and this day the wind being variable, from
;

the infinite number of little indentures upon the surface of north-east to north-west, and very moderate, was very re-
the courses, as well as the lewis holes, each being filled with markable, as being the first time of the people having worked
an exuberance of mortar, which, when hard, would in effect till
they were obliged to quit the rock for refreshment: and
become a steady pin ; from the cohesion of the mortar as a now everything being reinstated, it was some time before we
solid, promising to be no less than that of the stone, together met with anything but the ordinary interruptions.
with the incumbent weight of every part of the building "The fineness of the season continued to favour the expe-
above ; every joint, thus separately considered, seemed, in diting of our works, insomuch that Course VIII., which was
point of firmness, so satisfactory to my
mind, that if the begun upon the 8th, was executed in five days, being entirely
whole of this proved too little, it was out of my power to completed on the 13th, at the same hour. Everything went
conceive what would be enough. regularly on till the 20th ; so that, in return for our conti-
" In the
morning and evening's tide of the 17th, we set nued interruption from the stormy weather for fifteen days,
the whole of the fifth tier, and consequently the whole of the our works had an uninterrupted progression for eighteen
eight cubes were then inlaid. The morning of the 18th we days, when Course IX. was advanced to the fifth circle."
again landed, and iu this morning and evening's tide, though A series of land-swells from the south-west prevented
 EDD S41 EDD
further proceedings till the 30th September, when Course entry-door having the figures 1758, denoting the year in
" and the masons this part of the work was accomplished, cut in
IX. was completed, proceeded to rectify which deep
the face of the work, where it was in any degree wanting characters upon it.
thereof, that there might be no need hereafter to disturb any "On the 24th of August, the fine weather, and in conse-
part of the coat of weed, which was likely to fix upon it quence the works, were interrupted, Course XX. being then
during the winter." This ended the operations for the in hand ; and it was not till the 24th of September, that,
year 1757. with every possible exertion, Course XX
IV. was finished,
On the 12th of May, 1758, Mr. Sineaton examined the which completed the solid, and composed the floor of the
work, and found it perfectly entire, except a small spawl, store-room.
which had been washed from the rock itself; the whole did "The 25th and 26th of September, Course XXV., being
not seem to have suffered a diminution of so much as a grain the first course of the superstructure, was successfully com-
of sand since the time he left it on the 1st of October of the pleted in its place ; but, as the mode of construction now
preceding year on the contrary, the cement, and even the
: became entirely different from the former, it is necessary to
grouted part, appeared to be as perfectly hard as the Port- give an account thereof, as also of the reasons for the change.
land stone itself the whole having become one solid mass,
;
The building was carried up solid, as high as there was any
entirely covered with the same coat of sea- weed as the rock, reason to suppose it exposed to the heavy stroke of the sea ;
the top of the work cxcepted. This was washed so clean that is, to thirty-five feet four inches above its base, and
and \vliite, that the lines upon it appeared more distinct than twenty -seven feet above the top of the rock, or common
when they were in the work-yard ; the cube-holes and lewis- spring-tide high-water mark. At this height, as it was

holes, however, from their being constantly filled with water, reduced to sixteen feet eight inches in diameter, it became
were grown over with green weed, like the outside. The necessary to make the best use of this space, and make all
fender piles were indeed all gone, but this \vas a trifling the room and convenience therein that was possible, con-
disaster, as they could soon be renewed. sistent with the still necessary strength. The rooms being
The tenth course was set on the 5th of July, the eleventh made of twelve feet four inches diameter, this would leave
on the 18th, the twelfth on the 24th, the thirteenth on the 5th twenty-six inches the thickness of the walls.
for These
of August, and on the 8th of that month the fourteenth, being made with blocks in the thickness so that
single
which completed the fundamental solid. sixteen pieces might compose the circle, would, from its
From the top of this course begins that part of the build- figure, compose a stout wall ; yet moor-stone, as has been
ing, also called the solid, which includes the passage from observed, being a tender kind of stone, in respect to the
the entry door to the well-hole of the stairs as described union of its component pails, any method of dovetailing the
Plate IV". Figures 2, 3, 4, from which a more adequate idea blocks together, at this thickness, appeared to me imprac-
canbe, obtained than any words could convey. ticable to any good purpose. What seemed to be the most
Mr. SMiicaton then proceeds to describe his method of effectual method of bonding the work together, was that of

regulating the superstructure: As "for the sake of the cramping with iron, which Mould confine each single piece
well-hole, we must necessarily lose our centre-stone, the four to its neighbouring piece in the same circle: and if to this
stones, which in the former courses were united to it by be added, that every piece should, at each end of it, lay
dovetails, were, as now prepared, to be united to each other hold of nn inlaid piece, or joggle in the same nature as the
by hook-scarf-joints, so as to compose, in effect, one stone : cubes, then not only all the pieces in the same course would
and as, in consequence, we had also lost our centre cubes, it be united to each olher by the cramps, but steadied from
became expedient, that the work might have a uniform moving upon the under course by the joggles, and of conse-
texture and strength, that those four stones, making a com- quence would be fastened at thirty-two points for in each
:

plete circle for the staircase, should be provided with cubes, course there being sixteen joggle-stones, as each end of
to prevent their being shifted by any shock applied hori- each principal piece, at its base, took hold of half a joggle,
zontally, (see Figure 4,) as well as with the trenails to hinder there would be thirty-two points of confinement in the circle
them from lifting. By this means the principle of consoli- above ;
that is, the joggles being made to occupy the middle
dation would be effectually preserved: but as the top of the of the upper bed of each block, in that situation they would
fourteenth, or entry-door course, was twelve feet above the cross the joints of the course above. These joggles, as well
top of the rock, that is, twenty feet four inches above the as the rest, were of sawn marble, and made eight inches
base of the first course, the stroke of the sea must here long, four inches broad, and three inches thick each end of
:

become less violent, and therefore a less degree of resistance each block, therefore, would occupy four inches in length,
would be equally sufficient. And as the large cubes would four in breadth, and one inch and a half in the height of
too much cut the work, which was here of considerably less each joggle; and this I judged quite sufficient to keep
area ; and as several cubes would be requisite for the well- every course in its place, at the height that this kind of work
hole stones, I had determined, above the entry-door course, was begun, and so as to constitute a piece of solid masonry.
to increase the number of cubes from eight to sixteen, and There was, however, another matter, that it seemed quite
to diminish their size from twelve to six inches ; but still to material also to attend to and that was, to render the habit-
;

be of solid gray marble, and two of them to be introduced able rooms contained within those shells of walls, perfectly
into each of the four well-hole stones. dry and comfortable in all weathers ; and this seemed to
"Upon the 9th of August, I marked out the entry and merit very particular attention ; for the seas that are said to
rise up against, and in a manner to bury the house, in time
staircase; and having unloaded the Eddystone boat, which
was loaded with the first pieces of Course XV., we imme- of storm, would make effectual trial of every joint.
"
diately proceeded with it ; and from this time were blessed The level joints being pressed together by the incumbent
with such an uninterrupted continuance of fine weather, that weight of the building, would keep firm and sound that
upon the 20th of August, Course XVIII. was completed, cohesion of parts produced by the mortar; so that once
which reunites the building into a complete circle, by cover- being made water-tight, there was no doubt that they would
ing the passage to the staircase the external face of the
: so remain but with respect to the upright joints, the least
:

stone of that course, which makes the cover or head of the degree of shrinking, either of the stone or of the mortar
 EDD 342 EDD
flat bars of the cramps were about thirteen inches long, two
between, tended to open the joint, so that it might always
remain leaky, in a greater or a less degree ; for we know of inches broad, and five-eighths of an inch thick, and were
no degree of separation of parts, however minute, short turned down at each end about three inches in length;
of absolute contact, which will stop or prevent the percola- forming a cylinder of one and one-eighth of an inch in
tion of water. For this purpose I conceived that if flat diameter. Jumper-holes were previously bored when upon
stones were introduced into each upright joint, so as to be the platform, and the cramps fitted to their places ; the sur-
face of the stone under each cramp being sunk three-fourths
lodged partly in one stone, and partly in
its neighbour,
of an inch, so that the two stones together would completely
(much upon the same idea that Dutch laths were formerly
introduced into the joints of chamber floors, to hinder the receive, or rather bury, the cramps the joint-stones, as said
:

passage of wet,) the water might

be prevented from making above, being made so much shorter than the height of the
its way through the upright joints of the walls. course, as not to interrupt the bedding of the cramp. The
"
The manner in which it was executed was as follows :
cramps being properly fitted and cleared, (as
places for the
(see Plate IV. Figure 0.)
At each end of each stone, we now were not liable to be driven off the work in a
answerable to the middle between the inside of the wall and moment, as had formerly been the case.) we took the oppor-
the outside, was sunk a groove, two inches and a half wide tunity, whenever time allowed it, of fixing the cramps of
and three deep, running from the top to the bottom when,
: a whole course together. There was no danger of the
therefore, two contiguous pieces of stone were put together cramps not fitting; as, besides that all the cramps were
in their places, the two grooves being applied to each other, forged to fit a guage-bar having a couple of holes at the
thev would form a rhomb of six inches in length and two assigned distance, they were also fitted and marked to their
inches and a half in breadth, which in this state would be particular places at Mill Bay, while upon the platform.
an unoccupied cavity from the top to the bottom of each Every cramp being now ultimately tried to its place, it was
course the rest of the joint, where the surfaces of the two
;
then put into a kettle of lead, made red hot ; and the cramp
stones applied to each other, was made good with mortar in continued there till it was also reddish. About a spoonful
the ordinary way, and brought together by the gentle blows of oil was poured into the two cramp-holes, and the cramp
of a beetle. For the groove mentioned, a solid rhomb was being put into its place, the ebullition of the oil caused by
prepared, of about two inches thick by five inches broad, the heat of the iron quickly gave a complete oily surface,
and in length a little less than the depth of the cavity, which not only to the whole cramp, but to the whole unoccupied
generally was eighteen or twenty inches ; and for the sake cavity in the stone ;
then the hot lead being poured upon it,
of the firmness of those slender pieces of stone, I made the unctuous matter caused the metal to run into and occupy
choice of the flat paving-stones from Purbcck, which is a the most minute cavity unfilled, and completely to cover each
laminated marble of great strength and solidity. The joint- cramp ; and they became by this means defended from the
stones (\vhich was the name we gave those rhombs) thus salts of the sea, even had they remained uncovered, upon

prepared, would readily go down the cavities; but, to fix Mr. Rudyerd's principle. Mr. Kudyerd had used coarse
them solid, a quantity of well-tempered mortar was prepared, pewter. The lead we used was slag lead, which is harder
made more sofD than ordinary, by the addition of a little and stiller than fine lead and, as we used no cramps, as an
:

water a competent quantity being put down to the bottom

;
essential part of the building, till above the store-room floor,
of the hole, the joint-stone was put down upon it, and, by I
judged pewter, merely for the sake of stiffness, there to be
the simple pressure of the hand, was forced down to the unnecessary. By cramping, in general, a whole course toge-
bottom, causing the semifluid mortar to rise up to the top, ther, the contraction of the iron in cooling would greatly add
and completely fill the cavity and, when forced down in
;
to the tightness wherewith every stone was bound to its
the way described, having in this state a small quantity of fellow. Thus according to this mode of fixing, (besides the
superfluous moisture about it, a few very gentle blows, or union of the parts by the mortar itself,) to resist all violence
raps, were given upon the top of it by the handle of a and derangement whilst it was doing, and before the indura-
mason's trowel, which producing a small degree of agitation, tion of the mortar, every course was retained in its place by
while the dry stones were absorbing the moisture, contributed sixteen joggles, and each single stone by two half-joggles
(like the beating of mortar) to bring all the parts into their at its lower bed ; they were farther steadied to each other by
most friendly state of contact, and, in consequence, to their the joint-stones, and lastly by the cramps, which completely
firmest state of union ; and this happened in the course of a prevented a separation and this method proved so effec-
;

few minutes, so that no farther agitation could be of any tual, that we were not only free from all derangement of
service. the stones when in their places, but I did not find a leaky
" Asthe cramps, that were to bind the contiguous pieces joint, except one, in the whole building. By a due consider-
together, must cross the joints upon their upper surface, they ation of Plate IV., with the particular references to it, the
were of course to be applied after the joint-stones were whole of this process will become perfectly intelligible.
"
settled in their places. Precaution was therefore necessary On Saturday, the 30th of September, Course XXVIII.
not to apply too much exertion in forcing down the joint- was completely set and, being the first course upon which
;

stones for, however gentle the operation may appear,

: was rested the vaulted floor, which made the ceiling of the
according as it has been described, yet it was found advisable store-room and floor of the upper store-room ; and, as here
not to put in the joint stones till an additional piece had again occurred a difference in the mode of fixture, in this, as
been got down upon its joggles, and plain-jointed at each in all like cases, I attended the performance of the work :
side of the two pieces, whose joint-stone was to bo put in ; and that was the leading-in of the first circular chain, that
for, by this means, they were the united efforts of all the was lodged in a groove cut round the middle of the upper
joggles, and adhesion of the beds of two stones on each side surface of this course, which this day was satisfactorily per-
of that where the effort was applied. Without any atten- formed ; and the next day, Sunday, October the 1st, Course
from merely pressing
tion to this, the lateral force arising XXIX. was set, and its circular chain Icaded-in also which
;

down a joint-stone was capable of breaking the adhesion of operation, with the reason thereof, it will be proper here to
the joint where it was applied. describe: The ordinary way of fixing the several courses
" The
cramping was applied the last thing. The top or by joggles and joint-stones, and also the bonding them
 EDD 343 EDD
but those former mass, was perceived to re-melt and unite with
together by cramps, has already been described ;
till it

This done, the dam at the other end of the

courses, upon which the floors rested and depended, seemed
the fresh metal.
to demand every possible security. It will be seen, in the first-run mass was taken down, to prevent its cooling more
floor designedly rested than was necessary, and the third quarter was treated like
general section, Plate II. that each
two courses it will also appear, by inspection, that the the former; the end of the mass rendered solid by cooling,
upon :

circumference of the floors was not made to rest upon the being re-melted by the fresh hot metal lastly, both the
:

sloping abutments of an arch, in lines tending

toward the remaining dams being taken down, and the metal at each end
having a considerable heat, it was found practicable to
centre of the sphere, of which the under side of the floor dis-

was a portion, but it rested upon a triple ledge going circu- solve both the ends of the former masses first applying
:

larly round the two supporting courses. In consequence of both ladles to that which had had the greater time to cool, and
this, had each floor been composed of a single stone, this
afterwards to the less by this means the whole was brought
:

by these to a solid consistence, and the chain entirely buried in the

lying upon the horizontal bearings furnished ledges,
It is, however, to be remarked, that to preserve proper
would, while it remained entire, have no lateral pressure or lead.

tendency to thrust out the sides of the encompassing walls :

impressions in the lead, for the joggles of the course above,
and that in effect, the several pieces, of which the floors were those impressions were made by confining down bricks in
really composed, might have the same property as whole proper places, which, when removed, the proper marble
stones, the centre-stone was made large enough to admit of joggles were set with rnortar in their places.
" we
an opening, from floor to floor, or man-hole, to be made Monday, October proceeded
2, to setup thecentre,
through it and being furnished with dovetails on its four
; composed of sixteen (see Plate VIII. Figure 3,) for
ribs,
sides like those of the entire solid, it became the means by putting the floor together upon but the weather continued
;

which all the stones in each floor were connected together; broken till Saturday, the 7th, on which day the Kddystone
and consequently, the \vhole would lie upon the ledges like a boat came out, having on board the roof, or platform, for
single stone, without any tendency to spread the walls. But covering the building, and protecting it from the entrance of
if, by the accident of
a heavy body falling, or otherwise, any the downfall spray; together with the doors, iron work, and
of those stones .should be broken, though this might not timber for fitting up the same for habitation. This afternoon
destroy its use as a floor, or its properties as an arch ; yet we landed, and went on with the setting of the outward
the parts would then exert their lateral pressure against the circle of floor-stones, made the holes in the wall for fixing the
walls: and therefore, as a security against this, it became hinges of the entry and store-room doors. In particular, I

necessary that the circle of the enclosing walls should be caused the middle stone to be laid upon the centre, by way of
bound together, and the building, as it were, hooped. weight, to keep it
steady. Three of the four stones that
" were were laid upon the top
This would be in a great incasnre brought about by the to connect with the centre-stone

cramps tying the neighbouring stones together, as already of the wall, on the north-east side and the fourth I caused
:

described, for the ordinary courses ;

but yet this was no to be hoisted and suspended upon the triangle, in the
posture
absolute security, because the outside stones might break and that is shown Plate VI. at stage second. So that the
triangle,
separate, between cramp and cramp :and 1 suppose, it was which was all of it completely within the area of the top of
for reasons of this kind, that Sir Christopher Wren, in the would be kept down by the weight of this stone,
the building,
construction of the cupola of St. Paul's, did not choose to which was between seven and eight hundred weight. The
depend upon cramping the stones together, of the course other three that lay upon the wall, I caused to be carefully
that served as a common base to the inside dome, and the drawn within the circumference thereof, so that there might
cone for supporting the lantern ; but chose to surround the not be the least projecting part for the water to strike against
whole with continued chains of iron. Upon this principle, in flying upwards ; which I
judged quite necessary, though
an endless chain was provided for each of the two floor the walls were then upwards of forty-three feet above the
courses; see Plate IV. Figure 7. The bars composing the foundation-stone, and near thirty-five feet above the top of
links being one inch and a quarter square, that the most iron the rock."
might be included in a given space, the corners only were a The weather now set in so bad, that no farther operations
little canted oft"; and the double parts On the 10th of
being brought near of consequence took place that season.
together, the whole was comprehended in a groove, of some- October, Mr. Smeaton was mortified with a copy of a reso-
what less than four inches wide, and as much in depth; lution of the Trinity-Board,
declining his proposal of exhibit-
into which the chains being introduced and brought to a ing a light that winter upon the foundation of the building.
"
stretch, the rest of the cavity was filled with lead, of which During my stay in London, in the early part of the year
each took about eleven hundred weight, in the following 1759, received regular accounts of the proceedings at Mill
I

method. The chains were oiled all over before they came Bay, which were carried on with all the dispatch I could
from the shore and the circumference of the groove was
;
wish ;
but the weather having continued unfavourable to
divided into four parts by stops, or dams of clay, to prevent visiting the works at the Eddystone during the winter, I got
the lead from flowing farther than one quarter at a time. A no report thereon till I received Mr. Jessop's letter, dated the
couple of iron kettles were provided, capable of melting com- 27th of March, wherein he informed me that on the 21st of
modiously, when full, six hundred weight of lead each ; and that month, being the first opportunity he could catch after
that quantity was brought in each to a full red; that is, the violent storm which had happened on the 9th
preceding,
somewhat hotter than we used for the cramps, as the iron of they found not only the solid, but the hollow work perfectly
the chain, as well as the stone, were cold. The whole sound and firm ; all the mortar having become quite hard ;
quantity of lead being brought to a heat that we judged and, in short, every part of the work in the situation in which
proper, and the quarter-groove being supplied with oil suffi- it was left
by the workmen in October the only derange-
:

cient to besmear the whole surface, two persons, with each a ment was, that the sea had carried away the south fender
ladle, as briskly as they could, poured the melted metal into pile from the rock ; and also, from the top of the wall, one of
the same quarter of the groove ; and, as soon as it was full, the three stones that I had taken care to draw within the
and the lead began to set, one of the clay dams was removed, verge of the circumference of the wall, as mentioned. They
and the melted hot metal was poured upon the end of the had found the fourteen pieces of stone set in the circum-
 EDD 344 EDD
ference of the floor, stuck quite firm to the wall, though two On same month, the first course of the
the 18th of the
of the pieces requisite to complete the circle were left unset ; lanternwas begun on the 24th, the last stone, being that
;

and that, finding the centre itself quite tight and firm under- which makes the door-head of the lantern, was set and on ;

neath them, they had lowered the stone suspended on

down Sunday evening, the 26th, the whole of the masonry was
the triangle upon it, and removed from tho wall the other completed.
two remaining stones to lie upon the centre; and lastly, that Stress of weather prevented the landing of the frame-
they took down the triangle, and stowed it away in the well- work till Saturday, the 15th of September ; on which day,
" between three
hole for the staii-s but, on farther search, nothing of the
: and four in the morning, the Weston was got
buoy that was left upon the mooring chains was to be seen. into the gut, and delivered of her cargo,
consisting of the
"Thursday, the 5th of July, I landed on the rock with the pillars, sashes, and frame-work of the lantern. I
gave my
men they proceeded to set up the shears and windlass,
; principal attention to the establishing the frame of the lantern
while inspected the work
1 and found everything perfectly
; upon a bed of lead, and the-screwing of it carefully together;
sound and firm, without the least perceivable alteration since seeing that every joint was filled, and screw covered with
we except that the cement used the first year, now
left it; white-lead and oil, ground up thick for paint ; and every
in appearance approached the hardness of the moor-stone ; crevice so full that the bringing ihe screws home made the
and that used the last year, of the full hardness of Portland. white-lead matter to ooze from every juncture ; thereby to
We now proceededto set the floor. The two remaining exclude all wet and moisture, and so as to prevent the iron-
pieces of the outmost circle, which were left uncompleted work from rusting.
last year, were soon set and we proceeded to haul up the
; ''Sunday, September the l(5th, was remarkably fine ; so
stones for the next circle (No 4.) from the store-room. that by the evening the whole frame of the lantern was
The work now proceeded so rapidly, that the second and screwed together, and its groundsill was rested upon a bed of
third stories were completed in thirteen
days. On the 8th of lead ; which was done in the following manner The whole
:

August, Course XLV. or the Cove Course, was completed frame being screwed together, was laised fiom its bearing
with its two chains and the next day, the elliptical centre
; upon the stone about three eighths of an inch, by a competent
for the balcony floor was set and by the 16th, the interior
;
number of iron wedges : and adjusted by them to an exact
area of the balcony floor was completed, the centre was perpendicular. Both the stone and the iron were taken care
struck, and the outer circle of stones which finished the cap to be oiled before they were applied to each other ; and one
ot the main column, of the eight sides, having its wedges withdrawn, was run
being parts of the corona, or cornice,
was liefiin upon. See J'lute II. and Plate IV. Fiijure 9. with hot lead and making a place for it to overflow, as
;
'

Friday, August the 17th, the last pieces of the corona much could be used as would competently heat both the iron
were set, and therewith the main column was completed. I and stone, to bring them to a close bearing wilh the lead ;
now examined the perpendicularity of the whole building, by then on the lead's cooling, as the frame became supported ou.
letting fall a plumb line from the centre of the man-hole in one side by the lead, the wedges of a second side were with-
the balcony floor to the centre of the bottom of the well-hole, drawn, and treated in the same manner, and so successively
being forty-nine feet and a half; and found it to fall a small till the whole rested
upon a solid basement of lead. It was
matter to the eastward of the centre of the well-hole ; as not supposed that the succeeding mass could be sufficiently
near as could determine it, not more than one-eighth of an
1 heated to re-melt the ends of the parts already leaded, us in
inch. I then measured the perpendicular heights of the the case of the chains but being heated so as to bring them
:

several parts of the building, and found them as follows : to a close contact, this I judged sufficient, as the lead so
Ft. In. applied had no other intent but to bear weight, and give the
" The six foundation courses to the top of the frame of the lantern one solid uniform bearing.
"
"
rock 8 4f Monday, the 17th. This morning was also exceedingly
The eight courses to the entry door 12
. . . .
0^ fine and the Weston being in sight, which was appointed to
;
" The ten courses of the well-hole to the store-room bring out the cupola, we began to set up our shears and
floor 15 2} tncklc for hoisting it. This perhaps may be accounted one
" The height of thefour rooms to the balcony floor 34 4 of the most difiicult and hazardous operations of the whole
undertaking; not so much on account of its weight, being
"
Height of the main column, containing forty- ) only about eleven hundred, as on account of the great height to
six courses i which it was to be hoisted, clear of the building and so as,
;

if possible, to avoid such blows as It was

might bruise it.
" We
proceeded this day to set up and lead-in the balcony also required to be hoisted to a considerable height above the
and completed them and having brought out a tem-
rails, ; balcony floor which, though the largest base we had for
;

porary cover for the man-hole of the balcony floor, I this day the shears to stand upon, was yet but fourteen feet within
applied it to use, as follows : a short tub, of about a foot the rails and therefore narrow, in proportion to their
;

high, was made without a bottom, and the smaller end of it height. The manner in which this was managed, will, in a
being sized as near as possible to the man-holes of the floors, great measure, appear by the representation thereof, in Pfate
it was driven into that of the balcony ; and, by the time it was VI. (see the uppermost stage) ; but is more minutely explained
driven about four inches, the compliancy of the wood to the in the technical detail of that Plate. As the legs of the
stone rendered it quite tight ; then the rest of its height, shears that had been used upon the rock would have been in
forming a border, and standing about eight inches above the the way of the cupola they were now removed, as being done
floor, would prevent water from dripping into the rooms with there, and were used as a part of this machinery. About
through the upper man-hole, or hatchway ; and having also noon the whole of our tackle was in readiness ; and in the
provided another tub, about nine inches deep, having a strong afternoon the Weston was brought into the gut ; and in
bottom in it, and so much more in diameter than the other, less than half an hour her troublesome cargo was placed upon
that it would, when inverted, cover it ; this being applied as the top of the lantern, without the least damage.
" wind
a cover, would in the greatest stress of weather defend the Tuesday, September the 18th, in the morning, the
building from the entry of water at the top." was at south-east, with intervals of thick fog ; however,
 I 1
; .13 HY ST ON K f.-r .IKS) r s i-:.
^^^W- I'L.rn-:. /.

'Drum Ay MJ
 EDD 345 EDD
'between those I had the
satisfaction, with my telescope, to operated in a proper manner. Accordingly, this afternoon,
pi-n-c-ivethe Eddystone boat, on board of which I expected we put up twenty-four candles into their proper places, and
the ball to be. The wind and tide were both unfavourable continued them burning for three hours ; during which time
to the vessel's getting soon near us ; therefore being desirous we had a very effectual trial ; for it had blown a hard gale
to get the ball screwed on, before the shears and tackle were of wind at south-east all day, which still continued ; and,
taken down, one of the yawls was dispatched to bring it keeping a fire at the same time in the kitchen, they both
away. This being done, and the ball fixed, the shears and operated together without the least interference ; not any
tackle were taken down. By this time the joiners had set degree of smoke appearing in the lantern, or any of the
up and completed the three cabin bedsteads, (for their plan rooms : and, by opening the vent-holes at the bottom of
and position between the windows, see Plate IV. Figure 8.) the lantern, it could be kept as cool as we pleased whereas,
;

"On Friday, the 21st, all the copper sash-frames were got in the late lighthouse, this used to be complained of, as being

completely fixed and ready for receiving the glass.

in, so hot, especially in summer, as to give much trouble by the
"On Sunday Morning, the 23d, the yawl landed two running of the candles.
"
glaziers and a coppersmith, with their utensils and materials; Wednesday, October the 3d, we began to fix the con-
the former began to glaze the lantern, and the latter to fit ductor for lightning. As the copper funnel reached through
and put up the funnels. This day, with my assistant, the the ball, and from thence came down to the kitchen floor,
mason, I
began to fix twenty-four iron cramps ; that is above forty feet, (see Plate II.) I considered this as con-
three to each rib of the roof, and which were obliged to be taining so much metal, that, if struck with lightning, it would
fixed after the roof was together and being fixed inside, and
;
thus far be suflicicnt conveyance ; then joining the kitchen
surrounding the ribs, served to key home the plates of the grate to the leaden sink, by a metal conveyance, the sink
cupola to the ribs. For this purpose small wood wedges pipe of lead would convey it to the outside. From the
were used, as being more supple, elastic, and compliant, than sink pipe downwards, which being on the north-east side,
wedges of metal, and therefore more suitable to this par- was consequently the least subject to the stroke of the sea,
ticular purpose. This day also the Eddystone boat brought we continued the electrical communication by means of a
out and landed a plumber, with his utensils and materials. strap of lead, about one inch and a half broad and three-
The most considerable work for the plumber was the covering eighths thick, fixed on the outside by being nailed to oaken
the whole balcony floor with thick plates of lead and which
; plugs, driven into two jumper-holes in the solid of each course;
extended from the top of the plinth, or first course of the the prominent angles of the strap being chamfered off, it was
basement of the lantern, quite down to the drip of the bedded and brought to a smooth surface with putty. At the
corona. They were fitted on separately, in sixteen pieces, foot of the leaden strap, an eye-bolt of iron was driven into
and soldered together, in place, with strong ribbed joints ; the rock ; and to this was fixed an iron chain, long enough
and, to prevent the sea from laying hold of them at the drip, to reach at all times into thewater ; its lower end being left
and beating them up, they were turned under about one inch loose toplay therein, and give way to the stroke of the
and a half; and being near half an inch thick, I judged them waves by this means an electrical communication was innde
:

sufficientlystubborn to prevent being unripped. from the top of the ball to the sea."
"Thursday the 27th, the lead-work upon the balcony and Everything being now completed, notice was sent to the
corona being now entirely finished, and the cupola completely Trinity House, and, on Tuesday evening, the 10th of
keyed home to the ribs ; the straps and bolts were applied October, 1759, the lights were first exhibited, amidst the
at each angle of the lantern, for
screwing it down to the fury of a violent storm.
floor of the balcony. This excellent building exhibited no other light than what
" was produced by twenty-four candles, which was not always
Friday, September the 30th, the joiners finished their
work, which consisted of the following articles. Three sufficient, till 1S09, when Mr. Robinson, surveyor of light-
cabin beds, to hold one man each, with three drawers and houses to the corporation of the Trinity Housc,superseded these
two lockers in each, to hold his separate property, which candles by the same number of Argand lamps, each accurately
were fixed in the upper room, or chamber. (See plan fixed in the focus of a large parabolic reflector of richly plated
thereof. Plate IV., Figure 8.) In the kitchen, besides the copper, arranged on circular frames and consequently giving
;

fire-place and sink, were two settles with lockers, a dresser light in every direction. The improved brightness of the
with drawers, two cupboards, and one platter case. (Figure 7, light, by this exchange, exceeded the most sanguine expec-
of the same Plate, shows how these were disposed.) In the tation of all in the neighbourhood of Plymouth.
lantern a seat was fixed, to encompass it all round, the door- TECHNICAL REFERENCES TO THE PLATES.
" Plate A plan and perspective elevation of the
way exeepted, serving equally to sit upon, or stand to snuff I.

the candles ; and to enable a person to look through the Eddystone Rock, as seen from the west ; sltoioiny also the
lowest tier of glass panes at distant objects, without having theodolite.
occasion to go on the outside of the lantern into the balcony. " The
representation is as I found the rock ; Figure 1
Besides the above, the joiners had fixed the ten window- being the plan, and Fiyure 2 the upright view. The same
frames, with their sashes ; all which were bedded in putty, letters refer to the same parts in both ; the cross lines upon
and falling into rebates cut for them in the original formation the plan answer to the cardinal points, east, west, north, and
of the stone, they could be at any time removed, and replaced south, according to the true meridian.
"
at pleasure, as they were fastened in only with wooden pins, L is the landing-place, and c the summit of the rock ;
driven into holes bored in the stone." the general declivity being towards the south- svest ; the grain
On Michaelmas-day, the glazing of the lantern was com- of the laminated moor-stone that composes it being nearly
pleted on the 1st 'of October, the copper funnel was finished
; parallel thereto. It has, however, considerable irregularities;
and tried by lighting a fire in the stove. for upon the line A n the rock makes a sudden drop of four
" The
tackle was also fixed for raising and lowering the and a half or five feet ; and, by overhanging to the westward,
chandeliers ; and those being hung, there was now nothing when there is a ground-swell at south-west, the sudden check
to hinder our making trial by lighting the candles, while it causes the sea to fly in an astonishing manner, even in
was daylight, to see that everything, regarding the light,
moderate weather.
44
 EDD 346 EDD
" The dotted line a b shows the level of the base of the
"The surface of the rock is shown, as supposed to have
been for ages past except where it is visibly altered by
;
first stone. The black line c d is the base of the stone in
man's hand, chiefly within the circular area of the late build- the first course that is intersected by the east and west line ;

ing. The flat treads of the steps cut by Rudyerd are and ef 1 is the level of the top of the first course, and bed of
marked D the upright faces of the steps F ; and E denotes the second ; 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, mark relatively the
; tops of the
the spawled parts, parallel to the grain of the rock. six courses that bring the artificial
part of the foundation
"abed efg h show the remains of the cavities of eight upon a level with the reduced top of the natural rock ; e Qf,
of the twelve great irons fixed by Winstanley ; of which the being the first entire course, marked VII. as being the seventh
stump of one only, viz., that at e, remained for my inspection ;
above the ground-joint.
it was run in with lead, and had continued fast, till in "/ The foot of the temporary ladder and there is shown
;

planting a dovetail there it was cut out, and found club- the manner in which the ground-joint of the stone-work was
ended. Which of the other holes, that are left unmarked, sunk into the rock, all round, at least three inches.
made up the remaining four, I could not make out as ;
"h. The first marble plug, or central joggle, that went
doubtless several of them appertained to the additional work through the sixth course, and reached half-way through the
that he fixed in the fourth year. seventh and so in succession to the top of Course XIV.
;
" "
Figure A
pair of Rudyerd's iron branches, to a scale
3. ik. The place of the marble cubic joggles inlaid between
three times larger than that of the plan ; wherein A B is the each two courses, which were in an octagon disposition round
main branch, or dovetail part; c D the key, driven hard in, the centre.
" I.
but without touching the bottom; their depth in the rock is Smaller cubes between the fifth and sixth course.
"
denoted by supposing the line E F its surface. The holes in Course XIV. terminates the entire solid ; as upon it is
the branches served to fasten the timbers, by large bearded pitched the entry and well-hole for the stairs. The temporary
spike-bolts. Of those branches I traced thirty-six original ladder,//;, to the entry-door D, is only put out when wanted;
pairs, of different sizes ;
and two more modern : their places and then is lashed by eye-bolts to the stone ; at other times,
are shown in the upright, by inspection and like-
Figure 2, ; having a joint in the middle, it folds, and is laid along in the
wise in the plan, Figure 1, at 1,2, 3, 4, 5, and 0, 7,8, 9, 10, &c. entry.
"
forming a double circle also two pair of them at K, to fix
;
Above the top of the entire solid, the centre stone being
the mast, on two sides, to the centre. The irons that remained omitted to give space for the well, the cubic joggles were of
in the rock, are distinguished in the
plan by being hatched double the number, and half the size. Course XXIV. ter-
with slant lines, the empty holes or cavities by being black. minated that part of the building called the solid: and here
Those that remained whole, whether fast or loose, are dis- the habitable of the building began, whereof E is the lower
tinguished in Figure 2, by their shapes. store-room.
" "
x. The place of the cave on the east side. F. The store-room door.
" "
K. A strong ring-bolt, put into the rock on the recom- G. The upper store-room.
"
mencement of the building in 1757, for fastening the western H. The kitchen.
"
i. The
guy-chain of the shears. fire-place, from which the smoke ascends through
"
Figure 2, r s t v iv. The three-legged stool, steadied the floors and lantern, through a copper funnel, and through
with cross-braces. Upon the middle of the upper round the ball.
"
plank r s was screwed down the theodolite T, to whose index The bed-room.
K.
was screwed the long horizontal rule is, divided into feet, " The stone-basement of the lantern.
L.
"
inches, and upon one edge, tending to the centre.
parts, M. The lantern door into the balcony.
Upon any marked point of the rock to be ascertained, sup- "N. The cupola.
" The
pose x, the rod x y was set upright by a spirit-level, and was ascent from room to room is by the perforations
preserved in an upright position by two small slips of deal, through the middle or key -stone of every floor ; and the
applied as shores or struts, in two different directions. The detached figures show the means, by inclined step-ladders,
divided edge of the rule being brought against the upright removable at pleasure.
rod, was shoved up by a short staff, held in the hand tight "Plate III. Plans of the rock after being cut, and pre-
against the rod, till a spirit-level laid upon the top of the rule pared to receive the stone-building. Showing the six foun-
showed it to be level. In this position the index would show dation courses.
the degree and minute of the circle ; the upright rod would "Figure 1. Plan of the rock, as prepared for the stone-
mark the distance from the centre upon the rule ; and the work, somewhat extended, to show how it applies to Plate 1.
rule would mark upon the rod, how much the intersection The line A B shows also here the place where the surface
was above its bottom at x. drops, as specified, Plate II. No. 2.
" " In this
Plate It. No 1. South elevation of the stone'lighthouse figure, Course I. appears in its place, as fixed
completed upon the Eddijstone in 1759. with its trenails and wedges. The part darker shaded, and
"
A. The landing-place. marked D D, was not reduced to a dovetail on account of
"
B. The cave in the east side of the rock. but was sunk two inches lower than the rest of
fissures,
" The steps cut to mount the rock to the entry-door. Course II. The stones laid therein would therefore be
c.
"
D. An iron rod, encompassed by a border, and held fast in every direction.
serving as a rail to hold by, in passing
to the foot of the ladder, occasionally The letters E. W. N. S. in all the figures, denote the cardinal
put out from the entry-
door at E. points ;
the same letters, in every figure, denoting the same
"
No. 2. Section of the Eddystone lighthouse upon the parts.
east and west line, as relative to No. 1, supposing it the low- " The
part of the rock marked c, rises above the rest by
water of a spring-tide. an ascent, or step, of fifteen to eighteen inches, according to
" In the section of the the line D FOE; which, lying somewhat without the general
rock, A D shows the upright face or
drop, marked with the same letters as No. 1, and the line contour of the building, and affording a firm abutment, the
B c shows the general direction of the grain and slope of the advantage was taken ; and the work of the first and second
rock to the south-westward. course carried against it, as shown at o.
 EDDYSTO1CE LIGHT HOUSE. /
PLAT* n ifan

Drmn. ly ifA fhAoh dk

v H
Kny '/
K B Y S T C>T E LIGHT HOUSE, PLATE a Nl

20 15 '.' ,
25 Feet
 JLIGHTELOUSE. W.ATE 111

ff.
Fig.

Fiy.l

jo 26 20

*l),
KThtw..
 XIGMTJHTOIUSII. Ft, ATE 3V.

Course JCVU1 Fig 4 Course JLW

f'.'/
!

Drawn byflficholson
 EDD 347 EDD
" and The
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. level platforms, or steps, for capped and bonded together by this 18th Course, the whole
the different courses, whose upper sides are even with these was again considered as one entire stone, out of which the
numbers in Plate 11. No. 2 being upon the level of Rud- cavity had been cut.
yerd's lowest step. "Figure 5 shows Course XXIII. ready for putting on the
"
x. A
piece of stone engrafted into the rock, serving as a cap-course of the solid.
bridge to cross a chasm, opened by cutting down the top of "Figure 6. The cap-course, making the store-room floor,
the rock to that level, into the cave. Of this stone is formed in its finished state; the first course of the habitable part of
a part of the border that encircles the work. the building, viz. Course XXV.
being upon it and show- ;

Figure 2 shows how the buttress, o, was terminated in the ing the store-room door, with its joggles, joint-stones, and
second course. It also shows the
places of the trenails and cramps.
wedges ; which in all these figures are shown in the same "The detached figure, relative to it, shows a part of the
manner. The dotted lines everywhere refer to the course top of the wall of Course XXV. to a triple scale ; wherein
that is to come on; and shows how it will break joint h h i i denote one of the pieces of stone, whereof sixteen
upon
the course supposed laid. complete the circle / shows one of the joggles used in this
:

"
Figure 3 shows how the space it i K, in Figure 2, is part of the building; being slices of marble the size of a
filled up in Figure 3,
being confined in by the rise of the common brick, let half its thickness into the middle of the
step L at H i, and the cramps a b ; the ground proving here stone ; so that the next course above, breaking joint upon
irregularly shattered by cutting the steps for the former the middle of this, according to the dotted line g g, half the
lighthouse. joggle's length will take one of the upper stones, whose joint
"Figure 4 shows the structure of Course IV., where, in comes upon it, and the other half joggle the other: by
this, as all the others, iho stones lighter-coloured denote. the which means every stone is fixed to its place, as it were, by
Portland, the darker the moor-stone. two steady pins, one at each extreme. The black lines, h i,
"Figure 5. The position of three joggle- holes, v, between showing the joint at each end of this stone the small :

this course and the next above. lozenge figures, k and /, show the shape of grooves, cut from
"
Figure 6 shows Course VI. complete, which brings the the top to the bottom of each end of each stone, and which,
wholo work to a level with the reduced rock: it shows the when two arc joined together, form that figure k denotes :

joggle-hole* for the eight cubes ; and the central plug-joggle, the lozenge empty, or unfilled, and / the lozenge filled with
fixud in place ut o, ready for the reception of the centre stone a joint stone.
of Course VII. " TO
n. The shape of one of the cramps, in upright; and
"
J'liite'lV. Plans of (ill the different courses from the top op as seen upon the fiat. The holes in the stones at q r are
of the rock to the top of the balcoKU-floor inclusive. bored, to receive the round shanks of the cramp, and the
"
Figure 1. The proper plan of Course VII. relative to the rectangular cavities q r are sunk, to bury the flat of the
section, Plate II. No. 2. As
being the first entire course, the cramp op.
trenails and wedges are shown ; but afterwards omitted in "Figure 7. The plan of the kitchen floor, and the upper
the' draughts, to prevent
crowding the figures. The black bed of Course XXIX. that encircles it showing one of the
:

lines and dotted lines show the joints of the alternate courses. endless chains; of which, as appears in the section, Plate II.
The centre-stones, and the four stones surrounding, were No. 2, there are two to each floor. The detached figure
alternately of the same size to the top of Course XIV. shows an enlargement of the chain and groove that con-
" a. The centre
plug, first set. tains it.
" It
b. The square
part of the centre stone ; from each of "In the principal figure, the dotted lines at s show the
whose four sides a dovetail projects, and thereon are fixed place of the fire-grat'e.
"1
the tour stones c c, by joint-wedges and trenails, as
per 1. The sink.
figure ; which five stones united make one stone, sufficiently "v v. The dresser.
large to receive eight smaller dovetail stones dd; and whose "to to. The settle.

projecting parts form dovetails to receive another circle, or

"
x. A place for a claw table, leaving a vacancy to the
order of stones, fixed like the former. The cubic joggles arc window between each.
shown at e e. "
Figure 8. The plan of the bedchamber, taken upon the
"
Figure 2. The plan of Course XIV. ending the funda- top of Course XLIII. which gives the horizontal sections of
mental solid, and on which the entry and well-hole are begun. the windows.
It also shows the diminution from Course VII. Upon this "y y y. The places of the three cabin beds for the light-
figure is shown the distribution of the smaller cubic joggles, keepers.
which take place upon the entire solid. The entry here "z. The hole in the floor for the copper funnel from the
appears to have a small inclination with the E. and W. line, kitchen.
which was not noticed in the section, Plate II. No. 2, to avoid " a. The
place of the clock.
" In the detached
ambiguities. figure, b b shows how the cramps are
"Figure 3. The plan of Course XV. being the first of the disposed in the reduced jambs of the windows.
" c. The
entry-door and well-courses. plan of the rebate, to receive the shutters, or
"Figure 4. The plan of Course XVIIf. showing the work ports of the windows, whereof the uprights are seen in
of the entry closed in, and the solid re-united. Also the Plate II.
manner of hook-jointing the four stones round the centre to "d. The sill of the clear opening; against the solid of
each other ; which, in the courses below the entry -door, were which the window frame e/and sashes are lodged ; the whole
united by dovetails to the centre-stone. Joint wedges were of which go in together, and are held in by wooden pins, two
applied in the hook, as per figure. Thus the arrangement, in above and two below, as shown at g g the holes being bored
:

circles from the centre, was again complete. In the entry- in the solid stone. If those pins are cut off, the whole can

courses, as every piece had at least one cubic joggle and two be drawn out and renewed, without injury to the stone- work.
trenails, the work was secure against all ordinary attacks of The joint of the wood frame with the stone-work is secured
the sea: the weakness being on the east side; but when against wet by white-lead and oil.
 EDD 348 EDD
"
9. The plan of the cap of the main column, being by which the main tackle-blocks are hung, is shown to an
Figure
in Plate II. No. 2, the 46th Course, and composes the balcony enlarged scale at efg h. This anchor being suspended upon
floor. a round bolt at e, that passes through the tops of the two
" shear legs, swings freely between them, and always putting
h h. The man-hole in the centre, correspondent to the
other floors. itself in a perpendicular position, and producing fair bearings
"'. The funnel hole accordant with z in the last figure. upon them, without any unnatural strain or twist, enables
"The dotted lines k k trace out the octagon base of the thcin to support the greatest weight possible.
" In like manner the two arms of the anchor
lantern. g h, having
"The shown by the two guy-tackles hooked to them, the action of those
place of the under rail of the balcony
is

.he dotted lines mm

m; and n n n denote sections of the tackles is upon the suspending bolt, and the feet of the shears
studs upon which those rails are supported, correspondent to turning freely^upon eye-bolts fixed in the rock, they are at
the uprights of Plate II. liberty to conform themselves to the position wanted ; so
"Plate V, Original ideas, hints, and sketches, from that the stressupon the legs is always endwise.
whence the general form of the present, building was taken. "After the building was raised to the height shown
"Fly lire 1. The bole of a spreading oak ; its side-branches Figure 1, the work was hoisted through the well-hole, till it
arrived nt the top of the solid, by means of the triangle and
being lopped off, rising out of the ground with a sweep; its
twelve-fold blocks wherewith the work was set and are
taper diminishing till the sides become perpendicular ; and on ;

the insertion of the great boughs, again swells and overhangs. shown as standing upon the wall at the first vaulted floor by
"
Figure 2. The manner in which the smaller boughs and the letters m, being the fourth stage but after that was
i k I :

branches are obliquely inserted into the greater, with the completed (the man-hole being too small, and the height too
reconciling curves that form the union. great, without losing time) a jack-roll was established, as
Figure 3. A specimen of paving to be found in the
" shown at the third stage in the lower store-room at Q and :

walking paths of London streets; being a mode of dove- a pair of movable shears, the figure whereof is shown at the
fifth stage, as upon the wall, at the kitchen-floor; which,
tailing in stone.
''Figure 4. A sample of stone dovetailing in the upright, instead of guy-ropes, had a back leg, longer than the rest,
taken from Belidor's Arehit. Jlydraul. whose bottom or foot cut with u notch, stepped upon the
"
Figure 5. A
copy of the first complete design made out internal angle of the opposite wall ; and was long enough to
for the solid courses of the Eddystone. The only material sufferthem to lean over sufficiently for the stone at p to clear
alteration afterwards was to diminish the size and weight of the wall. The shears themselves were prevented from falling
the outward circle of stones. over by a lufftackle, shown upon the back leg, whose lower
"Plate VI. A
view of the rock on the east side ; and of block hooked upon a lewis, in that stone the back leg stepped
the work advanced to Course XV. the first of the entry-courses ; upon; by which it was brought tight and steady. When the
shotting the manner of landing and Jioisting the stones, d-c. in stone was to be landed, this tackle being a little slacked, till
every after-stage of the building. the notch could be disengaged, and then set upon, the back
"Figure 1. The boat Weston in the gut, delivering her leg would, by going over the waif, sufl'er the shears to come
cargo. to the perpendicular, or beyond it.
" "
P. Q. The two fender piles, to prevent her rubbing The stones, now become in general less weighty, a com-
against the rock. mon tackle was employed at the shear-head, which would go
" down to the entry door, and there met the stones hoisted by
x. The cave, here seen in front.
"D. The through which a momentary cascade
gulley, the great shears the tackle-fall of the movable shears, being
:

makes its way ; and which was proposed to be stopped. taken to the jack-roll Q, the stones were got to the top of the
" E
F G. The shears ; from the head of which are suspen- building, in the same time they were raised from the boat to
ded the main tackle-blocks AD. whose' tackle-fall, after the entry-door.
going to the snatch-block E, passes to the windlass, or jack- "The detached figure R is the plan of the movable
roll, whose frame being of iron, is fastened to the rock as shears ;
where the check, or safety rope, is shown at the ,

per figure. foot of the back leg.

"The enlarged detached figure a shows the frame and roll " In
this manner all the heavy materials were got
up the ;

frontwise, as seen from the snatch-block. movable shears rising with the work, till the cupola was to
"b. The side-view thereof, the roll being seen endwise. be set upon the lantern.
"
c. The manner of coupling the back-stay to the upright "The sixth stage shows the apparatus used for this pur-
stancheons; and d shows, by a figure still more enlarged, pose. The great shears being now done with, were taken
the upper end of the stancheons for
receiving the gudgeons down and put through the windows of the uppermost room,
of the roll. and there, being well steadied, served as booms. The
While the stone is hoisting, the man represented at I is detached figure s being the plan of this stage, shows their
heaving-in the tackle-fall of the runner and tackle H K for, :
particular disposition ; wherein o p show the places or feet
till the stones are cleared of the of the legs of the shears used for this particular purpose
boat, the shears lay out con- ;

siderably, and the out-hawler guy-rope, L M, is slack. This also marked with the same letters in the relative upright.
crosses the gut, and is fixed by a In this, the rope q r shows a side-stay to the leg or; and s t
ring-bolt to one of the
rocks of the south reef. By such time, therefore, as the stone is the stay of the leg p t, each fastened to
q s, the extremes
is hoisted
by the main tackle to the height of the entry-door, of the booms.
the shears are got into the perpendicular; and then " From
by each end of the cross-tree at the head of the
easing the out-hawler guy-tackle, L N, the stone comes into shear-poles proceeded the ropes w x, y x, which, joining in
the entry door. one guy-rope at x, proceeds over a pulley in the end of the
"
The
runner and tackle H K is hooked to the guy-chain, o, temporary timber at z: from thence, with the intermediation
which crosses the work, and passes down to the of a tackle, 1, 2, it proceeds to, and fixes at the extreme end
ring on the
west side of the rock marked u in Plate I.
; of the boom 3 and as the weight to be hoisted will prin-
;
"
In the detached Figure 2, the anchor-like piece of iron, cipally lay upon this guy, the stay, or shroud rope, 3, 4, is
 I-IOHTMOUSJS.

-fiff. 2.

fiy 1

Fl.
"I .5
 LIGHT H<D)UJE
Jl'ir iff/ 'IJir llo,-k,i Ilif Karl siilf antlo! 'thf wX- aJ>ritnit/6> roiuvfS\. /ifirn/ I/if lirsl ,>/'lh,- /;>///; i ti>i/r.n

.tltm-itu/ tJif ina>iiifr-i>t'Lii/i,/iiy ami //ni.ttifii/ I/if .flnne.r <. in CIYT.T <///// ut'l/ir ltiM/ui</.
 PLATE rn

,ind /':<';( Ynnl unit Mill in III i/.f liirillllli iinil n I *. i /.,
,l,:trri/ili,ini,l ///- llui/ <
/'/////

-U-H-tHt-H-H-ll-H-H
TS
 EDD 349 EDD
room below, " o o. The sleepers for supporting the rails at about a
passed from thence through the window of the
and is there fixed. yard's distance middle and middle as is also shown near E,
;
" now
It is plain, that by the tackle 1, 2, the shears can be in Figure 2.
let over as far as necessary, and brought back into the " The plan of the movable
turn-rail, and Figure
go Figure 4.
perpendicular ; but to counteract this main guy, and keep all 5 the relative upright shewing also the section of the dor-
;

steady, the rope 5, 6, 7, with a small tackle upon it, performs mant circle. The three last figures having a mutual refer-
the office of an out-hawlcr guy, fixing to the same ring in ence, the same parts are marked with the same letters and :

the rocks, as that of the main shears had before done. This furthermore, in Figure 4 and 5.
"
apparatus enabled the cupola to be hoisted and set on whole n i. The rail part of the turn-rail, correspondent to
without a bruise. those parts marked F F, Figure 3, in width and height. The
"Plate VII. Plan and description of the work-yard at rail parts, n i, are
strongly framed upon the cross beam K E,
ifill-Bay, with furniture and utensils.
its and connected by the pieces L L. The whole being poised,
"
Figure 1. The general plan of Mill-Bay, wherein the with its burden, upon the pin c, but without absolutely
dotted line a b c shows the line of low-water spring tides. touching the dormant circle A B while turning for bearing
;
" d
e. The channel dug from low water to convey vessels only upon the flat shoulder of the pin, it turns easily but, ;

to the head of the jetty fg. when bringing on, or wheeling oft', the equilibrium upon
it is
" It
i k I. The area of the work--yard. the pin being destroyed, the ends, H, i, are then supported
"
Since the removal of this work, has been built L the upon the dormant circle, and the wheels will move steady.
"
long room. Figure 7 shows the plan, and Figure 8 the upright view
"A c. The marine barracks. of the wheel-carriage, to the same scale as that of Figures
"
D D. New streets of Stonehouse. 3. 4, and 5. Also Figure 9, and Figure 10, give the upright
"
Figure Plan of the work-yard and jetty. A B c D, the
2. views of the rll-carriage in two directions, to the same
line terminating the head of the channel. Now any vessel scale ; which show distinctly the manner of supporting the

lying against the two large piles n c, on which a pair of axis of the rolls on iron frames and how the iron frames
;

shears being erected, can be unloaded of her cargo of stone, are kept upright by four pair of cross bars.
and delivered upon a wheel-carriage that passing along the ; "Figure 11. The upright of the capstan-roll, axis, and
jetty to the turn-rail E, the carriage is there turned round till middle part of the bar to the same scale. At 1,2, is shown
it becomes fair with the rail-road E F and passing along it, en-
;
the capstan in full, to the scale of the yard ; and 3, 4, and 5.
ters the work-yard, whose boundary is marked by G a o a. mark the direction of the rope, which, from a snatch-block
"
At T is another turn-rail, which enables the carriage to at 5, ascends to the upper block of the main tackle, sus-
go on with its burden either in the straight line, or to turn
; pended from the top of the shears, as per Figure 0, wherein
there and go along the rail-road in the middle of the yard, the in-hauler guy-tackle is marked 7, being a runner and
and arriving at any destined point, suppose n, it is there met tackle ; and the. out-hauler, marked 8, arc simple blocks.
by a roll-carriage for which, planks being temporarily laid,
;
The guy-rope, 7, G, was attached to a ring-bolt, passing
as at i, the burden (being transferred on small rollers) will through a large rough stone, rammed into the ground ; its
be easily moved thereon to the extremity of the yard side- place being shown at 6, (Figure 2,) the out-hauler guy 8, 9,
ways and thus, stones can be deposited, as at K K (shown
; being secured in the same manner.
edgewise upward) upon any point of the area of the yard, "The marble rocks, marked 10, go round the point of
and returned by the same means. the bay.
" "
The area bounded by the line o a, and the dotted line L L, Figure 12. The elevation of the upper part of the
is the Portland workshed. jetty-head in front, with the shears upon it, to an enlarged
" M more particularly to show the smaller parts.
denotes one of the bankers ; to which, from the wheel- scale ;
"
carriage (supposed on the rail-road opposite) strong joists A, B. The front pair of piles, to which the cross-beam
being laid, as shown by the dotted lines, the pieces of stone c D is bolted, and, in like manner, to each pair of piles.
"
are brought on small rolls the bankers having notches sunk
; E, E. The ends of the longitudinal half balks.
" F
therein, to receive the ends of the joists. F. The cross joists.
" In "
like manner, the area N o was the shed for the moor- o, o. The ends of the flat rails that the wheels of the
stone workers. carriage run upon.
" The "
square area P Q denotes the extent of a roof, sup- n n. A
single cross timber, serving as a stop to the
car-

ported by four posts, covering the platform ; whereof a b riage at the end.
" i.
represents the platings of rough stone walls ; c d one of its The snatch-block.
"
principal floor timbers, 6 by
12 ; these being covered with N. B. The scantlings are marked, because this jetty or
three-inch planks, and brought to a true level, made a stout scaflbld, erected as slight as possible for a temporary purpose,
floor, upon which the courses were brought together. sustained the whole tonnage of the Eddystone matter, in and
" The cabin for the foreman of the yard.
R. out, without derangement.
" s. A
small store-room for tools and iron-work. "Thedetached Figure 13, gives a part of the top of one
" o of the shear legs, showing how they were plated on each
w. The store-shed for Watchet lime and puzzolana.
" side to support the bolt of the anchor from bending, and
v x. The shed for bucking or beating the larger parts of
the puzzolana upon w
Y, the bank with three cast-iron
beds thereby from splitting the poles.
"
upon it. Figure 14. The enlarged figure of the runner and tackle
"
Figure 3. Supposed a detached figure, being the ground- (marked 7, in Figure 6.)
" The runner-block of one large single pulley.
plan of the turn-rail at T (Figure 2) to an enlarged scale, K.
" L M. The
wherein A B is a dormant circle of wood well supported ; of tackle-blocks, of throe pulleys each, making a
which c marks the centre pin fixed in the transverse beam purchase of twelve, equivalent to the great blocks.
D D K E being connected studs.
:
"Figure 15. An upright diagonal view of the main-tackle
"F
F. Portions of the rails, whereon the wheels move, which blocks ; having six pulleys each upon two pins ; the larger
a u: ~
This
are kept in place by the fillets//, nailed on each side. tier being ten, and the lesser eight inches diameter.
 EDD 350 EDD
"
figure distinctly shows the method of salvagee strapping ; Figure 7. One of the silver medals given to the seamen
being double, that the pins being readily knocked out, they as a token of the service.
"
could be frequently greased without trouble. Figure 8. The tool wherewith the stones were got up
" N. B. The from the bottom of the gut.
shears, blocks, and tackles, used at Mill Bay,
" A. One of the stones with two trenail holes.
were nearly the same as at the rock and one pair of main
;
"
tackle blocks at each place, with the same pulleys, went Suppose this stone lying flat in the bottom of the gut,
through the whole service but the pins were renewed each
;
the side A uppermost. The tool has a pole or staff, b b, about
season, and sometimes oftener, being of wood, on account of twelve feet long, sufficient to reach the bottom. This single
the salt-water but were frequently greased.
;
The main prong, c, is forged to a very single taper, such as to be thrust
tackle-full at each place was no larger a. rope than of three eight or nine inches into a trenail hole, (all of them being
inches circumference ; being a white rope, remarkably soft bored to a gauge) it can be driven by the pole, till fast ;
laid, hauser-fashion; and
which is of material consequence.
observing that the arm e corresponds to the centre of gravity
" Plate VIII. of the stone. The water is generally so clear as to see to
Descriptions of supplemental matters,
having reference to the Eddystone building. the bottom ; and, in case of any ruflle by the wind, can be
"
Figure 1. An upright front view of the great tackle, or in a great measure freed from agitation, by looking through

purchase-blocks of twenty sheaves,

or pulleys. a speaking trumpet, whose mouth is put down eight or ten
Figure 2. A side view of the same blocks, referring to
" inches into the water. The rope d ef being then set upon
Figure 1. The advantage of this construction is, that the by the main tackle, instead of its drawing out, the length of
tackle-fall, or running-rope, may be reeved through the the arm g causes the prong to jamb the faster in the hole ;
twenty sheaves, without a cross or interference so that ;
and the staff being quitted by the hand, with a cord to hinder
the standing part, or beginning, may be in the middle of the its flying off too far, the whole assumes the
position of the
upper block : and the ending, hauling part, or fall, upon figure; and, when brought above water, is lowered into
the middle, pulley of the same block. The weight therefore a yawl.
being suspended by twenty ropes instead of six, as in common
"
Figure 9. A section of one of the mortar buckets, and
'triple-block*, thetackle-tall, as relative to a given weight, in it the beater.
may be lesser or of fewer yarns in the same proportion ; ''Figure 10. One of the internal faces of the lantern's
which renders the whole much more flexible and pliant, and glass frames, and therein the cross bars of iron, as they were
which, together with the advantage derived from the mode actually fixed. Besides the flat at each end of each bar,
of reeving, occasions their rising and falling nearly upon a distinguished by a darker shade, and through which the
parallel. Beginning in the middle, the greater sheaves are screws passed each end was also cranked about an inch, so
;

reeved as far as can be on them ; from thence going to the as to set the transverse part of the bars clear of the copper
first of the smaller sheaves, and reeving the whole of them sash-frame and they were cleared of each other at their
;

throughout, you then go to the first of the greater sheaves, intersection, by one of them being made straight, the other
before left unreeved, ending upon the middle sheave of the curved in that part. All the panes being taller than the
upper block ; and thus arises a diminution of the friction candles, the chandelier rings are so hung, that when the
from the more equal distribution thereof. candles are at rest, dispensing their lijjht, that of one chan-
"
Fiyure 'A, An upright section of the store-room, to delier passes through the range of panes A, and that of the
an enlarged scale in it is shown the centre whereon
; other through the range B ; and when the candles are snufFed,
the upper store-room floor was turned and in like manner
;
one of the rings of lights being seen through the range c,
the rest. the other mounts to D, and vice versa.
" "
Figure 4. Tlie plan relative thereto, the letters being Figure 11. The chain of triangles from the Eddystone
common to both. to the flng-stafl* of the garrison of Plymouth, for ascertaining
" a Two of the sixteen ribs, formed to the circle
i, c d. their distance trigonometrically.
"
of the vaults of the floors. These ribs are connected at their Fiyure 12. An enlargement of the work within the
ends by two wooden rings, ef, gh i k; the former supported headlands of the Sound.
" The whole
by four posts, three of which are shown in their places, and country about Plymouth Sound being very
the latter by eight; of which only one is shown on the right uneven, I could not readily obtain a base better, than by
hand, and one on the left, to avoid confusion. The rings are very carefully measuring the two lines B o, B w, taking the
each made to take asunder, that after striking the centre intercepted angle whence the right line w G was
WHO;
they might be got out of the room. obtained, making a base of 1871 feet, and which 1 cannot
"
At / 1, m m, two of the ribs are supposed taken out, suppose to err more than half a foot. Again, the nearest
to show their bearings upon the rings ; they were open place from whence the two beacons, w, o, could be commo-
centres, that it might be seen underneath when the joints diously seen for the purpose, was the point s ; and all the
were fair. three angles of the triangle w
s o, being likewise carefully
"
Figure 7, of Plate IV., shows how
the sixteen radii of taken, 1 conclude the angle s o w =
10 23', taken true to
stones would apply to the sixteen ribs. In this plan, a minute ; that is, to -jjjd part of the whole angle. The
Figure 4, A shows the well-hole, and B B the cross timbers line s w
could therefore be determined within -g-jg-d part ;
for supporting the four middle posts, whose
places are marked which being considered as a new base of larger extent, may
out by dotted little squares. be esteemed true within g^th part of the whole. From
"
Figure 5. An elevation, and Figure G, the relative plan this, and the angles taken as marked upon the scheme, the
of a dial stone, taken professedly from the general figure of lines w p, wM, and w
E, were successively determined ; and
the Eddystone lighthouse being the design of the late F the distance of the flag-staff from the Eddystone,
;
finally E,
James, Duke of Queensberry, and by him erected at Ames- came out very near, but somewhat less, than fourteen miles.
bury, Wilts, with a dial upon it, by Mr. Kamsden. The But the, interior harbour of Plymouth, called Sutton Pool,
drawing, of which this is a copy, was given me by the Duke ; being about three furlongs farther from the Eddystone, than
and is placed here as an instance, that the Eddystone column the flng-staff, the whole distance may be esteemed fourteen
may be applied to some uses of architecture. miles and a quarter from Plymouth harbour."
 -
S:K, PJ.ATK. VJU .

Fig. 7

V ' \.itintson -i'J

 EGY 351 EGY
Thus was completed the Eddystone Lighthouse, which and others, we shall have to carry back the date of its origin
must ever l>e considered a masterpiece of its kind. The far beyond the period generally assigned as the commence-
merit of utility is not its only characteristic ; but in beauty, ment of history. Manetho gives us a series of dynasties
as well as in strength and originality, it deserves the highest upon dynasties, which, if successive, reach beyond the bounds
amdiration. And when we remember the extraordinary of time; to obviate which difficulty, it has been suggested, that
by which a work like this must have been
difficulties they were not all successive, but several contemporaneous,
surrounded, we must own, that had its contractor left no reigning over different parts of the country; but, indeed, the
other memento of his genius, the Eddystone alone would be whole matter would seem to be fabulous, for in the same
sufficient toimmortalize the name of Smeaton. place is related the gigantic stature of several
kings, their
EDGE, the intersection of the two planes or surfaces of a wonderful exploits, and other circumstances characteristic of
solid, which is consequently either straight or curved accord- mystical and confused tradition. The first king alluded to by
ing to the direction of the surfaces. See ARRIS. historians is Menes or Men, who is supposed to have lived
EDGE is also that side of a rectangular prismatic body, above 2,000 years B.C., about the time of the foundation of
which contains the length and thickness, but in this sense of Assyria by Nimrod, and of the reign of the Chinese emperor
the term, the body to which it applies is generally understood Yao, with whom the historical period of China begins. It is
to be very thin ; thus we " the
say, edge of a door," the doubtful which of these nations came first into existence ; we
"
edge of a board," meaning the narrow side. are inclined to give the preference to the Assyrians, but which-
EDGE OF A TOOL, the meeting, of the surfaces when ever takes the lead, there was probably but little difference
ground to a very acute angle. between them in point of time. It is certain that Egypt stood
EDGE-TOOLS, all those which chip or shave in the operation out pre-eminent in civilization, and that, too, at a very early
of working. period ; its success in the cultivation of the arts, and in the pur-
EDGING, in carpentry, the reducing of the edge of ribs suit of science, was greater than that of any contemporaneous
or rafters, whether externally or internally, so as to range in people, as is evident from their remains to be seen at the pre-
a plane, or in any curved surface required ; backing is a par- sent day. At the close of Manetho's sixteenth dynasty, the
ticular case of edging, and only applies to the outer edges of irruption of the Ilyksos, or shepherds, is supposed to have
ribs or rafters, but edging, or ranging, is a general term, and taken place ; his seventeenth dynasty consisting of shepherd-
applies indifferently, cither to the backing or internal surface. kings, from which period it is alleged that the erection of the
See llic terms BACKING and RANGING. existing edifices must commence, all the previously existing
EDIFICE. from the Latin, cedifteitim, ) a building con-
( buildings having been destroyed by the shepherds. As
structed either for use or ornament. The word is not usually a proof of this, is adduced the circumstance, that at Carnac,
applied to a mean or inferior building, but to temples, and other of the oldest monuments of Thebes, sculptures
churches, or elegant mansions, and to other great structures. and painted stones, of good workmanship, are to be found,
See BUILDING, HOUSE, TEMPLE, &c. used as mere materials in the body of the walls.
EDILE, ( Latin, tcdilis, from cedes, a building,) an officer Besides the ancient authors already mentioned, we have
in ancient Rome, whose business was to superintend build- Strabo and Diodorus Siculus, who have given some account
ings of all kinds, more especially those of a public character, of Egypt and its buildings, and to these we bhall have
as temples, aqueducts, bridges, &c. to refer occasionally as we proceed.
EFFIGY, a representation or likeness of anything, the In turning to modem writers on this subject, we shall find
term being particularly applied to sculptured representations but few who enter fully into the subject previous to the com-
of human figures. Such effigies were very common on tombs mencement of the present century, little or nothing having
erected from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries, and been known of Egyptian buildings unless it were of the
were of various materials, stone, marble, alabaster, and even Pyramids, until the French expedition, at the close of the
of the precious metals. last century ;
no satisfactory delineations of the temples, or
EGGS, ornaments in the form of oblong spheroids having their details, had been taken, but only such sketches as were
their greater axis inclined, projecting at the top and receding calculated to convey some general idea of their characteristic
at the bottom, but each axis in a plane perpendicular to the massiveness. To Denon, and the contributors to the great
surface of the ovolo. In straight mouldings, all the axes will French work on this subject, we are principally indebted for
be in the same plane; but in annular mouldings or those our present information. Pococke and Norden have treated
generated round an axis, all the axes of the spheroids will be somewhat largely on their researches in this country, but
in the surface of a cone, whose vertex will be downwards, their remarks are too general and too loose to be of much
and will terminate in the apex. The eggs are most generally service. Denon had advantages unattainable by any of his
truncated, or have their upper part cutoff by a plane parallel predecessors independent of his own high qualifications, his
;

to the horizon. See ECHINUS. efforts were seconded by the able assistance of men of talent,
EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. The character of the sent out for the purpose, themselves well fitted for the task.
Egyptians, as developed in early history, would naturally Besides these, we may mention Belzoniand Champollion and, ;

lead us to suppose, that an inquiry into their style and man- amongst our own countrymen, Savary and Wilkinson.
ner of building would form a subject for interesting study, According to Manetho's account, the temples to which the
not only to the antiquary, but also to all such as take any remains described by Denon belong, were erected by the first
interest in general history ; and such doubtless is the case. The dynasties of the Pharaohs, or about 2,200 before Christ :

history of the place attaches an unusual interest to everything these first structures, however, were destroyed by the inva-
connected with it. Of the early history of Egypt, like that ding shepherds, as before noticed. These usurpers were, in
of the other primaeval nations we know but little for certain, turn, driven out by the Pharaohs, who were restored to their
all narrative dating back certain period, having an
beyond a throne about 2,000 years B.C., and thereupon set about
air of mystery about it, which
not easy to penetrate,
it is rebuilding the temples, the remains of which are seen at
and this fact is more especially true, as regards the origin of this day.
nations. If we believe the records of the Egyptian priests, The character of Egyptian architecture is that of massy
as handed down to us by Herodotus, Manetho, Eratosthenes, grandeur and severe simplicity, as exhibited in the simple,
 EGY 352 EGY
well-defined outline, and in the colossal dimensions of their deformed, and had remained there for four thousand years ;
temples, and the immense blocks of material employed in here I fancied I saw engraven on every stone the words
their construction. The great object of the builders seems Posterity Eternity. It
gave an idea of the- immense range
to have been, that the strength and durability portrayed in and high perfection to which the arts had arrived in this
the prodigious magnitude of their structures should serve to country. If a peasant should be drawn out from his mud-

typify their own greatness. They did not consider, when cottage, and placed before such an edifice as this, would he
they were erecting their temples, that they were building not believe that there must exist a wide difference between
thorn for an age, but for eternity ; nor, comparatively speaking, .himself and the beings who were able to construct it, and,
were they deceived in the estimate of their works ; for now, without any idea of architecture, would he not say, 'This is
after the lapse of three or four thousands of years, we have the work of a god ; a man could not dare to do it, or
"
some portions which are likely to last as many more centuries, inhabit it.'
unless wantonly destroyed by the hand of man. Had, indeed, This is his first impression, nor is his admiration less
the buildings only to contend with the ravages of time, we apparent at the close of his researches ; novelty may excite
should have many a structure perfect, where it is now a wonder and interest, but merit alone can maintain them.
heap of ruins had it not been for the reckless destruction of
;
At a later period, the description of Tentyra calls forth the
these wonderful monuments by Cambyses, it is questionable following remarks :

whether they would not all have been entire at the present "Nothing ismore simple and better put together than
day, and certainly in a better state of preservation than the few lines which compose this architecture. The Egyp-
many modern buildings which have not numbered as many tians borrowing nothing from the styles of other nations,
ten years as the former have centuries. Even now, the have here added no foreign ornament, no superfluity of
carving, and, in some instances, paintings, to be seen in the materials order and simplicity are the principles which
:

ruins, are as fresh and bright as if only just executed. they have followed and they have carried them to sublimity.
The immense size of the stones employed, and the mecha- At this point they have stopped, and have attached so much
nical art necessary for transporting them from the quarry, importance to preserving the unity of design, that though
and afterwards raising them to the required elevation in the they have loaded the walls of these edifices with bas-reliefs,
temples, when building, cause these sacred structures to inscriptions, historical and scientific representations, none of
appear works of superhuman labour. In every degree,
like these rich additions intersects a single line of the general
they exhibited a solemn majesty of style, and imposing plan, all of which are religiously preserved unbroken ; the
grandeur while austere simplicity, combined with order,
; sumptuous decorations which appear to the eye when close
uniformity, and regularity, pervade the whole design. to the building, all vanish at a short distance, and leave full
This, with the solidity and rnassivencss of the parts, and the to view the grand elements of architectural composition
prodigious dimensionsof the stones, imparted an air of the most which are dictated by sound reason. It never rains in this
impressive and awful sublimity on the mind of the beholder. climate, all that is wanted therefore is a covering of plat-
Bclzoni, who visited Egypt, observes, in his enthusiastic bands to give shade, but beyond this neither roof nor pen-
"
manner, when entering this magnificent temple I was diment are added the plain-slope is the principle of solidity
; ;
lost in a mass of colossal objects,
every one of which was they have therefore adopted this form for every main sup-
more than sufficient of itself to attract my attention ; I porter, doubtless with the idea that stability is the first
seemed alone in the midst of all that is most sacred in the impression that architecture should give, and is an essential
world a forest of enormous columns, adorned all round
; constituent of this art. With these people the idea of the
with beautiful figures, and various ornaments, from immortality of the Deity is presented by the eternity of his
top to
bottom the graceful shape of the lotus, which forms the
; temple; these ornaments, which are always rational, ahvavs
bell-shaped capitals, and which is so well-proportioned to consistent, always significant, demonstrate a steadiness of
the columns the friezes, also adorned in
;
every part with principle, a taste founded upon truth and a deep train
symbolical figures in low relief, representing battles, pro- of reasoning; and if we even had not a full conviction of
cessions, triumphs, priests, and sacrifices ; all relating to the eminent height to which they had attained in the abstract
the ancient history of the
country. The walls of the sanc- sciences, their architecture alone, in the state in which we
tuary, usually formed of red porphyry granite the high ;
now find it, would give the observer of the present day a
portal, seen at a distance from the openings of this vast high opinion of the antiquity of this nation, of its cultivation,
labyrinth of sacred edifices on each side of me, had such an and the impressive gravity of its character."
effect upon my stml as to separate me in
imagination from Of Carnac he at last exclaims " One is fatigued to
the rest of mortals, exalt me on high above all, and cause me
describe, and to read, and to think, of such a conception ;
to forget entirely the trifles and follies of life !" "It further after having seen it, one can hardly credit the
reality of the
"
appears," he says, on entering the city of Thebes, like existence of so many structures collected in one spot, of their
entering a city of giants, who, after a long conflict, were all size, of the determined resolution (constance obstinee) which
destroyed, leaving ruins of their various temples as the only exacted their erection, and of the incalculable expense of
proof of their former existence." Champollion exclaims of such magnificence."
"
Carnac, These porticos must be the work of men one Of the assthetic character of Egyptian architecture, our
hundred feet in height;" and Denon adds, "Such struc- "
author observes : These monuments, (Tentyra,) which
tures appear like dreams, or the works of
giants !" imprinted on the mind the respect due to a sanctuary of
Of the impression made upon the mind of Denon the divinity, were the open volumes in which science was
by these
stupendous structures we have sufficient evidence in his unfolded, morality dictated, and the useful arts promulgated;
work on the subject ; the few
following passages have been everything spoke, every object was animated with the same
selected from a multitude of a similar kind. mind. The opening of the doors, the angles the most private
Of the portico of Herrnopolis, he says, " This was the first recess, still presented a lesson, a precept of admirable har-
monument which gave me an idea of the ancient
Egyptian mony ; and the lightest ornament on the gravest feature of
architecuure, the first stones that I had seen which had the architecture, revealed under living images the abstract
preserved their original distinction without being altered or truths of astronomy."
 EGY 353 EGY
Painting added a further charm to sculpture and archi-
'
and mind of the beholder, than would whole volumes of
tecture,and produced at the same time an agreeable richness, written precepts.
which did not injure either the general simplicity or the "The materialism of Egyptian worship," says a writer on
" rendered all these details essential it fixed the
gravity of (he whole. To all appearance, painting in Egypt this subject, ;

was then only an auxiliary ornament, and not a particular imagination on physical nature, and obliged I he ecclesiastics to
art; the sculpture was emblematical, and, if 1 may so call seek those forms best calculated to express the dogmas of
it, architectural. their religion. And in contemplating their architecture, it is
"Architecture was therefore the great art, or that which impossible not to be struck with the manifest influence
was dictated by utility, and we may from this circumstance religion has had in its creation." In allusion to another
alone infer the priority, or at least the superior excellence, of similarity as regards the circumstances connected with the
the Egyptian over thu Indian art, since the former, borrowing erection of Egyptian and Gothic edifices, he says, "The
nothing from the latter, has become the basis of all that is priests, who were the great depositories of all knowledge, were
the subject of admiration in modern art, and what we have the exclusive designers of their religious edifices ; they alone
considered a^ exclusively belonging to architecture, the three directed the taste of the architect and the sculptor and they
;

Greek orders, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. We

should employed architectural grandeur, with all its accessories, to
therefore be cautious of entertaining the false idea which is influence the minds of those people whose actions they
so prevalent, that the Egyptian architecture is the infancy wished to govern nor can 1 imagine anything
:
* c?
better suited
of this art, since it is, in fact, the complete type." to inspire religious awe, and a profound reverence for the
Such is the universal and oft-repeated admiration of divinity, as well us his earthly agents amongst an idolatrous
modern travellers had such expressions been used by an
:
people, than this style of architecture." In pus.-ing, we may
ancient author, and the buildings now demolished, we should remark upon another affinity between the two styles, which
have been apt to treat the matter as purely fabulous, but now approaches more nearly to an architectural characteristic, and
they are undoubted realities, and stand as evidence of the that is, the practice of copving nature, all the decorative
truth of history. Such structures could doubtless have been details of Egyptian, as of Gothic architecture, being the most
erected solely under a despotic government, and probably, for beautiful imitations of the natural productions of their
the most part, by captives or slaves, and not by free Egyptians, country the lotus, palm, reed, papyrus, &c.
as we read of the Israelites in the time of Moses being tasked Having thus given a description of the general character
in this manner the manual labour employed on such struc-
;
of this style of architecture, it will be as well to proceed at
tures must have been enormous. It is a matter of the once to the consideration of the buildings more in detail, as
greatest wonder how such immense masses of material were regards plan, distribution, and arrangement of parts, method
transported from the quarries, and fixed so accurately in their of construction, and such like; in doing which we shall take
as an illustration the temple at Edfou, or Apollinopolis
respective places; even in the present day, with all the
advantages of machinery and steam-power which we possess, Magna. one of the largest in Egypt.
the erection of such structures as those of Egypt would be The size of this temple is much more comprehensive, and its
considered no light undertaking. Notwithstanding the vast arrangement much more complicated than that of Grecian
magnitude of these erections, they were remarkable not only structures, for whereas the latter consisted of a single cell sur-
for their size, but no less for their enrichment ornamentation
;
rounded by a wall with external columns, the former was com-
of various kinds was lavishly distributed over the whole posed of several courts, one within and beyond the other, and
surface. It is true, the buildings appear to greatest advan- having columns for the most part within the walls. The entrance
tage when exhibited as a whole, yet each minute portion will to the whole building was through a door placed between, mid.
bear, nay, require, minute examination; a close inspection somewhat in advance of two enormous pyramidal towers,
reveals the most elaborate enrichment, while a distant view termed propytea, which rose considerably above the general
exhibits the noble outline and the grander features of archi- mass of the building, and were covered on the sides with sculp-
tectural composition. tured figures of colossal size. The plan of each pyramid in this
No two styles at first sight appear more dissimilar,
would case measures 104 feet in length and 37 feet in width at the
more antagonistic, than the Egyptian and Gothic, the one base, the dimensions diminishing gradually to the summit,
ponderous and massive, the other light and elegant the one ;
where they are 84 feet by 20 feet, I he heihgt being about 150
flat,of low proportions, and presenting a great extent of feet. Each mole is finished bv a projecting cornice, and is sur-
unbroken horizontal lines, the other slender, lofty, and aspir- rounded on all sides by a bold torus moulding. They may be
ing. What contrarieties do they present and yet we shall
! considered as solid structures, for although they contain cham-
find that they have many characteristics in common, not bers with their approaches, still these bear so small a propor-
indeed in their architectural features, but in the aesthetic tion to the entire mass, that they amount to no more than
principles followed out in their construction and decoration. small voids or cavities. The colossal entrance between the
The temples of the Egyptians were but the embodiment of pyramids is crowned with a cornice, and finished at the angles
their religion; their massive proportions typified thegreatness, with a torus-moulding similar to the propytea, and was
as the continuityof the outline and repetition of parts illustrated probably furnished with folding doors, as the notches for
the eternity and immutability of their deity. Their objects hinges are still visible. This door-way gave admission into
of worship inspired feelings of profound awe, so likewise a peristyle court having twelve columns on either side, and
did their temples. Nor were their decorations merely the four on either side of the entrance at a little distance from
result of caprice, but of studied design every detail was sub-
;
the propylcea. The pillars at the sides are placed at some
servient to some great end, and suggested by some urgent distance from a wall, which commences at the moles and sur-
reason ; they all have a symbolical meaning, illustrative of rounds the entire temple, and the space between this wall and
the Divine attributes, and consist, in short, of a series of the columns is roofed over, so as to form :, covered-way or
religious dogmas and precepts, embodied as it were in forms. piazza, which leads on either side to the doors of the stair-
They were, as is said of the pictorial and carved enrichment cases in the propylsea, and is continued in a similar manner m
of Gothic edifices, the books of the unlearned, each object front of them, on the entrance-side of the area. The colon-
speaking more intelligibly and more impressively to the eye nade throughout is picnostyle, which seems to have been the
45
 EGY 354 EGY
usual disposition, the intercolumn being seldom greater than is called the dromos; through the whole length of "which,
a diameter and a half, except in the centre of a portico, and on each side of it, sphinxes are regularly placed at the
where a doorway intervened, which practice is identical with distance of 30 feet from each .ther, which forms a double
that of the Greeks, as evinced in the Doric order. The row on each side. Between the sphinxes you advance
of the colonnade from the base of the columns to the towards the temple, until you come to a large propylonim or
height
top of the projecting cornice, with which they
were sur- triumphal entrance, through which you pass; and as you
mounted, is about 38 feet. This court is not level, but has a advance, you come to another propylaeum, which you pass
considerable ascent towards the farthest side, which is effected through then to a third and still keep passing on until
; ;

by a series of low and very wide steps, extending the whole you come to the entrance into the temple."
width of the quadrangle, and commencing at its entrance. The above description, although of a particular example,
The width of each step is that of a column and inter- will answer with but little alteration for any other temple,
column, and the total rise is 56 feet. This alteration of level all such buildings being built on a similar plan, with but slight
seems to have been introduced for the purpose of giving variations in particular instances. They all consist of a
elevation to the grand portico which forms the farther side of selcos, or sanctuary, of small dimensions, situate near one
the court, and consists of eighteen columns, in three rows of extremity of the building, surrounded on all sides with
six each, placed one behind the other, and flanked on either chambers, passages, and courts, and approached through a
side by a wall so as to resemble a Greek hexastyle in series of covered halls and colonnaded atria, the whole of the

amis, with the exception, that here there are three parallel buildings being inclosed within an outer wall, and having
rows one behind the other, while in Grecian temples a grand entrance flanked by two pyramidal moles. No
there arc never more than two. The portico, however, bears a matter to what date a building may belong, or what position
greater resemblance to the propyltea of the Greeks, than to itmay occupy, the general form is the same, the only differ-
their temples, both being open in front, and enclosed on their ence being in the size, and in the number of adjoining courts
other sides, having several rows of columns one behind the and buildings. In some cases, we have two or more pro-
other. The columns in this portico, or pronaos, are loftier pylaea,and courts preceding the temple, and sometimes
thiin those in the court below, and are surmounted like them avenues of columns crossing the courts in a line from the
with a projecting cornice. The spaces between the front entrance. The temple at Luxor has as many as three courts,
row of columns are filled up to about half their height with the first with a double peristyle, the second with a double
a screen or dado, which gives the upper part of the inter- range of columns extending throughout its length, and the
column the appearance of a window. The middle intercolumn third flanked by colonnades, each consisting of a double row
is treated in a somewhat different manner, the wall or screen of columns. To give some idea of the magnitude of this
being carried up somewhat higher, and advanced a little in work, we may add, that in the second court, the columns
front of the general line ; the sides likewise being flanked were 56 feet high, and 11^ feet in diameter.
with short columns, and the entrance to the pronaos being We now pass on to consider the elevation of such buildings
cut through the screen. In the wall at the further end of more in detail. The contour of the elevation was pyramidal
this first hall, is an entrance into a second of smaller dimen- throughout ; not only did the obelisks and propyloua present
sions, a space being taken off each side for passages. This this appearance, but even the walls, spreading out at the
hall is hypostyle, covered with a flat roof composed of thick base, and converging towards the apex, and as these formed
slabs of stone, resting on large stone beams, "which are the external face of the building, they gave the whole a
supported again by twelve columns disposed in three rows pyramidal appearance, which doubtless adds considerably
of four each, closely set, so as to leave only narrow passages to the expression of strength, which is a marked characteristic
between them. 1'Vom this hall we come into a chamber, of the style. The columns are the only parts of the building
having its greatest length in the width of the building, as in which this form is not observable, their profile being for
also has the portico, and having entrances to the passages the most part vertical. This is just the reverse of Grecian
at the side of this chamber, and the hypostyle hall, from architecture ;
for there the walls are vertical, and the columns
which access is obtained by means of steps to the top of the sloping or conical, the general effect, however, is the same
sekos. Beyond this is another similar chamber of smaller pyramidal ; for whereas in the Grecian buildings, the sloping
dimensions, having a cell on either side, supposed to have columns are placed on the exterior, in those of Egypt the
been for the priests. Entrance is obtained from this chamber walls are external, surrounding the upright columns, so that
into thesanctuary, which is a small covered chamber the profile of the building, taken as a whole, is the same,
having its greatest length parallel with that of the main although the arrangement is reversed.
building; its size is about 33 feet by 17, and in it was An Egyptian order if we may so apply the term con-
placed the image of the deity. Round the two sides and sists, like the Greek, of column and entablature, which parts
further end of the sanctuary, is a
passage, to which access we proceed to consider separately. Existing remains offer
isobtained from the second chamber, and round this again us examples of columns in great variety, differing in shape,
a larger area of similar shape, into which the smaller one led,
proportions, and decoration, a few specimens only of which
and which gave access to the top of the sanctuary. In most we can pretend to notice. The diversity observable in them
instances, in front of the whole building, and a short distance is so
great, that it would be futile to attempt a detailed
in advance of the
propylsea, were erected two obelisks of classification ; for examples which
present similarities of form
great height, and covered with hieroglyphics, and in front or decoration, differ in proportions, while those agreeing in
of them a long avenue, or dromos, as it is the latter vary in many other particulars. As in other styles,
called, formed by
two rows of sphinxes, placed at short intervals from each the column consists of three members, base, shaft, and
other, the space between the two rows forming a way or road capital :the first, however, can scarcely be termed a distinct
to the temple. Strabo, the historian, who saw this temple some
cases scarcely recognizable, and in
in
member, being
we have been describing, alludes to this avenue "
Before none forming a very prominent feature. It is usually a plain
the pillars or propylsea," says he, " is a paved road or avenue circular slab of stone or plinth, sometimes projecting from
about 100 feet in breadth, or sometimes and at others flush with the face of the shaft, or of the same
less, and in length
from the entrance from 300 to 400 feet, or even more. This
projection as the widest or bulging portion of the shaft, and
 PLAN AND INTERIOR COURT OF EGYPTIAN TEMPLE AT KHFO1L

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COURT OF THE TEMPLE

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GENERAL PLAN.

.
Brown Arch*
r
 EGYPTIAN FACADES OF PORTICOS.

AN KGYIT1AN TF.M1M.K ANE ALTAB OS7HIS

FACADE OF AN EGYPTIAN TEMPLE OV ISIS

B. Brown Arch*
 KG Y PT A 1 :Y I :\* ]- K R 1 OR O K A T K .M P LK AT 1 1? 5 .\ .M Hi .\ I .

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 EG Y 355 EGY
projecting forwards somewhat at their junction, where the it proceeds upwards, it recedes back, gradually diminishing in
shaft curves inwards. thickness, until at its junction with the abacus its diameter
The shafts present many variations, both in contour and equals that of the shaft ; the contour is similar to that which
decoration ;
their most usual form is that of a cylinder, or would be produced by a slightly yielding body pressed down
more nearly approaching the cylindrical than any other figure, by a superincumbent weight. Sometimes this capital exhibits
there being frequently a slight difference between the upper a plain surface, only relieved by hieroglyphics arranged in
and lower diameters. Sometimes the shaft contracted horizontal rings, as at Kournon ; at others, it is divided into
suddenly immediately above the base, the contour of this eight or more compartments, or shafts, running vertically
portion being curvilinear, and forming a tangent with the from top to bottom, and covered with hieroglyphics, or reeded,
upper surface of the base, resembling in shape the calyx of in which latter case another subdivision of shafts frequently
a flower, the similarity to which is made the more remarkable takes place about half way up the capital, or the shafts are
by the leaves carved upon its surface. This last form can interrupted by one or more horizontal bands, either plain or
scarcely be recommended for its beauty ; for in spite of the covered with hieroglyphics, as at Latopolis. The simplest
assertions of its admirers, it certainly does present an appear- capital of this kind is where the reeds of the shaft are car-
ance of weakness. It is said that in such cases the judgment ried up without any interruption, with the exception of a
comes to the assistance of the senses, and corrects the eye, band at the top of the shaft, underneath the bulge of the
and that what is well known to be strong, cannot fairly be capital.
said to appear weak, and this is doubtless true to a certain Another form of capital, which was frequently adopted,
extent ; nevertheless, speaking abstractedly and artistically, isthe bell-shaped, resembling, in contour, an inverted bell,
this form is decidedly objectionable. In some instances, and covered with leaves, flowers, &c., or they may be said to
the columns slope downwards in a slight degree, similar to resemble the bell and petals of a flower, the upper rim turn-
those of Greece. The cylindrical shafts are usually reeded, ing over, and bending downwards. This rim was sometimes
giving the surface the appearance of a number of staves or perfectly circular, but at others divided into a number of
reeds placed round a common centre, or of a bundle of reeds, convex curves, forming so many distinct petals. The lotus,
whence this kind of column has obtained the name of the papyrus, and palm seem to have been the favourite plants for
bundle pillar. This resemblance is borne out by the fact, that introduction into this kind of capital, and so beautifully were
such shafts are usually cinctured at intervals by bands con- they carved, as frequently to exhibit the most delicate and
sisting of three or more rings, which gives one the idea of a minute parts, such as the petals, pistyles, reeds, &c. Exam-
bundle of reeds bound round with reeds or rushes to preserve ples are to be found in almost every building among others
;

them in their position. These bands are sometimes of we may mention those of Hermontis, Latopolis. and Apolli-
greater width, and have a plain surface, or one of the inter- nopolis Magna, where there are some exquisite specimens;
vals between two bands is left blank, which again is often indeed, all the capitals of this form are exceedingly delicate'
filledup with hieroglyphics or other ornaments. Specimens and beautiful, of elegant form, and chaste enrichment. An
of reeded shafts of the different descriptions mentioned, are example of somewhat similar character is given selected from
to be found at Beni-has^an, Ilermontis, and Latopolis, and the temple of Esneh, but in this case the contour is different,
indeed in almost every locality they are more prevalent
; being convex instead of concave; the treatment, however, is
than any other form. At other times, the reeds entirely similar, and the design good. Another capital is frequently
disappear, the plain shaft being divided vertically into a introduced in the greater temples, which may be termed a
number of compartments as before, by means of annulets or double capital, the lowermost of which consists of four
bands of reeds, and these compartments filled in with hiero- Isis' faces, disposed so as to form a square larger than the

glyphics many elaborate examples of this kind are to be

; shaft, the folds of the head-dress on each side hanging down,
seen at Deiidcra. and projecting beyond it at the corners. Above each face is
Although cylindrical shafts are by far the most general, a projecting abacus, with a concave face, and standing upon
yet we occasionally meet with examples of a polygonal form, these, a square temple, which forms the second capital.
and sometimes with plain rectangular piers: a remarkable Instances are likewise to be found of triple capitals, which
instance of the former exists at a temple at Eilethyas, on the consist of the last-mentioned double form placed above one
right bank of the Nile, a few miles south of Esneh, where, of the bell-shaped kind. Another instance of a double
of Typhon, which
in the interior of a large vestibule, the whole of the roof, as capital is given, taken from the temple
Mr. Barry informs us, is supported on polygonal columns of consists of a rectangular block placed upon a bell-shaped
sides of which sits an imago
sixteen sides. Examples of the rectangular piers are described capital, against each of the four
by the same writer as exist.ing at Beni-hassan. of the god. Heads of animals are sometimes carved in the
those of the bull, which
Instances of the employment of Caryatid figures in the place of capitals, amongst which are
place of columns are not unfrequent, they are placed in front form is worthy of notice as approximating to the capitals
of square piers, and do not bear the whole weight of the found at Persepolis. Rarely we find columns without capitals,
superincumbent mass, whic his mainly supported by the piers. or with a simple rectangular block, which is little better than
Examples of this kind are to be found at Hamesseion, Thebes, an abacus. The Egvptian abacus varies from the Grecian
and Ibsambal, on the banks of the Nile, between Egypt and in being nothing more than a plain square plinth, of consi-

Ethiopia. The pronaos of the last-named temple, according derably smaller dimensions than the capital, and therefore
receding from, not projecting over, as
in classical architecture
to Belzoni, is 57 feet
long and 52 wide, supported by two rows ;

of square pillars, each having a figure of Sesostris attached to indeed it scarcely forms a member of the capital at all, for, on
it about 30 feet high, finely executed, and in good preservation. account of its great depth behind the capital, it is scarce \ I

The pillars are five and a half feet square, and the sides are visible, unless it be of extraordinary height ; its purpo>e
covered with hieroglyphics. seems to be, to form a marked division between the column
Of capitals, Egpytian architecture affords a vast variety, and entablature, and obviate that heaviness of appearance
widely differing in form and character. One prevailing form which would otherwise be occasioned. The bulging capitals
is the bulging or bulbous capital, which projects from the form an exception to this rule, for in them the abacus projects,
shaft in a flat curve, bu, instead of continuing to expand as and overhangs the capital, the object of which is apparent
 EGY 356 EGY
from the peculiar shape of the capital in this case it is
;
The next change seems to have been the introduction of
usually ornamented with hieroglyphics or otherwise. horizontal bands, which became requisite, as the reeds
We have here referred to some few of the specimens of increased in number, to hold them firmly together; in some
capitals which remain, and but a few, for there is a great cases we find several bands, of one, two, or more reeds. The
variety, several of which may frequently be found in the next step was to leave one or more of the spaces between the
same building and even in the same hall, or other part of a
: bands plain, and the next to cover it with hieroglyphics, till
building, may be seen capitals of different design though of at last we find all the divisions of this description, at the Ten-
the same general appearance, which circumstance is similar tyris. The progress of the capital would seem to have been
to that observable in Gothic buildings. The proportions vary of a like nature at first we find them composed of the same
;

in like manner they seem to have hud no settled rule as to

;
materials as the shaft, with only a band to mark the sepa-
design or proportion, which were purely matters of individual ration, and a flat square abacus at the top. The capital is,
taste. The arrangement was generally picnostyle, especially however, of a somewhat different contour, bulging out to-
in the covered halls, where they had to support largo masses wards the lower end or ligature. In the second example we
of stone, which were used for roofing. have adduced, the same form is preserved, but the capital and
The design for the entablature, on the contrary, seems to abacus, as well as the shaft, are covered with hieroglyphics.
have been unalterable, for with the exception of some little The next alteration would be similar to what took place in
diversity in the ornamentation, they are universally of the the case of the shaft the capitals were divided horizontally
:

same form and character, and this is the case, however much into bands, as at Latopolis, and these again ornamented with
buildings may differ as regards their columns. It comprises hieroglyphics as at Kournou.
two parts only, the epistyiium and the cornice, the former of The bell-and-vase-shaped capitals are of an entirely differ
which was flush with the walls underneath at each end of ent description, and cannot be said to have been a develop-
the colonnade, answering to the Greek antrc, with which ment of the above they must have arisen from an entirely
;

likewise they are enclosed within a bold torus-moulding, and new adaptation of natural forms ; while the above consists of
present a similar appearance to the architrave of a door mere reeds, the new form was an imitation of foliage and
being returned at the sides. The torus-moulding is a flowers belonging to that climate the palm, the lotus,
marked feature in
Egyptian buildings, running up every and the papyrus. The outline as well as the decoration of
angle of the building, and then returning on both sides under- this kind of capital, deserves the highest praise fur its taste,
neath the cornice. The architrave is frequently plain, some- combining as it does the admirable properties of severity and
times covered with hieroglyphics, but most frequently has a grace, and will bear comparison with the best examples of
winged globe over the entrance in the centre, which is sup- classic design, not excepting the Corinthian, to which it boars
posed to have been symbolical of the deity. a very remarkable resemblance, so much so as to give us
The cornice is a very prominent feature in this style, and reason to believe that the Romans were indebted to Egypt
isintroduced as a crowning or finish in every situation, with for the origin of their most admired order. Some specimens
or without the architrave: it is seen at the entrance of the bear a slight resemblance to the Ionic we may allude to that
;

temple, over the doorway and propykea ; within, over the at Latopolis, but this is not so obvious, although we certainly
colonnade and portico ; and on the exterior, crowning the have the upper part of the Ionic capital with its volutes
whole length of wall. It consists of but little more than a repeated as a minor decoration.
deep cove, but produces a great and beneficial effect by the The square capitals, again, with a representation of the
bold shadow which it casts. The surface is divided into head of Isis or other deity on its four sides, form a third
panels by an ornament similar to the Doric triglyph. or a class, which seems to have had its origin in symbolism, or
band of three or more reeds placed side by side, with gene- at any rate in the mysteries of religion a supposition which
;

rally a narrow interval between each two ; when, however, is in some measure confirmed
by the usual accompaniment
the band is composed of a greater number of reeds, they are of a temple.
placed close together. The metopes or panels are filled up There are some columns to be seen in Egypt of a very
with some kind of ornamentation. This formed the termina- different description to any we have noticed, and to which
tion of the building, for the roof being flat, there was no such Mr. Barry has called attention in a note appended to
thing as the pediment, the finishing line was horizontal. Mr. Gwilt's edition of Chambers; they bear a marked
Let us return for a few moments to the column, the sim- resemblance to the Grecian Doric, and are considered of
plest form of which appears in an example at Beni-hassam, as earlier diite than any existing specimen of that order. One
figured by Mr. Barry, and in reference to which he says: illustration represents a portico of two fluted columns in antis,
"
The prototype would appear to have consisted of four the flutes of which are shallow, and twenty in number, and the
large reeds of the Nile, placed upon an angular block, and capital consists of an abacus only ; the height of the column is
tied together by cords near the top, forming thereby the about 5|- diameters. Another striking exam pie is found at Ka-
capital. Small sticks are introduced between the reeds at the laptchie, on the borders of the Nile, in which, says Mr. Barry,
" The abacus is
place of ligature, to render the figure of a more circular form, square, and 1 1 inches thick ; the shaft, which
and afford the means of more firmly tying the whole has a trifling diminution, is 7 feet 8 inches high, and 3 feet
together. The top is crowned by a square abacus, and the 2 inches diameter. The circumference is in 24 divisions,
reeds being thereby confined, the effect of any incumbent whereof 4, which are at right angles to each other, are flat
weight upon them would be to produce the form." faces covered with hieroglyphics, and the other intervening
Acolumn similar to the above, but in a more forward state ones are sunk into flat elliptical flutes |-inch deep."
of development, is to be seen at the British Museum; it Another example is to be seen at Amada in Nubia, but
consists of double the number of reeds, placed here we have two different kinds adjoining each other, which
together in the
same manner, with similar base and abacus. But besides the throw some light upon the origin and purport of such
difference as to number, there is in this
example another columns. In this case the columns are but square piers
variation in the method of joining shaft and base, the reeds with a slight projection at top and bottom, for abacus and
in this case being turned under so as to meet the base in a
base, not very different from those already described, as
curve, a form frequently adapted in more elaborate specimens. placed behind the Caryatid figures at Ipsambal ;
the pier at
EXAMPLES OF EGYPTIAN CAPITALS OF OQJ/L';

:uu TEMPLE OF ESNF.

ERCltTFMPIE Of HF.KH.ONTI
 EGY 357 EGY
the angle, however, presents asomewhat diflcrent appearance, a kind of tabernacle. On
beholding the vast extent of these
for while the abacus and base remain as before, the shaft is^ ruins, the imagination is wearied with the idea of describing
both circular and fluted, the rounding of the angles seeming them. Of the 100 columns of the portico alone of this
to have been effected as a matter of convenience, and the temple, the smallest are 7-J feet in diameter, and the largest
fluting as of ornament. We
have already alluded to the not 12. The space occupied by its circumvallation contains
unfrequent occurrence of polygonal shafts, and we cannot lakes and mountains. In short, to be enabled to form a
help thinking that these, as well as the fluted examples just competent idea of so much magnificence, it is necessary that
now described, find a common origin in the square pier of the reader should fancy what is before him to be a dream,
which they are all improvements. We
are inclined to coin- as he who views the objects themselves rubs his eyes to
"
cide with Mr. Barry in the following remarks The: know whether he is awake. With respect to the present
general resemblance of the fluted columns to those of the state of this edifice, it is, however, necessary, at the same
Grecian Doric order, is manifest, and, in addition to many time, to observe, that a great part of the effect is lost by its
other remarkable indications in the Egyptian temple, clearly very degraded state. The sphinxes have been wantonly
points to Egypt as the source of both Greek and Roman mutilated, with a few exceptions, which barbarism, wearied
architecture." See DORIC OKDER, COLUMN. with destroying, has spared, and, on examining which, it is
Having now laid before the reader a general description easy to distinguish, that some of them had a woman's head,
of the elementary parts and details of Egyptian architecture, others that of a lion, a ram, a bull, &c."
as well as of the usual form and distribution of their temples, For the following more particular description of this
it is our intention to
give some more particular account of temple, we are indebted to Sir I. G. Wilkinson.
the more noted erections, and, in following out this scheme,
'
The principal entrance of the grand temple lies on the
we cannot do better than give the accounts of the various north-west skle, or that facing the river. From a raised
authorities in their own words. platform commences the avenue of Criosphinxes, leading to
The principal remains are to be found in Upper Egypt, in the front propyla, before which stood two granite statues of
the cities lying on both sides of the Nile, but the spot in a Pharaoh. One of these towers retains a great part of its
which they are most numerous and imposing, is in the neigh- original height, but has lost its summit and cornice. In the
bourhood of Thebes. The following is a list of the larger upper part, their solid walls have been perforated through
temples : their whole breadth, for the purpose of fastening the timbers
Temple of Jupiter, at Karnac ; of Jupiter Ammon ; of that secured the flag-staffs usually placed in front of these
Apollo, at Apollinopolis Magna of O>iris, at Tentyra; of
; propyla; but no sculptures have ever been added to cither
Venus; of Thebais, at Knubis. Temples at Luxor, Den- face, nor was the surface yet levelled to receive them.
dera, Edfou, Esneh, or Latopolis, IIermopolis,Ombos,Syene, Passing through the pylon of these towers, you arrived at a
Qiieron, Ipsambul ; Caryatic temple, at Rhamesseion, and large open court, 275 feet by 329, with a covered corridor
various temples in the islands of Phike and Elephantina. on either side, and a double line of columns down the centre.
In addition to which, we have the tombs and pyramids, the Other propyla terminate this area with a small vestibule
labyrinth, and various monuments, obelisks, and other isolated before the pylon, and form the front of the grand hall, 170
works. feet by 329, supported by a central avenue of 12 massive
We have already stated, that the grandest monuments are columns, 06 feet high (without the pedestal and abacus),
to be found at Thebes, and, of such, those of Karnac and and 12 rn diameter; besides 122 of smaller, or rather less
Luxor take the pre-eminence ; they form two separate erec- gigantic dimensions, 41 feet 9 inches in height, and 27 feet
tions, but are connected together by a long avenue of 6 inches in circumference, distributed in seven lines on either
sphinxes, as hereafter mentioned. We
select these two as side of the former. Other propyla close the inner extremity
subjects for the first
description, the authorities being Denon of this hall, beyond which are two obelisks, one still standing
and Wilkinson. on its original site, the other having been thrown down and
For a general description of the temple at Karnac, we broken by human violence. A
small propylon succeeds to
shall refer to the French traveller, M. Denon, who, writing this court, of which it forms the inner side the next con-
;

at the latter end of the last century (1798-9), savs : tains two obelisks of larger dimensions, being 92 feet high
"
It is the sumptuousncss alone of the
Egyptians which is and 8 square, surrounded by a peristyle, if I may be allowed
to be seen at Karnac, where not only quarries, but moun- the expression, of Osiride figures. Passing between two
tains, are piled together, and hewn out into massive propor- dilapidated propyla, you enter another smaller area, orna-
tions, the traits of which are as feebly executed, as the parts mented in a similar manner, and succeeded by a vestibule,
are clumsily connected and these masses are loaded with
; in front of the granite gateway of the pyramidal towers,
uncouth bas-reliefs and tasteless hieroglyphics, by which the which form the fi^ade of the court of the sanctuary. This
art of sculpture is disgraced. The only objects there which last is also of red granite, divided into two apartments, and
are sublime, both with regard to their dimensions and the surrounded by numerous chambers of small dimensions,
skill which their workmanship displays, are the obelisks, and
varying from 29 feet by 16, to 16 feet by 8. A few poly-
a few of the ornaments of the outer gates, the style of which gonal columns, of the early date of Osirtesen I., the contem-
is
admirably chaste. If in the other parts of this edifice the porary of Joseph, appear behind these in the midst of fallen
Egyptians appear to us to be giants, in these latter produc- architraves of the same era, and two pedestals of red granite
tions they are geniuses. I am
accordingly persuaded that crossing the line of direction in the centre of the open space
these sublime embellishments were posteriorly added to the to the south-east, are the only objects worthy of notice, until
colossal monuments of Karnac. It must, however, be granted, you reach the column or edifice of the third Thothmes. The
that the plan of the temple is noble and grand. To
. . exterior wall of this building is entirely destroyed, except
the known descriptions of this great edifice of Karnac should on the north-east side ; to it succeeds a circuit of thirty-two
be added, that it was but a temple, and could be nothing pillars, and within this squarp are twenty columns, disposed in
else. All that exists at present, in a somewhat entire state, two lines, parallel and to the back and
to the outer walls,
relates to a very small sanctuary, and had been disposed in front row of pillars. Independent of the irregular position of
this way to inspire a due
degree of veneration, and to become the latter with regard to the columns of the centre, an unusual
 EGY 358 EGY
caprice has changed the established order of the architectural eastward, in order to facilitate its connection with the great
details, and capitals and cornices are reversed, without adding .temple of Karnak, rather than to avoid the vicinity of the
to the beauty or
increasing the strength of the building. A river, as might at first be supposed.
and chambers terminates the extremity
series of smaller halls "
Passing through the pylon of Amunoph you arrive at
of the temple, one of which is remarkable as containing the the great colonnade, where the names of this Pharaoh and
names of the early predecessors of Thothmes III., their his brother are
sculptured. The latter, however, has been
founder. In the western lateral adytum are the vestiges of effaced, probably by order of the surviving monarch, as is
a colossal hawk seated on a raised pedestal ; the sculptures generally the case wherever it is met with, and those of the
within and without containing the name of Alexander, by immediate successor of Amunoph III. and of Osirci are
whose order this was repaired and sculptured. introduced in its stead.
"
The total dimensions of this part of the temple behind "The length of the colonnade to the next court is about
the inner propyla of the grand hall, are 600 feet, by about 170 feet, but its original breadth is still uncertain, nor can
half that in breadth, making the total length, from the front it be ascertained without considerable excavation. To this
propyla to the extremity of the wall of circuit, inclusive, succeeds an area of 155 feet
by 167 surrounded by a peristyle
1,180 feet. The additions made at different .periods, by of 12 columns in length and the same in breadth, terminat-
which the distant portions of this extensive mass of build- ing in a covered portico of 32 columns 57 feet by 111.
ings were united, will be more readily understood from an "Behind this is a space occupying the whole breadth of
examination of the survey itself than from any description, the building, divided into chambers of different
dimensions,
however detailed, I could offer to the reader; and from this the centre one
leading to a hall supported by 4 columns, im-
will appear that Diodorous is
it
fully justified in the follow- mediately before the entrance to the isolated sanctuary.
' " On
ing statement that the circuit of the most ancient of the
: the east of this hall is a chamber containing some
four temples at Thebes measured thirteen
stadia,' or about curious sculpture, representing the accouchement of
queen
one mile and two-thirds English; the thickness of the walls, Maut-m-shoi, the mother of Amunoph and his brother the ;
'
of 25 feet,' owing to the great variety in their dimensions, two children nursed by the deity of the Nile, and presented
is too
vague to be noticed but the altitude of the building,
;
to Amun, the presiding
divinity of Thebes; and several other
to which he allows only 45 cubits, falls far short of the real subjects relating to their education and subsequent history.
height of the grand hall, which, from the pavement to the
'
The sanctuary, which had been destroyed by the Persians,
summit of the roof, inclusive, is not less than SO feet." was rebuilt by Alexander (the son of Alexander, Ptolemy
The next description of Luxor is from the same writer :
being governor of Egypt,) and bears his name in the follow-
"
Luqsor, which occupies part of the site of ancient ing dedicatory formula:
" This
additional work made he, the king of men, lord of
'

Diospolis, still holds the rank of a market-town, the residence

of a Kashef, and head-quarters of a
troop of Turkish cavalry. the regions, Alexander, for his father Amunre,
president of
Its name
signifies the Palaces, and some might perhaps feel Tape (Thebes ;) he erected to him the sanctuary, a grand
inclined to trace in that of El
Qasryn, or El Uqsorayn, (the mansion, with repairs of sand-stone, hewn, good, and hard
dual of the word Qasr,) by which it is sometimes
designated, stone, instead of his majesty, the king of 'men, Amu-
the existence of the two distinct parts of this building, noph.' Behind the sanctuary are two other sets of apart-
erected by Amunoph III. and Remeses
II. The former ments, the larger ones supported by columns, and ornamented
monarch, who, at the time of its foundation, appears to with rich sculpture, much of which appears to have been
have reigned conjointly with his brother, built the original gilded.
"
sanctuary and circumjacent chambers, with the addition of Behind the temple is a stone quay, of the late era of the
the large colonnade and pylon before it, to which Kemeses II. Ptolemies or Coesars, since blocks bearing the sculpture of
afterwards added the great court, the pyramidal towers, or the former have been used in its construction.
Opposite the
propyla, and the obelisks and statues. corner of the temple, it takes a more easterly direction, and
"
These, though last in the order of antiquity, necessarily points out the original course of the river, which continued
form the present commencement of the temple, which, like across the plain now lying between it and the ruins of Kar-
many others belonging to different epochs, is not two sepa- nak, and which may be traced by the descent of the surface
'

rate edifices,' but one and the same building. A di'omos, of that ground it gradually deserted. The southern ex-
connecting it with Karnak, extended in front of the two tremity of this quay is of brick, and indicates in like manner
beautiful obelisks of red granite, whose four sides are covered the former direction of the stream, which now, having formed
with a profusion of hieroglyphics, no less admirable for the a recess behind it, threatens to sweep away the whole of its !

style of their execution, than for the depth to which they are solid masonry, and to undermine the foundations of the

engraved, which in many instances exceeds two inches. temple itself.

"Two sitting statues of the same Remeses are placed The road to Karnak lies through fields of halfeh indicating
behind these, one on either side of the pylon; but, like the the site of ancient ruins, and here and there, on approaching
obelisks, are much buried in the earth and sand accumulated that magnificent building, the direction of the avenue, and
around them. Near the north-west extremity of the propyla, the fragments of its sphinxes, are traced in the bed of a small
another similar colossus rears its head amidst the houses of canal, or watercourse, which the Nile, during the inundation,
the village, which also conceal a great portion of the inter- appropriates to its rising stream. To this succeeds another
esting battle-scenes on the front of these towers. At the dromos of Criosphinxes, and a majestic pylon of Ptolemy
doorway itself is the name of Sabaco, and on the abacus of Euergetes, with his queen and sister Berenice, who in one
the columns beyond, that of Ptolemy Philopater, both added instance present an offering to their predecessors and parents,
at a later epoch. Philadelphus and Arsinoe. In one of the compartments
" The
area, whose dimensions are about 190 feet by 170, is within the doorway, the king is represented in a Greek
surrounded by a peristyle, consisting of two rows of columns, costume, of which there are some other instances in
now almost concealed by the hovels and mosk of the village. Ptolemaic ruins. Another avenue of sphinxes extends to
The line of direction no longer continues the same behind the propyla of the isolated temple behind this gateway, which
this court, the Remessean front having been turned to the was founded by Remeses IV., and continued by Remeses VIII.,
 EGY 359 EGY
and a late Pharaoh, who added the hypaHhral area and the chambers on the right-hand side of the temple, and behind
propyla. His name, and the exact era at which he flourished, the pronaos, has been removed to France, and from its
are not precisely ascertained ; but if, as is very probable, we position it probably dated a few years before the Zodiac.
are authorized to read Bocchoris, this paM will date in the Numerous are the names of Cresars in this temple. In
time of the twenty -fourth dynasty, or about 810 B.C. Other the portico may be distinguished those of Tiberius, Caligula,
names appear in different parts of the building, among which Claudius, and Nero, and on the former front of the temple,
are those of Amyrteua and Alexander on the inner and outer now the back of the pronaos, are those of Augustus and
gateways of the area." Caligula. This was in fact the original extent of the build-
Having made this digression in favour of Karnac and ing, and it was previous to the addition of the portico that it

Luxor, we will now continue our descriptions, taking our was seen by Strabo.
examples in geographical order, commencing at the northern "The oldest names are of Ptolemy Csesarion, or Neo-
extremity of Upper Egypt, and travelling southwards. The ca^sar, and Cleopatra, who are represented on the back
first remains of which we have wall of the exterior; and it is probable that the whole mtos
any notice are those of
Hermopolis Mugnu, but they are little better than mounds was the work of the Ptolemies, though the sculptures remained
of ruins, the portico described by Denon having been unfinished till the
reign ofTiberius, who, having erected the
demolished. This portico was of great merit, and consisted portico, added many of the hieroglyphics on the exterior
of twelve columns in two rows of six each, surmounted with walls.
cornice and entablature. The next place we arrive at is "Theportico is supported by twenty-four columns, and
Dendera, the ancient Tentyris, which contains ruins of is
open at the front, above the screens that unite its six
several temples. The following account is given by columns; and in each of the side-walls is a s'fnall doorway.
Wilkinson. 'To this succeeds a hall of six columns, with three rooms on
"
The name of Tentyris, or Tenty ra, (in Coptic Tentore, or either side then a central chamber, communicating on one
;

Nikentore,) seems to have originated in that of the goddess side with two small rooms, and on the other \\ ith a staircase.
Athor or Aphrodite, who was particularly worshipped there ,
This is followed by another similar chamber (wi;h two rooms
and that the principal temple was dedicated to that goddess, we on the west, and one on the past side) immediately before the
learn from the hieroglyphics, as well as from a Greek isolated sanctuary, which has a passage leading round it, and
inscription
of the time ofTiberius, in whose reign its magnificent portico communicating with three rooms on cither side. The total
was added to the original building. Egyptian sculpture had length of this temple is 93 paces (or about 220 feet,) by 41,
long been on the decline before the erection of this temple ; or, across the portico, 50.
and the Egyptian antiquary looks with little satisfaction on "In front of the temple was the dromos, extending for the
the graceless style of the figures, and the crowded
profu- distance of 110 paces to an isolated pylon, bearing the names
sion of ill-adjusted hieroglyphics, that cover the walls of of Domitian and Trajan. The attributes of Athor through-
Ptolemaic and Roman monuments but architecture still
;
out this building very much resemble those of Isis and she ;

retained the grandeur of an earlier period; and

though the is in like manner represented nursing the young child Ilarpo-
capitate of the columns were frequently overcharged with crates, who is said, in the hieroglyphics, to be the 'son of
ornament, the general effect of the porticos erected under the Athor.'
Ptolemies and Caesars, is grand and imposing, and frequently " Behind the
' '

temple of Venus,' says Strabo, is the

not destitute of elegance and taste. The same remarks chapel of Isis :' and this observation agrees remarkably well
apply
to the temple of Dendera ;
and from its superior state of with the size and position of the small temple of that
preservation, it deserves a distinguished rank among the most goddess; as it consists merely of one central and two lateral
interesting monuments of Egypt. For though its columns, adyta, and a transverse chamber or corridor in front, and
considered singly, may be said to have a heavy, and perhaps stands immediately behind the south-west ansrle of that of
a grotesque, appearance, the portico is doubtless a noble Athor. To it belonged the pylon that lies 170 paces to the
specimen of architecture ; nor is the succeeding hall devoid eastward, and which, as we learn from a Greek inscription on
of beauty and symmetry of proportion. On the ceiling of the either face of its cornice, was dedicated to Isis, in the thirty-
pronuos, or portico, is the Zodiac, which has led to much first year of Ctesar (Augustus) Publius Octavius being
;

learned controversy, and which has at length, through the military governor or prefect, and Marcus Claudius Posthumus,
assistance of the Greek inscription, and the hieroglvphical commander of the forces. In the hieroglyphics, besides the
names of the Caesars that cover its exterior and interior walls, name of Augustus, are those of Claudius and Nero.
been confined to the more modest and probable antiquity of "
Ninety paces to the north of the great temple of Athor
eighteen hundred years. is another
building, consisting of two outer passage-chambers,
" The details of with two small rooms on either side of the outermost one,
the cornice offer a very satisfactory
specimen of the use of triglyphic ornament, which is common and a central and two lateral adyta, the whole surrounded,
in many of the oldest Pharaohnic temples,
though arranged in except the front, by a peristyle of twenty-two columns. The
a somewhat different manner, and without so remarkable a capitals, ornamented or disfigured by the representation of a
metope as in the present instance. Typhonian monster, have led to the supposition that this temple
" On
the frieze, or rather architrave, is a procession to was dedicated to the evil genius ; but as the whole of its
Athor, and among the figures that compose it are two playing sculptures refer to the birth of Harpocrates, it is evident
the harp, and another with the tambourine. The inscription that it appertains to the great temple of Athor, who is here
ison the projecting summit of the cornice, and commences styled his mother ; and it may be said rather to be dedicated
with the name of the emperor Tiberius. Those of Aulus to Harpocrates than to Typhon, who is only introduced in
Avillius Flaccus, the military governor or prefect, and a subordinate character, as relating to the young deity. The
Aulus Fulmius Crispus, commander of the forces, though names are of Trajan, Adrian, and Antoninus Pius.
" Around these
purposely erased, are still traced when the sun strikes buildings extends a spacious enclosure of
obliquely on the surface of the stone; but the date of the crude brick, about 240 paces sqaare, having two entrances,
emperor's reign is unfortunately lost. one at the pylon of Isis, the other at that before the great
" The small
planisphere -which was in one of the lateral temple.
 EGY 360 EGY
" About 230 paces The next building that attracts our notice is the Meinno-
in front of the pylon of Athor is an
isolated hypsethral building consisting of fourteen columns, nium, and tomb of Osmandyas, of which ancient authors have
united by Intel-columnar screens, with a doorway at either given us such wonderful accounts we give that of Diodorns
;

end ; and a short distance to the south is the appearance of an Siculus :

"
ancient reservoir. A
little to the north-east of it are other Ten from the tombs of the kings of Thebes," says
stadia
remains of masonry ; but the rest of the extensive mounds this historian, "one admires that of Osimondue. The entrance
of Tentyris present merely the ruins of crude brick houses, to it is formed by u vestibule built with various-coloured
many of which are of Arab date. It is 200 feet
stones. long and 68 in elevation. Oncoming
" thence one enters under a square peristyle, each side of which
Five hundred paces east of the pylon of Isis is another
crude brick enclosure, with an entrance of stone similar to is 400 feet Animals formed of blocks of granite 24
long.
the other pylons, bearing the name of Antoninus Pius. Over feet high, serve as columns to it, and
support the ceiling,
the face of the gateway is a singular representation of the which is composed of squares of marble of 27 feet every
sun, with its sacred emblem the hawk, supported by Jsis and way. Stars of gold, upon an azure ground, shine there the
Nephthys. This enclosure is about 155 paces by 205, and at whole length of it. Beyond this peristyle opens another
the south-east corner is a well of stagnant water. entry, followed by a vestibule
built like the former, but
" The town stood between this and the enclosure of the more loaded with sorts of sculpture.
all Before it are three
temples, and extended on cither side, as well as within the statues formed of single stones, and hewn bv Memnon
circuit of the latter ; but on the north-west side appear to Syenite. The principal one, which represents the king, is
be the vestiges of tombs: seated. It is the largest in Egypt; one, of his feet, accurately
" Between the town and the
edge of the sandy plain to the measured, exceeds seven cubits. The two others, borne on
south, a low channel, which may once, have been a canal ;
is his knees, one on the right, the other on the left, are those of
and it is not improbable; that it was to this that the Tentyrites his mother and his daughter. The whole work is less remark-
owed their insular situation mentioned by Pliny." able for its enormous size, than for the
beauty of the execu-
We next arrive at Kons, the site of the ancient Apollino- tion and the choice of the granite, which in so extensive
polis Parva, but the only distinguishable remains of the a surface has neither spot nor blemish. The colossus has this
temple there consist of a large gate proceeding therefore
; inscription: 'lam Oximondue, the King of Kings ; if any
southward, we arrive at Thebes, the temples of which we one wishes to know how great lam, and where 1 repose, let
have already described. On the opposite side of the river, him destroy some of these works' Besides this, we see another
however, we have several buildings worthy of note, of which statue of his mother, cut out of a single block of granite,
the first is that of Qorneh or Kurnu, of which Wilkinson and 30 feet high. Three queens are sculptured on the
speaks thus :
head, to show that she was daughter, wife, and mother,
" To
commence with the mins nearest the river :the first of a king.
"
object worthy of notice is the small temple and palace at old At the, end of this portico, one enters into a peristyle
Qorneh, dedicated to Amun, the Thcbaii Jupiter, by more beautiful than the former. On a stone is engraved
O.sirei, and completed by his son Kemeses II., the supposed the history of the war of Osimondue against the revolted
Sesostris of the Greeks. Its plan, though it evinces the inhabitants of Bnctria. The facade of the front wall shows
usual symmetrophobia of Egyptian monuments, presents a this prince attacking ramparts, at the foot of which runs
marked deviation from the ordinary distribution of the parts a river. He
combats advanced troops, having bv his side a
which compose it. The entrance leads through a pylone, terrible lion, which defends him with ardour. The wall on
or pylon, bearing, in addition to the name of the founder, the right presents captives in chains, their hands and private
that of Kemeses III., beyond which is a dromos of 128 feet, parts cut off, in order to stigmatize their cowardice. On
whoso mutilated sphinxes are scarcely traceable amidst the the wall to the left, different symbolical figures,
very well
mounds and ruins of Arab hovels. A
second pvlon termi- sculptured, recall the triumphs and the sacrifices of Osimondue
nates this, and commences a second dromos of nearly similar on his return from this war. In the middle of the
peristyle,
length, extending to the colonnade or corridor in front of the at the place where it is exposed, an altar was prepared, com-

temple, whose columns of one of the oldest Egyptian orders posed of a single stone of marvellous size, and of exquisite
are crowned by an abacus, which appears to unite the stalks workmanship. In short, against the bottom wall, two
of waterplants that compose the shaft and capital. colossuses, each of them of one block of marble, and 40 feet
"
Of the intercolumniationa of these ten columns, three high, are seated on their pedestals. One comes out of this
only agree in breadth, and a similar discrepancy is observed admirable peristyle by three gates ; one of them between
in the
doorways which form the three entrances to the two statues, the two others are on the sides ; they lead to an
building. The temple itself presents a central hall about edifice 200 feet long, the roof of which is supported by 8

fifty-seven feet in length, supported by six columns, having columns. It resembles a magnificent theatre; several figures
on either side three small chambers, one of which leads to in wood represent a senate employed in distributing justice.
a lateral hall, and the opposite one to a passage and open On one of the walls one observes 30 senators, and in the
court on the east side. Upon the upper end of the hall open midst of them the president of justice, having at his feet a
five other chambers, the centre one of which leads to a
large collection of books, and the figure of Truth with her eyes
room supported by four square pillars, beyond which was the shut, suspended at his neck. One passed thence into a square
sanctuary itself; but the dilapidated state of the north e,nd surrounded by palaces of different forms, where were seen
of this temple affords but little to enable us to form an accu- carved on the table all sorts of dishes which could flatter
rate restoration of the innermost chambers. The lateral hall the taste. In one of them, Osimondue, clad in a magnificent
on the west, which belonged to the palace of the king, is dress, was offering to the gods the gold and silver he drew
supported by two columns, and leads to three other rooms, yearly from the mines of Egypt. Below was written the
behind which are the vestiges of other apartments ; and on value of this revenue, which amounted to 32 millions of
the east side, besides a large hypaethral court, were several silver minas. Another palace contained the sacred library,
similar chambers extending also to the northern
extremity of at the entrance of which, one read these words Remedies
:

its precincts." for the Soul. A

third contained all the divinities of Egypt,
 EGY 361 EGY
with the king, who offered to each of them the suitable testify that princes, generals, governors, and men of every
presents; calling Osiris, and the princes his predecessors, to condition, have heard this miraculous sound."
witness that he had exercised piety towards the gods and The following account of a portion of the above, which is
justice towards men. By the side of the library, in one of given somewhat more in detail, is from Wilkinson.
the most beautiful buildings of the place, wore to be seen "Following the edge of the cultivated land, and about
twenty tables surrounded t>y their beds, on which reposed the 180 yards to the west of this building, are two mutilated
statues of Jupiter, Juno, and Oshnondue. His body is statues of Remeses II., of black granite, with a few sub-

thought to be deposited in this place. Several adjoining structions to the north of them ; and 770 yards farther to

buildings preserved the representations of all the sacred the west, lies, in the cultivated soil, a sandstone block of
animals of Egypt. From these apartments one mounted to Remeses III., presenting in high relief the figure of that
the king's tomb, on the top of which was placed a crown king, between Osiris and Pthah; 1.400 feet beyond this,
in
of gold, a cubit wide, and 305 round. Each cubit answered the same direction, is a crude brick enclosure, with large
to one day of the year, and the rising and setting (if the stars towers, which once contained within it a sandstone temple,
for that day was engraven on each of them, with such dating probably from the reign of the third Thothmes, whoso
astrological observations as the superstition of the Egyptians name is
stamped on the bricks, and who appears to have
attached to them. Jt is said that Cambyses carried oil' this been the contemporary of Mo>es.
circle when he ravaged Egypt. Such, according to historians, ''Other fragments and remains of crude brick walls
was the tomb of Osimondiie, which surpassed all others, both proclaim the existence of oJher ruins in its vicinity and ;

by its extent, and by the labour of the able artists employed about 1,000 feet farther to the south-west, is the palace
on it." and temple of Ilemcses II., erroneously called the Memno-
'

Upon this passage Savary remarks, I dare not take

;

upon niuru : a building which, for symmetry of architecture and

me towarrant all these facts, advanced by Diodorus Siculus elegance of sculpture, can vie with any other monument of
on the authority of preceding writers; for in his time the Egyptian art. No traces are visible of the dromos, that
principal part of these buildings no longer existed. I admit
probably existed before the pyramidal towers which form
even that all these wonderful decsriptions would pass for the f;i9,'ide of the first hypacthral area, a court whose breadth
pure chimeras in any other country ;
but iif this fruitful of 180 feet, exceeding the length by nearly 13 yards, is
land, which seems to have been first honoured with the reduced to a more just proportion, by the introduction of a
creative genius of the arts, they acquire a degree of proba- double avenue of columns on either side, extending from the
bility. Let us examine what remains to us of these monu- towers to the north wall. In this area, on the right of a
ments, and our eyes will compel us to believe in prodigy. flight of steps leading to the next court, was the stupendous
Their ruins are in heaps, near to Medinet Alxm, in the space Syenite statue of the king seated on a throne, in the usual
of half a league's circumference. The temple, the peristyles, attitude of these Egyptian figures, the hands resting on his
the vestibules, present to the eye nothing but piles of ruins, knees, indicative of that tranquillity which he had returned
amongst which rise up some pyramidal gates, whose solidity to enjoy in Egypt, after the fatigues of victory. But the
has preserved them from destruction but the numerous
; fury of an invader has levelled this monument of Egyptian
colossuses described by Diodorus, are still subsisting, though grandeur, whose colossal fragments lie scattered around the
mutilated. That which is nearest to these ruins, composed pedestal, and its shivered throne evinces the force used for
of yellow marble, is buried two-thirds of its height in the itsdemolition.
earth. There is another in the^ame line, of black and white it is a matter of
"If surprise how the Egyptians could
marble, the back of which is covered with hieroglyphics for transport and erect a mass of such dimensions, the means
30 feet in length. In the space betwen them, trunks of employed for its ruin are scarcely less wonderful ; nor should
columns and broken statues cover the ground, and mark the we hesitate to account for the shattered appearance of the
continuation of the vestibules. Farther on we distinguish lower part by attributing it to the explosive force of powder,
two other colossal statues, totally disfigured. A
hundred had that composition been know at the period of its
toises from them, the traveller is struck with astonishment destruction. The throne and legs are completely destroyed,
at the sight of two colossuses, which, like rocks, are seated and reduced to comparatively small fragments, while the
by the side of each other. Their pedestals are nearly equal, upper part, broken at the waist, is merely thrown back upon
and formed of blocks of granite 30 feet long, and 18 feet the ground, and lies in that position which was the conse-
wide. The smallest of these colossuses is also of a single quence of its fall; nor arc there any marks of the wedge, or
block of marble ; the other, which is the largest in Egypt, is other instrument, which should have been employed for
formed of live courses of granite, and broken in the middle ; reducing those fragments to the state in which they now
it
appears to have been the statue of Osimondue, for one sees appear. The fissures seen across the head, and in the
two figures cut in relievo, the length of his legs, and which pedestal, are the work of a later period, when some of these
are about one-third of his height. These are the mother blocks were cut for millstones by the Arabs, but its previous
and the daughter of this prince. The other colossus, which is overthrow will probably be coeval with the Persian invasion.
of one stone, and which corresponds with the dimensions of To say that this is the largest statue in Egypt, will convey
Diodorus Siculus, represented also the mother of the king. no idea of the gigantic size or enormous weight of a mass,
To give you an idea of the gigantic stature of the great which, from an approximate calculation, exceeded, when
colossus, it is enough to tell you, that his foot alone is near entire, nearly three times the solid content of the great
11 feet long, which answers obelisk of Karnak, and weighed about 887 tons, 5 hundred-
exactly to the seven cubits of
Diodorus. This statue, the half of which remains upon its weight and a half.
base, and is what Stra bo calls the statue of Memnon, uttered "No building in Thebes corresponds with the description
a sound at the rising of the sun. It
possessed formerly given of the tomb of Osymandyas by Hecataeus. Diodorus,
great renown. Several writers have spoken of it with who quotes his work, gives the dimensions of the first or
enthusiasm, regarding it as one of the seven wonders of the outer court, two plethra, or 181 feet 8 inches English,
world. Amultitude of Greek and Latin inscriptions, that agreeing very nearly with the breadth, but not the length
are still legible, on the base and the of that now before us ; but the succeeding court, of four
legs of the colossus,
46
 EGY 362 EGY
plethra, neither agrees with this, nor can agree with that and passages excavated out of the rock, and extending over
of any other Egyptian edifice ; since the plan of an Egyptian a vast tract of land in the neighbourhood of Thebes, near
building invariably requires a diminution, by no increase of Kurnu. The two following descriptions are from the writer
dimensions, from the entrance to the inner chambers ; and previously quoted ; the first relates to one of the tombs of the
while the body of the temple, behind the portico, retained kings, which was first opened by Belzoni :

one uniform breadth, the areas in front, and frequently the "The tomb, which of all others stands pre-eminently con-
portico itself, exceeded the inner portion of it by their pro- spicuous, as well for the beauty of its sculpture as the state
in the form of
jecting sides. The peristyle and 'columns of its preservation, is undoubtedly that discovered and opened
living beings,' roofed colonnade, sitting statues, and triple by Belzoni. But the plan is far from being well regulated, and
entrance to a chamber supported by columns, agree well with the deviation from one line of direction greatly injures its
the approach to the great hall of this temple. The largest general effect nor does the rapid descent by a staircase of
;

statue in Egypt can scarcely be looked for but in the build- twenty-four feet in perpendicular depth, on a horizontal
ing before ns, yet the sculptures to which he alludes, remind length of twenty-nine, convey so appropriate an idea of the
us rather of those of Mcclccnct Ilaboo ; nor is it impossible entrance to the abode of death, as the gradual talus of other
that either Hecatceus or Diodorus have united or confounded of these sepulchres. To this staircase succeeds a passage of
the details of these two edifices. eighteen feet and a half by nine, including the imposts and,
;
" The second
area is about 140 feet by 170, having on the passing another door, a second staircase descends in horizontal
south and north sides a row of Osiride pillars, connected with length twenty-five feet ;beyond which two doorways, and
each other by two lateral corridors of circular columns. a passage of twenty-nine feet, bring you to an oblong cham-
Three flights of steps lead to the northern corridor behind ber twelve feet by fourteen, where a pit, filled up by Bel-
the Osiride pillars, the centre one having on each side, a black zoni, once appeared to form the utmost limit of the tomb.
granite statue of Remeses II., the base of whose throne is Part of its inner wall was composed of blocks of hewn
cut to fit the talus of the ascent. Behind these columns, stone, closely cemented together, and covered with a smooth
and on either side of the central door, is a limestone pedestal, coat of stucco, like the other walls of this excavated cata-
which, to judge from the space left in the sculptures, must comb, on which was painted a continuation of those subjects
have once supported the sitting figure of a lion, or perhaps that still adorn its remaining sides.
a statue of the king. Three entrances thence open into the "
Independent of the main object of this well, so admirably
grand hall, each strengthened and beautified by a sculptured calculated to mislead, or at last check, the search of the curi-
doorway of black granite, and between the two first columns ous and the spoiler, another advantage was thereby gained
of the central avenue, two pedestals supported (one on either in the preservation of the interior part of the tomb, which

side) two other statues of the king. Twelve massive was effectually guaranteed from the destructive inroad of the
columns form a double line along the centre of this hall, and rain-water, whose torrent its depth completely intercepted ;
eighteen of smaller dimensions, to the right and left, com- a fact which a storm, some years ago, by the havoc caused
plete the total of the forty-eight which supported its solid in the inner cambers, sadly demonstrated.
To the hall, "
roof, studded with stars on an azure ground. The hollow sound of the wall above-mentioned, and
which measures 100 feet by 133, succeeded three central a small aperture, betrayed the secret of its hidden chambers,
and six lateral chambers, indicating, by a small flight of and a palm-tree, supply ing the place of the more classic ram,
steps, the gradual ascent of the rock on which this edifice forced, on the well-known principle of that engine, the
is constructed. Of nine, two only of the central apartments intermediate barrier, whose breach displayed the splendour
now remain, each supported by four columns, and each of the succeeding hall, at once astonishing and delighting its
measured about 30 feet by 55 ; but the vestiges of their discoverer, whose labours were so gratefully repaid.
" Its four
walls, and appearance of the rock, which has been levelled pillars, supporting
a roof twenty-six feet square,
to form an area around the exterior of the building, point are decorated, like the whole of the walls, with highly-
out their original extent. The sculptures, much more interest- finished and well-preserved sculptures, which, from their vivid

ing than the architectural details, have sufiered still more colours, appear but the work of yesterday ; and near the
from the hand of the destroyer ; and of the many curi- centre of the inner wall, a few steps lead to a second hall of
ous battle-scenes which adorned its walls, four only now similar dimensions, supported by two pillars, but left in an
"
remain. unfinished state, the sculptors not having yet commenced the
Still southward is the village of Medecnet Ilaboo, which outline of the figures the draughtsmen had but just com-
contains the ruins of two temples, of which we have not pleted. It is here that the first deviations from the general

space to give a particular account. The smaller one consists line of direction occur, which are still more remarkable in
of an open area 125 feet by 80, the north side being formed the staircase that descends at its southern corner.
"
of a row of eight columns, through which access is obtained to To this last succeed two passages, and a chamber seven-
a transverse area, having two pyramidal towers at its extre- teen feet by fourteen, communicating by a door, nearly in the
mity, and between them an entrance into an hyptethral court centre of its inner wall, with the grand hall, which is twenty-
with similar towers. These lead into a court 60 feet long, seven feet square, and supported by six pillars. On either
with a colonnade on either side, and at its extremity an side is a small chamber opposite the angle of the first pillars,
entrance into the sanctuary, which is surrounded by colon- and the upper end terminates in a vaulted saloon, nineteen
nades and chambers. The larger edifice is approached feet by thirty, in whose centre stood an alabaster sarcophagus,
through a dromos 265 feet in length, at the end of which are the kenotaph of the deceased monarch, upon the immediate
two propylaea leading into a large hypsethral court. At the summit of an inclined plane, which, with a staircase on either
further side of this court an entrance through pylons is given side, descends into the heart of the argillaceous
rock for
into a very fine peristyle court 123 feet by 133 feet, at the a distance of a hundred and fifty feet. This, like the entrance
extremity of which is the portico. The large court contains of the tomb and the first hall, was closed and concealed by
specimens of Caryatid columns. a wall of masonry, which, coining even with the base of the
We now arrive at a different class of buildings the tombs sarcophagus, completely masked the
staircase it covered and
or catacombs, which consist of subterranean apartments levelled with the floor.
 EGY 363 EGY
" Asmall chamber and two niches are perforated in the plan), and after passing it, a largo square, surrounded by
north-west wall ; at the upper end a step leads to an unfi- long passages, arrests the attention of the curious visitor.
nished chamber, 17 feet by 43, supported by a row of four At each angle is the figure of one of the eight following
pillars ; and on the south-west are, other niches and a room goddesses Neith, Sate, Isis, Nephthys, Netpe, Justice,
:

about 25 feet square, ornamented with two pillars and a Selk, and Athor, who, standing with outspread arms, preside
broad bench (hewn, like the rest of the tomb, in the rock) over and protect the sacred inclosure, to which they front,
around three of its sides, four feet high, with four shallow and are attached.
" A
recesses on each face, and surmounted by an elegant Egyptian gentleman, an author, whose rending is far more
cornice. It is difficult to account for the
purport of it, unless respectable than his judgment, has not failed to discover
its level summit served as a repository for the mummies of something extraordinary in the position of these figures,
the inferior persons of the king's household but it is more
; referring, as he supposes, to the crucifix, adopted by the
probable that these were also deposited in pits. Christians.
"
"The total horizontal length of this catacomb is 320 feet, Eleven niches,
in six of which are small
figures of different
without the inclined descent below the sarcophagus, and its deities, occur at intervals on the side-walls, and the summit
is crowned
perpendicular depth 90, or, including that part, about ISO by a frieze of hieroglyphics. Three chambers lie
feet, to the spot where it is closed by the fallen rock." behind this square, and the passage which goes round it
The second description of tombs of more recent date,
is descends on that side, and rejoins, by an ascending talus on
executed during the twenty-sixth dynasty, in the seventh the next, the level of the front. A short distance further
century before our era ; they are of great extent, and unusual terminates this part of the tomb, but the above-mentioned
uniformity. pit communicates with a subterranean passage opening on a
"The smallest, which are those behind the palace of Remeses, vaulted chamber, from whose upper extremity another pit
commence with an outer court decorated by a peristyle of leads, downwards, to a second, and ultimately through the
pillars, and to this succeeds an arched entrance to the tomb ceiling of the last, upwards, to a third apartment, coming
itself, which consists of a long hall, supported by a double immediately below the centre of the square above noticed.
row of four pillars, and another of smaller dimensions beyond This has one central niche, and seven on either side, the
it, with four pillars in the centre. The largest of them, and whole loaded with hieroglyphical sculptures, which cover the
indeed of all the sepulchres of Thebes, are those in the walls in every part of this extensive tomb.
"
Assaseef, one of which far exceeds in extent any one of the But to give an idea of its length, and, consequently, of
tombs of the kings. Its outer court, or area, is 103 feet by the profusion of its ornamental details, I shall briefly state
76, with a flight of steps descending to its centre from the the total extent of each series of the passages both in the
entrance, which lies between two massive crude brick walls, tipper and under part of the excavation. From the entrance
once supporting an arched gateway. The inner door, cut like of the outer area to the first deviation from the original right
the rest of the tomb in the limestone rock, leads to a second line, is 320 feet. Tho total of the next range of passages to
court, 53 feet by 67, with a peristyle of pillars on either the chamber of the great pit. is 177 feet. The third passage,
side, behind which are two closed corridors that on the
;
at right angles to this last, is 60 feet ; that passing over the
west containing a pit and one small square room, the opposite second pit, is 125; and adding to these three of the sides of
one having a similar chamber, which leads to a narrow the isolated square, the total is 862 feet, independent of the
passage, once closed in two places by masonry, and evidently lateral chambers.
used for a sepulchral purpose. "Thearea of the actual excavation is 22,217 square feet,
" and with the chambers of the pits 23,800, though, from the
Continuing through the second area you arrive at a porch,
whose arched summit, hollowed out of the rock, has the light nature of its plan, the ground it occupies is nearly one acre
form of a small segment of a circle, and from the surface of and a quarter, an immoderate space for the sepulchre of one
the inner wall are relieved the cornice and mouldings of an individual, even allowing that the members of his family
elegant doorway. shared a portion of its extent."
" This At Hermontis, a short distance south of Thebes, are the
opens on the first hall, 53 feet by 37, once supported
by a double line of four pillars, dividing the nave (if I may ruins of a small temple, consisting of a colonnaded court with
so call it) from the aisles, with half-pillars, as usual, attached portico and sanctuary, and some distance beyond this, more
to the end-walls. Another ornamented doorway leads to extensive remains at Esnch, or Latopolis, but the only
the second hall, 32 feet square, with two pillars in each portion uncovered is a portico of considerable pretensions.
row, disposed as in the former. Passing through another Passing by several monuments more or less remarkable, we
door, you arrive at a small chamber, 21 feet by 12, at arrive at Edfou, or Apollinopolis Magna, the temple of which
whose end-wall is a niche, formed of a series of jarnbs, has already been described ; and beyond this, at Ombos,
receding successively to its centre. Here terminates the where are ruins of two temples, one of which is remarkable
first line of direction. A
square room lies on the left for having a double entrance, and two sanctuaries side by side.

(entering), and on the right another succession of passages, In our way to the islands of Philoe and Elephantina, we
or narrow apartments, leads to two flights of steps, imme- would stop for a moment at Syene to notice the quarries of
diately before which is another door on the right. Beyond granite from which a great portion of the stone for building
these is another passage, and a room containing a pit 45 feet was supplied, previous to the working of the quarries near
deep, which opens at about one-third of its depth on a lateral Philoe. The islands of Philoe and Elephantina are rich in
chamber. remains, but more especially the former, which we accord-
"A third of direction, at right angles with the former,
line ingly select for illustration. Dcnon says:
turns to the right, and terminates in a room, at whose upper ." As soon as I could set foot in the island
(Philoe) I began
end is a squared pedestal. first by going over all the inner part, to take a general survey
" of the various monuments, and to form a kind of topographical
Returning through this range of passages, and re-ascending
the two staircases, the door above alluded to presents itself chart, containing the island, the course of the river, and the
on the left hand. You shortly arrive at a pit (opening on adjacent characteristic scenery. I found a
convincing proof
another set of rooms, beneath tho level of the upper ground- that this group of monuments had been constructed at different
 EGY 364 ELE
periods, by several nations, and had belonged to different ever saw of the kind. Two other moles serve as the portal
forma of religious worship and the union of these various
;
to the most beautiful and regular part of the edifice this is
;

edifices, each of them in itself regular, and crowded together

a species of portico, decorated by 10 columns and 8 pilasters
in this narrow spot, formed an irregular group of most 4 feet in diameter, as magnificent as they are elegant the ;

picturesque and magnificent objects. I could here distin- columns and walls are covered with sculptures, the ceilings
are either painted in astronomical tables, or with white stars
guish eight sanctuaries or separate temples, of different
dimensions, built at various times, and the limits of each had on an azure ground. Beyond this again was the secret part
been respected in the construction of the succeeding ones, of the temple, 60 feet by 30, divided into four rooms, one
which had impaired the regularity of the whole. A part of leading to the others ; in these remote chambers it is sup-
the additions to the original buildings had been made with posed that the sacred birds and reptiles were kept.
"
a view of connecting the old to tin- new, avoiding, with great Besides this vast enclosure, in which these numerous
dexterity, false angles and general irregularities. This kind temples were connected and grouped together by dwellings
of confusion of the architectural lines, which appear like for the priests, there were two temples the
standing apart ;

errors in the plan, produce in the elevation a picturesque larger of the two I have already spoken of, the smaller is
effect, which geometrical rectitude cannot give it multi- ;
one of the most beautiful that can be conceived, in perfect
plies objects, forms elegant groups, and offers to the eye preservation, and so small, that it almost gives one the
more richness than cold symmetry can ever command. I desire of carrying it away. I found within it some remains

was here able to convince myself of the truth of a remark of a domestic scene, which seemed to be that of Joseph and
which had before made at Thebes and Tentyra, which is,
I Mary, and suggested to me the subject of the flight into
that the mode of building with the ancient Egyptians was, Egypt in a style of the utmost truth and interest."
first, to erect large masses, on which they afterwards We have now described several of the principal monu-
bestowed the labour of ages in the particulars of" the deco- ments belonging to this style of architecture, from which may
ration, beginning their work with shaping the architectural be formed a very fair idea of the Egyptian method of arrang-
lines, proceeding next to the sculpture of the hieroglyphics, ing and adorning their temples. We
have not touched upon
and concluding with the stucco and the painting. All these the pyramids, although the subject can scarce! v be said to be
distinct period-; of work are very obvious here, where
nothing completed without some description of them we have, how-
;

is finished but what belongs to the highest antiquity ; where, ever, already extended this article to a somewhat inconvenient
as a part of the subordinate buildings which served to con- length, and would rather defer their consideration to a later
nect the various monuments, had been left in many particulars period, than treat them here in a summary and insufficient
without finish, without sculpture, and even incomplete in the manner. The same reasoning applies to the description of
building. The great and magnificent oblong monument the sphinxes, and such like. We refer the reader, therefore,
exhibits these different periods of workmanship; it would to the articles under the heads PYRAMID and SPHINX.
be difficult to as>igu any use to this edifice, if the
presence The subject we have been treating of is one of very
of certain monuments represent ing offerings, had not pointed considerable interest, and, although not of direct practical
it out to be a temple. It has, however, the form neither of utility to the architect, is yet well worthy his careful consi-
a portico, nor of a temple; the columns which compose its deration.
outer circumference, and which are engaged in the wall only EGYPTIAN-HALL, or BiNQUETiNG-RooMS. See (Ecus.
half their height, support nothing but an entablature, and a EGYPTIAN PYRAMIDS. See PYRAMIDS.
cornice without roof or platform ; it only opened by two EIDOGRAPH, an instrument for copying designs, in-
opposite doors, without lintels, which made a straight passage vented by Professor Wallace, of Edinburgh. The eidograph
through, in a longitudinal direction. As it was doubtless is an
improvement on the pentagraph in common use, is
built in the later period of the Egyptian power, it shows the much more correct, and can be used for purposes to which
perfection of art in the highest purity ; the capitals are the latter cannot be applied.
admirable in beauty and execution ; the volutes and the EIDOLON, a likeness, image, or representation.
foliage are gracefully waved, like the finest Greek architec- ELBOWS OF A WINDOW, the two flanks of panelled
ture, and are symmetrically diversified like those of Apolli- work, one under each shutter, generally tongued or rebated
nopolis, that is to say, differing from the contiguous capitals, into the back, so that the two elbows and the back form a
and similar to the corresponding ones, and all are exactly lining round the three sides of the recess.
kept within the same parallel." ELEOTHESION. the anointing-room, belonging to the
This group of buildings is 800 feet long and 420 feet palestra, called by the Romans unctuarium. See PALESTRA.
broad, and it is almost entirely covered with the most stately ELEVATION, an orthographical projection, made on a
monuments of different ages. The front is a rampart wall, plane perpendicular to the horizon. In architecture, as
to serve as a protection against the rising waters of the Nile. buildings are constructed with vertical faces or fronts, the
The entrance to the temple was approached by a magnificent plane of delineation is generally chosen parallel to a side, in
double range of columns around a court 250 feet long, behind order that the measure in every direction may be readily
which were rooms for the priests. The pyramidal moles are obtained. What is generally called a section, partakes as
each 47 feet long, 27 feet thick, and 75 feet high two rows ;
much of a geometrical projection or elevation, as a section.
of gigantic hieroglyphics adorn them, representing five of By the elevations and plans, all the measures of an original
their grand divinities there are likewise other figures of
; object may be ascertained, whether the lines or arrises re-
priests, &c. ; on each side of the door (which is 26 feet high) presented be horizontal, vertical, or inclined. In orthogra-
is an obelisk 18 feet
high, and a sphinx 7 feet long. Behind phical projections, all straight lines perpendicular to the
is a court 80 feet
long, and 45 feet wide, also flanked by plane of delineation are projected into points, and all straight
galleries of columns. On the right, behind the columns, is a lines parallel to the plane of delineation, are projected into
suite of cells 10 feet deep, and on the left a
private dwelling, straight lines of equal lengths, and are alike situated with
composed of a portico at each end, and of three rooms of regard to the plane of delineation, as the straight arris in the
various dimensions, communicating one with another, and original object is with regard to the naked face of the wall.
opening to the porticos ;
this is the only building that Denon Therefore, whatever lines are perpendicular to the elevation,
 ELL 365 ELL

they will be represented by points, and whatever arrises are FA + AE = KF + 2AE;

therefore E F -f- 2 F c E F = +
parallel to the elevation, they
will be represented by lines 2 A E consequently A :
equal to F c ; hence E D D y E is + =
parallel to the original. See DESIGN. EF-f-2AE EF -\- 2 F c that is, the sum of the two lines :

ELIZABETHAN ARCHITECTURE. See TUDOR drawn from the foci, to any point in the curve, is equal to the
ARCHITECTURE. transverse axis.
ELLIPSIS, or ELLIPSE, in geometry, a conic section Method III. Figure 3. To describe an ellipsis with the
formed by cutting a cone entirely through the curved ellipsograph, or trammel, as it is called ly workmen, the axes
surface, neither parallel to the base, nor making a subcon- A B and c D being given in position, bisecting each other in the
In any piece of material, contained between any
trary section ; so tliat the ellipsis, like the circle, is a curve centre E.
that returns into itself, and completely encloses a space. two parallel planes, cut two grooves, at right angles to each
See the definitions under the word COXE. other, in one of the planes ; then provide a rod with three
One of the principal and most useful properties of the pins, or points, so that at least two may be moveable, and in a
let H F o be the rod, with the
ellipsis is, that the rectangle under the two segments straight line with the third
of a :

diameter is us the square of the ordinate. In the circle, the points F and G moveable making H o equal to the greater ;

same ratio obtains, liut the rectangle under the two segments semi-axis then placing the grooves over the axes, and
;

of the diameter becomes equal to the square of the ordinate :

putting the points F and G in the two grooves, move the
Problem 1. The two axen of an ellipsis being yiven to point u round, keeping the point F upon the greater axis, A B,
describe tlie curve. and the point G upon the lesser axis c D, until the describent
Method \. Let A c be the greater axis, no the
Figure 1. H come to the point where the motion commenced and the ;

lesser, cutting each other in the centre H and if with the ; figure so described, will be an ellipsis. The trammel, used
radius A H, or n c, from the point u, an arc E F be described, by artificers, consists of two rulers, with a groove in each, so
it will cut A c, at E and F, the foci fix two pins at E and F
; ;
fixed that both grooves may be in the same plane, and at
take a thread equal in length to A c, and fix one end of it to right angles to each other, and that the opposite sides of the
E, and the other to K then keeping a pencil at thu point D,
;
cross may be in a plane parallel to those of the grooves. The
move such point forward in the same direction, so that the rod above, is a bar with two moveable cursors, the fixed end
is made to hold a pencil, and each of the other two an iron
parts D E and E F may continue to be stretched during the
motion, until the dcscribent D come to the point whence it point, made to fill the groove, but capable of sliding freely.
began to move. Method IV. Figure 4. Given one of the a.cis, A it,
and an
Method II. Figure 2. Find the foci E and F, as before ; ordinate, c D, to describe the ellipsis, Bisect A it at I for the
between E and F, take any point, 1 with the radii A 1, I c,
;
centre ; through i draw E F, parallel to c D ; with the distance
and the centres F. and F, describe arcs cutting each other at i A, or i i), from the
point D, describe an are, cutting i F at G ;
G, as al-so at H then o and H are points in the curve in the
;
;
draw the straight line D o u, cutting i A at H ; then if H D G
same manner, with the same radii, from the centres F and E, be conceived to be an inflexible line or rod, the points H, G,D,
find the intersections i and K. In like manner, if any other remaining at the same distance in respect to each other ; and
be taken between E and F ; four other points, if the point u be moved in the axis A n, and the
point, 2, point G in
L, M, x, o, will be obtained, and thus as many more as will the axis E F, while the describent D, is carried round the
be requisite for drawing the curve by hand. centre, i, until A come to the point whence it began to
For by the construction of the ellipsis, E D D F, (Figure + move ;
a curve D 11 K A
F, will be described, which will be an
1) is equal IOEC CF, + =
EF 2rc; also K D +D F+ = ellipsis.

Demonstration. Figure 5.

L F, or B K F G, or D B : L c, or A B CD;
Therefore, D is
9
: AB !
en 3
;

B K' D u'
!
A B3 A B2 C U*.
Bllt BK 9
DB 2
= BK + B D X J! K B D = D II X DK
and c b 2
= c L 2
D L 2
= A u s
L D2 .

Consequently, B K2 : D H X u K : : A u2 : D L which is a most principal property of the ellipsis ,

but the demonstration which accompanies the following parallel to D L ;

draw DEC, and K
B, at right angles to A A ;
method, fs quite general, for every two diameters. from L, with the distance K
describe an arc, cutting i A B,
Me/hod V. Figure 6. A diameter, K H, and an ordinate, at F ; draw &F c ; through the points c and i, draw M N ; then
D L, of an ellipsis being given, to describe the curve by a con- if the
point c be moved in M N, and the point F in A A, tho
tinued motion. Bisect K H at i, and through i, draw A i A, point L will describe the curve of an ellipsis.

Demonstration.

For the triangles L F o, and LCD are similar . . L F F G L C CD;

But because FL = BK, FO DE, and t c = A = i,
KB D E A I CD;
Again, by similar triangles, i K B, and IDE. .KB D E K I D i;
Therefore, by equality of ratios . . . K i D I A I c D;
By duplication . . . . . . . K i* : D i' A I'
CD';
f 1
By division K i K I D I A i' A l" C
But K i* D i
2
= (K i -f D i) X I
Dl) = DH X DK
D'.
Therefore by substituting D u X D K, for K i* D i*, and A i* L D*, for o
In the last analogy we have . . . . K i* : D n X D K Al' LD',
a well-known property of the ellipsis.
 ELL 366 ELL
The method for describing an ellipsis, having two conju- Method VII. Figure 9. Find the foci E and F, as in
gate diameters given, may be found in the Marquis
de Methods I. and II. let the ends E and F of two rules F i and
1'Hospital's Treatise of Conic Sections, translated by Stone.
E K be moveable, the one round E, and the other round F, and
But the author of the Architectural Dictionary has chosen let each be equal in length to A B, the greater axis, inter-
to give the description and demonstration from a diameter secting each other at E ; let the ends i and K be connected
and double ordinate instead of two conjugate diameters, as by a bar, i K, equal in length to E F, so as to be moveable
being more readily applied in perspective. It
is strange, that round the points i and K then if the point i or K, be carried
;

this useful method has been neglected by all English writers round G, the whole instrument will be in motion, and the
that have fallen in our way. This property was dis- point A will describe the curve of an ellipsis.
covered by the author, and demonstrated by him, many years Demonstration. Join EI then, because the trianglesiKE ;

before he met with the above work, in endeavouring to find and i F E have the two sides, i K and K E, equal to the two
out methods for describing the perspective representation by sides E F and F i, and the base i A common to both, the angles
continued motion. IKE and i F E are equal therefore the sides i H and H E are
;

Method VI. Figure 7. No. 1. Let A B be the greater equal ; therefore IF AB EH +HF, which is a property =
axis, bisected in c, by the lesser semi-axis c D ; take two of the ellipsis.
rulers, c E and E r, of equal length, equal to the sum of the Method VIII. Another method will be found under the
semi-axes c D and c B, moveable upon each other at E, and article CONE, by the equal divisions and intersections of
the end c of the rule c E, moveable upon the centre of the straight lines.
ellipsis. Make the part F G of the ruler, F E, equal to the Method IX. Figure 10. To find any number of points
semi-axis c D ; now suppose c E and E F to coincide with each in 'the On the transverse axis, A B, describe a semi-
curve.
other, and with the axis c D then move the point F from c,
; circle take as many points in the circumference of the
:

in the direction c B, until the describent G arrive at B the :

semi-circle, as may be necessary for constructing the elliptic
point G will then have traced the quadrant D B of the ellipsis. curve ;
draw straight lines perpendicularly to the axis cutting
The other quadrants will be described in the same manner, it, and let one of these
lines, c D, pass through the centre ;
by reversing and inverting the rulers. let E F be any other perpendicular, cutting the axis in F, and
Figure 8. Another variation of this Let A B be the : let c G be the lesser semi-axis find the point H, so that F H ;

greater, and o D the lesser semi-axis, as before ; take the may be a fourth proportional to c D, c G, F E, and the point n
straight line H i, equal to the greater semi-axis, A c or c B ;
will be in the curve of the ellipsis required in the same :

from i H cut off i K, equal to the lesser semi-axis, c D, and manner, a point may be found in each of the other perpen-
divide H K into two equal parts at i ; then place the joint diculars. The finding of points in the curve by this method
rule c E F in the following manner, viz., make c E and E F being entirely in proportion, the whole may be very readily
each equal to u L, or L K; the part c E being moveable round obtained, by making i K =
c D, i L, equal to the lesser
the centre, c, of the ellipsis, and the two rules c E and E G semi-axis of the ellipsis ; join KL ; on IK make i I, e m,i n,
being moveable round E ; now let c E and E G coincide with equal to the perpendiculars; drawZo, p, n q, parallel m
C D, and the point r to coincide with c, and consequently G to K L, cutting i L, at 0, p, q then i o, ip, iq, are the ;

with D then move the point F towards A, keeping it in the

;
ordinates of the ellipsis, to be applied respectively upon the
semi-axis c A ; and when c E and E F come in the same perpendiculars, from the greater axis. This may very
straight line, the point G will have described the quadrant easily be described by means of the proportional compass, or
of an ellipsis ; the lesser axis (see Figures 7 and 8) is equal the sector.
2 X F G, and the greater = 2XCE + 2XEG. Method X. Figure 11. Let A B be the greater axis, c D
Demonstration. Figure 7, No. 2. Draw G i parallel to the lesser semi-axis. On the diameter A B, describe the
c F, cutting c E at i, and draw E L perpendicular to c F, meet- semi-circle A E B, and with the radius c D describe the semi-
ing c B at L ; produce c E to H, and make c H c B ; join = circle F D G ; take any number of points, h, i, &c. in the
H G, and produce it to K. circumference A E B, and draw h c, i c, &c. cutting the semi-
Now by the general demonstration, accompanying the circle F D G, at k and I from the points h, i, &c. draw lines
;
5 2
article CYLINDER, we have c B cD A K X K B K G2 : : : :
;
h m, i n, &c. perpendicularly to A B ; also from the points k, I,
but by the property of the circle K n 2 AK K B there- + + ;
&c. draw lines k TO, / n, &c. parallel to A B ; then the points
CD 2 K n 2 K G 2 consequently c B m, n, &c. are in the elliptic curve. When the points for half
S
fore c B : : : c D
:
; : : :

K H : K
a property of the ellipsis.
G, the curve are found, the corresponding points for the other
But c E is the half sum of the two axis, and c i, or F G, half will be readily obtained, by producing the perpendiculars
equal to the lesser axis then i E, or E G, is equal to the
;
to the other side of c B, and making the ordinates on the one
difference between the half sum of the two semi-axes and side equal to those on the other.
the lesser semi-axis ; therefore i E half the difference = Method XI. Figure 12. Any two conjugate diameters,
between the two semi-axes, and i H the whole difference ; = A B and c D, being given, to describe an ellipsis through points
consequently i E E H. = found in any diameter, taken at pleasure. Through D draw
Then because i G is parallel to c F, we have E c E F : : : p Q parallel to A B ; from D draw D F, perpendicular to p Q ;

E i E G ; but EC
: =
E F ; therefore E i E G ; and because = make D F equal to E A, or E B, upon F ;
with the distance F D,
E i = E H, E G is also equal to E H then since the angle E p G : describe the circle ; through the centre, E, draw the
n D k
is a
right angle, the angles PEG and E G p, are together equal lines p E N, t indefinitely cutting the tangent P Q,
E M, s E L,
to a right angle but the ; angles E G n and G E p are alternate ; at p, I, s, &c. ; join PF, <F, s F, &c. cutting the circle n D k, at
therefore E G H =
G E p ; add to each of these equal angles, the points n, m, I, &c. ; also join EF, if necessary, and draw
the angle E G p, then will GEPEGH + EGP = + EGP n N, TWM, I L, &c. parallel to it, cutting the diameters N N, M M,
equal to a right angle ; consequently i G is parallel to c K, L L, &c, at N, M, L, &c. and these points will be in the curve
and the triangles c K H and i on are similar. of the ellipsis required if the diameters are produced to the
:

Therefore en c i KH :
KG; but c B
: : c H, and c D
: = opposite sides, at N, M, L, &c. and the distances E N, E M, E L,
= c i ; CB CD :: KH : KG, the above property of the
: &c. are made respectively equal to their opposite corres-
ellipsis. ponding distances E N, E M, E L, &c. ; then the points N, M, L,
 ML in ps;[;s.

/! 7Uw.
Hrnum hv/'.Vi li'
 KLJLTHPSIS.

-&

I-,,, ,:,

'Thr Jvrit li diagram.* TJ<rW

In\rnl"! ]iv PNlehalao
 ELL 367 ELL
on the under side of the diameter A B, will also be in the attached to the plane, but would remain stationary. r\-n
curve. though the plane were in motion and if a secondary lam-
; |

This method may be very easily applied in perspective :

by be fixed to the inflexible lines parallel to the priman phim- :

having the representation of" a diameter of an original circle then if the axis be carried round while the point in In- i

perpendicular, and that of another parallel to the picture, we transverse line is at rest, the primary plane will also c I

have a diameter and double ordinate the diameter of the: carried round, and every point in it will describe the circum-
ellipsis, or representation, is the diameter of the circle per- ference of a circle the secondary plane will likewise be
:

carried round, and its revolutions in the same time

pendicular to the intersecting line of its plane ; thus it is only perform
finding the conjugate diameter, and drawing as above. as the primary plane and the axis, but being immoveably
Figure 13. The uxex AD and CD of an ellipsis being fixed to the rectangular lines, they will cause it to have both
given, to describe its representation by means of circular arcs. a progressive and retrogressive motion, in the direction of
Draw B p parallel and equal to E c ; bisect it at 1 ; draw 1 c, the primary line, in each revolution; and, lastly, if another
and p D, cutting each other at K; bisect KC, by a perpen- point at rest be held to the surface of the secondary plane
dicular meeting c D at o ; on o, with the radius o c, describe while in motion, it will either describe an ellipsis, a circle, or
the quadrant c o Q ; through A and Q draw Q o, cutting the a straight line. Hence the describing point will always be
quadrant at o ; draw o o, cutting A B at M make E L equal ;
at the same distance from the centre, or point where the axis
to E M, and E N equal to K o from o, through M and L, draw
;
intersects the primary plane.
o o and o K ; from o, complete the arc G K ; from N, with the Theeccentricity of the ellipsis, or the difference
of the
same radius, equal to the distance N D, describe the opposite axis, will be double the distance between the stationary point
arc ii i from M with the radius M G, describe the arc o H, at
;
in the transverse line and the axis.
the extremity of the longer axis; and lastly, from L, with Instead of the stationary point, a circle may be placed with
the same radius, equal to L B, describe the opposite arc KI ;
its centre in this point, and its plane perpendicular to the
then A o c K B i D H A is the representation required, made to axis, and instead of the indexible line moving backward and
pass through eight points in the curve. forward upon two fixed points in the plane, the diametrically
Figure 14. To Jind the representation of an ellipsis, by opposite parts of the circumference may always touch a pair
means of circular arcs, passing through twelve points in the of parallel lines on the revolving plane.
curve ( a more accurate method than tlie former ) the axes Illustrations. Figure 15. Let A B and E F, No. 1, 2, 3,
A B and c D being given. Draw A 3 parallel to E c divide it ; 4, 5. fl, 7, 8, be the two inflexible lines intersecting each
into three equal parts; draw 2c and Ic; divide AE also other in i, at right angles, and let c D be the two fixed points.
into three equal parts, and through the points 1, 2, draw DQ Let A B be denominated the primary line, and E F the secon
and n p, cutting the former in Q and p. Bisect c p by a per- dary line, and let the lines A B and E F at right angles, taken
pendicular, meeting c D, produced at s and join p s, cutting
; as a whole, be called a transverse ; also, let c represent a pri-
A E at x make E w equal to E x, and E u equal to E s
; ; mary point, and let the describing point be taken at o, in the
draw p x s, owe, K x u, and L w u. Bisect p Q by a perpen- line drawn through c D produced ; now, in all positions of
dicular, meeting p s at F, and draw ZF parallel to A B. With the chuck, the primary fine A n is always upon the point c,
the radius FQ describe the arc QZ, cutting FZ at z; join and E F upon D. Having premised this in general, suppose,
z A, and produce it to meet the arc at QZ, at y join y F, : before the machine begins to start, that E F, No. 1, the
cutting A B at v make x i equal to x F, also w H, and w G,
; secondary line, coincides with E G, and the point G with o,
equal to x F make E T equal E v, and draw i v R, H T M, and
; being in the plane of the figure to be described then ;

G T N then, with the centre s, and distance s c, describe the

;
because A B always passes through c, the points i and c will
arc p o with the centre u and distance u D, equal to the
;
be coincident, A B being then at right angles to E F. Let us
former, describe the opposite arc K L with the centres i, F,
; now suppose the motion to commence, and let it perform an
G, H, describe the arcs K R, p Q, NO, and L M and, lastly, ; eighth part of a revolution, as at No. 2, the describing point
with the centres v and T, describe the arcs Q B and M N, at G, still in the same position with respect to c
remaining
the extremity of the longer axis and AC B D is the repre-
; and the right line c D G ; then the point o will be
D, viz., in
sentation passing through the twelve points A, Q, p, c, o, N, at a distance from the point o, and a part, G o, of the curve
B, M, L, D, K, B, as required. will be described by the fixed point G, and the point i will be
This method differs so little from a true ellipsis, that it above the line c D G ; now let the motion proceed, and
may be used in preference to any instrument for describing describe another eighth, as at No. 3, then, the point o being
the curves of very large arches of bridges, and in finding always in the line E F produced, E F will be at right angles
the joints of the stones, as was the practice of the celebrated to the fixed line c D o, and A B coincident with c D a and the
French engineer Perronet. point which was last at o, will now be at i. In like manner,
Another method of describing an ellipsis, by means of an when another eighth has been performed, as at No. 4, the
instrument, constructed upon the principle of the oval turning point o has performed three-eighths of a revolution, the point
lathe. As we have never seen any investigation of this 1 is in a line drawn from the point o perpendicular to the

method, upon simple principles, the Author offers the fixed line c D o, and the point 2, which was at o, in No. 3,
following to the public, which has only been given in his issituated between 1 and o. In this manner, by continuing
Mechanical Exercises. the motion, the whole curve will be generated. No. 5 shows
Definition. If there be any plane figure, and two inflex- the curve when half a revolution has been described ; No. 6,
ible straight lines at right angles to each other; and if the five-eighths ;
No. 7, six-eighths, or three-quarters ;
and No. 8,
plane be fixed to an axis at right angles thereto and if ; seven-eighths.
the two inflexible lines be made to coincide with the plane, Here it may be proper to observe, that the angles per-
and be so moveable on its surface, that one of them, which formed by the revolution of the machine, are very different
we shall call the primary line, may always pass through two from the corresponding angles, formed by lines drawn from
fixed points in the plane, and through the point where the the centre of the ellipsis to the describing point, and to the
plane is intersected by the axis; and if the other transverse extremity of the curve at its commencement.
line be made to pass or slide along a given point, which is not From what has been said, it is easy to conceive, that the
 ELL 368 ELL
operation of elliptic turning is nothing more than that of diameter of the ellipsis, and the latter will be a double ordi-
the ellipsograph, or common trammel, with this difference, nate of the same; find the
conjugate diameter by this pro-
that in the operation of
turning, the ellipsis is described by blem ; then, having the two conjugate diameters, the curve
moving the plane, and keeping the point steady, hut in form- may be described as in Method XI; or the axis may be
ing the curve by the ellipsograph, the plane of description is found as in the next problem, and thence this curve
kept steady, while the point is in motion. The transverse described.
A B E F is the same as the grooves in the trammel-cross, and Problem 4. -Any two conjugate diameters, A B and c D,
the line c DG the trammel-rod
here the cross and plane of
:
being given, to find l/te axis.
description move round togetlier, but fix^d to each other, and Through D draw EF parallel to AB, and D i perpendicular
the trammel-rod CDO is held still or immoveably confined make D
: to E F ; equal to M A, or M B ; with the radius i D
i

in the trammel, the board and cross arc fixed together, and describe from i the arc y D I, and join i M, which bisect
by
held while the trammel-rod c D u moves with the points c a perpendicular, meeting the tangent E F at N with the
;
and D in the grooves. distance NI describe from N a semi-circle, EIF;
join EM and
To set this machine, therefore, it is
only to make CD F M, which produce to n and K; and
equal join iffE and IF;
to the difference of the axes.
parallel to i M, draw /L and go, cutting HE and KF at o and
Figure 16. No. 1, 2, 3, and 4, show the relation between L; make M n equal to M o, and M K equal to ML ; then will
the foregoing diagrams and the chuck. Let K L M s be the G n and K L be the two axes required.
face of a board representing the plane, which is fixed to the In like manner, if o n had been a
diameter, its conjugate
axis of the machine ; and let o p Q R be another
board, made would have been thus found produce H G to E, and join :

to slide in the board K L M N each two points, o and K,

: F. i draw E v at right angles to E i ; then draw g G, and
;

L and p, M and Q, N and u, coinciding at this moment, K LMN

complete the rest as before.
will therefore represent a wide groove in the board ;
as this This problem may be readily applied in perspective ; for,
groove may be of any width, wo may conceive the breadth by the last problem, two conjugate diameters will be found,
to be very small, or nothing; it may therefore be and having the two diameters, the axes may be found by
represented
by a groove, or by the line AD parallel to K N and L M, and this, and the curve be described geometrically by an elliptic
in the middle of the distance between them. Instead of
sup- compass, or by traversing the curve with an ivory, paste-
posing the point D always moving backward and forward on board, or strong paper slip.
the line E F, we may suppose a circle, or the end of a Problem 5. An ellipsis and its foci F and o being given,
large
cylindric pin, moving in a very wide groove, T u vw, across to draw a tangent through a given point, H, in the curve.
the slides OPQK. Now, all the dinerences between these Join FH and G H, and produce the latter to i bisect the ;

diagrams and those in the former Plate, are only wide angle i n by the straight line L n, and L H is a tangent to the
grooves in place of lines passing longitudinally through the curve.
middle: for the line AH is always conceived to move reci- This problem is
very useful in
masonry, for finding the
procally from one side to the other of the board K i, M N ; joints of elliptic arches. Thus, find a tangent in the curve,
ar.d it is the same
thing whether one straight line slide lon- at the lower end of the joint, and from the
point of contact,
gitudinally upon another fixed line, or whether a bar of any draw a line perpendicular to the tangent; and the line thus
breadth move in a groove of the same breadth, or whether drawn will be the joint.
a straight line in reciprocal motion always pass through two Problem 6.- -Two conjugate diameters, AB and c D, and
fixed points. the centre, H, being given, to draw two tangents to the
ellipsis,
No. 1, shows the chuck, as in the first diagram of the last from a given point, E, without the curve.
Plate No. 2 as No. '2, No. 3 as No. 3, and No. 4 as No. 4,
: E be in DC, produced; make n i equal
First, let the point
of the said Plate. Any farther explanation is conceived to to n and join i E through c draw c K, parallel to i E, cut-
c, ;

be unnecessary. ting H A in K make n L equal to n K, and through L draw FO

;

Problem 2. An ellipsis, ABD c, being given, to find the parallel to A B find the extreme points F and G, by Probltm 3,
;

and conjugate axes.

transverse and draw EF and EG, which are the tangents required.
Draw any two parallel lines A B and c D, cutting the But if the point E be in neither of the diameters, A B or c D,
D; bisect AB at c, and c D at/;
ellipsis at the points A, n, c, when produced, draw a line from the given point E, through
draw a ef/i, cutting the curve at G and n ; bisect on at i, the centre, so as to be terminated by the curve; and the por-
which gives the centre; from i, with any radius that will tion thus intersected will be a diameter; then find a conjugate
cut the curve, describe a circle, k I n m, and join k I and n; m to this diameter, as in Problem 4.
bisect hi, or mn, at o or p, and draw QOI^JR, meeting the This problem will be very useful in the perspective repre-
curve in Q and K: then QR is the greater axis; draw ST at sentation of a cone, for drawing the contour of the sides with
right angles therewith, meeting the curve in s and T, and the utmost exactness ; the diameters being found by the pre-
ST will be the lesser axis. ceding problem.
Problem 3. diameter, AB, being given, and an ordi-
Any Problem 7. To describe an ellipsis similar to a given one
nate c D, to find the conjugate diameter of the ellipsis. A B c D, through a given point, p, having the same centre, and
Draw c i perpendicular to A B ; bisect A B in F, and draw the axes in, the same lines.
FH parallel to CD; on F, with the distance FA, or FB, If the two axes, A D and B c, are not given, find them as
describe the semi-circle A i B, cutting c i at i make A E ; equal in Problem 4 and the point E, where they intersect, is the
;

to c i,
and draw E G parallel and equal to c D through o ; centre; through the given point P, draw FE, to meet the
and A, draw AH, cutting FH at H, then FH is the semi-con- curve in F join A F and F B parallel to F A draw p G cut-
; ;

jugate diameter. ting A E at G and parallel to FB draw PH, cutting EB at H;

;

This problem is useful in perspective, in the representation then will E G be the greater semi-axis, and E H the lesser
of the circle for, having the representation of a diameter of
: semi-axis.
the circle perpendicular to the intersecting line, and the Problem 8. Through the angular points, A B c D, of a
representation of a diameter of the circle parallel to it, given rectangle, to circumscribe an ellipsis, which shall have
the former representative diameter of the circle will be a its axes in the same ratio as the sides of the rectangle.
 E1LILIFSIS
I'rnk .1

/t Tht,W.
Tlrnitn hu !'.\'i<tiol\r>n
 ELL 369 ELL
Draw the diagonals A c and B D, cutting each other at s, the rule of proportion. For practical use, take the following
the centre ; through s draw E F and o H, respectively parallel rule :

to A B and A D ; upon s, with the radius s i, equal to the half First. To measure the circular segment. To two-thirds
of A D or B c, describe the quadrant I K L, cutting E F at L ; of the area of the base, multiplied by the height, add the
bisect the arc I K L at K, and through K draw M N parallel to cube of the height, divided by twice the base of the segment,
E F, cutting the diagonal B D at N ; join I N, and through B and the sum is very nearly the area of the circular segment ;
draw B o parallel to it, cutting G
H at G, and make s n equal then To find the area of the elliptic segment, say, As the
to s o; join N o, and through B draw B F parallel to it, chord of the circle is to the chord of the ellipsis, so is the
cutting E F at F ; make s E equal to s F, and E F and G H are area of the circular segment to the area of the elliptic
the two axes then the curve ; may be described by any of the segment.
methods shown in Problem 1. Example. What is the area of the elliptic end of a groin
Problem 9. A trapezium, A B c D, being given, to inscribe which rises 5 feet, and extends at its base 15 feet, supposing
an ellipsis therein.
the base of the circular end to be 18 feet 7
Produce the sides B A and c D to Q also the sides A D and ;
2 X 15 =
30, twice the length of the segment.
B c to R draw the diagonals A c and B D, meeting each other
;
18 5
at F through F draw R i H, cutting the sides of the trapezium
;
15 5
at i and H also, through F draw Q E G, cutting the other two
;

sides of the trapezium in E and G bisect i u at N, and E G at ;

90 25
M; draw Q N p and R M p; join i p, to which produce K: 18 5
make p K equal to p i draw G L parallel to c D, cutting i K at
;

L then i K is a diameter bisected by P, the centre, and L G is

; 3)270 3,0)12,5
an ordinate.
This problem might have been constructed, as in the 90 4.166, &c.
Principles (see Vol. I. Problems xvin. xix. and xx.) by 90
having one of the points of contact given but it is here ;

much simplified, and reduced into one problem, by which it 180 two-thirds of the product of the base and height
is much
better adapted to perspective. 4.100 cube of the height, divided by twice the base.
Problem 10. To find the area of any segment of an
ellipsis. Let t the greater axis,= 184.160 area of the circular segment.
c the lesser, =
y = D H, the ordinate,
and x = A D, the abscissa. Then 18 : 15 : : 184.166
15
Then by the property of the curve, we have y -- X x
'

.i-
920830
c
but -
3 2 184166
(a x z )
X x (a x x*) is a fourth proportional

to t, c, and x (a x for t : c : : x (a xx -X 1
8)2762490( 1 53.47 1
18
the area of the elliptic segment

" 2 J
(a x x 5 )"; and since x (ax z ) is known to be the
96
fluxion of the semi-segment of the circumscribing semi-circle 90
A E B, (see the article SEGMENT ;) therefore, as the transverse
axis, or the diameter of the circumscribing circle, is to the 62
is the area
conjngate, or diameter of the inscribed circle, so 54
of the semi-segment of the circle to the area of the elliptic
segment A H D ; but the ordinate F D of the circle is to the 84
ordinate H D of the ellipsis, as the diameter of the circum- 72
scribing circle is to the diameter of the inscribing circle;
therefore, circular and elliptic segments upon the same base, 129
and between the same parallels, are to one another as their 126
bases, when the greater axis of the ellipsis is equal to the
diameter of the circumscribing circle. .30
It is therefore evident, that, whether we know the specific
18
measure of the greater axis of the ellipsis, or the diameter of
the circumscribing circle, or not, we still can obtain the area 12
of the elliptic segment, by a circular segment ; provided it
be known, that the greater axis of the ellipsis is equal to the To have wrought this example according to the series,
diameter of the circle. In architecture, this circumstance is would have been too operose for practical purposes.
frequently known suppose, for example, that in a groin,: The above method for finding the area of the segment of
one side is the segment of a circle, and the other the segment a circle, was discovered, or invented, by the author, in the
of an ellipsis; it follows, from the construction of the groin, year 1794, and published in his Principles, in 1795.
that both the vertical diameter of the circular side, and the It isevident, that whatever takes place in the segment,
vertical axis of the elliptic side, are equal ; and therefore, if must also occur through the whole curve ; therefore, in an
the width of each side of the groin, which is the chord of its ellipsis having its greater axis equal to the diameter of a
arc, be given, and the height of the arch, we have nothing circle, it will be, As the diameter of the circle is to the lesser
more to do than to find the area of the circular section or axis of the ellipsis, so is the area of the circle to the area of
side, and the area of the elliptic side will be found by the ellipsis.
47
 ELL 370 ELL
Example. What is the area of an ellipsis, the greater axis 24
of which is 24, and the lesser 181 18
24
192
24
24
96
432
48
.7854
576
1728
.7854
2 160
34 56
2304
302 4
2880
4C08
339 2928 area of the
.
4032 ellipsis.

In the same manner,

452. 3904 the area of the circumscribing circle. may the half, or the quarter, be
found, viz., by multiplying the two dimensions together, and
the product by . 7854.
Therefore 24 : 18 : : 452.3904
18 Example. In a semi-ellipsis upon the greater axis. Let
the greater axis be 24, as above, and the lesser semi-axis 9,
the area is
required.
36191232
4523904 24 .7854
9 216
24)8143.0272(339.2928 the elliptic area.
72 216 4 7124
7 854
94 157 08
72
169.6464 the area of the =
223 semi -ellipsis, which is half of the entire area before
216 shown.
Example in a quadrant. Let the greater semi-axis be
70 12, and the lesser semi-axis 9, the area is required.
48 12 .7854
9 108
222
216 108 6 2832
78 540
67
48 84. 8232 the area of the quad-
rant of the ellipsis, being one quarter of the area of the entire
192 ellipsis, in the foregoing example. The area of an ellipsis is
192 a mean proportional between the area of the circumscribing
and inscribing circle.
For p the area of the circumscribing circle
t* is
;
and p c*

But the proportion of 18 to 24, is as 4 to 3 therefore the :

is the area of the inscribing circle:
8 S
above might have been considerably abridged we were, P C

however, desirous of working the operation at full length,

;
Now p P p : t c : :
p t c :
JO
;
= P c
9
;
and therefore
p t*
as would unavoidably happen in case of incommensurable the proposition is manifest.
numbers, in order to compare it with the following ope-
To find the periphery of an ellipsis.
rations.
Now us try whether we cannot find a more practical
let = the greater semi-axis A c
Let a ;

rule for the area of an entire ellipsis, than that above. c = the lesser semi-axis
;

Let p d 1 be the area of a circle circumscribing an ellipsis, x = the distance c D from the centre, the abscissa;
where y = D H, the ordinate ;

= 7854, and d = z = E F, the arc

p . the diameter of the circle or :

then will A D = a x and D G = a + x, therefore A D

greater axis of the ellipsis,
and c = the conjugate, or shorter axis; XT>a = a + xXa. * = a* a;*.

Then by the property of the ellipsis,

then we have d : c : :
p d* :
- =p d c the area of the A c" or c B 2 c G":A D x D B D H' ;
: : : that is
9
a' c a' x*
entire ellipsis ; we have
therefore the following neat rule.
: : : :
y
Multiply the two axes together, and the product by .7854,
consequently y* = c*
-
a (a* a*)
and this second product will be the area.
Suppose now, for the sake of comparison, that we take the and therefore y = - (a 5
former example, viz., the greater axis 24, and the lesser 18. x') \
 ELL 371 ELL
c x x Jf Therefore 2 36 = d
and y =
x
jr Therefore 2 = ) .

a(a )
2). 18
_ zr_l x =A

d for in this last expression .09

substituting
3

we obtain t ^
for the value of z. But .27

/ \2

(
rt
*
<ir
2
)5 az\l a* ) ax 1G2
''

5
(a
2
x')^ (a z2 )^ (^~- 81

4 )
. 0972

Then by throwing the factor II -j-l* into an infinite 4 ) . 0243

1 3d
a x 1 d x' . 006075 = A ,
= B
series, we obtain z T-J
a
r$ X (1 5
Z aj
o 4.4
(a ) \
*
But the fluent of .
.
J 018225
} .

2. 4 a* 2.4.0 a" &c./ (a

2
z2 ) 2
5
is equal to the corresponding arc, K r, of the circumscribing
circle. Therefore, taking A equal to the circular arc, we .091125
obtain the fluent of z =A B
d
-- c
d*
-
r o- -
3 d3 36 . = d
j
2 a* 2.4 a 4j- 2.4.6 a 6
- -z - *)
where B -
-^
3 a5 D
~- 3
(a
2
546750
273375
5 a c - X* (a'-
&c., but when x becomes = a, 6 ) . 03280500
L
then (a z')
8 2 = o, consequently the values B, c, D, become
6 )
. 00546750
only as follows, viz.,
3 5
.00091125 = c
'

f= o
- (>
5
3 a2 3 a2 a2 3 a4
. 00455625
7
5n 2
5 a2 3 a2 a2 3.5 o
=
D ~ V ~o"
x "T x '2"
XA::=
2~To"
A
. 03189375
These values being substituted in the above series, give
.36 = d
/ d 3d 3

~
the quadrant z = : A X II
^"o"
~~
0044 19136250
3^O .
^l H
U! 9568125
2 .2. 4. C.G
S.S.Srf3 8). 01 14817500
&c. we obtain z = A X
2.2.4.4' 2.2.4.4.6.6,
d l.S.d 3.5.d _ 8). 00143521875
c' Therc - 5 7
= '

=
8.8/
. 00017940234375 c D
we have i
fore, to find the circumference
of an ellipsis, the
following
RULE. Multiply the circumference of the circumscribing . 00125581640625
' ' 9
circle by
j
the sum of the infinite series 1 B
2' 4*

_ c _ -- __
3.5.rf 5. l.d
,& c .
.01130234765625

Example. Eequired the periphery of an ellipsis, the 6781408593750

transverse axis of which is 50, and the conjugate 40, then 3390704296875

.0040688451562500
 ELL 372 ELL
10 )
. 0040088451562500 But as this rule would be much too laborious for practice,
we must content ourselves with some easy method of
10 ) . 0004068845156250 It will be very serviceable, however, in
approximation :

7.9rf
. 0000406884515625 = D comparing the results obtained by such approximations,
9 10.10 in order to ascertain the
degree of dependence that may be
put on them. Let us therefore try the following Rule, for
. 0003661960640625 the periphery of the whole, the half, or the quadrant of the
11 curve.
BULK. Multiply the square root of the half sum of the
. 0040281567046875
squares of the two axes by 3.1416, and the product will be
.36 the circumference, nearly.
0241689402281250 JHzample. Let the greater axis be 50, and the lesser 40,
120844701140025 as before the entire periphery is required.
:

12 )
. 001450136413687500
50 40
12 ). 000 1 2084470 1 1 40625 50 40
. 00001007039176171875 = E 9-11 = v
11 12 . 12 2500 1600
1600
.00011077430937890025
13 2)4100
33232292813671875 20.50 ( 45.27692, the root.
11077430937890625 16

. 00144006002 1 92578125
85 ) . 450
.36
425
008040396 1 3 1 55408750
432019806577731375 902 )
. 2500
1804
4 ) . 0005184237078932812500
7 . 0001290059419733203 1 25 9047 )
. 09600
)
63329
7 )
. 0000185151345070171875
. 0000020450192239453125 = r -~~ = o 90546). 627 100
14. 14 543276

Therefore, these terms collected, are as follow : 905529 ) . 8382400

8149761
A = .09
B = .000075 9055382 ) . 23203900
18110704
c = .00091125
D = .00017940234375
E = .0000400884515025 .5153136
F = .00001007039170171875
G = .0000020450192239453125 45.2 7692
3.1416
Therefore 0972190502062981640025
. the sum of =
the negative terms, which therefore being taken from 1. 27166152
. 0972190562062981640625 452 7 692
18110768
leaves . 9027809437937018359375 for the sum of
4 5276 9 2
the series.
135.83076
Therefore . 90278 0943 142.2419 7 1872
50
The above, though agreeing only in the two first places of
45.139047150 near for most practical purposes in mea-
3.1416 figures, is sufficiently
four places of figures is
only four
suring ; the difference in
270 8342 8290 more than the truth.
4513904715 as follows:
The investigation of this
rule is
1 8055 6188 60
4513904715 Let t = the greater axis,
and c = the lesser,
13541714145
141.8088305264400 = the periphery of the 4-
-~ c'\t
I*
expresses the rule ;

ellipsis required. (f
 EMB 373 EMB
f + c'U /I cumstances. Embankments are of various kinds,
according
) ="(- to the purposes for which they are designed, as RAILWAY
EMBANKMENTS, which carry a line of railway over valleys
and since d = 1 -- and low ground at the elevation required for the level of the
rails CANAL EMBANKMENTS, for confining the water of a
;

e* 1 -rf upon which a canal or aqueduct is

canal or reservoir, or
we have formed and EMBANKMENTS constructed with the view of
^5= ;

guarding, protecting, and defending lands on the borders of

T+ + Lfi - 1
the sea, rivers, and lakes, from being inundated and
by them, and for reclaiming lands from the sea.
injured
)*-* '6 )
We shall treat first of the latter description of embank-

_\ ments. These are of different kinds and forms, according

- ., __ _ _ _
to the nature of the situations and the materials of which
2/ 2s 2.4 24 .8 2'.
they are constituted. In embanking against the sea and
&c. = the periphery ;
but the true periphery = p t
large rivers, where the slopes next them arc naturally gentle
and easy, they are mostly of the earthy description, being
d
' ~3d 5
"
3.3.5</
3
\. senes a well put together, and covered on the surface with turf cut
from the tough sward of the land in the neighbourhood but ;
with the former in the first and second terms, and differs in in cases where the banks, borders, and
shores, are steep and
the third only ;
the rule is therefore an approximation. boM, they are usually of a more hard and solid nature: as
0~ of stone, brick, gravel, sand, shells, and other similar sub-
The rule now delivered is still too long for practical uses ; stances, laid closely in some sort of tenacious material, such
let us therefore try the following : as clay or mortar, and other matters of the same
quality.
RULE. Multiply the half sum of the two axes by 3.1410, Timber is also frequently employed in their construction, in
and the product will be the periphery, nearly. a variety of forms.
Exnmpk. The same still as the preceding, viz., 50 works of this sort, very much depends upon the form
In
and 40. in which they are constructed, and the nature and manage-
50 3.1416 ment of the materials made use of. In respect to the first
40 45 it
may be remarked, that banks of these kinds are com-
monly constructed with too narrow bases for the heights
2)90 15 7080 which are given them from which circumstance, the sides
;

125 664 which are opposed to the effects of the water become too steep
45 and upright consequently, in cases of high tides or floods,
;

141.3720 the periphery. they are utterly incapable of resisting their weight, which has
This rule is exceedingly easy, and sufficiently near for all equally a lateral and downright pressure. Besides this, there
practical purposes, where the eccentricity of the ellipsis is
is another
disadvantage attending this method of forming
not very great. It gives the periphery nearly as much below them, which is, that the floods, as well as the tides, in ebbing
lhe truth as the preceding rule is above and, consequently, ;
and (lowing, have a more continued action on one part than
where great accuracy is required, if the result be found by would be the case, if the slopes were more gentle and gradual :

both methods, the half sum will be exceedingly near. To consequently, they have a much greater tendency to break
show this by an example : down and destroy the superficial parts of the banks. With
The result by the first rule 142.241971 some variations in the forms, most of the embankments in
The result by the last rule 141.3720 this country are, however, made in this way. They may
succeed in some particular instances ; but, in general, it is
2)283.613971 found that breaches are frequently taking place in them, from
the effects of the sea or floods, which are not capable of
being
The half sum of both 141.806985 which is
very filled
up or repaired without considerable difficulty and
near the truth, as it
agrees in five places of figures with the trouble and which, if suffered to continue even for a short
;

result by the series. space of time, endanger the whole embankment.

ELLIPSOGRAPH, an instrument usually constructed of The common form of embankment is shown at Figure 1,
brass, for describing a semi-ellipsis at one movement of the and the improved form pointed out at Figure 2.
index. See ELLIPSIS, Problem I, Metliod 3. The angles or slopes of these sorts of works are made very
ELLIPSOID,a solid, generated by revolving a semi- different in various cases ; but that shown in the above figure
round either of its axes. This solid is understood
ellipsis seems, in general, well calculated for the purpose of resisting
by some to be the same as spheroid. See SPHEROID. the impression of heavy tides, or the waters of floods. The
ELLIPTIC ARCH, a portion of the curve of an ellipsis, greater breadth they have, in proportion to their height, the
employed as an arch. This curve has some ad vantages over more effectual they must be in resisting the power of the
circular arcs, in bridge-building, as it leaves a greater space waters which come upon them. In regulating the heights
at the haunches for the passage of vessels, and, consequently, of embankments, it is necessary to ascertain the greatest
saves a considerable quantity of materials in the construc- depth of water at the highest tides or floods ; making the
tion. summits of them about two feet higher than the points to
ELLIPTIC COMPASSES. See ELLIPSOGRAPH. which they rise at such times. By some, a less height than
ELLIPTIC CONOID, the same as ELLIPSOID. this above the highest mark of the tides or floods has, how-
ELLIPTIC WINDING STAIRS, a winding stair, having an ever, been considered sufficient ; but it is always proper to
ellipsis for its plan. See STAIRS and WINDING STAIR. be on the safe side, as the consequences of an overflow are
EMBANKMENT, a large body, mound, or bank of earth, very serious.
constructed or thrown up in different ways, according to cir- In forming embankments with stones, or other similar
 EMB 374 EMB
materials, which, as has been seen, is essential in bold steep flows and decreases of the waters act more
momentarily on
banks or shores, it is necessary that they be laid in proper their different parts, and their greater weight renders their
materials, and be closely jointed next the sea, or the rivers, banks more firm ; while, in the latter case, by the equality of
so as to be fully capable of resisting the entrance of water. their surfaces, the power of the water is rendered the same on
Great care is requisite in doing this, or the bank will not one part as another, and no obstacles are left for the producing
stand, for the water, insinuating itself between the openings, of eddies, or other means of forming holes or breaks in them.
will sink down among the stones, softening and loosening the In the latter, or those of the bold,
upright, rocky kind of
clayey or earthy matters underneath, by which portions of banks, their strength chiefly depends on the resistance of the
them will be forced out and washed away. Hollows being large quantity of materials by which they are backed, and
formed in that way below, the stones naturally sink down ;
not on the manner in which they are disposed, as in the
and the waters, rushing into the cavities with considerable former case; and their durability, on that of the uniform
impetuosity, quickly displaces others, and the whole embank- compactness of texture in the parts opposed to the effects of
ment is soon destroyed. This very frequently takes place the waters: as, where these have fissures in them, or are
with the heads thrown across rivers, and such paved or cause- softer in some parts than others, the waters are liable to

wayed banks as are formed with the view of protecting and enter and break down the banks in time, according to the
preserving bold and open shores. Such shores are especially particular nature of the cases.
liable to be undermined and carried away by the washing It is, therefore, of
importance, that the modes and forms
operation of the waters which corne against them. In order of embankment, which are thus naturally presented, should
to render the embankments perfectly secure in such cases, be improved upon by art. It is evident, that if a cut were
they should be laid with good mortar, and be pointed with formed behind the embankment, as in Figure 5, at the letter
a strong cement. A
good coat of gravel, in some cases of x, the shores or banks, though, in this case, as it were, de-
this kind, is even found far superior to paving with stones. tached from the land, would be found equally strong, and
It sometimes
happens that rivers, near their mouths, form capable of resisting the pressure of the waters, as in their
shallow estuaries, and occupy much ground which might be original state. Hence, if a mound or bank were formed, and
usefully employed. In this case, an entirely new outlet placed out at the distance of one, two, or three miles from
may
sometimes be made, through which the river may at once the shore or other embankment, within the bed of the sea or
discharge itself into the sea ; and the whole course will, other waters, as at y in the same Figure, it would be equally
probably, be soon filled up by the deposition of soil and mud capable of resisting them as in the former instance, and not
brought in by the tides ; for it is the current which clears more liable to be broken down by their pressure than in its
the channel, and when this is taken away the channel soon former station and would also -defend them as completely
;

fills
up. In the course of a short time the old mouth of the from the intermediate space of land, as it did before from
river will be so filled up as scarcely to admit the tide ; and the narrow trench. Consequently, on this principle, vast
an embankment across it
may lay a large fertile track of tracts of land may, in different parts of the kingdom, be
land quite dry. obtained by judicious embankments.
In constructing embankments of the quay, or other similar Though the shores of bold steep coasts may not afford
kinds, a mortar formed from powdered unburnt lime-stone examples equally capable of being followed with advantage
and coarse sharp sand is employed the whole being pointed
;
as the above, they nevertheless suggest useful hints for the
with puzzolana earth, by which they become as solid as rock, purpose of defence, in cases of bold, abrupt, broken shores,
and fully resist the effects of water. The lime of particular constituted of earth, or of that material and rocky substances
sorts of lime-stone is found more proper for forming this sort intermixed. It readily presents itself to the mind, that the
of mortar-cement than that of others thus, that found at:
raising a good perpendicular stone wall against such banks,
Dorking, in Surrey, issupposed to constitute the most dura- renders them nearly as strong and lasting as those formed by
ble substance of this kind of any in the kingdom ; and has nature of steep solid rocky bodies. This sort of walled bank
been employed in many works near London. And an is exhibited at Figure 6 ;
but though this method may be
excellent sort of lime-stone, for the same purpose, has like- practised, in cases of the abore kind, with great advantage,
wise been discovered near Worsley, in Lancashire, which is it isnot, by any means, applicable in general to rivers ; as,
there termed Sutton lime. with them, the waters, during the periods of floods, stand in
An excellent cement for this use, which hardens under need of room to spread, which is the great use of giving their
water, may be composed by having four parts of blue clay, banks a sloping form ; while, in this way, it would have the
six of the black oxide of manganese, and nine of carbonate effect of doing more injury than was the case before. The
of lime, submitted to a white heat, and then well incorpo- increased rapidity of the current, caused by its being so con-
rated with sixty parts of sand, and as much water as may be fined, doing greater damage to the banks. Instances may,
necessary to form it into a mortar. See CONCRETE. however, happen in which it may be had recourse to with
It is invariably found, in
examining the shores of the sea, propriety, in defending a part of the bank of a river, without
and the banks of rivers, that such as have easily and gently giving it a sloping direction, or for protecting one part of a
declining slopes from their beds to their borders or banks, bank at the risk of that which is opposite to it; but well-
and those which are formed in a steep upright manner, of constructed piers, in such cases, are preferable, and attended
rocky materials, such as are shown at Figures 3 and 4, are with less expense to maintain. But instead of these, art may
the least exposed to injury from the effects of the waters :
suggest one that may answer in some respect more perfectly ;
the two former being the most secure when as, in place of bringing together such a mass of earthy or
spread over or
coated with good coverings of sand or gravel, or uniformly other substances, as may be proper for constructing such
turfed over quite down to the water-side with the sward of banks as are shown at Figures 1 and 7, it may be more ad-
a tough old pasture. The strength and firmness of their vantageous to have one formed, such as is shown at Figwe 8,
banks are in proportion to the extent of the
slope ; and their the side of which, next the water, forms, with the base, an
durability depends OP. that of their being made uniform on angle of about 45 degrees. This will be capable of bearing
their surfaces, both in espect to hardness and smoothness
> : all the weight or pressure of water that can possibly be

as, in the former case, Jfom the great length of slope, the brought upon it, equally well with that of Figure 1, except
 EMB 375 EMB
that the operation of the tides would break the superficial extend into the rivers; as a too extended projection
maybe
part of the side next the sea, unless prevented by coating it highly dangerous to the opposite bank, and of course do
with some durable substance, such as paving stones, bricks, harm, instead of being beneficial ; while not carrying them
or other similar materials. out sufficiently far may prevent the effect which is wanted.
Banks of various kinds, between this and the first natural In cases where piers are to be formed of stone, as in rivers
kind, may be invented, differing only in the degree of incli- where the bottoms are of a rocky nature, the plan represented
nation which they have towards the sea that which slopes
;
at Figure 11, is a good one, as it will scarcely cause any
in the highest degree, ss Figure 1,
having the surface covered eddy, and be nearly similar to that of the wicker-work, in
over with sand or gravel ; and that which has the least slope, the effect which it produces. Different works of these
as Figure 8, may be covered with pavement ; the different several kinds have been constructed in the northern parts of
intermediate slopes being protected by materials which have the island with much success.
a quality between the two, such as coarse gravel, chalk-stones, Proper Materials for Embankments. It will be obvious,
brick, and sand. The embankment, shown in Figure 9, is that different sorts of materials may be made use of in dif-
wholly constructed of a sandy loam deposited upon a soil of ferent situations and kinds of works of this nature, with
the same quality but as it would not, for some time after
;
more advantage than others, both in so far as duration and
being formed, be sufficiently impervious to water, a column expense are concerned.
of clay is carried upright in the middle, from the clayey sub- Those steep upright embankments, which are constructed
stratum of the soil underneath, as is shown at x x, in the sec- with the view of protecting bold shores, or coasts, and the
tion. This is called Puddling. banks of particular rivers, may probably be best formed of
In cases where the shores are of a very sandv nature, good brick, rubble, or ashlar work, in the manner of a wall,
embankments may be made wholly of a sort of wicker-work. as seen at Figure 0, in the Plate, the materials being laid in
Thus three or four rows of paling are put down, of different the strongest mortar that can be made. But whore this is not
heights, and the vacant spaces between them well filled, by the case, they may be built in the common way, and pointed
forcing in furze, brush-wood, or even straw, as represented with pnzzolana earth, or what is termed the Unman cement,
at Figure 10. These substances, by detaining the mud and prepared by Messrs. Parker and Co., London. Concrete has
sand, as the tide passes through them, or during high floods, been used most successfully and extensively for the purpose
soon forms a sort of embankment, such as that shown in the of embankments, as we have shown under that article.
above representation. It should afterwards bo covered with The different kinds of sloped embankments may be formed
some plant, which is
capable of binding and giving it solidity, either with common earthy materials, clay, mud, or a mixture
such as the elymus arenarius. An embankment, so con- of these several different substances; and any other matters
structed, would continue, during extraordinary tides, to retain which are capable of uniting into a solid, firm, compact mass,
still larger
quantities of the sandy materials, until, ultimately may be had recourse to for the same purpose. Where the
raised above the range of the highest floods, a safe bank sides next the sea or other waters form angles of from 20
would be formed. By banks formed in this way, large quan- to 30, or even 35 degrees with their bases, they may be
tities of land might be gained in a coated with sand, the shells from the sea, or coarse gravel
very few years, in differ-
ent parts of the rivers Severn, Ilumbcr, Frith, &c. from the borders of the shores. And stones, broken down
In all cases of embankment, however they may be formed, to uniform sixes of a few pounds in weight, may be employed
tunnels and sluices of a proper kind, with valves towards the in a similar manner. Where none of these substances can
sea or rivers, must be occasionally placed, according to cir- be procured in sufficient abundance, a method practised in
cumstances, so as to permit the water that may be collected Holland, of covering them with such perishable materials
within to pass away, and that of the sea or rivers, to flow as mats, reeds, straw, bark, and others of the same nature,
up, with different intentions in the view of improving the may bo had recourse to ; but these are obviously disadvan-
land. tageous, as requiring very frequent renewal. They might
The utility of projecting points is very considerable, in likewise be protected by a low fence of brushwood fixed in
different cases, on the sea-coasts and rivers, in defending the an erect manner all along at the bottom of the bank, of an
bays and inlets of the former, as well as guarding the banks equal height, as tending to break off the violence of the
of the latter, by diverting their streams or currents to the waves. Another method might also be employed, which is
opposite sides. Hence arises the formation of piers, which that of covering the whole front of the bank with brushwood,
become highly beneficial in defending embankments, as well either made into bundles, or in the manner of wicker-work,
as the borflers of rivers and brooks. In the first of these or fixed down in a neat manner by means of long poles and
cases, they may generally be constituted and coated over with strong hooked stakes. And farther, they may be laid in the
the same sort of material as that of which the embankment form of a causeway, with stones in moss, or covered with
is formed; while, in the latter,
they should be formed of wicker-work applied upon the mossy material when spread
some sort of stony matter, being constructed in such a way out over the bank. Many other modes also may be adopted
as to decrease in every direction as they advance outwards, under particular circumstances.
as represented in Figure 11. In each of these cases, they In all cases where the sides and slopes towards the sea
are, however, capable of being constituted of brush wood, constitute angles of from 35 to 45 degrees with their bases,
secured by means of stakes, often with more perfect success. as in Figure 8, recourse may be had to stones of the flag kind,
And it frequently happens, that a simple rude wicker-work as coverings, which should be jointed with cement mortars
fence, of not more than three or four yards in length, may be formed in some of the ways we have mentioned above. And
fully sufficient for the purpose. Embankments formed of where these sorts of stones cannot be provided, if clay can
stone, unless constructed in the manner represented at the be found, proper kinds of bricks may be made, and used in
above figure, are apt to cause eddies below them ; while the same way as the stones. Where the slopes or inclined
those formed of brush- wood cannot have this effect. planes are from 40 to 45 degrees, it is frequently more cheap
It is obvious, that considerable attention must be required and economical to have thehi covered with stones of about
in deciding the most proper situations for constructing this six or eight pounds in weight, applied to the thickness of a
sort of projection in, and the distances to which they should foot and a half, or nearly two feet ; or these may be used on
 EMB 376 EMB
a bed of common moss of three inches, or of peat-moss of the committed, they have recourse to no means of prevention ;
flow kind, of six inches in thickness, spread upon the banks, nay, even though the sea itself, says the writer, as if to rouse
only to the thickness of six or eight inches. Stones of these them from their inaction, presents to their view twice every
kinds may likewise be formed into a sort of causeway, or be twenty-four hours, large tracts that might by proper means
laid in strong clay, and their surfaces jointed with lime or be made of very great value, yet these repeated invitations
a strong cement mortar, which has the property of quickly are disregarded, and no attempts are made to
possess
hardening, and of enduring the operation of the air and tides, what might, in many cases, be so easily and so advan-
which alternately act upon it. tageously acquired. It is certainly extraordinary and
There may likewise be cases in which it may be the most unaccountable that the acquiring of distant possessions
advantageous practice to have the sides next the sea or rivers should be eagerly sought after, and considered of so
protected by coverings of wood only, in which case, larch great importance to us as a nation, when the addition
may be the most proper, or such others as are durable, of land in our own country by the reclamation of it
having their surfaces covered over with pitch and some sort from the waters, must be in every point of view so much
of sharp sand. And old sail-cloth, or oil-cloth pitched and more valuable.
coated over with sand in the same manner, or even thin The acquisition of additional territory at home should,
f
plates o metals, have been suggested as useful in particular therefore, be more attended to, and have more expense
instances. bestowed upon it than has hitherto been the case. In par-
paper read before the Institution of Civil Engineers
In a ticular situations, indeed, afew active and enterprising per-
in Ma)', 1841, the lion. Mr. Stewart gave a very sons have taken advantage of the opportunities which have
interesting
account of the application of peat to the purpose of building been presented as in the counties of York, Lincoln, Cam-
;

"sea walls." The author described some embankments bridge, and others, many hundred thousands of acres have
constructed with it on the estates of his brother the Earl of been gained by embankments. In Norfolk, too, a consid-
Galway, to reclaim various portions of land, to the amount erable extent of land has been gained in this way. In the
of many hundred acres, and stated that it had been found to neighbourhood of Chester, the River Dee Company have
answer extremely well, for several reasons, the most prominent likewise gained several thousands of acres from the sea,
of which were, that the blocks of peat, when well rammed which have since been divided into different beautiful farms,
"
down, grew together, thus forming a complete puddle" the whole of which pay in rent more than 2,000 pounds per
wall and that from its spongy nature it was not liable to
;
annum. And in Holland the whole country has, in a great
crack in dry weather like clay, when any portion of it was degree, been obtained by these means.
in water, as moisture was in that case drawn up to all parts It is stated
by Mr. Beatson, in the second volume of
of it. Communications to the Board of Ayricultiire, that large
evident that great quantities of land might in many
It is sums have been expended in some places by individuals with
situations be obtained from the sea and large rivers, by the a view of guarding against inundations, but, owing to the
forming of proper embankments. Some notion of this may embankments they have made being injudiciously placed,
indeed be formed by a careful examination of such lands as and as badly constructed, the desired effect has not always
lie
along their shores and banks, by ascertaining the distances been produced, particularly in the northern parts of Cheshire,
to which the waters ebb out at common tides, as it is found on the banks of the river Mersey, where works of this kind
by experience, that at least one-half of the extent of land, have been thrown up at a great expense, which, from the
tnus uncovered in any particular situation, may be gained ; manner of their being placed, may, in some cases, by con-
hence, throughout the whole kingdom, it could hardly be fining the course of the river, do more harm than good. By
estimated at a less quantity than from two to three millions the appearance of that part of the country, so far as he could
of acres, but it is probably much more than even the last judge from the cursory view he had of it, it seemed to him
quantity, if it were capable of being ascertained with any that the inundations from that river might have been effec-
degree of accuracy or correctness. tually prevented at a much easier rate, if a proper method
Importance of embankments. When the extent and the had been taken at first but from a certain ill-judged and
;

value of the lands which are capable of being gained by these mistaken tenaciousness of property, the embankments are
means are fully considered, there can be no doubt of their constructed so close upon the sides of the river, that, in many
being of the greatest consequence to the interests of the places, it is confined to a space not more than 20 yards over.
country. It has been well remarked
by a late writer on this Owing and to an aqueduct across the river, with only
to this,
subject, that there are numerous places in the kingdom where one arch instead of two, which it ought at least to have had,
vast improvements may be effected by the judicious applica- the water sometimes, in great floods, rises, he was informed,
tion of these means. Vast tracts of land of the best kind to the height of about 20 feet above its ordinary level, and
may not only be gained from the sea, but likewise from the overflows the embankments, although now, by frequent addi-
large rivers and lakes, besides the beneficial consequences tions, they are about that height. Instead of 20 yards, had
which must necessarily arise from the prevention of such these embankments been 80 or a 100 yards distant from each
rivers from overflowing their banks, and other, and the river widened in the narrowest places, one-
injuring the level
grounds in their vicinity by such inundations. In some third or one-fourth of their present height would have been
cases, it is supposed, that by raising a bank of only three or quite sufficient. They would have been much easier made,
four feet in height, at a
very small expense, some thousands and less liable to damage by the floods a great deal of money
;

of acres might be prevented from would have been saved, not only in the first construction,
being overflown, the crops also
from being carried away, and much othei mischief from but in keeping the banks afterwards in repair. The space
being produced. In other instances, the forming of very of ground between the embankments and the river thus left,
trifling banks might be the means of obtaining much extent would have produced the richest pasture, or meadow-hay,
of country, which in its present state is of but
very little by its frequent manurings with the fertilizing particles left
value ; yet so indifferent are people in
general about improve- upon it, when flooded by the swelling of the river; and in
ments of this description, that
though immense tracts are those places, if any, that are unfit for pasture or hay, willows
fear after year overflown, and the most dreadful devastations or other aquatics -.night have been planted to great advantage;
 EMB 377 EMB
and thus it
might have been of more value perhaps than at Where the banks are low. this is not, however, so necessary,
present, while the interior grounds would have been more as in higher ones, as the settling is always more or less
effectually scoured from the ravages of sudden floods. Not- according to their height ;
in low banks it will of course be

\\iihstunding the general indolence shown in mo>t parts of very little. In the making of such embankments, it is scarcely-
the country, respecting the acquisition of land by embanking, possible to lay down any general rule in ivgar to their size or
I

and the seeming aversion that most people have to engage dimensions, as these must be directed by situation and circum-
in such undertakings, there have been, however, some stances, under the management of an expert engineer. In

Ingenious and enterprising projectors, whose ideas upon that cases where the embankment lo be formed is to exclude the
subject have snared far beyond the bounds allotted to common sea from a piece of low marshy ground, over which it only
understandings. From
the speculations of such people, the flows at spring-tides, the work is easy, and capable of being
most important advantages are sometimes produced; and accomplished at no great expense. But where it is intended
surely the man who is possessed of a speculative turn of to reclaim a portion of land which is covered every tide, in
mind, and who considers no obstacles insurmountable, is a some bay or creek, or on the sides or windings of some large
much more useful member of society than he who is perpe- river in which the tide ebb-sand flows, the business will be in
tually starting dilliculties against every new project, and is some degree more difliciilt, according to the depth and rapi-
for having all things remaining in statu quo, tliat is, for dity of the current of the water. And where it is proposed
leaving the world as he found it. to exclude the sea from an exposed situation at the. mouth
The idea of reclaiming land from the sea, for example, of a river, or in a bay, or inlet, which is uncovered every
would have appeared to a torpid genius of this kind, as a tide, the operation will be the most difficult and expensive of
matter too visionary for sober-minded men. A
thousand all, according as it is exposed to prevalent winds, and the
dillicultieswould have started up at such a proposal and ; depth of the water to be resisted. Kadi of these situations,
obstacles, which to a more expanded mind, would seem per- method of management.
therefore, requires a different
fectly practicable to overcome, would have presented to him The business of embanking against tho sea, when at any
impediments insuperable. considerable distance within high-water mark, is not only the
What would such anti-projectors think of proposals to most tedious, but at the same time the most difficult; as, when
exclude the sea entirely from extensive bays, many miles the materials are not very good and the work not well per-
across, and exposed to the full sweep of the winds and the formed, the force of the water at cverv flowing of the tide
waves! Such was the proposition to carry a railway will quickly undo all that has been effected, especially if the
embankment across Morecambe Bay, and the estuary formed soil beof a sandy nature, as is often the case in such situations.
at the mouth of the Duddon, the embankments on If it be a strong clay, as is sometimes the case in
marshy
Lough
Foylc in Ireland, and other similar works. places, there will be the less risk of its being washed away.
That there are many large tracts of land in different parts In sandy situations it lias been advised by some to lay bun-
of the kingdom, both on the sea-eoasts and on the sides of dles of straw or reeds well fastened down, or any other impe-
lakes and rivers, easily attainable, there cannot be the smallest diment, to hinder the soil from being carried away by the
duiibt. therefore, an object worthy of the attention of
It is, ebbing tide. ^ here a sufficient supply of good strong turf
those whoarc so fortunate as to possess property of this cannot be had, other expedients may be tried but where such
;

nature, to have it ascertained by persons of experience in turf can be provided, as is the case in most marshy situations,
such matters, how far the acquisition of additional portions of and where the embankment required is not to exceed the
land may be adequate to the expense which it may be neces- height of four or five feet, it is best to finish the slope with
sary to incur in procuring it. But embankments are important good turf as cxpeditiously as possible, as the work proceeds;
in other views than those of
gaining ground by them. When that is, supposing the length of 30, 40, or 50 feet or yards of
rivers are concerned, one material advantage is the deepening it can be
completed in a tide, it is better to finish that length
of their courses, by which vessels of greater burden than to its intended height, than to trace out or begin a greater
they admitted formerly, may be permitted to navigate them. extent than can be finished before the tide returns, by which
And farther, as embankments become more frequent on the a great deal of the soil might be carried away, and much of
borders of rivers and sea-shores, the intervening distances the work demolished, which is not so likely to be the case
may become a sort of bays, in which accumulations of shell, when the slope is finished. Turf which contains the roots
mud, sand, gravel, and other matters, may take place by the of bent or rushes is very good for this use.
influx of the tides; and these, however difficult
they may be In commencing a work of this kind, however, the first
at first to embank, will in time be as easy to perform the thing to be done is to strike out the intended line of it, setting
work on, as the natural bays and creeks are at this period. out the breadth at the base, also the width of the excavation
In this way many rivers, which in their present state are or trench to be made in the inside, from which most of the
eight or ten miles in width at their junction or influx with materials that compose the bank are to be taken this trench
:

the sea, may in the course of years be reduced to less than serving also as a drain to keep the grounds within dry. There
half these distances. Consequently, such embankments would should also be trunks or sluices at different parts of it, to shut
be equally beneficial to the proprietors of land, and the mer- off themselves against any external water, and to open when
chant or manufacturer, as many rivers would become more the tide ebbs, to let out any water from within. The width
easily navigable, and those obstacles which interrupt their of it should be proportioned to the quantity of materials
mouths be wholly removed. required from it, for the raising of the embankment, as eight,
In embanking against the encroachments of the sea, it is ten, or fifteen feetwide, and three or four feet deep, leaving
necessary to ascertain, with great accuracy, the maximum a berme, or space, between the edge of the trench and the
height to which the water rises ; the methods of doing this inner bottom of the embankment. If the soil be strong, one
have been already shown. But as new works of this sort, foot or eighteen inches will be sufficient for this purpose ; but
if loose or sandy, three or four feet at least will be required.
especially where the banks are large, are liable to subside too
much, it may be a proper precaution to take the levels fre- The more easy and gradual the External slope is made, the
quently for some time after they are completed, in order to less MI- Men the resistance against the sea will be, as has been

guard against any mischief which might arise in this way. seen above, and of course the embankment be less liable to
48
 EMB 378 EMB
this slope should therefore be formed
according to the of the which would be an immense
injury ; tide, saving, as the
exposure of it to the winds and tides a contrary opinion has,
:
delays caused by the tides in this sort of business are both
however, been held by some engineers, and the formation of tedious and expensive. Waggons might likewise be contrived
in such a
upright walls properly faced has by them been considered way as to carry on such platforms large quantities
better adapted to resist the action of the water. Figure 12, of materials at once, which could be
easily emptied and
is supposed to be a section of an embankment in which the filled and at the same time be drawn by machinery, in such
;

base or horizontal line gh should at least be three times the a manner as to save much labour and expense, both in car-
perpendicular height A { but / m, the inside slope, need not
; riage and tidework.
be more than three-fourths of the perpendicular height, that There is another species of sea embankment, which is,
is, nine inches for every foot of rise. The inside slope should perhaps, the most important of any as there are few
;

be faced with turf likewise, laid with the green side down- estuaries, or mouths of rivers, in which large tracts of land
wards, as in common sod walls. Some expert sodders can may not be gained by it. The shoals or flats formed at the
finish, this sort of work extremely neat by setting (he sod on entrance of such rivers, are mostly
composed of the richest
edge, according to the slope intended to be given, and with and most fertilizing particles, brought down from the towns
proper mallets and beetles ramming the earth hard behind, and circumjacent country through which
they pass. Such
which consolidates the work as it advances, and tends to shoals and flats may, therefore, under
proper management be
render it durable. As soon as the first or lower course is in most cases
readily converted into the most fertile plains.
finished, the upper edge of the sods is pared with a sharp In these situations the first
object is that of collecting the
knife quite even, by laying a rule to them, and then they go whole river into one stream, and preventing its
overspreading
on with the second course, which they finish in the same a wider extent than is
merely sufficient for its discharge; or
manner, and thus proceed until the whole height is completed, it
may be better, perhaps, to alter its course altogether, and
which, when properly finished, has a smooth and beautiful cause it to be discharged at some other outlet. It has been

appearance, not a joint between the turfs being seen. Where found by experience, that where the course of a river is
turf is used in covering the outside slope, it should all be laid changed in such a manner as to make it discharge itself into
with the grass uppermost, as already noticed, and be well the sea at a different place to that where it did
before, the
beaten down with a flat sod-beetle for the purpose, and in former place will in a few years, by the continued accumula-
order the better to secure them, it may be proper to drive tion of sand and mud
brought in at every tide, be so choked up,
small stakes, about eighteen inches in length, through every and raised above its former level, as to form of itself, in the
sod. In cutting sods for this use, they should be taken course of time, a bank, that with a very little
up in assistance, will
a careful manner, and be all traced by a line of the same exclude the sea for as the current of the river before carried
;

breadth ; their edges being cut as even as possible, that they away all that sediment which the motion of the waves
may make the closer joints, which will tend
very much to naturally stirred up, from its being now removed, it is
their security, until they are grown properly In obvious that all or most of the muddiness will not
together. only be car-
laying the different courses of such sods, care should also be ried farther up the old channel of the river, but a
great part
taken that the joints of the one bo covered by the other, in of it be deposited there as the tide recedes. It has been
the manner that good brickwork is made. found that in spring-tides and
particular winds, this sediment
Where it is proposed to reclaim a piece of land, upon is
deposited in larger quantities than at other times, and on
which the sea ebbs and flows every tide, to a greater depth making a perpendicular cut in the ground under reclamation,
than in the foregoing case, as in a creek, or on the side of a the different layers are found to be so distinct, that those
large river, a different mode of proceeding must be pursued, made at spring-tides can be easily distinguished from the
according to the soil, and the nature of the materials to be rest. This curious fact is well deserving of the attention of
employed. Where plenty of stones can be readily procured, all those who have lands situated at the mouth of
rivers, as
a bank may be formed of them, with a mixture of clay, either there may in many such situations be considerable tracts
by means of land-carriage, or, which in some instances is gained at a very light expense. But though this fact may
better, by conveying them in flat-bottomed boats, or punts, exist in some places, as has been proved
by experience,
and throwing them over-board until the bank is formed. nevertheless it is supposed that the effect cannot be the same
Where stones cannot be easily had, clay, or other materials in all situations. Where there is a great extent of flat or
proper for the business, may be thrown in, in sufficient muddy shores, the motion of the waves will no doubt stir up
quantity, in the same manner, with perhaps nearly equal the mud andsand, and carry great quantities of them along
success. It is supposed that most of the embankments in with the current on the flowing of the tide; and when the tide
Holland were formed in this way, the clay dug from the ebbs, though some of the lighter particles will be carried
canals being made use of for the purpose. In either case it away again, yet it is reasonable to suppose the heavier ones
is
requisite to fix up strong poles before the work is begun, will be left behind. If the shores are bold and rocky except
as guides for laying down the materials. Proper sluices just near the entrance of the river, there will be less of this
must likewise be laid in suitable direction for taking off the mud ; but on such shores there can, indeed, be little or no
back-water when the tide ebbs, under the inspection of occasion for embanking, unless perhaps in some creeks,
the engineer. Much, in all cases of this sort, depends -on a narrow at the entrance and spreading out wide above. If
skilful engineer, who is capable of suggesting and contriving the sea were excluded from such creeks, a great deal of land
various means of facilitating the business, and of obviating might probably be gained.
the difficulties that may arise in its execution. A person of In the marshland district of the county of Norfolk, lying
real genius is often capable, by his different contrivances, between the rivers Wyn and Ouse, immense tracts of the
of rendering the accomplishment of a great undertaking com- most rich land, such as is composed of the muddy depositions
left by the tides and floods, which is there called silting, have
paratively easy which to others would be almost impracticable,
,

or carried on at such a heavy expense as to counterbalance been obtained by means of embanking. This kind of work
the advantages to be drawn from it. In cases of the kind has sometimes been undertaken by the tenants on a low piece
just notieed, he might suggest the erection of stages Or plat- of marsh, in consideration of having the land free for twenty-
forms, in such a manner as to carry on the work at all times one years. But in these cases the banks have often been very
 IKMffi A

fig. 6.
ft,;. 7.

Fig. 8. Fig 20
. .
 EMB 379 EMB
imperfectly made, not having cost more than forty shillings In Holland, however, is the most prominent
exhibited
a rod. And those which were constructed by the landlords illustration of the successfulredemption of land from the
were indeed frequently but little better, being mostly sea ; and probably in no part ofthe world has it been carried
deficient in not having slope enough given them towards the to so great an extent. Indeed, the whole country has been
water. Count Bentinck, and his son, who succeeded him in rescued, as it were, from the waves of the ocean, and has
the estates, undertook the drainage of the marsh lands upon been secured and held only by the constant- care and super-
a scale never practised in that part of the island before, and intendence of the persevering conquerors.
by their successful operations have increased the old estates There is little doubt that the inhabitants of Holland were
by more than 1.000 acres. obliged, in the first instance for their own preservation, to
The base ofthe embankment, in this case, is about 50 feet, erect barriers against the encroachments of the sea. On the
the slope to the sea 3C feet, forming an angle, of about invasion of their country by the Danes and Normans, the
25 or 30 degrees. The crown is 4 feet in width, and the latter soon discovered the superiority of these lands to those
slope to the fields 17 feet, in an angle of about 50 degrees ; adjacent to them, and at once applied all their energies to
the slope towards the sea being very nearly turfed over. the proper reclaiming of so fertile a property. Thus, by the
The first
expense incurred in forming this bank was 4 per steady perseverance of ages, has Holland become pre-eminent
rod, but a very high tide coming before it was finished, not for the extent of her
drainage works, though the manner in
only made
several breaches, but occasioned an additional which their embankments are constructed is very far from
height and slope to be given to several different parts, in equal to similar works executed in this country. It is said
order to bring it to the dimensions mentioned above, all of by those who have made it thoir business to examine the
which made the gross expense to amount to about 5 the rod. mode of making these -banks, that in those made of stone,
The whole cost was something more than 5,000. The the materials are not economically distributed, but arc heaped
expense of the houses, farm buildings, and other things, was so confusedly on each other, as not only to weaken the bank,
abuut as much more, for five new farms, which was a greater but occasion great waste. They have, however, a very
expense than was necessary, as the land would have let as ingenious method of facing their banks where there is a
well in two or three as five farms. Supposing, therefore, the scarcity of stone, with straw, formed into ropes, about an
exjxuise at 10,000 and the new rental at 1,000 a year, it inch or two in thickness, laid in regular courses. These
is
just 10 per cent for the capital laid out. The expense courses fit closely together from top to bottom, and are fas-
here, however, seems to have run too high, when the neces- tened down to the bank with wooden falks.
sary repairs of the hank are taken into the account. The In Ireland the attempt to bring into cultivation the
representation, given at F'ujure 22, in the Plate, fully immense tracts of bogs or flats partially covered with water,
explains the nature of the embankment formed in this a few years ago attracted the public attention and a board
;

case. of commissioners was appointed to inquire into the nature

In another new embankment, in which 273 acres of marsh and extent of the bogs in Ireland, and the practicability of
land, and 18 of bank, were gained, the men were paid 4^. 6d. reclaiming them.
a floor of 400 cubical feet, finding wheeling planks, barrows, These commissioners have published reports containing
trussels, &c. When it is thus formed, the front slope is much interesting and instructive matter, exhibiting the
sodded, for which they are paid in addition 4s. a floor of 400 present state ofthe wastes in certain district*, and evincing
square, feet, earning from 5s. Gd. to 7s. a day, and there is clearly the practicability of converting them at a compara-
some little further expense necessary tor beating it down in tively small expense, into rich arable and pasture land.
a firm manner. The whole of the expense of the bank, On the north and west coasts of Ireland there are a great
sluice, and every thing else, was about 3,300. The land number of deep bays or inlets of the sea, presenting great
was immediately offered to be rented at four pounds an acre facilities for embanking. Amongst these the estuaries
for four years, or three pounds an acre for six years ; which, called Lough Swilly and Lough Foyle, in the counties of
in the former case, would amount to 4,308 in that length Donegal and Derry, seemed to oiler to some enterprising specu-
of time, or 1,000 guineas more than the whole ofthe capital lators a tract of land peculiarly adapted for embanking.
laid out on the undertaking. Sir John Macneill having been consulted on the scheme
On this coast the operation of silting up, or raiding the for the drainage of these loughs, employed Mr. J. W. Ba/al-
surface of the marsh-land by the repeated depositions of zette to make the necessary surveys for the purpose, and the
muddy matters from the sea, is performed in a more rapid latter has furnished to the Institution of Civil Engineers a
manner than in many others ; and the little hollows and creeks valuable paper on the subject from which the following
are found from experience to silt up much faster where the observations have been extracted.
tide-waters are speedily taken off by proper cuts and channels Lough Foyle is described by Mr. Bazalzette, as not entirely
formed for the purpose, than where the contrary is the case. insulated from the Irish Channel, but a-< having a narrow
One of the most extensive reclamations of land in England, mouth communicating with it. Above this mouth the waters
is the large tract of country known by the name of the
spread over a wide tract of land, and then again contract into
Great Bedford Level. This great expanse of rich and a narrow channel. The effect of the tide rising through
fertile country is bounded by the high lands of the counties so small a passage has been to scour the narrows, and throw
of Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Huntington, Northampton, up the deposits on the sides of the Lough. By the accumu-
Lincoln, and the Isle of Ely, and contains upwards of lations of years these deposits have at last become immense
300,000 acres of fen-land, beyond which are about a dozen banks of rich alluvial soil extending for some mile* and
very large marshes also similarly reclaimed. The drainage covered only at high water. To reclaim this land it was
of ihc whole level is effected by innumerable dikes and drains proposed to construct an embankment or sea-wall, a little
of all sizes communicating with, or gathered together into below low-water mark, for fourteen miles in length, by which
three great channels, forming the main outfalls into the sea. about 25.000 acres of land would bo enclosed.
One of these outfalls is at Boston, in Lincolnshire; one at Lough Swilly is less extensive than Lough Foyle, but pre-
Wisbeaeh, in Cambridgeshire ; and the other at Lynn Regis, sents greater difficulty in the construction of the works, from
in Norfolk, the scarcity of the necessary materials. It is wider at its
 EMB 380 EMB
mouth (which opens into the Western Ocean,) than in any materials are to be brought from a distance, they may be laid
other part, and in its whole extent is extremely exposed to down, or prepared at other seasons, with the exception of
the winds. It was proposed to construct here three embank- turf, which should always be used as soon as possible after it
ments, the first 1,100 yards, the second 1,133 yards, and the is cut. The manner of constructing embankments of this
third 033 yards in length. The position of these banks kind may be sufficiently understood, from what has already
being fixed by careful measurements and soundings, the pro- been said in the other description of embankments: observ-

posed method of formation was as follows :

ing, however, as a general rule, that when the materials on the
Each bank was to be 4 feet in perpendicular height above spot will answer the purpose, they should invariably be made
the highest spring-tides, which here rise to 18 feet and to : use of, although at the expense of digging a trench
larger
have a slope on the sea-face of 3 to 1, except in the most and deeper than would otherwise be necessary. It should
exposed part, where the slope was to bo 4 to 1. The materials constantly be attended to, in executing all sorts of embank-
available for the work were stone, clay, earth and gravel, ments, that the greatest care be taken to make them perfectly
taken from the adjoining lands, and the banks were to be firm and solid, by continually
beating them, and examining
faced with rough stones on both sides, laid as close as possible them carefully, during the whole of the time they are in a
with the edge outwards, in courses not exceeding 4 feet in state of being formed.
height. In the centre of each bank was to be built a The following account of embankments on the Continent,
culvert of masonry, with proper sluices and flood-gates. is taken from the
"Dictionary of Terms of Art," part of the
These culverts were to rest on a foundation made by very useful rudimentary treatises published by Mr. Weale.
" On
driving piles into the soil, which from its alluvial character the banks of the Po, two sorts of dvkes are used to
could not be depended upon in itself. The sluices being self- prevent the river from overflowing during the winter, or the
acting, thedrainage would be effected in the following manner. flood season. They are called 'in froldi,' when immediately
At high water, it being supposed that the whole of the slob upon the banks of the river, and 'in golcne,' when at any
(as it is termed in Ireland,) is covered on the receding of the considerable distance, as it is sometimes found advisable to
tidal water, the sluices would shut of themselves, allow the river to spread over a large surface of the adjacent
retaining
the water within the banks. When the flood-tide came on, valley, either for the purpose of admitting it to deposit the
the pressure on the
sluice-gates from within, would prevent mud in suspension, or to allow it to lose its torrental character.
their opening to admit it, and the retained water would soon The maintenance of the works of these dikes is confided to
evaporate, leaving the rich slob dry, and to be in a short time the government engineers, who are under the control of a
tor agricultural
syndicate of the proprietors of the property most liable to be
lit
purposes.
The extent of the slob thus enclosed by these three walls affected by inundations. When the river passes from one
would be about 2,000 acres, and the value of it from Piedmont to Modena, a mixed com-
may be state to another, as
estimated by the fact that a
large quantity of land has already mission charged with the joint superintendence.
is
been reclaimed near this part of the "The Haarlem lake, besides the very remarkable steam-
Lough. This land now
lets at f>
per acre, and is considered the richest soil in the engines described by Mr. Dempspy. merits observation for
neighbourhood. Indeed, in every case, where a proper the extensive works executed for the defence of the land,
selection of land has been made, and the works and for the canals reserved for the navigation. The enclosure
performed
judiciously, similar success has been the result. dike is 50,000 metres long, or rather more than 31 miles.
It has been remarked
by Mr. Beatson, whose observations It has two outfall dikes, which serve for the navigation,
on this subject we have before noticed, that in the lakes or 0.000 metres, about 54- miles ; one half of which is 40"'
nitres of the north, and the
Louf/lis of Scotland and Ireland, (131 feet 2 inch) wide at the bottom or floor line the other ;

the business of embanking is both 43 nl 20 (141 feet 10 inches.)

simple and easy. In these
"
situations the waters
generally subsido during the summer The ordinary tidos arc at the flux, 2 feet 4 inches above
months, rising considerably in winter, and whenever the the scale or datum line at Amsterdam at the reflux 2 feet
;

season is very wet. In particular cases the extent of surface 8 inches below the same datum the difference between high
:

which is overllowii in the winter season, so far exceeds that and low water is then, on the average, about 5 feet. With
which it covers during the summer, that it would be an object, violent winds from the N. W., however, the tides rise some-
and sometimes a considerable acquisition, to confine the water times 6 feet 6 inches above the average. The tides of
within its summer
boundaries, or to cut off some of its parts. the Y, near the lake, are +
16 (or 6 inches) and 23
To accomplish this the principal outlet must be carefully (or 9 inches), giving a total variation of 1 foot 3 inches.
examined, and be considerably widened and enlarged; which "The estimated cost of reclaiming the 18,000 hectares,
will prevent the water from was 8,000,000 of florins, or 667,000 English, nearly about
rising so high as was formerly
the case. Where the levels will not admit of much depth 13 per acre. Previously to undertaking this colossal work,
being had, or where the ground is of a rocky nature, and the Zind Plas, of 4,000 hectares superficial, (nearly 11,500
would of course be difficult and expensive to deepen, the acres) had been reclaimed at a cost of 3,000.000 of florins,
breadth should be increased as much as possible, and all or ,250,000 ; not far from 22 per acre. The heights of
obstacles cleared
away, that the water may run freely in a the enclosure dike are or + the datum line at Amsterdam,
shallow stream. Where it is required to ascertain with or the mean level of the sea in that port.
exactness, or, to fix with certainty, the future limits of the Embankment of the flooded part of the Amsterdam and
water, a section of the greatest quality running out during Haarlem railway. The bottom part consists of treble ranges
a flood should be taken. Suppose this section, for example, of fascines, tied down by longitudinal poles 1 metre apart
be 10 feet in width and 4 feet in depth, by making it 40 feet from centre to centre, and 0.25 diameter; two double stakes
in width, the same at each end of the poles, and two ties in the intermediate
quantity of water will not rise above 1
foot consequently, by this means alone, 3 feet in height will
: distances. The interstices of the fascines and the space
be gained all round the lake, which, in case of embanking it, between the rows, are filled in with sand. The upper part,
would be a great object. During the summer season, when forming the encasement for the ballast, is made of three rows
the water is lowest, is the most proper time for carrying on of treble fascines, well staked and wattled together.
these, as well as other embankments. When, however, any
" A
core of sand or clay, faced with step fascines, is made
 EMB 381 EMB
up to low-water mark. Upon this a bed of rushes, fastened prising genius and most liberal mind, who has paid more
down by stakes and wattles, is laid ; and the upper por- attention, and laid out more money, in making important and
tion of the bunk is faced with fascines of a regular slope useful experiments, than almost any other private individual.
of 1 to 1." The course of the river, where Mr. Millar has been carrying
Embankments against rivers may be divided into two on his operations, is said to be nearly as shown at Fii/ure 14,
kinds ; namely, such as are for preventing their encroaching by r s t u ; at /, it was encroaching most rapidly, and seemed
on the adjacent lands, and for protecting those lands and the inclined to take a new course towards v, which would have
neighbouring level country from being overflown, when the destroyed some very fine land, and done a great deal of mis-
water rises above its ordinary level. It may be remarked, chief in that part of the country. To prevent this, Mr. Millar
that where the course of a river is a straight line, or nearly made a large cut, about 400 yards in length, from w to r, and
so, it hardly ever makes any encroachment upon its banks, threw in a great quantity of stones quite across the river at s,
unless, perhaps, in very large rivers, when they rise above to direct its course in a straight line from r to w. This had,
their common level, either owing to an increase in the waters, in a great measure, the desired effect, by totally preventing its
or to their being, in some degree, affected by the tides. In
progress at t, but naw it began to encroach on its banks at u.
either case, the waves occasioned by a strong wind, where He at first endeavoured to prevent this by driving in, at a
the river is wide, will moulder away the banks on that side considerable expense, a number of piles at a little distance
upon which it blows, unless prevented in proper time. This from the bank, and wattled them with willow branches, &c.,
may be done either by securing the bank properly with thinking thereby to protect the bank. The piles were driven
stones, or by driving a row of long piles pretty close together in with heavy mallets, apparently linn into the ground ; they
at a little distance from the shore, the piles being of such a continued so for some months, till a heavy fall of rain came
length, and so driven, that their tops may be always above on, which swelled the river, undermined the piles, and car-
the highest rise of the water. It is
surprising the effect that ried them all away. But, indeed, it is in vain to think of piles
piles driven in this manner have in
resisting thepower of the doing any good in such a situation, unless firmly driven in by
waves in such situations. a pile-engine ;
lor it is not possible to drive them in properly
Some years ago, when Mr. Beatson was on duty as an with mallets; this must have been the cause of their giving
engineer at a fort near Portsmouth, built on a point of land way so soon. The piles not succeeding, Mr. Millar was
much exposed to the sea, the waves made such havoe, that resolved to try another plan; several of his adjacent fields
the \v;ills on that side were constantly giving way, although being covered with an immense quantity of stones, he ordered
built in the most substantial manner; and having bulwarks them to be gathered and thrown into the river, so as to form
of large heavy stone besides, to protect the foundation : a jetty at r. a little way above the injured bank. Being
however, all would not do; those bulwarks were soon obliged to go from homo about that time, and to leave the
knocked to pieces, and several times the wall itself. At execution of the work to some country-people, they carried
length it was proposed to drive a number of piles at about out this jetty too much at right angles to the stream. It had
40 or 50 yards from the fort. These piles were 12 or not, therefore, the desired effect, but rather made (he matter
15 inches in diameter, and driven about one diameter from worse than before for, if a jetty is carried out at right
;

each other nearly in a straight line, parallel to the wall where angles, as at in Fit/we 4, the current will be forced from
,

the waves did so much damage. They were driven into the a to the opposite side of the river at 4, and from thence it
ground with a pile-engine till perfectly firm, perhaps 8 or will rebound towards r, more violently that it did before.
U feet deep, and about U feet ot the top of them left above But a jetty be placed obliquely, as at d, it will force the
if
the level of high-water mark. After this was done, the wall current gradually towards e, in which position one jetty may
received no farther injury, the space between the piles and do more good than several placed improperly at right angles.
the fort being always perfectly smooth, however tempestuous Mr. Millar was, therefore, under the necessity of making
the waves might be without. The same simple method other jetties in this way, and at length had the satisfaction to
might, it is
supposed, sometimes protect the banks of find that they answered the purpose intended. Those he made

large rivers, if exposed to the waves, \vheu other methods laterally formed a sort of convex slope, the convexity being
might fail. parallel to the current. Strong planks were also firmly set
But it is suggested, that the most common cause of rivers on edge among the stones, their ends pointing towards the
encroaching on their banks, is the resistance occasioned by a river, so that if ever any current earnc so rapidly as to move
sudden bend. In flat countries, apt sometimes to be over- any of ttie stones, it must move them all in a body the whole
flown, where there are any such bends or windings in the length of the plank. Perhaps this precaution was unneces-
rivers, it would be of great advantage to straighten the sary ; for although stones are thrown into a river loose in
course as much as possible; for, as every impediment or this manner, the slush, sand, &c., that come down the river
obstruction will naturally cause the water to rise higher than will soon fill up .all the cavities, and render it as firm and
it otherwise would do, and as such bends have that effect, solid as a regular-built wall. Mr Beatson has been the more
consequently, in the time of a flood the waters will overflow particular in this description, he says, in order to show the
a greater extent of country, and to a greater depth, than if errors that Mr. Millar at first fell into, and the great expense
the river had a free and uninterrupted course straight forward. they occasioned, whereas, had he been on the spot himself,
If the windings of the river cannot be altered, and encroach- and got the work executed as he intended, it would have

ments arc making on some part of the banks, it must first be saved a great deal of unnecessary labour as well as money.
considered, whether the force of the water can be driven to It is stated by the same writer, that the next sort of em-

another place where no injury can be done. If, for example, bankments against rivers, are those to prevent them over-
a river is encroaching on its banks at x, Figure 13, a jetty flowing their banks, and inundating large tracts of country.
of stone, a little way up the river, in the direction y z, would This may be considered as the simplest and easiest of all
throw oil'the current towards w, and might totally prevent sorts of embanking, if judieipusly executed. It is, therefore,

any farther encroachment. On the river Nith, in Dumfries- the more inexcusable to see, in some places, extensive tracts
shire, it isstated, that a good deal has been done in this way of the richest meadows completely overflown by every flood,

by Mr. Millar, of Dalswinton, a gentleman of the most enter- for want of them.
 EMB 382 EMB
Two ordinary-sized rivers rise no more, even in the greatest Where that not the case naturally, they ought to be
is

flood, than five or six feet above their common level, unless moulded form by art as when a river, in place of
into that ;

when they meet with some considerable interruption or con- being confined in its progress, has a power of efllux and
finement in their course. But if interrupted or confined, they reflux, the damage to be apprehended is inconsiderable, com-
will rise twenty feet or more, as is the case with some parts pared with what is likely to happen when, being restrained
of the river Mersey, already mentioned. If, for example,
within too narrow limits, it is
constantly struggling for an
a given quantity of water is six feet deep, when running extension of space. Where the soil is rich free mould, and
over a space twenty feet wide, it is clear, if that space were the under stratum, opposite to the greatest force of the water,
only made ten feet wide, the water would rise to twelve feet, sand or gravel, this struggle never fails to be attended with
and if it were made forty feet wide, the same quantity of bad consequences. If the soil and subsoil be one entire mass
water would only rise to the height of three feet. It is, of clay or strong loam, and the current of the river does not
therefore, of great consequence, in preventing inundations, press more upon one part than another, a most substantial
to give the river as much width as possible, by widening improvement may be effected by sloping the bank, so that
every narrow place. All kinds of obstructions should also the declivity may be one foot in three or four from the sur-
be removed, whether occasioned by windings, shoals, stones, face of the field to the bed of the river. This some may
trees, bushes, or anything else. In some cases this may even object to, as sacrificing a certain portion of valuable land ;
preclude the necessity of embanking; but where embanking but it should rather, it is thought, be considered as a premium
is
necessary, let the banks by all means be at a sufficient paid for the insurance of the remainder, than as a total loss.
distance from each other, to contain with ease, between them, If gravel, mixed with small
stones, can be conveniently pro-
the largest contents of the river in great floods. The dis- cured, spreading these materials on the sloping bank to the
tance and height of the banks may easily be ascertained depth of eight or ten inches, and till beyond the flowings of
by
measuring a section of the river when at its highest, or when the river, will prove a good
security against farther damage ;
the flood-mark is visible. By not attending to this, a great and if the bank be planted thick with any sort of willow,
deal of money has been thrown away on the embankments especially the Dutch willow, it will in a short time become
on the river Mersey, and after all they do not effectually an impenetrable fence, while the annual cuttings of wood
answer the intended purpose a great part of the country
;
will soon be equal to the heritable value of the land thus
being still overflown every time the river rises to any con- apparently sacrificed. Where no gravel can be procured,
siderable height. the new sloped bank should be immediately covered with
Where a sufficient distance is allowed between the embank- well swarded turf, pressed down as hard as possible, either
ments, their height need not exceed from four to six feet. with the back of a spade, or with wooden mallets. If this
If irremoveable obstacles are in the be done in the beginning of summer, and willows planted
way, which cause the
river to rise higher, the banks must be the following autumn, the improvement will be both effec-
higher in proportion.
In either case, however, the slope of these kinds of banks on tual and permanent. In case the river run with extraordi-
each side may be equal to its perpendicular nary violence against any one particular part of the bank, it
height, and the
breadth on the top about one-third of that height, which, may be necessary to make a fence or bulwark of stone in the
supposing the bank six feet high, the base would be fourteen front of that place; the best way of doing which, is, in place
feet, and the breadth of the top two feet, as shown at Figure of building a wall, to drop the stones in a careless manner,
16, in the Plato. but so as they may lie close together on the sloped bank, as
The materials making these banks should be taken as
for already suggested.
much from the sides of the river, which will have
as possible This is a much more secure mode of fencing, if the bank
the double effect of widening the river and
forming the em- be made with sufficient declivity, than any stone wall that
bankments and there should be a trench on the inside (from
;
ever was built for the purpose, and while it is the most
which materials may also be got) with some sluices, as for- secure, it is also the least expensive ; but care should be
merly directed, to drain off any water from within; also taken to lay the stones all the way from the bed of the river,
sluices to let in water from the river, if
required, which
till
considerably beyond where the river flows in common.
would very much fertilize the meadows, if properly laid out Where the soil is of a strong adhesive nature, and the under
for that purpose. stratum is sand or a pebbly gravel, it becomes in a much
Such farms as are situated on the borders of rivers are greater degree necessary to slope the banks. The water,
frequently,it was observed
by a late writer, liable to much when rushing violently along, has a powerful effect in under-
injury and inconvenience from them: 1st. From part of the mining the bank ; so that the soil, having nothing to support
soil
being carried away in times of flood. 2nd. From their it, naturally gives way, and frequently
in such quantities as

overflowing their banks. 3rd. From their flowing back in to occasion very serious loss both to proprietors and tenants.
times of flood into the channels of the rivulets and streams In all such cases, the slope should be made much more gra-
that conduct the water from the more elevated and distant dual than where the soil and subsoil are of the same quality,
grounds to the rivers, whereby these rivulets and streams are and such as will nourish aquatic plants. The banks, having
made also to overflow their banks. been sloped according as circumstances require, a thick coat
In respect to the first, the
danger of the soil being carried of gravel, mixed with small stones, where such can be pro-
away in time of floods, it is increased or decreased
according cured, should be laid on. so as to form a kind of natural
to circumstances, as the form of the
banks, the nature of the beach, over which the river, when in flood, may have power
soil, the rapidity of the river, and the
quantity of water that to extend itself at pleasure. Should it be difficult or im-
lodges on the margins of the banks, or falls over them into possible to procure such materials as are proper for forming
the river. Where the banks of a river are perpendicular, this best of all defences, strong thick sods should be placed
especially if the soil be of a rich mouldering nature, the on the surface, in the manner before directed these, if laid
:

danger of part of them being carried away by floods is much on in spring, or early in summer, will have time to unite,
greater than where they slope gently from the surface of and to become one compact body before the autumnal floods
the field to the bed of the
river, as has been already fully (which are those whence the greatest danger is to be expect-
seen.
ed) begin to flow. If the subsoil be of a nature unfavour-
 EMB 383 EMB
able to the growth of willows, such sods as are full of the grass are greatly injured, by being covered for a considerable
roots of rushes should be made choice of in preference to all time with water ;
and at others again, the whole produce of
others; as, where these plants thrive and spread over the the year, the hay and corn crops, are swept away. To
surface, it becomes in a great degree impenetrable by water, prevent evils so complicated, and so serious in their nature,
even in great floods, and when the river runs with consider- is
certainly the business of every man, who, from the situa-
erable violence and rapidity. tion of his farm, has reason to apprehend, that, without
using
The directions above given will, it is supposed, be found proper precautions, he may bo subjected to such visitations.
more or less practicable and useful according as the river on These damages can only happen in level tracts, where the
ordinary occasions runs with greater or less rapidity. In banks of the rivers are low, and where the course is not of
level, or nearly level districts, all that is necessary is to secure sufficient breadth to contain the water in time of flood.
full scope for the rivers to overflow their usual bounds with- Some people, although very improperly, raise mounds of
out interruption ; when that is secured by either of the earth close to the top of tho bank, and of a height exceeding
methods before mentioned, floods, unless very violent, seldom that to which the river can be expected at any time to rise.
do any material damage to the banks of rivers in such situa- These mounds, from being placed so near the river, arc unable
tions. It becomes in many cases extremely difficult to fence to resist the pressure of' the water, and
by giving way,
rapid running rivers in such a manner as to prevent part of frequently admit a current into the fields, which proves much
the banks from being carried away by inundation. Sloping more injurious in its course than if no mound whatever had
the banks would be attended with no good consequences. been erected. Were a mound of earth formed on the side of
Even strong bulwarks made of stone are often swept away the drain, proposed to be made for carrying ofl" the land-
by the overpowering flood. A
method has, however, been water, and were that mound well sloped on the side towards
suggested, of fencing the sides of a rapid running river, which the river, it would be the most secure and effectual
guard
has been practised with success, after several other attempts against rivers doing injury to the adjoining lands, of any that
had failed it is by means of a sort of large baskets, pro-
: could be adopted. l!y these mounds being placed at a distance
vincially termed
creels, formed of hazel, willow, &c., into from the river, the force of the stream would be much lessened,
a kind of open network, which being placed along the bottom and the natural boundaries of the river greatly enlarged ;
of the banks, are filled with stones. This is a very simple, as, in proportion as the mounds are removed from the centre
and by no means an expensive expedient; and as these of the current of the river, in like proportion will
they become
baskets may be made to contain two or three tons of stone, more secure, as being less liable to violent pressure. The
it can
only bo on few occasions, and in very particular propriety of erecting these mounds at a proper distance must,
situations, that a basket, containing such a weight, can be therefore, be sufficiently evident ; as, when mounds are erected
displaced or carried away. Such a mode of fencing as this, near the top of the bank, which can onlv be owing to ill-
it is imagined, would
prove effectual in many parts of Scot- judged parsimony, they form as it were a part of the bank,
land and Wales, where the rivers run with uncommon and are liable to be undermined and swept away. Whereas,
rapidity. Owing to inattention, or rather to not being aware when they are placed at the distance of '20, 30, or 40 yards,
of the consequences, much damage is often done to the banks they serve rather as a boundary to confine the overflowing
of rivers in level districts,
especially if the banks be perpen- waters which glide along the bottom, than as a barrier to
dicular, and of a considerable height, by allowing the land- prevent the encroachments of an impetuous river during the
floods to fall over them into the river. As the water from time of floods.
the furrows approaches the bank, it is frequently stopped in In regard to the third case, it is observed, that farmers
the furrow of the head ridge, which becomes for a time a who possess lands in low situations often sustain damage
kind of reservoir ; the consequence of which is, that a con- from rivers, in time of flood, by their flowing back into the
siderable proportion of water sinks and filters through the channels of the rivulets and streams that conduct the water
earth, which being thus softened and swelled, is more easily from the more distant and elevated grounds to the rivers,
undermined and carried oil' by the river. Sometimes liMle whereby these rivulets and streams are made also to over-
cuts or openings are made for the furrows across the head flow their banks.
ridge, for the purpose of conducting the rain-water into the The only precaution that can be adopted, in such a case,
river here, again, the consequences are equally bad.
;
Who- or at least the one which appears to have the greatest proba-
ever will examine the bank of a river where this mode of birity of answering the purpose, is to erect mounds at a dis-
management is adopted, and it is
very common, will observe, tance from the banks, and of a size proportioned to the
that at every one of these cuts or openings a little creek is quantity of water, which, from the cause now mentioned,
formed, in consequence of the bank having been more soft- may be supposed at any time to stagnate in those channels.
ened, and by that means having become a more easy prey to This may be done at a very trifling expense either in money
the river when in flood. To prevent these evils, it is neces- or land. If the proprietors do not choose to ornament the

sary, besides sloping the banks, to devote a part of the lands country and improve their own estates, by planting trees on
adjoining, to the breadth of 20 or 30 yards, for instance, either the borders of the rivulets and streams, the farmers may so
to pasturage or the growth of trees, and to form a drain at construct these mounds, as that they may become fences
a proper distance from, and parallel to the bank, for the to their arable fields, while that portion of the farm, neces-
purpose of collecting and carrying off the water from the sarily and properly cut off" for the protection of the remain-
furrows. Were this done, and were the water from this der, may be devoted to pasturage.
drain conducted into the river by conduits formed a little Several different embankments of a successful kind have
above ordinary level, much land, which is annually lost
its been effected in the northern parts of the kingdom. An
by neglecting this simple precaution, would be saved, and important work of this nature was some years since executed,
preserved in a proper state. on the estate of Lord Galloway, situated on the mouth of the
In the second case, it is evident that injuries, although of river Cree, near Cree-town,. by his lordship's tenant, Mr.
another nature, are often sustained by farmers, from rivers Thomas Hannay, who states, in the third volume of the
overflowing their banks. Sometimes the farmer is prevented "Farmer's Magazine," that at the time he entered on the
from sowing his field ; at other times the crops of grain and farm, upwards of 100 Scottish statute acres were regularly
 EMB 384 EMB
flooded by the highest spring-tides, excepting about three side of the river opposite to his, was made almost a complete
months summer, when the tides were lower. They were
in wreck, by an extraordinary tide, owing to its lying quite
seldom, however, covered above the deplh of one or two feet, exposed to the south-west-winds, which always send up the
and never above four or five. Eighty acres of the above highest tides ; but on his side, though suffering some injury
consisted of a rich sea marsh, or iityx, as they call them there, from the same high tide, he was not affected by those winds,
almost a true level, excepting where hollows were formed as they blew right over the bank. In his opinion, the bank

by the egress and regress of the tides, and the passage of on the other side of the river, in order to be durable, would
fresh water from the higher grounds and about 4 or 5 acres,
; require' to be 30 feet broad, and 8 feet high, covered with
which were about 16 inches lower, being a younger marsh, feals, with the green side out ; and that no stuff' should be
and nothing but what they lifted within 6 or 7 feet of it, the
call ink-grass growing upon it
; ground being of a sandy
other grasses, such as clover, rib-grass, &c., grew on the nature. It
might be made
after the form shown at Figure 19.
rest of the marsh, forming a very beautiful close cover in The whole of turned out most excellent land, and con-
this
the summer. The other 20 acres were on an average about tinues to produce to this day some of the finest
crops in that
18 inches higher; consequently the sea did not cover them part of the country.
so often. It had formerly been ploughed, but. not for about Anotlierimprovemcnt of the samenature was accomplished
20 years past. Last time it was in coin, it was flooded on what in Scotland is termed came land, on the farm of
immediately after being sown, which rendered the crop Netherton of Grange, belonging to James Pcterkin, Esq.,
almost entirely useless, and deterred former tenants from b}' Mr. John Iloyes, his tenant. The work was undertaken
ploughing again.itMr. Ilannay began to bank this field under an agreement with the proprietor, to allow one year's
in the autumn of the year 1708, by making a dike along the rent, of 195 sterling, with the farther allowance of amelio-
side opposite to the river, in a direct line facing the east. rating the farm-houses to the extent of 150 more. The
This dike was made, at an average, about 3|- feet high, and method adopted for carrying on the operations was this :

6 broad at bottom, and 20

feet inches at top, built after the After looking over the carse, and marking out the line or dike,
same manner with that mentioned below. lie enclosed, the length of which is 1,400 yards, mostly in a right line,
along with the said fields, he says, 4 acres of the marsh except an angle at the distance of 300 yards from the west
adjoining, by making a dike 5 feet high, and 5 feet in bottom, end, and a segment of a circle at about 250 from the south-
almost wholly of solid feals or sods, with a very little stuff, east end, itwas resolved to make the embankment 6 feet high
properly beat, in the heart of it, which makes an excellent in the highest part of the
ground, and to allow 2 feet of
fence, and promises to be a very durable one. This dike, breadth in the bottom of every foot in height, as seen by the
together with two small drains, one on each side of it. about draught of the mould at Figure 20. After taking the level
two feet deep, cost 3d. per yard. The division-dikes of the of the carse, it was found that where the ground was low,
whole marsh, which now, divided into 4 parts, are all built and a good deal of it broken by runs of the sea and outlets
after the same manner, only that there is no loose stuff in for the water, the dike would
require to be 8 and 10 feet
the heart of some of them, but all of solid teal, jointed like high, to have it on a level at the top ; so that the average
bricks, as may be seen at Figure 17, which represents an end would be 9 feet high. The embankment was built in the
view, or section of it. This dike, meant as a permanent following manner It was
:
begun on the highest ground, near
fence, answered as a temporary bank, and enabled him to the west end. and two moulds set up at the distance of 70 or
plough that field in spring, 1791), although the bank round 80 yards ; the height, 6 feet, by 12 broad in the base ; the
the whole marsh .was not finished till the winter following. slope on the outside 6 feet, on the inside 4 feet, and the breadth
lie sowed oats on this field, and, considering the badness of at the top 2 feet ; the sides made up with feal from the broken
the season, had a very good crop particularly so on that
; ground on the outside of the dike, which were laid with the
part which had not been ploughed formerly. On farther grass-side down, two feal deep on each side of the dike ;
consideration, he altered the plan of the bank round the the outside feal of the first course with the ends out and in,
marsh, (which extends in a circular direction facing the north) and the other running along; the next course, the outside
by making it. at an
average, about four feet and a half high, feal running along, and the outside out and in, and so on
and allowing about two feet in the base for one in height, as alternately, each course consisting of a head and runner the
;

at Figure 18, where a b c represents an end view, or section body of the dike being made up of the carse ground from
of it, every small span representing the section of a feal'-or which the feal had been cut, and packed down by men with
sod a b shows the inside of the bank, with the green side
;
beaters. When this was brought to the height of 4 or 5 feet,
of the feal down ; b c the base ; a c the side next the water, another piece was begun, leaving an intermediate space, where
with the green side of the feal out, (which adds greatly both there were any water-runs, for the egress of the tide : this
to the strength and beauty of the bank ;) and d the heart of was found necessary, to draw off the water from the low parts
the dike, made up with stuff' properly compressed with a of the carse, which would have been filled up in spring tides ;
rammer. The stuff was taken from a ditch, in the inside of and, by coming in at the end and over the high ground, would
the bank, leaving a casement of a foot, which ought to have have been prevented from getting out by the dike, if it had
been three at least ; and, where the ground is of a sandy not been- done in that way ; so that the embankment was all
nature, more ; as the fresh water, running in the inside, was in detached pieces, till it was brought near the height. These

likely to undermine the bank, had he not prevented it, by intermediate spaces were then filled up, between the fall of
cutting a new drain, and filling the old one with the stuff one and rise of next spring-tide, after laying down wooden
cast from The only creek worth noticing, through which
it.
pipes with stoppers in the dike, to carry off the sink-water.
the bank passed, was about 40 feet wide and 9 feet deep, In carrying on the work, they had in some places to cross
in the bottom of which a wooden
pipe, with a stopper, was over lakes and runs made by the tides, which required vast
through the bank. in some places upwards
quantities of materials, the dike being
laid
There are now about 50 acres of the same kind of marsh- of 10 feet high, and 22 broad in the base ; the greatest
land adjoining his ; and also about 100 acres on the other feet broad. There was one lake
part of the dike being 16 to 18
side of the river, banked in, all nearly in the same manner of 150 feet in length, and 50 feet in breadth, filled up with
as represented in the fignre. The bank on a farm on the earth, clay, and sand, to the height of 5 feet ;
on which the
 EMB 385 EMB
dike was then built. This forms a mound, on the outside near the centre, but a little on the land-side of the centre of
of the dike, of 15 or 16 feet broad; and through this there the old bank. This gutter is afterwards filled up in a very
are pipes laid, to carry off the sink-water. A stream of solid manner with tempered clay and to make the clay resist
;

water was also turned by the west end of the farm, by the water, a man in boots always treads the clay as the gutter
cutting a canal, which conveyed the water through the em- is filled up. As the fen-moor lies on clay, the whole expense
bunkment there, by means of an outlet built of stone, with of this cheap, improved, and durable mode of waterproof
a sluice on the inside, raised to the level of the running banking costs in the fens only srxpence per-yard. This plan
water, and a folding door on the outside, to be shut by the was tried on a convenient farm, and a hundred acres of wheat
spring-tides. At this place, a road, that formerly led to were sown on the land. The wheat and grass lands on this
Findhorn at low water through the carse, is carried over the farm were all dry, whilst the fens around were covered with
top of the dike, by making a mound of earth at each side, water. This practice is, after all, nothing more than making
with a gradual approach and descent. a puddle-bank, well known to all engineers, or those engaged
In Figure 20, a, is the breadth of the dike at the top, when in forming canals.
finished; b, the breadth of dike at the bottom, being twelve The term embankment in canal-making is applied to any

feet, when it is six feet high ; c, the breadth when eight feet large mound of earth, either for confining the water of the
high ; rf, the breadth when ten feet high ; f, the slope on the canal or reservoir, or for carrying the former across a valley
sea-side of the dike, which is always equal to half of the breadth or low piece of ground. The method of constructing such
of the bottom the inside slope, and breadth of the dike at
: embankments is nearly the same as in those for railways,
the top, is equal to the other half; and e is the plumb-rule in except that in the former the sides have puddle-trenches
a frame, made to apply to the mould or dike the intention
: formed near the canal, to prevent leakage.
of it was, to find if the dike was kept on the proper slope, The embankments on some of the great lines of railway in
where a line could not be applied from one mould to another, this
country are of immense magnitude, on the London and
as in a round or turn, or when the moulds were obliged to Birmingham railway, for instance, the total of embankments
be taken down ; but this one only answered for the sea-side, amounted to about 11 millions of cubic yards. The follow-
another being used for the inside, to fit its slope." Figure 21, ing extracts from specifications for works of this kind will
is a scale of the mould, one-eighth of an inch to a foot. show the usual mode of construction.
" The
A curious, useful, and highly ingenious method of embank- whole of the embankment in this contract shall have
ing, and preventing the waters of the tides from soaking slopes of two to one (that is to say) where the base of the
through the porous banks, made in the fen-lands, and low slope is two feet, its
height shall be one foot only, and they
marshy grounds, was described by Mr. John Smith, in the shall be thirty-three feet wide at the level of the red line in
fourth volume of " Communications to the Board of Agricul- the section, neither more nor less.
ture" who begins by " concisely observing, that the great " Each of
the embankments shall be uniformly carried
land of the fens is divided into three large levels ; and that forward as nearly as the finished heights and width as the due
each of these levels is subdivided into numerous districts by allowance for shrinking of materials will admit of, and this
banks but as these banks are made of fen-moor, and other
: allowance shall not exceed or fall short of the quantity deemed
light materials, whenever the rivers are swelled with water, necessary by the engineer. In all cases, this must be care-
or any other district is deluged either by rain, a breach of fully and strictly attended to, in order to avoid the necessity
banks, or any other cause, the waters speedily pass through of inaking any subsequent addition, either to heights, or the
these light, moory, porous banks, and drown all the circum- width of the embankment, to bring them to their proper
jacent districts. The fens have thus sometimes sustained level and dimensions.
"
20,000 or 30,000 damages by a breach of the banks, though The surface of the embankment shall be kept in such form
these accidents seldom happen in the same district twice in or be intersected by such drains, as will always prevent the
twenty years. The water, however, soaks through all fen- formation of pools of water upon them, and insure the
banks every year, in every district ; and when the water- embankment being kept as dry as possible.
mills have lifted the waters up out of the fens into the rivers "Whenever the material, teemed over the end of the
in a windy day, a great part of the water soaks back embankment, shall not form the proper slope, it shall be care-
through
the porous banks, in the night, upon the same land again." fully trimmed to its required form and this operation must
;

And he adds, that "this water that soaks through the bank proceed at the same time with the end of the embankment,
drowns the wheat in the winter, washes the manure into the so as to obviate the necessity of any future addition of
dikes, destroys the best natural and artificial grasses, and pre- material to the sides of the embankment.
vents the fens from being sown till too late in the season. "As the embankments advance, and become consolidated,
This stagnant water lying on the surface, causes also fen- the slopes shall be carefully trimmed into planes having the
agues, &c. Thus, says he, the waters that have soaked proper slope, and be neatly covered with a uniform substance
through the porous fen-banks have done the fertile fens more of turf, of not less than eight inches in thickness, and laid
real injury than all the other floods that have ever come
upon with the green sward outwards ; the turf must be taken from
them." the ground to be occupied by the base of the embankment,
Having been much concerned in fen-banking from his and cut square, so as to be laid on the slopes in the form of
youth, he had some time since devised the plan which he flags ; and where the land is arable, the slopes of the
now finds to answer so well ; but found it difficult to prevail embankment shall be covered with soil. It must be uni-
with any gentleman, who had a proper extent of this sort of formly laid on, of the thickness of six inches, and sown with
land, to give it a fair trial. However, during the last autumn, rye-grass and clover-seed, as soon as the proper season will
he prevailed with a person in the parish where he lives to try admit of its being done, not less than one pound and a half
it, which showed it to be equal to his highest expectations. of clover-seed, and one pound and a half of rye-grass seed, to
The improved method of embanking proposed by this be sown to each acre.
" a " When the
gentleman, consists chiefly in this that:
gutter is cut material, brought to the embankment, consists
eighteen inches wide, through the old bank down to the clay of large lumps, they shall be broken into pieces of not more
(the fen substratum being generally clay ;) the gutter is made than six inches in diameter."
49
 ENA 386 ENT
Expense of forming embankments. This must obviously be seen on the envelopes of Egyptian mummies, also in
be very different in different situations and circumstances, Greek and Roman work, &c.
according to material* and the price of labour, but though in ENC ARPUS, sculptures of fruit or flowers, such as those
general pretty considerable, it is seldom so high as is com- employed decoration of friezes.
in the

monly supposed. It is probable, that in cheap districts, and ENCAUSTIC, a term applied to paintings, in which the
where the materials are plentiful, the expense of forming an colours are fixed by means of heat. Encaustic tiles, are those
earth-bank, covered with sand or gravel, such as that shown in which coloured devices are introduced, the colours
being
at figure 1, could not be less than from fourpence or sixpence, burnt in during the process of manufacture.
to tenpence or a shilling, the cubic yard. And such as have ENCHASING, that mode of decorating metal-work hi
more steep and bold slopes, as from thirty-five to forty which the devices are represented in low relief.
degrees, and are formed with pavement on the surfaces, ENDECAGON. See HENDECAGON.
cannot cost less than from ninepence to one shilling the cubic END-IRONS, otherwise and-irons, standards, usually of
yard. One made on the plan of that shown at Fignre 6, metal, and of various forms, used in fireplaces previous to
could not be constructed for less than from twelve or fifteen the employment of coal for fuel, to support the logs of wood.
to thirty pounds for every thirty-two yards. And one con- ENDS OF A STONE, the two parallel sides, which form the
structed of brushwood, in the same method, for soft ground, vertical joints.
which will not admit of a wall, would not be lower than ENGAGED COLUMN. See COLUMN.
from sixpence or eightpence, to six or seven shillings for each ENGINE, See PILE ENGINE.
Pile.
foot forward in a lineal manner. In many situations, the ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE, a term applied by some
ezpenses would, however, in all sorts of embankments, stand to the styles of Gothic architecture as developed in England.
a great deal higher than these. See GOTHIC and DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.
In some districts, embankments are formed by the rod and ENGLISH-BOND, in bricklaying, a disposition of bricks,
the floor, the former being from four to five pounds, and the wherein a course of headers succeeds a course of stretchers
latter about four shillings and sixpence, the workmen finding alternately. In the north, bricklayers frequently run three
all sorts of necessary things for the business. or five courses of stretchers to one of headers.
EMBATTLED BUILDING, a building with embrasures ENGLISH OAK, oak timber of the native produce of
in the parapet, resembling a castle or fortified place. England. It is much used in the country for rustic buildings,
EMBATTLED LINE, a straight line bent into right angles, so and is particularly useful in the truss-posts of roofs, as being
that if there be two sets of parts, the parts of each set may less liable to compression, and possessing a greater degree of
be in the same straight line, and parallel to the parts of the tension, than fir.
other. ENNEAGON, a figure of nine sides and angles.
EMBATTLED ARONADE, partly the same as the EMBATTLED
is ENSEMBLE, (a French word, signifying together, or one
LINE, the difference consisting of a semi-circle raised in the with another, formed of the Latin in and simul,) the work
middle of each part which forms the continuation of one of or composition of a building, considered as a whole, and uot
the straight lines, the semi-circle presenting its convexity in parts.
towards the parts which form the other straight line. ENTABLATURE, (French, from the Latin tabulatvm, a
EMBATTLED BATTLED LINE, a straight line bent into right stage, or story,) that part ofan order which is supported by
angles, so that if there be three sets of parts, one set may the column or columns, and forms the covering or shelter to
be parallel to those of the other two. the edifice. It consists of three principal divisions, viz., the

EMBLEMATA, a kind of inlaid or mosaic work, used by architrave, which rests upon the capitals of the 'columns the
;

the Romans in flooring, panelling,&c. frieze immediately above it ; and the cornice at the summit.
EMBOSSING, the act of forming work in relievo, whether These divisions, according to Vitruvius, represent the princi-
it be cast, moulded, or cut with a chisel.
pal timbers used in the roof of the timber-building, which he
EMBOSSING, in architecture, that kind of sculpture in which supposes to have been the origin and type of erections in
the figure stands in relief beyond the plane, or other surface stone. This subject has been already referred to under the
from which it seems to rise. The several kinds of sculpture title DORIC ARCHITECTURE. The entablature either finishes
formed by embossing are, low relief, mean relief, and high the whole edifice, or BO much as, has the order applied to it ;
relief, and ought to .terminate either in a level cornice,
in strictness
EMBRASURE, an enlargement or splay of the aperture or in a pediment formed of two equally inclined cornices.
of a door or window, generally withinside the wall, for the This rule, however, was not always adhered to by the
admission of a greater quantity of light ; when the wall is very Romans: for in many of their buildings, we find the ordon-
thick, an enlargement is also made on the outside of the wall. nance crowned with an attic or blocking course. The edifices
EMBRASURE, is also applied to the apertures of an embattled of Balbec and Palmyra were often finished in this manner;
parapet. It is another term for the crenelles, or intervals as were even some of the Grecian structures, after Greece
between the merlons. had become a Roman province.
EMBROIDERY, the enrichment of woven fabrics by the The general height of the entablature is equal to two dia-
introduction of devices in needlework. Embroidery was a meters of the column ; though some authors make the Doric
kind of work very usually
employed in ecclesiastical hangings, entablature one-third of the height of the column ; and the
vestments, and the like, and, in such cases, is of the most entablature of the Ionic one-fourth, and that of the Corinthian
gorgeous and elaborate description. or Composite, each one-fifth of the respective columns.
EMPLECTON, a kind of walling, used by the Greeks, Vignola makes the entablature one-quarter of the height of
and the Roman villagers, consisting of rubble masonry, with the column, in each of the orders; but the former proportion
facings of wrought stones laid in courses.
regular See of twice the breadth of the base agrees much better with the
WALLS. ancient Grecian examples than the other two. It must be

ENAMELLING, a method employed to enrich metal-work recollected, that in ancient examples of the same Order, the
by the much used in the works of the
introduction of colour, in some instances more, in others
height of the entablature is
middle ages. Specimens of enamel of an early date are to less, than two diameters. In the temple
of Minerva, at Athens,
 ENV 387 ENV
which is one of the most chaste of the Grecian Dories, the the points e, g, &c., draw lines e f
i, g h k, &c., parallel to

entablature is almost precisely two diameters of the column. A. M. Transfer the distances, E F, o H, &c., to ef, g h, &cc. ;
In the Corinthian or Composite, where the column is ten through the points M, f, h, &c., to C 8 draw a curve ; and
diameters in height, the proportion found in some ancient c, M N / will be the envelope required.
examples of later date, one-fifth of the said height, is exactly Problem II. To develope the surface of a cylinder con-
two diameters of the foot of the shaft. tained between two other concentric cylindric surfaces and a
To find the proportions of the different parts of the entab- plane, in such a manner that the exes of the two cylindric
lature, divide the total height into ten parts, of which give surfaces may cut the axis of the Jirst cylinder at right angles,
three to the architrave, three to the frieze, and the remaining and that the plane may pass along the axis of the Jirst
four to the cornice. This will stand as a general rule, but in cylinder, and cut the axes of the two cylinders at right
the Doric order the proportions are somewhat different, the angles.
architrave containing two-eighths, and the frieze and cornice Figure Let A c L N be the plane terminated by the arcs
2.

three-eighths each. A c and N which are the intersections of the concentric

L,
The entablature is also called trabeation ; and by Vitruvius cylindric surfaces, and by the parallel straight lines A N and
and Vignola, ornament. c L, which are formed by the curved surface of the cylinder
ENTABLATURE, or ENTABLEMENT, is sometimes used for intersecting the plane.
the last row of stones on the top of the wall of a building, Proceed in every respect as in Figure 1, and the envelope
whereon the covering rests. As this is frequently made to will be obtained ; the referring letters being alike in both
project beyond the naked of the wall, to carry off the rain, Figures.
some authors call it,
or drip ; but such
in Latin, stillicidium, Problem III. To develope that portion of the surface
an entablature does not stand out far enough, but permits the of a cone contained between two parallel planes and a third
water to fall on the foot of the wall. plane, so that the axes of the code may be cut at right angles
ENTAIL, a term used in the middle ages to designate all by the parallel planes, and that the third plane may pass
kinds of sculpture and carved decoration, but more especially along the axis of the cone.
applied to the more elaborate enrichment. Figure 3. Let A E F c be the plane passing along the axis,
ENTASIS, the swell observable in the shafts of Grecian terminated at A c and E F by the parallel planes, and at A E
columns, and more particularly in those of the Doric order. and c F by the curved surface of the cone. A is c is a section
Amongst the modern Italian architects, the practice has been of the cone, perpendicular to the axis. Produce A E and c F
carried to an absurd excess. Several methods of describing to meet in D ; and with the radii D E and D A describe the
the curve will be found under the article COLUMN. arcs E o and A c ; extend the semi-circumference of A B c on
ENTER, (from the French entrer, to go in,) in carpentry the arc A c, from A to c, and draw c G D; and A c a E
and joinery, to insert the end of a tenon in the mouth or will be the envelope required.

beginning of a mortise, previous to its being driven home to Problem IV. To develope that portion of the surface of
the shoulder. a cone contained between two concentric cylindric surfaces
ENTRESOLS, (French,) an intermediate story ; a low and a plane passing along the axis, so that the plane may
floor introduced between two principal ones. See MEZZA- cut the common axis the
ef cylindric surfaces at right
NINE. angles.
ENTRY, (from the French entree, a passage,) a door, figure 4. Let A i K c be the portion of the plane passing
gate, passage, &c., for admission into the interior of an enclo- along the axis, and the arcs A c and i K the intersections of
sure, house, or apartment. the cylindric surfaces ; the straight lines A i and c K, the
ENVELOPE, (French,) the covering of a portion of the intersections of the conic surface. A B c is a section upon
surface of a solid, by means of a thin pliable substance, the chord A c. From D, with the radius D A, describe the
which comes in contact in all points or parts with such arc A M ; divide the semi-circumference into any ABC
surface. number of equal parts, and extend them upon the arc A M,
To develope the surface of a solid, is to find the envelopes from A to M, at the points 1, 2, 3, &c. to M draw 1 D, 2 D, :

that will cover its different parts. 3 D, M D included; also, through the points 1, 2, 3,
&c. to
A few examples of the developement of surfaces will be in the arc ABC, draw lines perpendicular to A c, cutting it
here given, and for further information we refer the reader in as many points from these points, draw lines to D, cut-
:

to the article SOFFIT. ting both the concave and convex curves from the points so
;

Problem 1. To develope that portion of the curved surface cut, draw A c, cutting A D then from the
lines parallel to ;

of a cylindroid, which is contained between two parallel points of intersection, made by the parallels drawn from one
planes, and another plane passing through the axis at right of the curves, describe the several arcs drawn from the
angles with the parallel planes. point D, to cut the respective straight lines. Proceed in
Plate I. Figure 1. Let M N L c be the plane passing the same manner with the other curve, and through the
through the axis, terminated at M c and N L hy the parallel points so obtained, draw the two curves and A M L i will
;

at M N and c L; form the envelope required. But to show more particularly

planes, and by the surface to be developed,
the four lines M c, c L, L N, N M, forming a parallelogram, how the successive points in the curve of the envelope are
M c, L N. Draw c A c, at a right angle with c L, and pro- found, we shall only describe a single point, and the remain-
duce N M to A ; then A c is one of the axes of the elliptic ing points will be obtained in the same manner; thus, to
section, at right angles to the axis of the cylindroid. On A c find the point u in the envelope, draw 2 E perpendicular
describe the semi-ellipsis ABC, having its other semi-axis to A c, cutting it at E ; draw E D, cutting the curve A c at F ;

equal to that of the cylindroid ; divide the curve ABC

into draw F o parallel to A c, cutting A D at o ; from the centre D,
any number of equal parts, say eight, and extend them from describe the arc o H, cutting 2 D at n, which is a point in
A to c,, which coincides with the termination of the eighth the curve, as before stated ; but by drawing the several

part, marking
the respective points as 1, 2, &c., at e, g, &c. systems of perpendicular lines, of lines going to a centre,
Through the points of division, 1, 2, 3, &c., in the arc, draw and parallel lines, at once, much time will be saved in the
the straight lines 1 K F i, 2 a u K, parallel to A M : also, from operation.
 ENV 388 EPI

Problem V. To develope the surface of a cuneoid con- The envelopes of all solids, to which a tangent plane to its
tained between two parallel planes, and a plane passing surface parallel to the given plane will apply, have the same
along the axis of the cuneoid, so that the parallel planes curvature or straight line at the edge, where the plane be-
may be perpendicular to the plane passing along the axis, comes a tangent, as the corresponding part of the edge of the
the section of one of the parallel planes being given. given plane.
Figure 5. Let A B c D be the plane passing along the axis, In describing the envelopes ofsolids, the whole or a por-
terminated by the straight lines A D and B c, which are the tion of the section passing through the axis, is always sup-
intersections of the parallel planes, and by the straight lines posed to be given, as also a section of the solid, making a
A B and c D, which are the intersections of the cuneoidal given angle with the said plane, and the intersection in a
surface. Let the section EEC, standing upon B c, be a semi- given position.
circle,and, consequently, the section A F D formed by the If only a portion of the section passing along the axis be
other parallel plane, will be a semi-ellipsis of the same given, it is always supposed to be terminated by the same
altitude. surfaces, which also terminate the surface to be covered.
Produce A B and D c to meet in o, divide the arc B E, which The following is a more general method of finding the
is the half of the semi-circumference, into any number of envelope of a solid by means of points.
equal parts, say four, from
the points of division, draw the In this description it will only be necessary to have the
perpendiculars 1 H, 2 i, 3 K, E L, cutting B c at H, i, K, L : seats of three points given on the base, and the heights of
draw G P perpendicular to A G ; on G p make a m, o n, o o, the points on the cylindric surface from their seats. Let ABC
and G p respectively equal to H 1, i 2, K 3, and L E ; from (Plate II. Figures 1, 2, 3) be
the part of the base of the
the points m, n, o, p, as centres, with the respective distances cylinder, and A, B, c the seats of the three points ; join A c ;
G H, G i, G K, and G L, describe the arcs h r, i t, k v, and I x ; draw c E and A D perpendicular to A c ; make A D equal to
extend the arc B 1, or 1, 2, which is the eighth part of the the height of the point above A, c E equal to the height of the
semi-circumference, from B to h, from h to i, from i to k, and point above c, and c F equal to the height of the point above
from k to /; then drawing the curve B h i k I, will give the the seat B ; join E D ; draw F G parallel to c A, and G H parallel
half of the envelope, which will coincide with the arc H E, to c E, cutting A c at H ; and join H B produce A c to i ;
;

when the semi-circle H E c is turned perpendicular to the divide the curve ABC
into any number of equal parts ; and
plane, A B c D, upon its base B c : and since I p is the middle extend those parts up6n c i ; through the points of division
line, the other half, or counter part, will easily be found. in the curve, ABC, draw lines parallel to B H, intersecting B
To develope the elliptic edge, join mh, n i, o k, and p I, and c ; from the points of intersection in A c draw lines parallel
produce them to u, s, t, f: transfer H u, i s, K T, to h i s, ,
to G H, to meet D E ; from the points of intersection draw lines
k t, I f, and through the points A, u, s, t, f, draw a curve parallel to A c ; and from the divisions in c i draw lines
A u s tf, which will be the envelope of the arc A r, the half parallel to c E, so as to intersect the other parallels last
of the semi-ellipsis A F D then the counter part being found,
;
drawn ; through the points thus found, draw the curve c i K E c,
will complete the envelope A B c of of the curved surface, and it will be the envelope required.
standing over A B c d. Figure the case where the rectangular plane makes a
1, is
Problem VI. To develope that portion of the surface of right angle with the elliptic section :

a cuneoid terminated on two sides by a plane passing through Figure 2, that where the angle made by
the rectangular
the axis, and by two concentric cylindric surfaces whose axis plane and the elliptic section is acute :

is perpendicular to the plane given ; given that portion of Figure 3, where the angle formed by these two planes
the plane terminated by the curved surface of the cuneoid, and is obtuse.
by the intersections of the two cylindric surfaces ; also, the In Figures 3, D M E is the orthographical projection
2 and
semicircular section of the cuneoid. of the curve with which the curve, E K, of the envelope
;

figure 6. Let A E and B G be the intersections of the would coincide. This is found by drawing parallels to G H
cuneoidal surface, and the arcs A E B and E F G the intersec- through the points of division in the curve A B c, to meet the
tions of the concentric cylindric surfaces. parallels of A c, as shown by the dotted lines.
Let D c be the intersection of the section, which is a semi- EPHESUS, an ancient city of Ionia, formerly the metro-
circle, then find the envelope for the semi-circumference, as polis of Asia Minor, now in ruins. The celebrated temple
in the last problem for
parallel planes ; then the lengths of of Diana, in this city, was deemed one of the seven wonders
the intermediate lines contained between the base of the of .the world. In the time of Pococke, the remains of this
circular section, and the intersections of the
cylindric surfaces, renowned metropolis consisted of the temple of Diana;
being transferred upon the corresponding lines from the a circus; a gymnasium; a large theatre, and two of smaller
semicircular envelope, will form the covering of the cuneoidal dimensions ; an odeum, or music theatre ; a building, called
surface, as defined. the Athenceum; another, called the Hypelceum, of which
The reader will observe, that the two last constructions in there are yet considerable remains ; with some vestiges of
Problems V. and only approximations near to truth;
VI., are an aqueduct, and other fragments. great part of theA
it is, we ancient walls are still entire, but in some parts the founda-
believe, impossible to find the true envelope by
means of straight lines, or perhaps even to extend the true tions only remain, from which it appears they were ten feet
cuneoidal surface on a plane at any event,
any more than that thick. Most ofthese vestiges are represented in Pococke's
of a sphere, which can
only be represented by means of pro- Travels in the East. The situation of this city was very
jections. The only surfaces which can be extended on a favourable to the procuringof materials, being in the vicinity
plane, are those to which a straight edge will everywhere of Mount Lepre, which consisted of rocks of stone and marble,
apply through a certain point, or in parallel directions to a whose elevated situation afforded the means of an easy
given line ; of this description are the surfaces of planes, transit of the stones or blocks for building, to the site of the
cones, and cylinders a straight line will apply to all parts of
: intended fabric.
the surface of a cone
through the vertex, and to all parts EPICYCLOID, in geometry, a curve generated by the
of a plane through any given point, and to all
parts of the revolution of a point in the circumference of a circle, while
surface of a cylinder parallel to the axis. it is moved round the circumference of another quiescent
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 EPI 389 ESC
circle in the same plane, so that in each circle, the distance who resided at Paris in 1674, and the two following years,
between the point of contact at the commencement of the says, that the invention of epicycloids, and their application
motion, and the point of contact at any instant while in to mechanics, was the work of this Danish mathematician, and
motion, is equal one to the other. Hence if the circum- that he was esteemed the author of it.
ferences are equal, parts of the circumference of the
all EPISTYLE, (from em, upon r^of, column) in ancient
moving circle will have been in contact with all the parts of architecture, a term used by the Greeks for what we call
the circumference of the quiescent circle. architrave, viz., a massive stone, or a piece of wood, laid
If the generating circle proceed along the convexity of immediately over the capitals of columns, from one to the
the periphery, it is called an upper, or exterior epicycloid : other.
if along the concavity, a lower, or interior epicycloid. The epistyle is the first or lowest prmcipal division of the
The part of the quiescent circle which the generating entablature.
circle moves along, is called the base. EPISTYLAR ARCUATION, a term applied to that
The length of any part of the curve, which any given method of building in which arches are thrown from column
point in the revolving circle has described from the time of to column, instead of horizontal architraves.
its first being in contact with the quiescent circle, is, to double EP1TITHEDAS, (Greek em a word used by the
rt%)
the versed sine of half the arc, as the sum of the diameters Greeks, to express the simse, or cymatium, or crowning
of the circles, to the semi-diameter of the quiescent circle ; moulding of the entablature. By some the term is restricted
provided the circumference of the moving circle be carried to the upper member of a raking cornice.
along the convex side of the quiescent circle ; but if upon EQUAL ANGLES, are those whose containing lines are
the concave side, as the difference of the diameters to the measured by equal portions of equal arcs, described from the
said semi-diameter. meeting of the two containing lines.
Dr. Halley gives us a general proposition for the measuring EQUAL ARCS. See ARCS.
of all cycloids and epicycloids thus, the area of a cycloid or
: EQUAL CIRCLES, are those whose diameters are equal.
epicycloid, either primary, contracted, or prolate, is to the EQUAL CURVATURES, are such as have the same, or equal
area of the generating circle, and also to the areas of the parts radii of curvature. See CURVATURE and CURVE.
generated in these curves, to the areas of the analogous EQUAL FIGURES, are those whose areas are equal, whether
segments of the circle, as the sum of double the velocity of the figures be similar or not.
the centre, and the velocity of the circular motion, to the EQUAL SOLIDS, are those which comprehend, or contain
velocity of the circular motion. The demonstration hereof, as much as the other, or whose solidities or capacities are
see Phil. Trans. No. 218. equal.
The areas of epicycloids may be determined by the follow- EQUIANGULAR FIGURES, such as have equal angles.
ing proportion As the radius of the circle of the base is to
:
EQUIDISTANT STRAIGHT LINES, are a series of
three times that of the radius, together with twice that of the parallels with equal intervals.
generating circle, so is the circular segment to the epicycloidal EQUIDISTANT SOLIDS, are those whose intervals are termi-
sector, or the whole generating circle to the whole area of the nated by parallel planes, at equal distances on the corres-
epicycloid. ponding sides, comparing that of any two adjoining solids,
As to the tangents, it isknown from the time of Descartes, with that of any other two adjoining solids.
that a line drawn from any point to that of the base, which EQUILATERAL (from cgquus, equal, and lalus, a side)
touches the circle, whilst this point is described, is perpen- having equal sides.
dicular to the curve, and consequently to the tangent. EQUILATERAL FIGURE, that which has all its sides equal.
Maupertius, discussing this subject, conceived a polygon EQUILATERAL HYPERBOLA, that in which the asymptotes
to revolve upon another, the sides of which are respectively are at right angles to each other.
equal ; one of the angles described a curve, the periphery of EQUILIBRIUM, in mechanics, the equality of forces in
which is formed of arcs of circles, and the area is composed opposite directions, so that they mutually balance each other;
of circular sectors, and right-lined triangles. He determined equipoise.
the proportion of the area, and of the periphery of this figure ERGASTULUM, among the ancients, a house of correc-
to those of the generating
polygon. He also supposed those tion, or workhouse, where slaves, by the private authority of
polygons to become circles, the figure described to become their masters, were confined and kept at hard labour for some
an epicycloid, and the above-mentioned proportion, modified offence. It was likewise called sopkronisterium.

agreeably to this supposition, gave him the area and periphery ESCAPE, a concave quadrantal moulding used to join
of the epicycloid. Mem. de CAcad. 1727. two parallel members of different projections, as the shaft of
It does not appear that any writer a column with the fillet at its foot and junction with the
published an account of
epicycloids, before the celebrated Sir Isaac Newton, who, in capital.
the first book of his Principia, proposed a general, and a very ESCUTCHEON, a shield charged with armorial bearings.
simple method of rectifying these curves. After him, Decorations of this kind were much used in the later periods of
Bernoulli!, during his residence at Paris, showed how, by Gothic architecture, carved on bosses, dripstones, spandrels,
means of the integral and differential calculus, to determine &c. The term is also applied to the metal plate on doors
their area and rectification. The invention of epicycloids is, surrounding the key-hole, and to that from which the handle
however, ascribed to M. Reaumur, the celebrated Danish is
suspended. Beautiful specimens, of excellent design and
philosopher, during his residence at Paris, about the year workmanship, arc to be found in old mediaeval buildings.
1674. These curves appeared to him to be such as best ESCUR1AL, the palace or residence of the kings of Spain.
suited the teeth of wheels, constructed so as to diminish their The word originally signified a little village in Spain, situated
mutual friction, and to render the action of the power more in the kingdom of New Castile, twenty-two miles to the
uniform ; hence he was led to consider them, and to this N. W. of Madrid. Here king Philip built a stately monas-
purpose they have been applied. However, M. de la Hire tery, of the order of St. Jerome, held by the Spaniards as one
makes no mention of Reaumur, and seems to claim the merit of the wonders of the world. It was
begun iu 1557, and
of this geometrical and mechanical invention. But M. Leibnitz, finished in about 22 years, at the expense of 6,000,000 of
 ETR 390 ETR
piastres. The plan .of the work resembles a gridiron, in but without either cramps or cement. Ruins of this nature
memory of St. Quintin, who suffered martyrdom with that exist at Cortona, Volterra, Fiesol, &c., in the first of which
instrument. are some stones more than twenty-two Roman feet in length,
The king and queen had their apartments there, the other and about five or six feet in height. The walls of Volterra
parts were possessed by the monks. are of a similar description. In the earliest examples, the
The length of this superb palace is an oblong 740 by 580 stones are of an irregular polygonal shape, and in building
Spanish feet, besides 460, for what may be termed the handle were so laid as to have all their sides in close contact with
of the gridiron. The height of the roof is 60 feet, and every the surrounding stones ; remains of this kind of work are to
angle has a square tower 200 feet in height. The west front be found at Cora near Velletri. Generally speaking, the
has 200 windows, and that of the east 366. stones were of rectangular form; and of various sizes, disposed
The Escurial has a very fine church, crowned with a dome, in horizontal courses. There is at Volterra a gateway, called
which is 330 feet, supported by four rows of pillars, and the Gate of Hercules, which has a fine arch composed of
paved with black marble containing 40 chapels, and 48
;
nineteen large stones. This leads us to remark, that the
altars. To church, Philip IV. annexed a beautiful
this origin of the arch is very generally ascribed to Etruria, from
mausoleum, called the Pantheon, or Rotunda, built on the whence it is way into Rome. Be this
said to have found its
plan of the temple of that name at Rome. It is 36 feet in as it
may, were certainly aware of its princi-
the Etrurians
diameter, and incrusted with marble ; in which the kings and ples, specimens of true arches and vaulting having been
queens of Spain, who leave any posterity, are interred the ;
found in the remains, some of which are probably of early
rest being laid in another vault of the same church, together date. In a tomb up somewhat
at Cercetri is a wall carried
with the infants and other princes. after the shape of aGothic arch gradually converging towards
ESTIMATE, a calculation of the expenses of a building, the top, but not meeting at the apex, a square channel being
or other parts thereof, by measuring the drawings with a left between the two sides of the arch, which is covered over

compass from a scale, and calculating the ampunt upon with a block of nenfro. This, however, is not a true arch,
materials and workmanship. See BRICKWORK, CARPENTERS' but is similar to those to be found in Egypt and Greece, the
WORK, JOINERS' WORK, &c. building to which it belongs is on all hands allowed to be of
ESTIMATION, the act of estimating a building, See very great antiquity.
ESTIMATE. A
quick mode of estimating, or rather guessing From the description of Etruscan temples given us by Vitru-
at the expense of a building, is, to throw the whole into cubic vius, we learn that they were of an oblong form, the length
feet, as if all the parts within the walls and roof were really being occupied by three chapels, of which the central one was
solid, and calculating the whole at a certain rate per cubic the principal. The facades were similar to those of Greece,
foot; but this is so different in different places, and even in adorned with columns, pediments, &c., and the latter with
different times in the same place, that no certain ratio can be sculptures in terra cotta. From the same author we likewise
established but where things are finished in the same way,
:
learn, that their private houses were buildings of some im-
in the same place, and at the same time, it frequently comes portance, having external porticos and vestibules like those of
nearer to the truth than many real estimates, which are Rome ; indeed, it is supposed that the atrium was borrowed
accepted farbelow value, in order to obtain the work. from them by the Romans. Amongst the structures for which
Though estimates sometimes come very near each other, yet the Etrurians were eminent, are their tunnels, canals, and
the difference at other times is so preposterous, as to be one- sewers, for the purposes of drainage and irrigation ; roads,
fourth, or one-third of the whole amount, either owing to fortifications, and other works of an equally useful character.
articles being overlooked, or to a difference of rates, or both. Remains of a cloaca have been discovered at Tarquinii, in
ESTRADE (a French term, signifying a public road or which the arch is employed, and which is altogether similar
highway) in building, a little elevation of the floor of a room, to that at Rome; and at Volaterra are the ruins of a subter-

frequently encompassed with an alcove or rail, for receiving ranean reservoir, 24 Roman feet high, 56 long, and 29 broad.
a bed ; or sometimes, as in Turkey, it is only covered with We have now only to notice the sepulchral buildings which ;

fine carpets, for the accommodation of visitors of distinction. form by far the principal portion of the remains, and are
ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE. The method of build- found in great numbers, fresh ones being constantly opened
ing practised by the ancient inhabitants of Etruria; from at the present day. They seem to have been equally as
which it is supposed many of the peculiarities of Roman numerous as the cities, and it would appear to have been an
architecture took their rise, and the Tuscan order was bor- universal rule, that each city should have a place of burial for
rowed. The origin and history of this people is involved in its dead in its immediate vicinity. To such an extent is this

obscurity, as is also, to a great extent, their architecture. the case, that a modern writer lay sit down as an axiom, that
They seem to have been a mixed race, composed of Siculior wherever there stood an ancient town, there you will find
Umbri, of Pelasgi, and of a third race, of Lydian extraction, a cemetery ; and wherever you find a cemetery, there will
and to have attained to considerable eminence in the scale of have stood likewise an ancient city. These sepulchres are,
nations, both in power and civilization. Although they however, not all alike, their forms and situation varying
had brought the aits to a great degree of perfection, we had, according to the geographical, geological, and other charac-
until recently, but little evidence of the fact ; and, as regards teristics of the site ; in some cases they are cut out of cliffs
their architecture, examples are still so scanty, as to afford below the city wall ; at others out of more yielding soil, and,
us no precise notion of its character. We
have no remains in cases where requisite, lined with masonry on the inside.
of temples, or other buildings of the kind ; all such informa- Besides these excavated sepulchres, we have some of a more
tion is to be derived solely from their hypogffii or sepulchres, better
primitive and less imposing character, being nothing
and the representation of buildings, to be found on the vari- than graves sunk a few feet below the surface, and covered
ous utensils discovered therein. The remains above ground with unhewn masses of stone. They are very similar to the
consist almost solely of ruins of walls surrounding the Druidical cromlechs ; which fact would intimate some con-
different cities, which remind us of the Cyclopean erections nection between the Celts and Etruscans. Again, we find
at Tiryus and Mycenoe, consisting, as they do, of lofty heaps tumuli, another form of sepulchral monument, which is com-
of stones of enormous size, fitted together in a compact form, mon to all parts of the world.
 ETR 391 ETR
Amongst the cemeteries which have been explored, that rock in two rows, side by side, with a narrow passage
at Vulci one of the more important, and this, like many
is between them, and seem to have been originally covered
others, was discovered by mere chance, and was found to over with tiles. In the interstices which separate the monu-
contain a vast number of antiques of various kinds.- Those mental fafades, there are in many cases flights of steps cut
of Norchia and Castel d'Asso, the facades of which are covered in the rock, and leading to the plain above."
with sculpture, were discovered in 1810; those of Bomarzo Tombs of a more decorative character exist at Norchia,
and Orte from 1830 to 1837. Of still later date are the dis- adorned with pediments filled with sculpture, and Doric
coveries of Savona by Mr. Ainslie, and of several others by friezes, and bas-reliefs on the inner walls of the portico.
Mr. Dennis, who has published a very interesting work upon The interiors, however, are of similar character to those at
the subject. There seems to be no scarcity of such monu- Castel d'Asso. At Bieda, are tiers of tombs hewn in terraces
ments, for new discoveries are being brought to light every one above the other, and connected by flights of steps cut in
year, and would lead us to suppose that vast tracts of country the rock. Here also another peculiarity is presented, the
were completely undermined by them. The cemeteries vary tombs standing out from the rock completely isolated, and of
in size, some of them being of very great extent, and laid similar form to dwelling-houses, having roofs sloping down
out like a city in streets and squares. Each has its peculiar on either side with overhanging eaves at the gable. The
kind of tomb, the most simple of which consist of mere coni- internal arrangement likewise bears a very great resemblance
cal pits about eight or nine feet in depth, and six in diameter. to that of dwelling-houses.
Next to these comethe tombs, with a simple doorway open- The tombs near Cervetri, in 1836, were originally
opened
ing in the side of the cliff, and leading into a small vestibule covered with a large conical mound, and contain two apart-
about five feet square, with a shaft carried up from the roof ments, an inner and outer one, separated by a partition, the
to the ground above, the opening of which is frequently latter being somewhat the largest, and the length of the two
covered over with a large stone. The vestibule gives access together measuring about 60 feet. On each side of the first
to the tomb, which is an apartment from twelve to twenty chamber is a small cell cut out of the rock, the chamber
feet square, cut out of the rock, and supported in the centre itself being lined with masonry, and roofed over with a kind

by a low massive quadrangular pillar, or in larger tombs by of Gothic vault, which springs at about three feet from the
four or more similar piers, as is shown in Inghirami's plates. ground. Of this vault we have spoken above.
Sometimes the tomb is divided into two parts by a thick wall A curious range of sepulchres has been discovered at
cut out of the rock, which forms a means of support in place Cliiusi, which, from the winding passages which lead from
of pillars. In the side-walls of the tombs, and sometimes one tomb to another, presents the idea of a labyrinth, and
in the piers and partition walls, are two or more tiers of
long caused it at one time to be considered a portion of the tomb
horizontal niches in which the bodies were placed. Tombs of Porsenna, a description of which is given by Varro.
of this kind exist near Corneto, Ferenti, and Cervetri. The following account is taken from the publication before
"
Cemeteries of more imposing character are to be seen at referred to The tombs to which we allude, are excavated
:

Castel d'Asso, and the places to which we have above in the conical crest of a broad hill, surrounded by a fosse
referred ; of the former we give the following description about three feet wide, and lined on the inner side with large
from a popular work of the day. " At Castel d'Asso the blocks of travertine, which thus form a wall measuring
tombs rise upon each side of a narrow glen, facing each about 855 feet, this being the circumference of the base of
other like the bouses in a street. Each tomb being detached, the enclosed tumulus. The chief sepulchres open from the
and the cliffs in which they are hollowed being hewn to encircling wall ; the largest, a circular chamber facing the
a smooth surface, and formed into square architectural south, and supported in thu centre by a huge pillar hewn in
facades, with bold cornices and mouldings in high relief, they the rock, is connected with the fosse by a passage of about
bear a strong resemblance to dwelling-houses, their facades 50 feet in length. Towards the is a
group of
south-ea-^t

extending the whole height of the cliffs, which in some smaller chambers ;
close and facing the south-
upon the fosse,
places rise as high as 30 feet. In the centre of each west, is another, connected with the former by a passage
fapade is a rod-moulding, describing the outline of a door, in about 45 feet long; while other smaller ones again, are
many cases having panels recessed one within the other. situated all around, facing all the points of the compass.
" Above
This, however, is but the false semblance of an entrance, the this tier is another, containing likewise several
real one being in the lower part of the cliff, which
having groups of chambers of different size and shape ; and below
been left to project when the facade was smoothed down, the level of the fosse is a third tier, the chambers of which
has been hollowed into a kind of small vaulted antechamber, are, however, in a very ruinous state. Opening from the
open in front. The form of these monuments, as well as of circular chamber facing the south, is a narrow passage,
the false door in the fayade, tapers upwards, and the front which winds by many a circuitous route towards the western
recedes slightly from the perpendicular. Along the top of group of chambers, and then turning again to the south,
the facade runs a massive horizontal cornice, but receding branches out into many side-passages. These passages were
from the plane of the facade. On many of the tombs there at first thought to form a regularly planned labyrinth, but
are inscriptions, some of which are still legible, graven deep their lowness being such as barely to allow a man to creep
in the smooth surface of the rock above the simulated doorway. through on all-fours, the irregularity of their level, and the
On the inner wall of the little entrance-chamber, and immedi- circumstance of the passage opening into the western group
ately below the one in the facade, is a second false door, mould- of chambers, breaking through one of the stone benches
ed like the former, but with a niche in the centre ; and direct- with which the walls of the chamber are lined, and on which
ly below this again is the real door leading into the sepulchral the dead reclined, have subsequently led to the abandonment
chambers, which, neither in grandeur of dimensions, nor ele- of this opinion, and of the idea of this being the site of the
gance of details, answer to the external appearance of the far-famed tomb of Porsenna."
tombs. They are quadrilateral, of various sizes, and rudely We must not omit to mention that colour was used in these
hollowed in the rock, having a flat or slightly- vaulted ceiling tombs as a means of decoration. At Tarquinii, they are all
and ledges of rock against the wall for the support of sarco- painted, but there is one, the Grotta Querciola, which
in the
In some cases the sarcophagi have been sunk in the
phagi. design and execution of the pictures, surpasses all the others.
 EXC 392 EXC
The walls are entirely covered with paintings illustrative of into the various sorts of earth. Were it only to operate
the social manners of the Etrurians, the colours of which, upon a uniform mass, the task would be of comparatively
though now somewhat dim, must have been originally easy accomplishment.
splendid. In the Grotta del Triclinio, hard by, the colours Amongst others who have devoted much time and
capital
have retained their brilliancy, and the effect is described as in theattempt to overcome these difficulties, Mr. G. V. Palmer
perfectly dazzling by those who have beheld them in a applied himself to the construction of machines of this kind.
In 1830 he took out a " for
bright light. patent a machine to cut and
The Etrurians do not seem to have been a people of any excavate the earth." This invention is
designed, by the applica-
great native taste, and are not to be compared with the tion of steam-power, to loosen,
dig up, and remove into a cart,
Greeks in this respect ; they preferred utility to beauty, and earth from a canal or other
cavity, and to move itself forwards
convenience to decoration. Some assert that all that is really as the excavation proceeds. In principle, its
leading arrange-
beautiful in their monuments, emanates solely from Greece ; ment resembles the dredging-machines
employed in clearing
but this we cannot suppose ; they were destitute indeed of the beds of rivers and harbours but it has several
; appurte-
the creative imagination of the Greeks, and probably borrowed nances, such as picks, for loosening the earth ; cutters, for
very largely from them, but at the same time we cannot separating it; and scrapers, for filling it into scoops or
suppose them to have been entirely devoid of originality. elevators ; the latter convey it into the cart
by which it is
For further information on this subject, we would refer carried away. The machine is mounted upon four wheels,
to Michali and Inghirami, as also to the recent work of and gradually moves forward upon a
temporary railway, as
Mr. Dennis on the Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria. See the excavation proceeds. The moving power is applied to
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. the axis of a fly-wheel, and to the same axis is fixed a drum

^
EUANTHI COLOURS, in painting, a term used by the or pulley, around which
passes an endless pitched chain,
Greeks, to express what the Romans called the floridi colores, giving motion to another drum or pulley, which revolves in
or such as had remarkable the duller and coarser
brightness :
bearings fixed to the upper ends of two long cheeks or
colours, the Romans called austeri colores, and the Greeks supports. Around this second drum passes another endless
balhyci. Of the first sort were cinnabar, lapis arminus, chain, by which a third drum or pulley, of a quadrangular
chrysocolla, minium, indigo, purpurissa, according to the figure, is set in motion, and which turns on an axis in the
Romans but the Greeks, as we find by Dioscorides, made
; lower ends of the long cheeks; to this last-mentioned
cinnabar one of the austere colours. chain are fastened a series of
earth-scoops, which are
EVOLVENT (from the Latin evolo, to unfold) in geo- successively brought into operation in taking up the earth.
metry, the curve resulting from the evolution of a curve, So far, the machine resembles the common
ballast-engine ;
in contradistinction to the
evolute, which is the curve sup- we have now to describe how the several actions of
posed to be opened or evolved. picking, digging, and projecting the earth are effected.
EVOLUTE, or EVOLUTA, in the higher geometry, a curve A third endless chain is actuated
by the drum on the main
first
proposed by Huygtms, and much studied by the later axis, and gives motion to a spur-wheel ; this spur-wheel
mathematicians suppose a string, or flexible line, be un-
. drives another toothed wheel attached to the fore-wheels of
wound, so that the part unwound may be kept straight and the carriage, and thus the
carriage gradually advances. By
in the plane of the curve, the
extremity will describe a new an ingenious system of levers, connected to a crank on the
curve, of which the first turn is the evolute. main axis, a row of pick-axes, a row of cutters, and a row
The radius of the evolute, is the part of the thread con- of scraping-shovels, are
alternately brought into action.
tained between any point where it is tangent to the evolute, When the pickers have descended and loosened a portion of
and the corresponding point, where it terminates in the new earth, the cutters follow, and separate it from the mass, and
curve. immediately afterwards drawn for-
this separated portion is

Every curve may therefore be considered as the evolution wards by the scraping-shovels into the scoops, which, by the
of another. action of the machine, are brought into the required
position
EURYTIIMY, (from the Greek evpvOftoc,, harmony,) a on one of the sides of the revolving quadrangular drum ;
certain majesty or elegance in the composition of the different and filled scoops thence proceeding to the
top of the machine
parts of a building. by the revolution of the attached endless chain, discharge
The word is Greek, and signifies literally a consonance or their contents into a cart or waggon to be conveyed away.
fine agreement ; or, as we call it, harmony, of all the The same gentleman patented another engine for this purpose
parts:
it is
compounded of en, well, and pvOpcx;, rythmus, cadence, or in 1832. This consisted of an excavated cart and plough
agreement of numbers, sounds, or the like. united, to be worked by horses or other power. The cart-
EUSTYLE, (from the Greek, ev, bene, well, and j-vAof, wheels are made considerably wider than those in common
column) a disposition of columns in which the intervals are use, and the interior portion of the ring of each wheel is
exactly two diameters and a quarter. This intercolumnia- made into a series of earth-boxes ;
these earth- boxes are
tionwas most approved of by the ancients, as being a medium made to open inwards, and also towards the centres of the
between the pycnostyle and areostyle. wheels. Underneath the cart, immediately adjoining each
Vitruvius, lib. iii. chap. 2. observes, that the eustyle is wheel, is placed a plough, for raising and turning the earth
the most approved of all the kinds of intercolumniation. and into the boxes, as the cart is moved forwards; the wheels at
that it surpasses all the rest in
conveniency,beauty, and the same time turning round, bring up the earth, and deliver
strength. it into the body of the cart. When a sufficient load has been
EXAGON, See HEXAGON. thus deposited in the cart, the ploughs are raised from the
EXCAVATING MACHINES, for digging and removing ground by means of a lever, and then the cart can be drawn
earth in extensive excavations, have occupied the attention in every respect as a common cart, to the place intended for
of many ingenious men, and various machines for the purpose the deposition of the excavated earth, where it is to be
have been proposed and tried with different degrees of success. unloaded by withdrawing a pair of bolts, which allow the
The greatdifficulty seems to consist in adapting any peculiar bottom of the cart to fold downwards sufficiently to permit
arrangement of mechanism which shall be capable of digging the earth to escape. There are many circumstances where
 EXC EXC
the application of excavating machines of this kind might be new building, having, as that has, three intercolumns at each
employed to advantage, but though the use of them in the end, and five on each side ; and it further resembles it in the
extensive excavations of railway works has been many times great depth of the ambulatory around it. The building,
attempted, they have not been found to answer so well in though making little pretension to architectural character,
practice as to bring them into general employment. except what it derives from its columns and their arrange-
EXCAVATION, (from the Latin ex, out, and cavus, ment, has, in its general effect, a degree of picturesqueness
hollow) the act of hollowing or digging a cavity, particularly both unusual and pleasing, especially as there is a second
in the ground. range of columns between those in front and the area of the
The excavation for the foundation of a building, by the Exchange itself.
Italians called cavatione, is settled by Palladio at a sixth part The New Corn Exchange was erected in 1828, from the
of the height of the building, unless there be cellars under designs of Mr. G. Smith, the architect of St. Paul's School,
ground, in which case he would have it somewhat more. and exhibits a very tasteful and appropriate application of
But this proportion is vague, and contrary to experience the Grecian Doric.
and reason. Good firm gravel, clay, or rock, forms as good In point of design, this facade merits investigation, because,
a foundation at a foot or 18 inches from the surface, as at any whatever else may be alleged against it, no one can object
greater depth; while swampy or boggy land is not good at to it, that it is either a direct copy, or an assemblage of
any depth. See DIGGING and FOUNDATION. copies, that is, of parts entirely borrowed from other build-
EXCHANGE, a building where merchants resort to ings, without other novelty than what they derive from their
transact business. The principal commercial cities of Europe combination with each other.
and America have edifices appropriated for this purpose, The colonnade forming the centre, (which being an
and the Bourses of Paris, Amsterdam, Antwerp, and other hexastyle in antis, gives the same number of intercolumns
continental cities, and the Exchanges of London, Liverpool, as an octostyle,) does not constitute a loggia, or even a
New York, &c., are distinguished for their beauty and mere corridor for, as may be seen by the plan, the space
;

convenience. In London there are three between the columns and the wall is occupied, except where
buildings of this
kind ; the Corn Exchange the Coal Exchange and the the entrances occur, by a sunk area screened by the stylo-
Exchange of London, par excellence, the lloyal Exchange. bate. This area being barely equal to one diameter, the
The two first are appropriated to the particular branches of colonnade is much shallower than usual, and therefore likely
commerce indicated by their names, and are more espe- to be censured, on that account, by those who consider a
cially resorted to by persons therein engaged ; the Royal certain depth of space behind the columns to be an indis-
Exchange is the general place of assembling, at a certain pensable requisite for their proper effect, and invariably
hour of the day, of the merchants and traders of London. demanded in all situations and under all circumstances.
Here meet together men from all parts of the world, and In the present instance, the very moderate distance at
here are settled transactions of commerce of a magnitude which the wall is placed behind the columns, occasions
inconceivable by those unacquainted with the subject. There greater breadth of surface, as the light falls upon that as
are few merchants in the city but make it a rule to attend well as on the columns themselves; which would not be the
the Exchange daily, or, as it is termed in commercial phrase- case were the wall so far back that the columns would re-
ology,
"
to go on 'Change." We propose to give a brief lieve themselves entirely against the shadow of the parts
description of each of these places of mercantile rendezvous. beyond them. At the same time, the columns receive a
The CORN EXCHANGE is situated in Mark Lane, and con- greater portion of reflected light, and thus contrast more
sists, in fact, of two buildings adjoining each other, and distinctly with the shadows which they cast on the wall
known respectively as the Old and New Corn Exchange. itself, and which produce an agreeable variety and equipoise
Business, however, is carried on in both, and together they of light and shade, according to the sun's elevation, when it
are considered as the " Corn Exchange." shines on this (the west) side of the building. But that to
The new building, as we have before observed, immedi- which, more than anything else, this fapade is indebted for
ately adjoins the older one, which still continues to be made its classical air and architectural beauty, is the entire absence
use of, and which may therefore with propriety be of windows within the colonnade. Not only do such aper-
briefly
described here, if only for the purpose of affording some tures unless introduced very sparingly indeed destroy
kind of comparison between the two. " The lower part of repose, by frittering what requires to be preserved nearly
the structure is an open colonnade, whose pillars are of the an unbroken surface, but they show themselves in a situa-
modern Doric kind, but the entablature has a plain frieze, tion where their serviceableness is greatly lessened. Besides
and its architrave is singularly narrow for the order, or in- which, the colonnade or portico itself seems misplaced, being
deed for any order whatever. There are eight columns, with overlooked by the rooms behind it.
an iron palisading between them ;' displaying, however, a To return to the immediate object of our description we :

very peculiar arrangement, four of them being placed in may observe, that the wall is not entirely plain, it having
pairs, but in such a manner, that, beginning to reckon from slightly projecting ante or pilasters corresponding with the
the south end, we find them placed thus :
first, a pair of columns, and the faces of those in the centre serve partly as
columns at that angle, then three single columns, then another a ground upon which the jambs of the large door are raised.
pair, and at the north angle another single column, forming This door is a feature not only important for its size, but
altogether five inter-columns, corresponding with which are tasteful in design bold and simple, yet at the same time
as many windows in each of the two stories forming the upper carefully finished.
part of the building over the colonnade ; which are quite In the frieze, wreaths composed of ears of corn are sub-
plain, with the exception of the centre one on the first floor, stituted for triglyphs; and even had they not elegance of
which, in addition to other dressings, has a pediment." form as well as novelty to recommend them, they would
There is no wall behind these columns, and the space still have a
propriety and significance which we rarely meet
within is open to the street, forming a court rather than a with in those similarly-shaped decorations of laurel trans-

hall, the centre space of which is not covered by a roof. With ferred to modern buildings, from the entablature of the
this difference, it resembles the similar part of the plan in the monument of Thrasyllus.
50
 EXC 394 EXC
The cornice here given to the order is rendered less cold seven skylight compartments in their ceilings. The north
and scanty than usual by the addition of a cymatium above wing contains a tavern and coffee-room, and the opening in
the corona, ornamented with lions' heads, that slightly break the south wall of the other wing communicates with the old
its upper line. Much of the peculiar character arises from Corn Exchange." Public Buildings of London.
the unusually lofty blocking-course, surmounted in the cen- The COAL EXCHANGE is a new building erected in Thames-
Corn street, near the Custom House, and completed so lately as
'
tre by a podium bearing the following inscription :

the month of November, 1849.

Exchange, erected 1828, according to act of parliament, 7th
George IV. Chap. 33.' This podium is, in turn, surmounted The importance of the vast trade in that precious mineral
to which Great Britain owes so much of her prosperity, may
by a piece of sculpture representing the royal arms, grouped
with implements symbolical of agriculture. Thus the upper well demand that the merchants and others trading in coal,
and should have their own Exchange. The enormous extent of
part of the front acquires considerable variety of outline,
somewhat of a pyramidal form, together with distinctly this trade can hardly be conceived, or its value in a
pecuniary
marked individuality of character. Instead of being at all sense estimated.
" In
at variance with the style adopted, the part we are now con- respect to its natural supply of coal," says McCulloch,
"
sidering is not only consistent with, but seems to give addi- Britain, among the nations, is most singularly favoured ;
tional expression to all the rest ; at the same time that it much of the surface of the country conceals under it con-
takes away from it that air of direct imitation which it is so tinuous and thick beds of that valuable mineral, vastly more
difficult to avoid without endangering, if not destroying, the precious to us than would have been mines of the precious
classical physiognomy intended to be preserved. metals, like those of Peru and Mexico ; for coal, since ap-
Whether, in his treatment of the wings, the architect has plied to the steam-engine, is really hoarded power, applicable
successfully overcome this last-mentioned difficulty, is what to almost every purpose which human labour directed by
we have now to inquire. As far as regards the order itself, ingenuity can accomplish. It is the possession of her coal-
that is kept up with sufficient strictness, and the mode in mines which has rendered Britain, in relation to the whole
which the ante are applied, deserves commendation. Had world, what a city is to the rural district which surrounds
these been merely coupled, after the usual fashion, the effect it the producer and dispenser of the rich products of art
would have been rather formal and monotonous ; besides and industry. Calling her coal-mines the coal-cellars of the
which, it might not improperly have been objected, that such great city, there is in them a supply which, at the present
duplication was at variance with the arrangement of the rate of expenditure, will last for 2,000 years at least ; and
columns. But by compounding, instead of pairing them, therefore a provision which, as coming improvements in the
and placing the broader anta at the outer angle, while the arts of life will naturally effect economy of fuel, or substitu-
other is made to project slightly upon it, both a due expres- tion of other means to effect similar purposes, may be
sion of strength and solidity is kept up, a certain degree of regarded as inexhaustible."
play and variety is obtained, although there appears to be The former Coal Exchange being quite unfit for the pur-
nothing at all new in the idea itself, except that here the two poses required, and the inconvenience felt by the merchants
united faces are of unequal breadth an irregularity con- frequenting it much complained of, an enlarged site was pur-
verted into a merit by its obvious propriety. chased by the corporation of London, for the erection of a
"The windows, which entirely occupy the space between new Exchange. This site afforded a frontage next Lower
the ante, may be considered as assuming the character of Thames-street of 113 feet, and a similar frontage next
small loggioe, whose intercolumns are filled in with sashes. St. Mary-at-Hill. The building is erected from the designs
In style, therefore, they harmonize with the general design of Mr. Bunning, the architect to the corporation, and is so
far better, perhaps, than anything else that could have been arranged as to give an increased width to the two thorough-
devised for the same purpose ; the chief objection to be made faresabove-named. It presents two distinct elevations, con-
in regard to them is, that somewhat less plainness not to nected by a tower, placed within the re-entering angle formed
call it severity of style would not have been amiss, and by the two fronts.
would have prevented the small antse of the windows from The fa9ades of the building are of very simple, yet bold
appearing a repetition of the larger ones on a diminished and effective design and, with the exception of the cornice,
;

scale. but few projections are introduced. The fronts in Thames-

" The upper story of the wings, to which we now come, street and St. Mary-at-HHl, are respectively about 1 12 feet
in width, by 61 feet in height. The unequal form of the plot
display more invention and decided novelty than any other
part of the building ; and although exhibiting somewhat of of ground on which the Exchange stands, is skilfully masked
unusual forms and combinations, the style here preserves its at the corner by breaking the mass of building, and intro-
characteristic energy, boldness, and breadth. Although, too, ducing the circular tower before mentioned. This tower
the parts themselves are simple, they acquire much pictu- is 109 feet high to the top of the gilded ball, and 22 feet in

resque complexity from the lofty position in which the diameter at the lowest part, and is divided into three stories.
windows are placed, being thrown further back, owing to The lowest story, containing the entrance vestibule, is of the
which the pedestals detach themselves with considerable Eoman-Doric style of architecture ; and presents a striking
projection. In addition to the variety thus produced, we peculiarity in the arrangement, to which we must advert.
have that arising from the attic itself, if it may so be termed, The wall of the tower not only contains the vestibule by which
being both than the pedestals, and narrower than the
loftier entrance to the hall or rotunda is attained, but serves also as
compartment of the front below ; from both which circum- a centre to of steps, which lead, on either hand, to a
flights
stances result great contrast and diversity of outline. landing on the story of the building.
first From this land-
" The interior calls for a staircase is carried up in the tower to the other
very little description or remark, ing, spiral
the walls being perfectly plain, and their being no other stories. The first story is of the Ionic order, carrying an
decoration of any kind than the columns, which are of very entablature, and is by windows. The top story, 15
lighted
slender proportions, and have deep capitals, composed of feet in diameter, isornamented by pilasters, with windows
ears of wheat. Above the centre space within the columns, between ; the roof rising to a cone, and being crowned with
is a lantern with vertical lights ; and those on each side have a gilded ball. The front of the whole is faced with Portland
 EXC 395 EXC
which carry the dome, are all fully and
stone. Entering the rotunda, the attention of the visitor is harmoniously deco-
immediately arrested by its beautiful effect, and extremely rated. Commencing with
the piers in the lowest story :
novel arrangement. It forms a circle of some 60 feet in It will be seen that the Raflaelesque decorations are
very
diameter, and is crowned with a dome, or, in fact, double rich in character. In each pier a scroll supports and encircles
dome, as a lesser cupola rises from the eye of the great dome four compartments ; the lowest are semi-circular panels,
to the height of 74 feet from the floor. The dome rests on within which are painted symbolic figures of the principal
eight light piers, the space between each pier being divided coal-bearing rivers in England the Thames, the Mersey, the
:

by stanchions into three compartments. There are three Severn, the Trent, the Humber, the Aire, the Tyne, &c.
galleries, and from these galleries, entrance is obtained to Small oblong panels, with marine subjects, are a little above
the numerous offices in the building. The galleries are the symbolic figures just described ; and above these again,
peculiarly constructed, and entirely composed of iron, embel- within borders of flowers of every kind, are figures symbo-
lished with symbols of the coal trade. Iron, indeed, has lical of Wisdom, Fortitude, Vigilance, Temperance, Perse-
been most extensively made use of; the stanchions, brackets, verance, Watchfulness, Justice, and Faith. These figures
ribs, and eye of the dome, are all of iron, and above 300 tons are the most prominent objects in the decorations of the piers
have been used in the building in the several parts. Each in the lower story, and in circles above them are painted
rib, of which there are 32, is 42 feet 6 inches long, is cast groups of shells ; whilst at the top, in semi-circles correspond-
in one length, and weighs on the average two tons. The ing with those at the base of the piers, snakes, lizards, and
arrangement of patera; in th stanchions, brackets, and other reptiles, are introduced. In the first story, the leading
soffits of
galleries, is original and good. The ornament feature in the arabesques is a series of views of coal-mines,
chiefly used is a cable, twisted about in various patterns, and including the air-shaft at Wallsend, Percy Pit Main Colliery,
the balustrade to the galleries is of loops of cable, broken at Wallsend Colliery, Regent's Pit Colliery, &c. Groups of
intervals by the introduction of the City arms. This rope- fruit and flowers are in small circles just above the views,
ornament has perhaps been used in too great profusion, for and in oblong panels beneath the latter the series of nautical
"
it is
displayed on the stanchions, gallery-railings, soffits, and bits" is continued. At the base, in each pilaster, are repre-
every place where it could possibly be introduced. The sentations of different specimens of Sigillaria a fossil found
frame-work to the offices is of wood, and panelled with rough in coal formations. In the second story, the largest panels
plate-glass. By this means, they receive light from the contain figures of miners engaged in different parts of their
great dome of the hall. The dome glazed with large
itself is labours, but these figures we think are not so well executed
pieces of ground plate-glass of great thickness, the glass of as other portions of the decorations. Nautical subjects, clus-
the small upper dome having an amber tint. The chief ters of fruit and flowers, are introduced among the arabesques.
public offices surrounding the Rotunda are those appropriated The third story within oval panels, miners at
contains,
to the offices of the corporation, whose business it is to work, picking the flowers and small landscapes
coal, &c. :

collect the coal dues ; the factors' board-room, the weighers' add to the richness and variety of the decorations on this
society, and the merchants' and factors', among whom Sir floor ; and both in this and the lower, calamites, (fossils from
James Duke, lord-mayor of London at the time of the the coal formations,) are depicted amongst the arabesques.
opening of the Coal Exchange, holds a very prominent The twenty-four panels at the springing of the dome, of
position. which we have before spoken, have oval compartments
The floor of the Rotunda is composed of inlaid woods, painted in them, surrounded by a gracefully flowing border
disposed in form of a mariner's compass, within a border of of extremely rich and varied design, being light ornaments
Greek fret, and in its appearance is beautiful in the extreme. on a dark ground. The spaces within the oval borders are
In its construction are employed upwards of 4,000 pieces of coloured of a turquoise blue tint, on which is painted a series
wood of various kinds, comprising black ebony, black oak, of representations of different fossil plants met with in the
common and red English oak, wainscot, white holly, coal formations. This portion of the decoration is extremely
mahogany, American elm, red and white walnut, and striking and, we need scarcely say, the
and appropriate ;

mulberry. The whole of these materials have been prepared representation of the plants are strictly correct. These
by Messrs. Davison and Symington's patent process of were painted in encaustic by Mr. Sang, from the drawings
seasoning woods, to which we have alluded under the word of Mr. Melhado, (a pupil of the architect,) taken from spe-
DESICCATION. cimens in the British Museum. A
staircase leads to the
The same desiccating process has been applied to the wood- hypocaust, which was discovered in excavating for the foun-
work throughout the building. The black oak introduced dation, a remnant of the time when the Romans ruled here.
is part of an old tree which was discovered imbedded in the A amply repay the lovers of antiquity, and
visit to this will
river Tyne, where it had unquestionably lain between four itsminute agreement with the details of such constructions
and five centuries. The mulberry wood, of which the blade given by Vitruvius, should be noticed.
of the dagger in the shield of the City-arms is composed, is The artificers' work generally were performed by Mr.
made of a piece of a tree planted by Peter the Great, when Trego ; the iron-work by Messrs. Dewer ; and the wood-
he worked as a shipwright in Deptford dockyard. work was seasoned by Messrs. Davison and Symington's
The coloured decorations of the Exchange are peculiarly patent desiccating process. The floor of the merchants^ area
characteristic, and the entrance vestibule, in particular, is ex- was laid down by the first-named of these gentlemen, Mr.
tremely rich and picturesque in its embellishments. Terminal Davison.
figures, vases with fruit, arabesque foliage, &c.; all of the The cost of this Exchange was about
40,000.
richest and most glowing colours, fill up the vault of the ceil- THE ROYAL EXCHANGE, has been fortunate in
in general,

ing, through an aperture in which is seen that of the lan- for the
finding historians, still the current descriptions are,
tern, adorned with a figure of Plenty scattering riches, and most part, imperfect and incorrect, and utterly without the
surrounded by jigurini. Over the entrance-doorway, within sanction of official authority.
a sunk panel, are painted the City-arms. Within the Rotunda Like everything in the City, the existence of the
Royal
the polychromatic decorations immediately arrest the eye.
Exchange is owing to individual enterprise. This is the
The range of panels at the base of the dome, and the piers spirit and essence of commercial prosperity.
The merchant
 EXC 39C EXC
is
generally the architect of his own fortune ; his pursuits meeting, to make choyce of a surveyor for directing and
necessarily bring him into contact with his fellow-men; and overseeing the building of the Royal Exchange, and assisting
thus, while the principle of association obtains with him, and them in carrying on that designe to the best
advantage, as to
expresses itself in the guild and the corporation, in his own substantiallnesse, ornament, and frugality ; and forasmuch as
person he maintains a special individuality. To him who Mr. Mills, the City surveyor, hath declared that hee cannot
would indulge personalities, and portray characteristics, a perform that worke alone, and the committee being very
visit to the City would afford many examples some strange sensible of the greate burden of businesse
lying upon him
and odd enough, but all striking and strongly marked. In for the City all this time ; and
considering that Mr. Jerman is
other pursuits of life there is more or less of a professional the most able knowne artist (besides him) that the
City now
costume, which sinks the man in the official ; but the mer- hath therefore the committee
:
unanimously made choice of
chant pleases himself, or acts upon early associations, in his Mr. Jerman, to assist the committee in the
agreeing for,
dress and conduct. His success mostly depends, indeed, upon ordering, and directing, of that worke and, having declnrcd
;

the personal. Gresham, the founder of the Royal Exchange, the same unto him, hee, after much
reluctancy and unwilling-
is an illustrious example of the truth of these ness (objecting, it might bee thought an intrenchment
remarks, upon
and another instance of the great works that may be accom- Mr. Mills his right,) at length accepted, being assured first by
plished by the zeal, activity, and perseverance of an indi- the Lord Mayor and the committee, that itt was no intrench-
vidual. ment, that this wholle committee, at all times, would acquit
To Sir Richard Gresham, however, father of the Sir him from any scandall in that behalfe ; then the committee
Thomas Gresham, whose name has become a " household ordered the clerke to acquaint Mr. Jerman with all the
pro-
word" to the citizens of London, the merchants of this great ceedinges of this committee about the said building.".
metropolis are indebted for the first serious attempt to found After this appointment Mr. Mills's name does not occur
an Exchange. Before this time, the merchants met together again, and the works evidently proceeded with great rapidity,
in the open air in Lombard-street, were finished within three years and a half from the
exposed to the many for they
inconveniences of such a place of assembling. In the reign period of Jerman's appointment.
of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Thomas Gresham, who determined On the 9th December occurs the following entry. " The
to carry into effect what his father had been unable to do, committee considering that Mr. Jerman, who was chosen sur-
"
proposed to the corporation, in 1564, That if the City- veyor for rebuilding the Exchange in April last, hath not yet
would give him a piece of ground in a commodious spot, he received any gratification for drawing drafts and
directing the
would erect an Exchange at his own expense, with large and building they therefore ordered that
;
50 shall be payed
covered walks, wherein the merchants and traders might him upon account until further consideration of his merits."
daily assemble, and transact business at all seasons, without These think you will agree with me, prove that
extracts, I

interruption from the weather, or impediments of any kind." Edward German (or lerman as sometimes spelt) was the sole
This offer was accepted, and the new building, when com- architect. In these records Sir Christopher Wren is spoken
"
pleted, was visited by the Queen, who "caused the same to of, under date of the 7th Jan., -1670, as Dr. Wren, Surveyor- .

be proclaimed by sound of trumpet, the Roya.ll JSxchanye, general of His Majesty's workes."
and so to be called from thenceforth, and not otherwise." The building erected by Jerman, was publicly opened for
Sir Thomas Gresham, who died in November, 1579, business on the 28th of September, 1669. the expense of its
bequeathed the whole of this edifice, and its various appur- construction having amounted to 80,000, which was defrayed
tenances, after the death of his wife, "jointly for ever in equal moieties by the City and the Mercers'
Company.
to the corporation of London and the Company of Mercers," This structure also was doomed to fall by the same element
upon trust for various purposes. which had proved fatal to its predecessor, for on the night of
The fabric erected by Gresham was almost entirely the 10th of January, 1838, it was discovered to be on fire, and
destroyed by the great fire of London in 16C6. Measures in the course of the night, though not entirely
destroyed, was
for the erection of a new building were, however, promptly so much damaged, that for all purposes of usefulness the
taken, and in October 1667, King Charles II. laid the base destruction may be said to have been complete.
of the column on the west side of the north entrance of the The architecture of the building thus destroyed has been
second Exchange; and, on the 3 1st of the same month, variously estimated ; by some decried, by others praised ; but
the first stone of the eastern column was laid by his brother, probably merited the extravagant praises of the one party
it

the Duke of York. as little as it deserved the severe criticism of the other.
The popular notion has always been that Sir Christopher The four orders of the quadrangle were richly decorated,
Wren was the architect of this Exchange; this is not the fact, with the basements, arches of the walks, the cornices over
the architect was Edward Jerman, one of the surveyors to them, the niches, statues, pillars, circular windows, entabla-
the City in 1666. As this is a matter on which much dif- ture, pediments, and balustrade, all in correct
proportion and
ference of opinion has existed, we think the insertion of the arrangement. Its principal front was towards Cornhill ; and
following evidence from a letter in "The Builder," will defi- on each side there were Corinthian demi-columns, supporting
nitively settle the question. The writer states, that the a compass pediment; within each of which were niches con-
extracts we have given below, were taken from the records taining statues of Charles I. and II. in Roman habits, by Bush-
of the City, and of the Mercers' Company, and from them are nell. Within the quadrangle there were twenty-four niches
obtained the following facts, which leave no doubt whatever in the intercolumns, with statues of English kings and queens,
that Jerman, and not Wren, was the architect of the late most of the kings before Charles II. being sculptured by
Royal Exchange. Gibber. The centre of the area had for some time a statue
"That on the 19th 1666, the commissioners ap- of Charles II. by Grinlin Gibbons, which was subsequently
pointed to the work, summoned totheir assistance, Mr. Mills displaced for one by Spileer, habited in the Roman style. In
and Mr. Jerman, the City surveyors. Again at a joint com- an obscure position under the piazza, the statue of Gresham,
mittee, held on the 25th April, 1667, the following minute is too, had its niche and nigh to it, that of one, whose modesty
;

recorded : would have been better content had his merit received no
" The such acknowledgment Sir John Bernard ; to whom, in his
committee, concluding it very necessary at this
 EXC 397 EXC
" Resolutions Gresham Committee, as
lifetime, the memorial was erected as a mark of civic respect, of the to Instructions
but who could never bring himself to visit the walks to the Architects.
afterwards.
"I. That architects be invited to offer designs for the re-

The destruction of this buildi'ng having deprived the mer- building of the Royal Exchange, in general competition, and
chants of London, for the second time, of their great place of that premiums be offered for three designs adjudged by the
resort, they were obliged temporarily to assemble in the space Committee to be the best.
" 3. That the new
attached to the Excise Office, in Old Broad Street. This building be of the Grecian, Roman, or
was, of course, attended with much inconvenience to those Italian style of architecture, having each front of stone of a
accustomed to attend 'Change, and it became therefore a hard and durable quality.
matter of pressing importance to remove that inconvenience "
6. That a specification be required to accompany each

by the erection of a new building, fitted in every respect for design, giving a general description of the building, and such
its purpose, and worthy the merchant-princes of the first other information as cannot be clearly shown on the drawings,
metropolis in the world. stating also what stone, or other material, are proposed for
In preparing to re-erect the Royal Exchange, many use in the different parts of the building, and specifying par-
interests had to be considered those of the Underwriters of ticularly the estimated expense of carrying the designs into
Lloyd's, the Royal Exchange Assurance Company, and the execution in the most substantial and complete manner in
shopkeepers who had occupied the ground-floor. An act of every respect for occupation, the expense not to exceed
parliament was also necessary ; this was applied for, and 150,000.
" 10. That for the
obtained. By this act, which received the Royal assent on design for which the Committee shall
the 10th of August, 1838, the Joint Gresham Committee were award the first premium, the sum of 300 shall be given ;
empowered to purchase and remove all the buildings to the that for the second design the sum of 200 ; and for the
eastward, extending nearly to Finch Lane, and to raise a sum third the sum of 100. The successful competitor, to whom
of 150,000 upon the credit of the London Bridge Trust. the first premium is awarded shall not be considered as
After considerable delay, the Gresham Committee issued having necessarily a claim to be entrusted with the execu-
their advertisements for designs for the new building, but in tion of the work ; but if not so employed, and his designs
doing so, unfortunately did not avoid the errors into which so are carried into execution, a further sum of 500 shall be
many similarly-constituted public bodies have fallen, under paid to him the Committee retaining possession of all the
similar circumstances. There is little doubt but that the drawings for which the premiums have been given.
Committee intended a fair and honest competition, but with "
11. That if reasonable doubts should arise in the minds
not singular bad management, they so contrived matters, as of the Committee as to the practicability of carrying into
to nring down on themselves a storm of indignation from all execution the successful design for the amount of the esti-
sides, and to disgust not only the competitors, but the public mated expense of the building, the Committee shall be at
in general.
liberty to call upon the party to give sufficient and satisfac-
The system pursued of late yearsin the management of archi- tory proof of the accuracy of the calculations, and to with-
tectural competitions, has been attended with manifest evils, hold the premium, and reject the designs unless such proof
and fraught with gross and palpable injustice to the profession. be furnished."
Hastily and inconsiderately commenced, under the control of After issuing these Instructions, the Committee appointed
persons unfitted to sit in judgment on the various designs three architects Sir Robert Smirke, Mr. Gwilt, and Mr.
referred to their decision, they have in too many instances Hardwick, to examine and advise on the designs which
been attended by results, as injurious to the best interests of might be sent in. Above fifty competitors appeared, and
art, as unfair and unjust to its professors. the above gentlemen, after due examination, made a report to
In making these remarks it is not intended to attack the the Committee, from which we extract the following passages.
" In the first
principles upon which competitions are based ; properly con- class, those that we think may be executed for
ducted, their tendency is unquestionably, not only to call out
the talent and genius of the experienced artist, but to rouse
a spirit of emulation in the young professor, as an assistance
150,000, we beg
First
Second ,
.....
to report as follows

. . .
:

.
No. 36
43
in encouraging rising merit, which without such a stimulus Third ,,37
might possibly remain undeveloped, or, without such a means Fourth . . . . 33
of exercise, unknown and unappreciated. Fifth ,,57
" In the second
There may be many advantages attending architectural class, or that in which we consider the cost
competitions, but there is so total a want of security, under would vastly exceed the sum of 150,000, equal impracti-
the operation of the present defective system, so general an cabilities of execution with those of the first class are to bo
impression existing, whether justly or not, that fairness and found ; and, notwithstanding the very great talent they exhi-
impartiality in the decisions cannot always be relied upon, bit, there are circumstances of inconvenience and unsuitable-
that the great body of the profession hold themselves aloof ness which would bring them, as we conceive, into the pre-
from entering an arena where fair play is, to say the least, dicament of being unadvisable for adoption. We wish it,
doubtful. The competition for the Royal Exchange, it is to therefore, to be understood, that we report on them respec-
be lamented, afforded another proof, if proof were wanting, of tively as the works of very clever artists, who have produced
the truth of these observations. pieces of competition in which, besides the circumstances
It is not our purpose to enter on a discussion of the merits above-mentioned, stability arising from solid bearings for
of a controversy which filled many pages of the periodicals upper apartments, and other essential matters, have been
more especially devoted to recording matters connected with sacrificed to grand architectural features.
architecture and building, but we think we cannot pass to a "The designs in the second class, in our estimation of their
description of the New Exchange without slightly noticing order of merit, are as follows :

the manner in which tho design for it was selected, or its First ." "." . .'" No. 50
architect appointed. Second . . . . , 46
The following arc extracts from the Third . 27
 EXC 398 EXC
"We again venture to state to' the Committee the difficul- Extent and Site.
tieswhich have attended the making of the report herewith The total length of the
building is 293 feet 6 inches, from
submitted, and which, but for the unanimous decision at the columns of the portico on the west, to the pilasters at the
which we have arrived, we confess, might have left doubts east end ; the width of the portico is 89 feet 6 inches ; the
in our minds, ifour view had not been confined by the Com- extreme width at the east end, at the broadest part, is
mittee to the expenditure of a given sum." 175 feet, and the width through the centre, from north to
On receiving this report, the Joint Committee met at Mer- south, is 144 feet.
cers' Hall on Friday, the 18th October, to consider the The building is placed
in the centre between the south

report, and again inspect the designs, and came to the follow- front of the Bank, and a mean line of the irregularities pre-
ing resolutions : sented by the houses on the south side of Cornhill ; the
"
Kesolved, That the premiums be awarded to the archi- east and west fronts are at right angles to the centre line, and,
tects who have produced the plans numbered as under of course, the angle formed by the intersection of the north
No. 36 the first premium . . . 300 and south fronts, with the east and west fronts, is the same ;
43 the second ... 200 by this means the building, though not rectangular, is regu-
37 the third ... 100 lar in the plan.

being those reported by the architects as the three best Arrangement.

designs. Gresham College occupies
the north-west angle of the
"And was resolved, that Sir R. Smirke, and I. Gwilt,
it
building on the principal story, and is entered from the
and P. Hardwick, Esqrs., having stated in their report upon north.
the respective merits of the plans selected by them, that they The Royal Exchange Assurance occupies the south-west
cannot recommend any one to be carried into execution, this angle, and the space over the west end of the colonnade, on
Committee doth request them to take the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd the one-pair floor, and is entered from the south side of the
plans, as selected by them, into consideration, and prepare a loggia, under the portico.
plan and specification for a new Royal Exchange, such as in The London Assurance occupies the greater part of the
their judgment should be carried into execution, having south front on the principal story and is entered from the
reference, at the same time, to the printed instructions issued south.

by this Committee to the architects." Lloyd's fills up the remainder of the east and north fronts
The following were the architects to whom the premiums of the principal story, and is entered in three places, viz.,
were adjudged. from the east and the north-east corner, and from the
No. 36, 300, to Mr. William Grellier, district surveyor, north.
20, Wormwood-street. There is a small additional staircase and entrance to the
No. 43, 200, to M. Alexis De Chateauneuff, of Ham- principal lecture-room of the Gresham College (which pro-
I

burgh ; and Mr. Arthur Mee, of Carlton Chambers. pose to use for the exit from the lectures only) and this opens
No. 37, 100, to Mr. Sydney Smirke, of Carlton into the loggia under the portico.
Chambers. The commercial room proposed to be attached to Lloyd's,
The architects of the remaining designs of the first class. and which, in a letter from Mr. Barnes, of the 26th February,
No. 33, Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon. I amrequested so to manage as that it might bo appropriated
46, Mr. Pennethorne. for offices, if not eventually required for the above purpose,
The architects of the second-class designs, which were con- has been accordingly placed by me on the principal story on
sidered too expensive. the north side. If not required by Lloyd's, I should propose
No. 50, Mr. T. L. Donaldson. to convert this room into a double range of offices, one
Mr. Richardson.
46, lighted from the street, and the other lighted
from the area
David Mocaotta.
27, Mr. of the Exchange, each office having a room over in a third
The next step taken by the Committee was to appoint floor ; the access to these rooms would be by a distinct stair-
Mr. George Smith, the City-surveyor, and Mr. Tite, to case and entrance on the north, for which a distinct shop

inquire into the eligibility of some one

of the designs must be taken. The mean width of this commercial room
selected by the umpires for the premiums. Mr. Tite, how- is39 feet, and its length 96 feet ; allowing, therefore, for an
ever, refused to act, and the onus devolved on Mr. Smith 8 feet passage in the middle, it would provide for 12 sets
alone. This gentleman submitted a report to the Com- of offices, each 16 feet by 15 feet.
mittee, in which he advised the rejection of the
whole The shops and offices are very material features of any
design for this building, for, under the 62nd
of the designs; and the Committee acting on this advice, section of the
without ceremony threw the supposed successful candi- act for providing a site for the Royal Exchange, the Gresham
dates overboard, and boldly selected six other architects, Committee are bound to compensate any party holding a lease
owner or
whom they requested to send in designs for the contemplated in any part of the old Royal Exchange, unless the
building. The gentlemen by the Committee
so honoured lessee is reinstated. As regards the offices this would pro-
difference between the
were Sir R. Smirke, Mr. Barry, Mr. Gwilt, Mr. Hardwick, bably only be the value of the
Mr. Cockerel 1, and Mr. Tite, the whole of whom, excepting reserved rent and the actual rent, and not a matter of much
trades and occupations
the two last, declined accepting the invitation, being doubtless importance but unless the valuable
;

influenced to such course by the bad faith observed to all round the Exchange are reinstated, the question would
parties by the Committee. What also added to the public become a very important one, because it would involve the
Mr. good-wills of the parties.
The mere question of reinstate-
dissatisfaction, was that rivalry or competition between
is clear the
Cockerell and Mr. Tite was considered out of the question, ment, however, is not the only one ; for it
from their previous connection. Thus the whole matter revenue to be obtained from the shops, after the expiration of
the present leases, must form a very important item in any
evidently settled down in Mr. Tite being selected finally to
income to be derived from the building. In order to meet
prepare the design for the new Royal Exchange.
That design we shall now proceed to describe, as given by these requirements, and still, I hope, in no way to injure the
or offices on a level with the
Mr. Tite, himself, in his explanation to the Committee :
design, I have placed the shops
 EXC 399 EXC
street, round the north, south, and east sides ; and, inasmuch I have also provided ample vault-room in the basement of
as found that in the old Royal Exchange there were shops
I this establishment, and a second staircase connected with
in three of the entrances, and as I could very conveniently the theatre, and only intended to be used on a crowded
arrange a few in the east entrance of my design, I have occasion, for the dismissal of so large an audience as 400 or
placed six there. Let the claims, however, arise as they may, 500 persons, and for a private approach or retreat for the
with this plan now under discussion, there could be no diffi- lecturer.

culty in meeting them all, for the area of all the shops and Royal Exchange Assurance. This establishment in the
offices of all descriptions, in the ground-floor of the Old old building occupied apartments in the mezzanine, and on
Exchange, amounted to 8,106 feet only, whereas, in this the one-pair floor. The net area being 5,235 feet, exclusive
plan, the shops and offices provided, exclusive of the part of passages, staircases, water-closets, kitchen, and rooms in
appropriated to Lloyd's, to the Gresham College, the London the roof. I have had many
meetings with the governor
Assurance, and the lioyal Exchange Assurance, exceeds this on the subject, and at length I received, so late as the 4th
quantity by 1,087 feet, the total being 9,217 feet. The instant, a list of the rooms, of which I have attached a copy
increased value of all this, and the exact nature of the to this description.
accommodation, will, however, be further explained under The 6,284 feet, but omitting the store-
total area in this is
other heads of this descriptive particular. rooms and kitchen for the sake
of comparison, the net quantity
Accommodation. is 5,894 feet.
My plan gives this so nearly, and the dimen-
Gresham College. In considering this department of the sions of the rooms also correspond so generally with the
building, I was placed in considerable difficulty, not only requirements, that I need not occupy the time of the Com-
from the total absence of instructions, but because I found, mittee with any further description but, in addition, I have
;

as well amongst the committee as in society, very consider- added what appears to me obviously necessary, viz., strong
able differences of opinion on the subject. rooms and cellars in the basement.
After much reflection, I have, however, arranged what As the heights of the floors of this part of the building
I
hope will be considered a complete establishment for most differ in some respects from the general section, I beg to add
purposes, and it is as follows On the north side of the
: them here, and they are as follows, viz. The ground-floor:

Exchange, about 45 feet from the west end, is an entrance is 2 feet 6 inches above the level of the floor of the
Exchange,
with a small hall and staircase. In this hall a porter would and 6 feet above the street under this is a lower ground
;

be placed, who would prevent the admission of improper story, the height being 10 feet with vaults under.
persons. The ground-floor will be 13 feet, high, the mezzanine 10
The entrance-doorway is large, and over it is placed a feet, the one-pair floor is 18 feet, except where there are
shield containing the arms of Sir Thomas Gresham. This rooms over, when this will be 13 feet.
entrance and hall are also quite distinct, and, like all the London Assurance. I attach a copy of the instructions
other parts or distinct portions of the design, it is separated received from this company to my letter of the 6th March,
by party-walls. On the first landing of the staircase is a addressed to Mr. Barnes. The total quantity of space
porter's room, which would also serve for umbrellas, coats, required is 5,553 feet, exclusive of
waiting-rooms, water-
or cloaks. closets, &c. as some of the rooms seemed extravagant in
;

On the one-pair, or principal floor, is a lecture-room or size, 1 have arranged them somewhat less, and the company
theatre, of a horse-shoe form, the dimensions being 46 feet, express themselves satisfied with my dimensions, the total
6 by 36 feet. To this is added a library or lesser
inches, being 4,834 feet.
lecture-room, 25 feet by 24 feet a lecturer's or librarian's
; Lloyds. With regard to this very important establish-
room, 19 feet by 15 feet 6 inches; apparatus-rooms, 16 feet ment, I beg a reference to my letter to Mr. Barnes, of the
3 inches, by 1 1 feet with a water-closet and washing-room
:
;
6th instant, to which I attach a copy of the new instruc-
and two rooms over the librarian's, and apparatus-rooms for tions forwarded by their architect. The total quantity of
some resident servant. space occupied in the old Exchange by this company, exclu-
The theatre would seat 250 persons on the floor, and 200 sive of staircases, was 7,914 feet. The space now required
more might be conveniently seated in the gallery. It is is 13,781 feet, exclusive of passages, staircases, water-closets,

probable, however, that for many lectures or continuous urinals, &c. ;

but this includes the commercial room, which
courses, this might be too much, but for some it might be is 4,050 feet. The dimensions of
the several apartments in
too little. I have, therefore, placed the
library at the back my plan are very nearly consistent with their requirements,
of the theatre, by which, in the latter case, the accommo- and the total result the same.
dation might be increased, or in the former it might be suffi- The arrangement of the rooms is best understood by a
cient in itself for such purposes. The result, therefore, is reference to the plan of the one-pair floor, and I believe it
this, that for an auditory of 40 or 50 persons, the library to be quite in accordance with the wishes of the Committee.
would be sufficient; beyond that number, and up to 450 Shops. I
propose that each shop shall have a cellar below,
persons, the theatre would be the proper place ; if a larger and, with very few exceptions, a mezzanine over. The
number were expected, the partition dividing the library average height of the shops will be 14 feet, the basement-
from the theatre might be removed, (as is shown in the plan) floor 12 feet, and the mezzanine 10 feet. Each shop will be
by sliding it into the wall, when, by removing the lecture- secured by party-walls, and roofed with iron beams and
table a little further back, 50 persons more might be accom- arches under the one-pair floor. The water-closets will be
modated. Beyond this extent of 500 persons, it is probably in the basements, there will be a separate flue in each shop,
undesirable to carry it farther. and room for the fire-places ; and I propose that each shop
If, have erred altogether, and have provided
however, I and room shall be warmed by an open, or Arnott's stove, of
too much, it is easy to diminish-it or if it is determined to
;
the same pattern.
abandon this site for this purpose, the space so complete and The staircase will be circular, and of cast-iron. Staircases
.

isolated would readily let by itself, or might be combined of this kind, though not much known here, have been exten-
with the unappropriated offices in the north-west angle sively used in Paris, and are admirably adapted for such
immediately under the theatre. It remains to be added, that purposes. I have
paid every attention to the mode of light-
 EXC 400 EXC
ing the deeper shops, and I hope I have succeeded in obvia- placed a portico at the west end, and the tower at the east.
ting all reasonable apprehension on that subject. The shops The south and north fronts exhibit unbroken lines of entab-
without mezzanines, are one in the south front, one in. the lature, with a repetition of arches of the same character for
north front, and four in the eastern entrance to the Exchange. the shops, offices, and entrances. We
are deficient in Eng-
In the area, in the latter case, they are left out, to allow of land, of specimens of architecture of this unbroken kind:
light being obtained over the shops to the back parts of the were I to adduce instances, I should quote the National Gal-
other premises. lery, as affording an illustration of the bad effect of broken
Exchange. The Exchange is entered from four arched and detached masses, and the Reform Club, of the excellent
form is a parallelo- effect of continuous and unbroken ones.
openings in the centre of each side ; the
gram, and the inner area exactly a double square.
This The portico would be very superior in dimensions to any
form has many advantages, bolh in point of convenience and in this country, and not very inferior to any in the world.

elegance over the old form, and

is also better adapted to the The width, from outside to outside of the 8 columns, is 90
shape of the ground. feet, and the height, from the ground to the apex of the
As to the level of the floor of the Exchange, I have heard pediment, is 74 feet 6 inches. The portico of St. Martin's
many opinions ; but it appears to me to be of the greatest Church is 64 feet wide and 58 feet high ; that at the Post-
level with the street, 76 wide and 67 and from these dimen-
importance, that it should be as nearly
Office feet feet high ;

as possible. From the natural fall of the ground, however, sions a fair comparison may be made of the relative size of
which is quite gradual, but amounts to 3 feet 6 inches in the the two porticos.
length of the building from east to west, it is impossible to The height of the order used in this edifice is 50 feet, and
avoid a fe\v steps at the north, south, and west entrances. the height of the tower, to the top of the vane, is 170 feet.
Tin's is an advantage at the west end, as it gives height and From the point of view prescribed by the instructions, the
character to the fafade or portico ; the exact effect and extent tower is not seen. Had I been at liberty to have removed
of this fall of the ground is shown in my north and south the station further to the westward, as to Mansion-House-
elevations. In the shops the steps are avoided, because street, or the Poultry, the tower would have been seen over
they can follow the natural inclination of the ground. the portico, and the effect of the composition thereby greatly
Basement. Much of the basement (or vaults,) is occupied improved. The sections and view show the exact character
by the establishments over the respective divisions, and of the interior of the Exchange, the lower story is a colon-
I have added some to the lesser
shops, but there is still nade of the Doric order, the columns are 34 inches in dia-
a large space which may be let off, as the basement of the meter ;
the upper order is Ionic.
old building was. I have lighted the basement by area Specification of (he nature of the work. The exami-
gratings in the pavement of the Exchange, exactly as nation of the foundations, which I ventured to suggest, has
formerly. proved that the nature of the sub-soil is of the best kind for
The public vaults are approached by two staircases, which supporting a large building. At an average of fifteen feet
are placed in the eastern entrance. The central area is from the surface, a very compact gravel is found. For the
proposed to be left without a basement ; it would be difficult sake of perfect uniformity, I should excavate sufficiently
to keep it dry, and I do not know any use to which it could for a few feet below this ; and by a uniform bed of concrete,
be applied which would pay for the cost. of the thickness of six feet over the whole surface, a most
Style of Architecture. certain and safe foundation would be made. The gravel
This naturally one of the most important considerations
is is full of water, and therefore the
drainage must be carefully
in the design, and one in which I have most to regret the considered.
limited time I have had to consider this most extensive and Your conditions require a general specification, but, with-
difficult composition. It
appears to me, that a building for out going into full technicalities, I am at a loss to furnish a
specification of any value. I intend everything to be exe-
essentially commercial purposes should present the character
of grandeur, simplicity, and usefulness. In this way, the cuted in the best manner. -All external work to be faced

universally acknowledged good effect of the Bourse at Paris with Portland stone'; all the horizontal divisions that require
has been obtained. In that building the lines are simple and it, for the purpose of security from fire, to be constructed

unbroken, and the large arched windows surrounding the with iron beams and brick arches; and the ceiling and floor
walls behind the columns have all the character of shops or over the colonnade constructed in the same manner. The
offices. The west front of the Exchange of London, as in timber used to be all Baltic timber, English oak, or African
that of Paris, must be the principal feature, the other sides teak. Everything to be sufficiently and completely finished
being bounded by buildings. in all respects.
I have not introduced much sculpture into this
Anotherdifficulty arises from the shape of the ground ; Sculpture.
because any tower placed to agree with the lines of the south design, because the estimate would not allow of it ; and I
frontmust disagree with the lines of the east and west fronts, have, therefore, aimed at a style which did not require it to
which are in different planes and such an object, when seen
; any extent. The sculpture introduced as essential to the
from a distance, or from the area of the Exchange, would architecture, embraces the five panels in the attic of the south
produce an effect that would be discordant and unarchitec- front, and the two figures at the west end. The panels in
tural, because it would bring into distinct notice a fact the south front are intended to represent Britannia, supported
which it should be the business of the architect to conceal. by the principal cities of the empire receiving the represen-
For a long time I contended with this difficulty, because tatives and productions of the four quarters of the world ;
I was anxious to place the tower or towers in the south front, the two seated figures in the west front, are emblematical of
but it was impossible to get over the irregularity ; it would, Peace and Abundance. There are several shields of arms,
indeed, have been easy to have concealed this defect in the which though not falling exactly under the head of sculpture,
drawings, or have kept it out of notice, but the result, when I think it desirable to mention, and they are as follows the
:

built, would only have ended, in my judgment, in disappoint- escutcheons. on the key-stones of the three great arches of the
ment and failure. For these reasons, and with these views, west front, are the arms of Queen Elizabeth, Charles the II.,
I have composed my design as it is now" exhibited. I have and Quoen Victoria. These arms are repeated in the panels
 EXC 401 EXC
of the attic at the east end. In the north and south fronts, portion must frequently be altogether useless, as far as actual
on the keystones of the centre arches, the arms are those of serviceableness is concerned. The present arrangement
the City, the Mercers' Company, and Sir Thomas Gresham. therefore is to be approved of only where what is thus
Estimate. sacrificed, with regard to mere convenience and utility, is
I estimate the cost of this edifice, as thus described, inclu- amply atoned for by what is gained as to architectural
ding the sculpture, at the sum of 143,800. character and effect.
Income. We do not deny that a cortile, whether surrounded by
I have estimated with great care the income to be derived columns or by arches, and whether partially or entirely so, is
from the various shops, offices, and public establishments, pro- favourable to scenic effect and display, and, farther, admits
posed in the several floors of the building, by comparing of very great variety as to plan and design. This is suffi-
dimensions and other circumstances, with the previous ciently testified by examples in Italian buildings, where
lettings, and by the actual value derived from my own expe- cortiles frequently constitute the most striking and beautiful
rience ; and I am of opinion that the total net annual value, parts, generally picturesque and piquant, though not always
if let on lease, would amount to the sum of 8,718 per unexceptionable in design. But then it does not exactly
annum. In addition to this, if the space allotted to Lloyd's follow, that because a cortile is beautiful as such, it is eligible
commercial room on the north side, and that to the London for a purpose requiring more than a sheltered corridor around
Assurance on the south side, were arranged as offices, each the open part; for, although that kind of shelter is sufficient
set having two rooms, one over the other, as suggested in an for a place of passage to and fro, it certainly docs not seem
early part of this statement, though the estimate would be to be sufficient for one intended for the assemblage of a con-
increased 3,000, I have no doubt this annu.il income might course of persons, not on particular occasions, when, in case
be raised to the extent of 800 per annum, making a total of the weather proving unfavourable, the company may be
income of 9,500 per annum. protected from it by awnings provided for the emergency,
In the drawings themselves, I have carefully laboured to but daily, throughout all seasons of the year. When a
follow out the instructions under which I undertook this com- place of the kind already exists, it may conveniently and
petition. The views are strictly confined to the points of properly enough be applied just as it is to the purpose of an
view prescribed: in the colouring of the views themselves, Exchange ; its inconvenience may, then, be put up with as
and in the drawings of the adjoining buildings. 1 have unavoidable. But there is no qualifying circumstance, to
laboured to be accurate, and to give as nearly as I could, reconcile us to a defect studiously adopted, voluntarily
the actual effect of this edifice, if it were constructed. 1 can- and with premeditation, to the exclusion not only of positive
not but feel that a more elaborate style of architecture would convenience, but likewise of originality of design. Either
have been productive of more picturesque effects, and it our climate is most unjustly reproached, not only by
would have been easy to have produced them but 1 have
; foreigners, but by ourselves, or it ought at once to have
ventured to come to the conclusion, that nothing but plain banished all idea of rebuilding the Royal Exchange upon the
grandeur and elegant simplicity is consistent, either with the plan of the former one, as regards that very principal part of
means at the disposal of the committee, the purposes and uses it where the merchants will
daily assemble, and to which all
of this building, or its situation in the very heart of the the rest is to be considered as merely supplementary.
City of London. Be it any improvement or not, all our lately built markets
We have given at length Mr. Tile's own description of the are floored with flagstone pavements, and covered in from the
building, as affording the most perfect and complete expla- weather, shaded from the burning sun in summer, as well as
nation of every particular connected with it, and also as sheltered from rain and snow in winter ; nor do we believe
showing the many requirements he had to meet, and the that either the occupiers of them, or their customers, at all
various interests he had to provide for. It is due to him to regret the change which has taken place. Nevertheless,
say, that he has certainly succeeded in satisfying all parties, in with instances of that kind before their eyes, not in the
the convenience of his arrangements for individual benefit, Metropolis alone, but at Liverpool, Newcastle, and other
while he has added to the public buildings of London an places, the merchants of London have decided that they are
edifice in every respect worthy the first community in the to meet for business as heretofore, within an area only
world. On one part of the design much discussion took partially and imperfectly protected from the weather. Even
place at the time, viz., whether the area of the new Exchange beneath the colonnades, they must be more or less exposed to
should or should not be an open court, as in the old building. wind and rain, and be inconvenienced by the throng of
In the instructions issued to the competing architects by the persons ; whereas, by converting the central space into the
Gresham Committee, this was insisted on, and, as we are part more particularly appropriated to the transaction of
informed, in compliance with the general opinion of the business, the sides, which might still be separated from it by
merchants and bankers of London. With submission, how- colonnades, would be left free for persons passing in or out,
ever, we are strongly inclined to believe that the merchants without interruption to those engaged in business.
and the Gresham Committee might have left this matter, There may possibly be contrary reasons for not adopt-
with benefit, to the discretion of the architects offering ing a mode of building securing the advantages here pointed
designs, with whom it would have remained to demonstrate out by us ; but they have not been brought forward by
the advantage or defects of either mode of construction, others, nor can we divine what they can be. Hardly can it
whether open or covered. be objected, that any plan of the kind would destroy all
It is worthy of remark that the Bourse at Paris, and at peculiarity of character, by converting the Exchange itself
St Petersburg, the Exchanges of Dublin and Glasgow, and into merely a spacious hall, lighted from above, which, how-
almost all modern structures erected for a similar purpose, ever it might be decorated, would, in its general effect,
are, we believe, roofed in one advantage of which is, that
;
resemble any other public apartment of the same dimensions ;
the whole of the area is available, let the weather be as because, although it would no longer be a cortile an open
unfavourable as it may, consequently, the same superficial space enclosed by facades of external architecture it
might be
extent can accommodate a far greater number of persons than kept altogether different from anything we are accustomed to,
where it is only partially sheltered, and where a considerable in interior architecture, and appropriately rendered tui generis.
51
 EXC 402 EXC
It will appear a very singular pendent to the above obser- in tenders ;
and those of Messrs. Webb for the first contract,
vations, that we should have to insert the following petition (the excavation and concrete foundation) ; and of Mr. J. Jack-
to the Gresham Committee, from the very parties to oblige son for the second (the were accepted. The
super-structure),
whom " first was for
this uncovered" area was insisted on. 8,000 the last for 115,000.
" The
undersigned Merchants of the City of London are of In excavating the merchants' area,
(originally intended to
opinion, that, in the construction of the new Royal Exchange, have been left solid,) for the purpose of extending the base-
sufficient attention has not been paid to the comfort of those ment beneath that part of the plan a number of antiquities
:

who attend the same, and beg most respectfully to submit to were discovered, beneath what was the west wall of the former
the Gresham Committee the following alterations, which are building ; in particular, the remains of some Roman structure
necessary before they can assemble there without danger to were found, which proved, on examination, to have been
their health and personal comfort. The alterations sug- built on a very large pit or pond, irregular in
shape, but
1. That the area be covered in. 2. That about 50 feet in length from north to south, 34 in breadth,
gested are:
some remedy be provided to remove the cold damp from and 13 in depth. This pit was filled with hardened mud, in
the pavement. 3. That a remedy be also provided to protect which were immense quantities of bones of sheep, of bones
them from the currents of air." and horns of stags, also numerous fragments of the red
The above petition has been signed by Messrs. Barings, Roman pottery, usually called Samian ware, pieces of glass,
Rothschilds, Heath. Morris Prevost, Doxat and Co., Lemme and glass vessels, broken lamps, &c., and several copper
and Co., and some hundreds of the first firms in the city. coins, two of the emperor Vespasian, the remainder of Domi-
After much discussion in Committee, the clerk was directed tian all of which antiquities were, by the terms of the con-
to communicate to the memorialists :
"tract, reserved for the Gresham Committee. On Monday,
" That in the month of
September, in the year 1838, before the 17th January, 1842, the first stone was laid by His
the Gresham Committee took any steps whatever as to the Royal Highness Prince Albert, with much state and cere-
erection' of a new building, they applied
by circular to most mony, a full description of which appeared in the newspapers
of the leading merchants and brokers, requesting their opi- of the day and the works then proceeded with such rapidity,
;

nion as to whether the new Exchange should be a covered that in three years from that date the new Royal Exchange
hall, or partially open, as in the original Exchange of was completed a very brief space of time for such a work,
Mr. T. Gresham, and in the one recently destroyed; that especially considering that it consists entirely of stone.
besides, the Committee took every opportunity, by personal On Monday the 28th of October, 1844, the Exchange
inquiry, of ascertaining the wishes of their fellow-citizens on was opened by Queen Victoria in person. The " pomp and
the subject ; that the result of the circular, and of these circumstance" of such a ceremonial are not for a work like the
inquiries, was, that a large majority wished the Exchange to present, they have been duly chronicled by those publications
be partially open, as heretofore, alleging the great noise which record so faithfully and so minutely events like these :
in the Bourse at Paris, and the but the following observations, which appeared in one of the
necessity for ventilation of
the most free kind, as their reasons for the decision that
; newspapers at the time, seem so pertinent to the subject, that
in consequence of this determination, they directed a part of we think their insertion here not inappropriate. " The pre-
the merchants' area to be left uncovered as before, but that, "
sent ceremonial," says the writer, will, in many things,
for greater shelter, they further directed that the covered resemble that which was presided over by the Virgin '

space should be increased from one-half, (the proportion of Queen:' for state and its observances partake of the tradi-
the space covered in the late building,) to two-thirds ; and tional, and are transmitted down with comparatively slight
that the architect of the present edifice had strictly followed changes. But in all else how different What an empire
! !

out these instructions ; and, for these reasons, the Committee and what a metropolis ! How vast the increase in all that
could not comply with the wishes of the merchants ; that, constitutes the strength of nations, in the England of Vic-
with regard to currents of air, the committee had directed toria, since it was the England of Elizabeth The empire
!

such inner doors to be put up, at the north and south is one of many tongues and nations ; the population of its

entrances, as might check the draughts, at the same time pro- chief city is counted, not by thousands, but by hundreds of

viding that such doors should not interfere with the extensive thousands ; and as for the commerce of the realm and city
uses of the area of the Exchange, as a thoroughfare to all of Gresham's royal mistress, it was, as compared with that of
the neighbouring streets, the Bank, the Stock Exchange, the England and London of to-day, but as the rivulet to the
and other important public and private buildings of the ocean ; its development has been as vast as that which could
neighbourhood." bring Dodona's forest from an acorn cup.'
'
Between the
We have given the above, as apropos to the question of a day on which a Queen of England passed through the Tem-
roofed or unroofed area, though this is hardly the proper ple-Gate to open the first Royal Exchange and the hour
place for a petition delivered some months after the Exchange which will see another Queen of the same fair land pass
had been opened for business. Such a petition, however, along the same road on the same august errand great has
proves clearly the justice of the observations we, in common been the destiny of England among the nations of the world !
with the great body of the profession, have urged to the cen- At this point the mind naturally goes forward to the future,
tral space of the building
having been left uncovered. and asks itself the question, what will be the state of this
To return from this apparent digression. After much con- '
crowning city,' of the traffickers of the earth, when three
sideration as to whether the material employed should be centuries shall have passed over the now white walls, the
magnesian limestone, similar to that used for the Houses of fair chambers, and sculptured portico, of the new Exchange ?
Parliament, it was determined that the whole of the exterior What will be the condition of the empire, when the gene-
of the building, with the exception of the socle or stylobate ration that gazes on the pageantry of to-day, shall with
(which was to be of granite) should be Portland stone many succeeding ones be mingled with the dust ? They
of the best quality. This point having been decided, the are solemn questions ; and, happily for us, can find no answer
Gresham Committee at length found themselves in a position from human intelligence. The misery of Adam, when the
to enter on the contracts for the new structure. About angel, in Milton's immortal epic,
revealed to him the doom of
fourteen of the principal builders were applied to, and sent the future race of man, is but a type of what would be felt
 EXC 403 EXP
"
By the coming time were not, with infinite wisdom and
all, if
was entered," writes the old chronicler, how quickly did
mercy, hidden from our ken. The past we know ; the pre- it run round the galleries, filling them with flames ; than
sent we can govern ; for the future we can only hope, making descending the stairs, compasseth the walks, giving forth
our actions such as to render a cheerful hope justifiable. flaming volleys, and filling the court with sheets of fire.
Let the spirit of commerce, then, when it takes up its new By-and-by the kings fell all down on their faces, and the
abode, work with the energy and activity that have always greater part of the stone building after them, the founder's
marked it. Above all, let it preserve that integrity and statue alone remaining."
commercial honour which have been so long the pride of a remarkable fact, that this statue was again saved
It is

the English merchant, and then will it have done the best to in the fire of 1838.
secure a still further development .of the wealth, extent, The gates of the Exchange are exceedingly handsome.
power, and numbers of that realm over which Elizabeth They are made of wrought-iron, the decorations being cast-
watched, and which Victoria now rules; queens, who, differ- iron. In the centre of the gates, on either side, are the arms

ing in much, yet resemble each other in the extent to which of the City of London, and of the Mercers' Company, with
they have commanded the loyalty and affection of the people ; the cipher of Sir Thomas Gresham, (T. G.,) very ingeniously
and" in this also that the commercial activity of their res- introduced. In the ornamental heads of the gates, the rose,

pective ages received the countenance of both. In its thistle, and shamrock appear entwined.
reference to our history, the opening of the NEW ROVAL After the publication of the first portion of this article,
EXCHANGE by QUEEN VICTORIA, is one of the most interest- the following paragraphs appeared in The Times ; and we
ing events of modern times." think we cannot better conclude our account of the Exchanges
We must not conclude our description of this magnificent of London, than by recording so high and so well-deserved a
" A
building, without reference to the sculpture with which the compliment, to the designer of the Coal Exchange :
piece
new Royal Exchange has been adorned. That by Mr. j
of plate, weighing 222 ounces of silver, was presented to the
Richard Westmacott, in the tympanum of the pediment at City architect, for services which are sufficiently indicated
'
the west front, deserves the earliest and highest mention, both by the inscription : Presented to I. B. Bunning, Esq., by
from its position and its merit. Allegorical in subject, it the coal-factors and merchants of the City of London, as
nevertheless avoids the objections to which such compositions a testimonial of their admiration of his genius and judgment
are generally liable. It consists of seventeen figures, carved in the erection of the Coal Exchange, and of his
urbanity
in compact limestone, and, with two exceptions, modelled as throughout the progress of the structure ; which is not more
entire and detached figures. The centre figure, which is ten approved of by those for whose use and convenience it was
feet high, represents Commerce ; with her mural crown, her designed, than by the public at large, for its taste and ele-
cornucopia, bee-hive, and other accessories. Her left hand gance as a work of art. Anno Domini M.D.CCCL.' The plate
holds the charter of the Exchange, her right rests on part of was presented by Mr. Harris, as the organ of the coal-
a ship; two dolphins and a shell forming her pedestal. The factors, with an appropriate speech. In addition to this
groups on either side consist, on the right, of three British pleasing compliment to Mr. Bunning, the coal-factors and
merchants in their civic robes -as lord-mayor, alderman, and merchants have signed a declaration, for presentation to the
common-councilman ; two Asiatics, a Hindoo, and a Mahom- Corporation of the City, of their satisfaction of all the accom-
medan, in appropriate costume; a Greek bearing ajar; an modations provided for them by means of the New Coal
Armenian scholar, and a Turkish merchant; and, on the Exchange, which they attribute to a union of talent on the
left, of two British merchants examining some woven fabric part of the architect, which has enabled him to produce an
shown to them by a Persian a Chinese ; a sailor of the
;
edifice which, whilst it embodies all the requirements of the
Levant ; a negro a British sailor cording a bale of cot-
;
coal-factors and merchants as men of business, is, at the same
ton, &c,a super-cargo, or factory agent.
;
The opposite time, in design, taste, and judgment, the admiration of the
angles are filled with anchors, jars, packages, and other nau- numerous strangers who daily visit it, as one of the chief
tical and commercial emblems. The arches of the upper objects of interest and of Art in the City of London."
story are decorated with the arms of various nations, accord- EXEDR^E, (from the Greek e|e(Jpa<, a parlour) among
ing to the order determined at the congress of Vienna the the ancients, places wherein the philosophers, sophists, and
arms of England occupying the centre of the eastern side. rhetors, held their conferences and disputes. They are
The sheltered walk for the merchants also has the ceiling and supposed to have been recesses in the walls, or little chapels,
sides panelled, painted, and emblazoned with the arms of answering to what we call chapters in the cloisters of monks,
countries and monarchs ; namely, Edward the Confessor, or collegiate churches.
Edward Elizabeth, and Charles II.
III., In the south-east Also applied to an apse or recess in a building, or to a
angle there is a statue of Queen Elizabeth, and in the south- projecting porch, in short, to any addition to a building. In
west a statue of Charles II. the early Christian church, the term is applied to all the
It only remains now to speak of the statues of Queen buildings within the consecrated enclosure which were
Victoria inside the building, and of the Duke of Wellington detached from the church. Such were the "baptisteries,
without. The latter is a bronze equestrian figure, by vestries, diaconica, schools, libraries,and such like.
Chantrey, and was composed of the metal of the guns taken EXENTRIC, or ECCENTRIC, (from the Latin eccentricus)
in battle, contributed by the government, and valued at in geometry, a term applied to two circles or
spheres, in
1
,500. The cost of the statue itself was 900. It was com- which, though in some measure the one is contained within
pleted on the anniversary of Waterloo, the 18th June, 1844, the other, yet the two have not the same centre, and conse-
when the inauguration took place, at which the King of quently their surfaces are not parallel. The word is opposed to
Saxony, who was in England at the time, attended. The concentric where they are parallel, and have the same centre.
marble statue of the Queen, by Lough, in the centre of the EXOSTRA, in the ancient theatre, a place where such
merchants' area, was not placed on its pedestal until the parts of the play were recited as were supposed to be acted
27th of October, 1845. An interesting fact is recorded by privately in the house.
historians respecting the statue of Gresham. During EXPANSION, (from the Latin, expando) that degree of
the raging of the great fire of 1606: "When the fire increment, which a body is susceptible of extending, in one
 EXP 404 EXP
or more of its dimensions by heat. Bodies of every kind, Fahrenheit's Scale.
as far as weare acquainted with them, are expanded in bulk
by heat, and are contracted by cold ; and to this law there By T By 180
are but few exceptions, which will be noticed in due time. Steel rod 0.0000763 0.0137368
The expansions, or the increments of bulk, are not exactly Cast-iron prism 0.0000740 0.0133126
Glass tube 0.0000517 0.0093138
proportional to the increments of heat in the same body ; nor
are different bodies expanded alike by the like elevation of Solid glass rod 0.0000539 0.0096944
White glass barometer tube 0.0100
temperature. Thus, if a quantity of water be increased one
inch in bulk by the communication of ten degrees of heat, Martial regulus of antimony 0.0130
the communication of twice or thrice as much more heat will Blistered steel 0.0138
not cause it to expand two or three inches more. Also, if
Hard steel 0.0147
a rod of gold, and another similar rod of glass, be heated Iron 0.0151
to the their increments of bulk, arising thereby,
same degree, Bismuth 0.0167
will not be equal, the gold expanding more than the glass. Copper hammered 0.0204
Of the three principal states of natural bodies, viz., solids, Copper eight parts, with tin one part . . 0.0218
.

and
elastic fluids, the solids are expanded least ; the Cast brass 0.0223
liquids,
Brass sixteen parts, with tin one part
liquids are expanded more than the solids ; but the elastic 0.0229
. . .

fluids are expanded a vast deal more than the The Brass wire 0.0232
liquids.
knowledge of the precise quantities of these expansions of Speculum metal 0.0232
bodies is of great use in philosophy, in mechanics, and in Spelter solder, viz., of brass two parts, and of
other scientific subjects ; hence no pains have been spared zinc one 0.0247
Fine pewter 0.0274
by philosophers to investigate and ascertain them ; various
instruments have been contrived for that purpose ; innumer- Grain tin 0.0298
able experiments have been instituted; and a great Soft solder, viz., lead two parts, tin one 0.0301
many .

Zinc eight parts, with tin one, a little- ham-

. .

useful results have been obtained. Of these results we shall

now endeavour to give a regular and distinct account. mered 0.0323
The instruments which have been contrived for the pur- Lead 0.0344
Zinc or spelter 0.0353
pose of measuring the expansions of solids arising from an
elevation of temperature, are called pyrometers. The Zinc hammered half an inch per foot . 0.0373
. .

objects which must be had in view in the construction of Iron, instead of being condensed into a smaller bulk,
pyrometers, are to form a steady frame, wherein solids of a expands in its transition from a fluid into a solid state ; so
certain length may be applied either that a quantity of iron occupies more room in the solid form
successively, or several
of them at the same time ; some contrivance which those than it does in a fused state.
by
Dr. Wollaston, in order to form some estimate of the com-
metallic bodies may be
heated to any required degree ; and
a mechanism capable of measuring the increase of bulk which parative rate of expansion of platina and palladium, says,
is caused "I riveted together two thin plates of platina and palladium,
by the heat ; and this may be accomplished by
mcans of multiplying wheels, by levers, by screws, by a and observing that the compound plate, when heated, became
concave on the side of the platina I ascertained that the
microscopical micrometer, or otherwise. ;

Some of the first determinations of the expansion of bodies, expansion of palladium is in some degree the greater of the
that may be considered as
being sufficiently accurate, were
two. By a similar mode of comparison I found that palla-
made by Mr. Ellicot, with a pyrometer of his contrivance. dium expands considerably less than steel by heat." Phil.
Mr. Ellicot determined the proportional expansions of seven Trans, for 1805.
It must be remarked, with
metallic bodies by the same elevation of
temperature. They respect to the expansion of
are as follow : glass, that sometimes glass tubes are extended more than
Gold. Silver. Brass. Iron. Steel. Lead. solid glass rods ; their dilatation, however, is not constant
Copper. ;

73. 103. 95. 89. 60. 56. 149. for tubes of different diameters, or of different sorts of
glass,
Mr. Smeaton contrived a much better pyrometer, and are expanded differently by the application of like
degrees
with it he determined the expansions of several solids. of heat.
M. De Luc also contrived a pyrometer of a peculiar con- Wood is not much expanded longitudinally, that is, in the
struction ; but Mr. Ramsden's pyrometer is direction of its fibres, by heat; and this is particularly the
superior to any
other contrivance of the kind. case with deal and other straight-grained wood. Probably,
The following table shows, in parts of an inch, how much upon the whole, the longitudinal expansion of wood is less
one foot's length of different substances is expanded than that of glass. It has been observed,
by 180 (especially by
of heat, Fahrenheit's scale, between the Dr. Rittenhouse, Trans, of the American Phil. Society,) that
freezing and the
boiling points of water. To the first seven substances very dry and seasoned wood, if not exposed to a very high
(which were examined in Mr. Ramsden's most accurate or to a very low temperature, will expand in length pretty
pyrometer) there are added the expansions for a single regularly ; otherwise its expansion by heat, and its contrac-
degree of heat. The others were determined by Mr. Smeaton tion by cold, are very irregular; for they seem to depend
with his pyrometer. partly upon the heat, and partly upon the moisture, which
Fahrenheit's Scale. the wood acquires in certain circumstances, and is deprived
of in others. It is hardly necessary to mention, that the

By 1
By 180 solids of the preceding table contract their dimensions by
Standard brass scale, supposed to
cooling, as much as they are expanded by heating; thus, for
be Hamburg brass .... 0.0001237 . 0.0222646 instance, if a yard's length of any particular metallic body,
English plate brass in form of a rod 0.0001262 . 0.0227136 by being heated 100 degrees above the actual temperature of
English plate brass in form of a the atmosphere, be lengthened one-fiftieth part of an inch ;
trough 0.0001263 . 0.0227386 afterwards, when cooled down to the temperature of the
 EXP 405 EXP
atmosphere, it will be found to have lost exactly that fiftieth case frequently been called experimentttm cruets; & crucial
part of an inch which it had acquired by heating. experiment, meaning a capital or decisive experiment; such
From the experiments hitherto made on the expansions of as supersedes the necessity of instituting more
experiments
solids by heat, no correspondence has been observed be- for the same purpose. The origin of the expression experi-
tween the expansions and the quantities of caloric they are mentum crucis has by some been derived from its being a
capable of absorbing. The fusibility of metals seems to kind of torture, whereby the nature of the question is, as it
coincide with the dilatations ; platina, the least fusible of the were, extorted by force. It has been also attributed,
by
metals, dilates the least; lead dilates most; and the most others, though with less apparent probability, to the guide or
fusible glass is also the most dilatable. We
may therefore instruction which it affords, like that of a direction-post, which
conclude with M. Berthollet, that bodies are so much the is
shaped somewhat like a cross.
more expansible, the less caloric they require, to change their It is not practicable to
give any instructions for the right
constitution from solid to liquid, and from liquid to gases or performance of experiments in general ; for not only every
vapours. subject, but every particular question belonging to any sub-
There is a substance which expands when heated, but does ject, must be determined by a particular mode of investiga-
not contract when cooled ; and of this singular property Mr. tion. The experimenter can only be instructed by practice.
Wedgwood availed himself for the construction of his in- The nature of the subject, a strict attention to every apparent
genious thermometer for measuring the highest degrees of circumstance, an accurate statement of particulars, and an
heat ; viz., those degrees which exceed the scale of the unprejudiced mode of reasoning, will easily suggest a proper
mercurial thermometer. The substance alluded to is the train of experiments which the subject in question may

argillaceous earth or clay, and it appears that the above- admit of. It deserves to be remarked, that though in the
mentioned property belongs, more or less, to argillaceous investigation of any subject, the philosopher proposes a cer-
bodies of every kind. This property mav^ at first sight ap- tain order of investigation,
(and it is always proper to propose
pear to be an unaccountable exception from the general law: to oneself some such plan or train of
experiments;) yet it is
the difficulty, however, will vanish, if it be considered that but seldom that the proposed plan can, or deserves to be,
bodies of the argillaceous genus contain a considerable quan- strictly executed for the result of the first or second
; experi-
tity of water, and that the contraction of these bodies, when
ment frequently points out a new tract, or a more promising
exposed to the action of a strong fire, is in a great measure road; in consequence of which, new and different trials must
due to the escape of the water, and hence they do not con- be instituted ;
it is in the
ready adoption of such plans as
tract by subsequent cooling. may be best suited to the last indications, that the genius of
EXPERIENCE, knowledge derived from
trials, long use, the philosopher is rendered conspicuous.
practice, or a series of observations. Experience consists in Such mode may suffice for the determination of any doubt-
the ideas suggested by what "we have seen, read, or done : ful point but when a discovery has been made, and is to be
;

we reflect on these things, and the judgment forms for itself explained to other persons, then it is of use to show the same
a rule or standard, which standard is experience. result by dilTorent experiments ; for it is not only a satisfac-
Authors make three kinds of experience the first is the
: tion to have several concurring proofs of the same proposition ;

simple uses of the external senses, whereby we perceive the but it is also rendered intelligible to a greater number of
phenomena of natural things, without any direct attention readers or hearers ; it being seldom the case, that the sumo
thereto, ormaking any application thereof. experiment conveys an equal degree of conviction and satis-
The second is, when we premeditatedly and designedly faction to the mind of everybody.
make trials of various things, or observe those done by others, EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY. Philosophy, from
attending closely to and circumstances.
all effects the Greek philosop/tia (<j>ikoao<pia,) literally signifies "love
The third is that preceded by an apprehension of an event, of wisdom or knowledge," and a philosopher, (<Ao(7o0oc,) is
and determines whether the apprehension were true or false ;
a lover of wisdom. Pythagoras is said to have been the first
the two latter kinds, especially the third, are of great service person who called himself philosopher, from which appella-
in philosophy. tion the word philosophy was derived, meaning the love of
EXPERIMENT, (from the Latin experimenlum,) a trial, general knowledge. The terms philosophy, philosophical,
an or operation designed to discover some unknown
act, philosopher, are often used in our language apparently with
truth, principle, or effect, or to establish it when discovered. no great precision, though it is not difficult to deduce from
In philosophy, it means the result of certain applications, dis- the use of these terms the general meaning or notion which
positions, or combinations, of natural bodies, made with is attached to them. We
speak of the philosophy of the
some particular view. The history of physical science from human mind, as being, of all philosophies, that to which the
the commencement of the present century, strikingly demon- name philosophy is particularly appropriated ; and so also,
strates how powerful an instrument experiment is in the by using qualifying terms, we speak of natural philosophy,
discovery of facts. Experiments are said to be mechanical, experimental philosophy, &c.
or chemical, or electrical, or magnetical, &c., according to the If this
knowledge or philosophy relate to the manners, the
subject to which they more immediately belong. The object duties, or the conduct of human beings, considered in a
of making experiments is to ascertain either certain causes rational and social light, it is called moral philosophy ;
if
or certain phenomena ; and for the proper attainment of these to the phenomena of natural bodies natural philosophy.
objects, care must be had to institute experiments that admit Experimental philosophy, as will bo shown hereafter, may
of no equivocal result, and so as to answer the purpose in the , be defined as the philosophy of proof, in contradistinction
quickest and most direct way. The main object, however, to the philosophy of opinion, to the manners, the duties,
of the inquiry can seldom be determined by a single decisive and the conduct of human beings, considered in a rational
experiment ; hence, in most cases, it becomes necessary to and social light, or to the phenomena of natural bodies, so
divide the question into parts, and to ascertain each part it has been called either moral philosophy or natural
separately by one or more appropriate experiments. When philosophy.
the experiment is so prescribed, as to decide the question The philosophers of the primitive ages, among the Greeks,
without any possible doubt or equivocation, it has in that Romans, die., in explanation of the phenomena of nature,
 EXP 406 EXP
such as the motions of the celestial bodies, the rain, snow, similar pursuits in Italy. This inquisitive person lived at
frost, thunder and lightning, the rainbow, the combustion of Naples, and about the year1560 formed a society of scientific
fuel, the production of animals and vegetables, and so forth, persons, who met in his own house. The great Galileo, who
generally offered the inadequate suggestions of their imagi-
was born in Italy, in the year 1564, became famous as a .

nations, which, though mostly unintelligible, and frequently philosopher and a mathematician, towards the latter end of
in the greatest degree absurd, were nevertheless received that century and the beginning of the next. His genius,
with deference by their scholars, and were propagated with superior to the prejudices of the times, investigated and estab-
to another. Their lished several leading propositions in natural
fidelity and diligence from one generation philosophy ;
of the teacher. and his success, his example, and his precepts disseminated
acquiescence rested merely on the authority
and a universal ardour for the true mode of investigating the
That these explanations were generally inadequate
absurd, is by observing, that different contem-
easily evinced powers and the effects of natural bodies. His successor,
porary philosophers entertained and taught opinions diametri- Torricelli, was not unworthy of a most distinguished rank
cally opposite to each other, though they
related to the very amongst the philosophers of the age ; and the Torricellian
same question ; and that subsequent philosophers have, by tube, or the barometer, is a magnificent monument of his
actual observations, and unerring demonstrations, shown experimental inquiries.
their fallacy. It may amuse an inquisitive mind to observe, In England, as we have already mentioned, Friar Bacon
that whilst the exertions of the early mathematicians, whose was the first promoter of true knowledge ; but a great part
productions have obtained the admiration of subsequent gen-
of the work of philosophical reformation was accomplished
erations, were strictly rational and correct, the investigations by another inquiring genius of the same name. Francis
of their contemporary philosophers were conducted in a man- Bacon, lord-chancellor of England, gave a fresh and vigorous
ner altogether slovenly and superficial. This method of impulse to the progress of experimental inquiry. He recorded
philosophizing prevailed for a very long period, and several a vast number of facts, proposed and executed a great many
centuries elapsed, during which the knowledge of nature experiments, and nothing that related to nature seemed to
made no progress deserving of notice, excepting a few rare be below his notice.
and accidental discoveries. These early reformers of philosophy, besides other obvious
The 15th century, which was productive of the greatest difficulties, were obliged to struggle against, and the success
events and the most consequential discoveries that history of their labours was much impeded by, the erroneous notions
can record, seems to have given a new turn to the subject of which then prevailed, and which had been long rooted in the
natural philosophy. The old tenets began to be doubted, minds even of the most able persons then living. Galileo
and the energies of the human mind began to manifest their was oppressed by the ignorance and prejudices of the clergy.
unfettered powers. In the next century, the incoherent Crichton, who flourished about the latter end of the 16th
dogmas of the preceding ages were freely combated; the century, wrote an able book expressly against the vain philo-
authority of names and sects was disregarded, and, in lieu of sophy of Aristotle, which had long been read in the schools.
opinions, the explanation of natural phenomena was referred The two Bacons, and other able writers, frequently allude to,
to the evidence of actual experiments. Then was introduced and strenuously endeavour to remove, the absurd and fanci-
the appellation of experimental philosophy, by which is meant, ful notions of their contemporaries. In short, the demolition
the knowledge of natural powers and natural effects acquired of the old defective fabric, proved nearly as laborious as the
by means of experiments or trials. The least reflection erection of the new structure.
readily showed the superiority of this new method of The reform which had been begun by the above-mentioned,
philosophizing; but, independent of any other consideration, and other worthy persons, was soon after completed by the
its establishment is
principally due to the success with which extraordinary genius of Newton. This truly great man, like
it was attended, and which exceeded even the most
sanguine a luminary of the first magnitude, illustrated whatever earne
expectations of its first promoters. No sooner was it within the limits of his notice, and his notice was employed
in the greatest and most admired works of the creation.
adopted, than discoveries of importance were made, old-
established errors were detected, and the subject of philosophy His method was to institute experiments, to examine the
assumed an entirely new aspect. phenomena with accuracy, and to ground upon them the
It is
undoubtedly true, that in this mode of investigation strictest mathematical reasoning. The conviction which
the experiments must be preceded by hypothesis, or supposi- such a rational method conveyed, and the numerous discov-
tion for a man cannot begin to make experiments without
;
eries with which it was attended, completely exploded the
the previous formation of a certain plan; but then the plan, old tenets, and established the only true method of investi-
the supposition, or the hypothesis, goes no farther than to gating nature.
propose, something, the confirmation or refutation of which is
The progress of experimental philosophy might have been
referred to the result of experiments, assisted by mathematical interrupted by the death of a single individual; for it does
calculation. In the 13th century, the necessary preliminaries but seldom occur that genius, health, opulence, and other
for the improvement of natural knowledge began to be opportunities, concur in the qualification of an experimental
made ; viz., collections of what then prevailed under the de- philosopher ; but the danger was in great measure averted
nomination of scientific knowledge, natural knowledge, secrets by the institution of philosophical societies. These societies,
of nature, and the like ; and the farrago of truths, errors, by bringing together learned men, and concentrating, as it
inconsistencies, doubts, and perplexities, which these works were, their efforts against the ignorance and prejudice of the
contain, is strange indeed. Among the few who effectually age ; by uniting the efforts of several ingenious labourers, by
began to work in the experimental mode of investigation, furnishing in great measure the means of investigation, by
during that century, Friar Bacon held the most distinguished encouraging improvements, and by recording and propagat-
place. His desire of information was great; his views ex- ing the results, at length succeeded in establishing the progress
tensive ; his mind clear and capacious ; and he is said to of knowledge in a regular and permanent channel.
have spent about 2,000 (a sum very considerable at that The first society of the kind which we find recorded, is
time) in the performance of his numerous philosophical ex- that which we have already mentioned at the house of
periments. Baptista Porta also distinguished himself for Baptista Porta, in Naples, towards the latter end of the
 EXP 407 EXP
"
16th century. It was called Academia Secretorum Naturae." being divided into particles very minute, they elude our
Next to this, and before the end of the same century, the senses, and escape our immediate notice. Thus, when a
academy, called the Lyncei, was founded at Rome, and was piece of wood is placed upon the fire, the greatest part of it
rendered famous throughout the world, principally by the disappears, and a few ashes only remain, the weight ami bulk
renown of one of its members, the great Galileo. The of which do not amount to the hundredth -part of the weight
Academy del Cimento, and several other associations of and bulk of the original piece of wood. In this case the
scientific persons, were established in the succeeding, viz., piece of wood is divided into its constituent principles, which
the 17th century. Amongst those associations the first rank the action of thefire drives different ways. The fluid part,
must be assigned to the Royal Society of London. This for instance, becomes steam, the light coaly part either
most learned and distinguished society had its origin soon adheres to the chimney, or is dispersed through the air, &c.,
after the middle of the 17th century. A few men of learn- so that if, after the combustion, the scattered materials were
ing began to meet at stated times at Wadham college, Oxford ; collected, (which may in a great measure be accomplished,)
and among those persons were the following conspicuous the sum of their weights would equal the weight of the
characters: viz., Dr. Ward, Mr. Robert Boyle, Dr. Wilkins, original piece of wood.
Sir William Petty, Mr. Matthew Wren, Dr. Wallis, Dr. 4. Every or is produced by, an adequate cause,
effect has,

Goddard, Dr. Willis, Dr. Bathurst, Dr. Christopher Wren, and proportionate to it.
is

and Mr. Rooke. From Oxford this association transferred It

may, in general, be observed, with respect to these
its meetings in the year 1658, to Gresham college, in London. axioms, that we only mean to assert what has been constantly
There they increased their number and soon after the res-
; shown, and confirmed by experience, and is not contradicted,
toration of Charles II., the society received a royal charter, either by reasoning, or by any known experiment. But we
which established it in the form that has been continued do not mean to assert that they are as evident as the axioms
ever since. of geometry ; nor do we in the least presume to prescribe
The objects of the universe, or the natural bodies which limits to the agency of the Almighty Creator of
every
affect our senses, become known and useful to us by their thing, whose power and whose ends are too far removed
properties, some of which affect one of our senses, whilst from the reach of our (inite understandings.
others affect some other sense. Thus we perceive luminous Having thus stated the principal axioms of philosophy, it
bodies through our eyes, sound through our ears, heat or is in the next
place necessary to mention the rules of phi-
cold by the touch or feel, &c. Some of these properties are losophizing, which have been formed, after mature consi-
called general, like gravity and extension, because they deration, for the purpose of preventing errors as much as
belong to all bodies ; and others, like transparency and possible, and of leading the student of nature, along the
fluidity, arc called particular, because they belong to certain shortest and safest path, to the attainment of true and useful
bodies only. The better we become acquainted with the knowledge. These rules may be reduced to four, viz.
properties of natural bodies, the more extended the sphere 1. We are to admit no more causes of natural things,
of our powers and of our advantages becomes; and it than such as are both true,and sufficient to explain the
is for the
discovery of these properties, either in simple appearances.
or in compound bodies, that experimental inquiries are 2. Therefore, to the same natural effects we must, as far
instituted. as possible, assign the same causes.
In the acquirement of knowledge, the human being has no 3. Such qualities of bodies as are not capable of increase,
other assistance besides that of his senses, and of his reason- or of decrease, and which are found to belong to all bodies
ing faculty. By the first he observes and acquires ideas of within the reach of our experience, are to be esteemed the
self-evident propositions, or properties of natural bodies ; such universal qualities of all bodies whatsoever.
as the human mind cannot dissent from without manifest 4. In experimental philosophy we are to look upon propo-
violence to its perceptions ; by the second he is led from one sitions collected by general induction from phenomena, as
of these evident simple propositions, to another strictly accurately, or very nearly true, notwithstanding any contrary
depending upon the first, then to a third strictly depending hypothesis that may be imagined, till such time as other phe-
upon the second, and so on, to the acquisition of some idea nomena occur, by which they may either be corrected, or
more complex, and less apparent at the first annunciation. may be shown to be
liable to exceptions.
The constant observation of philosophers, with Sir Isaac With respect to the degree of evidence which ought to be
Newton at their head, and the dictates of plain reasoning, expected in natural philosophy, it is proper to remark, that
have furnished certain axioms and certain rules of philoso- physical matters are not, in general, capable of such absolute
phizing, the propriety of which is too evident to be certainty as the branches of mathematics. The propositions
objected to. of the latter science are clearly deduced from a set of axioms
The axioms of philosophy, or the axioms which have been so very simple and evident, as to convey perfect conviction
deduced from common and constant experience, are so evi- to the mind ; nor can any of them be denied without a mani-
dent, and so generally known, that it will be sufficient to fest absurdity. But in natural philosophy we can only say,
mention a few of them only. that because certain particular effects have been constantly
1. Nothing has no property ;. hence produced under certain circumstances, therefore they will
2. No substance, or nothing, can be produced from most probably continue to be produced as long as the same
nothing. circumstances exist and likewise that they do, in all pro-
;

3. Matter cannot be annihilated, or reduced to nothing. bability, depend upon those circumstances. And this is what
The propriety of the last axiom may perhaps not be we mean by laws of nature, viz., certain effects which are, or
readily admitted by certain persons observing
that a great
;
have been uniformly, produced by certain causes, as far as
many things appear to be utterly destroyed by the action of our observations reach.
fire;
also that water may be caused to disappear by means We may, indeed, assume various physical principles, and
of evaporation ; and so forth. But it must be observed, that by reasoning upon them, we may strictly demonstrate the
in these cases the substances are not annihilated ; they are deduction of certain consequences. But as the demonstration
only dispersed, or removed from one place to another,
and by goes no farther than to prove, that such consequences must
 EXP 408 EXP
necessarily follow the principles which have been assumed ; that new bodies are frequently discovered in proportion as
the consequences themselves can have no greater degree of new instruments, and the improvements of science in general,
certainty than the principles are possessed of; so that they furnish us with the means of
discriminating them from
are true, or false, or probable, according as the principles others. We
are thus naturally led to conclude, that in all
upon which they depend are true, or false, or probable. probability there exists a vast number of other bodies, of
The foundations of experimental philosophy, as we have which we at present have not the least suspicion. Some of
already observed, are the properties of natural bodies, viz., these may perhaps be discovered hereafter, others
may re-
of all these bodies, either solid or fluid, which in any way main utterly unknown to the human species for ever.
affect any of our senses ;
and since our senses are affected by The properties of natural bodies, which are the objects of
the properties of these bodies, viz., by their extension, colour, research to the experimental philosopher, are either general,
hardness, transparency, &e., we cannot know any more of or particular. The general properties, which belong to all
these bodies than what is manifested to us by such properties kinds of bodies, are, as far as we know, not more than six ;
only as we are able to perceive. Were we furnished with viz.,extension, divisibility, impenetrability, mobility, vis
other senses, doubtless we might discover other properties or passiveness, and gravitation.
inertise, We
have said that
which would make us more intimately acquainted with the these are the general properties as far as we know, because
nature of such bodies. matter in general may possess other properties with which
Human art has not been able to discover more senses we are yet unacquainted. And the same observation may
than those which everybody knows; but it has, in great be made with respect to the universality of these properties:
measure, improved some of those which we possess, and this for they are said to be
general, because nobody was ever
alone is sufficient to point out the limited nature of our found which wanted any one of them. But mankind are not
per-
ceptions. Thus, for instance, the discovery of the micro- acquainted with all the bodies of the universe, and many
scope and the telescope have shown us wonders, of which which are known to exist, cannot be subjected to ex-
our forefathers were utterly ignorant; and the number and
periments.
variety of these wonders have increased, in proportion as the The peculiar properties, viz., those which belong to cer-
above-mentioned instruments have been improved. The tain bodies only, and not to others, are density, rarity, hard-
improvements of these instruments have been suggested bv ness, softness, fluidity, rigidity, flexibility, elasticity, opacity,
the discoveries that have been made respecting the refrangi-
transparency, the properties of light, the properties of heat,
bility of light, and the properties of transparent bodies, and the properties of electricity, the properties of magnetism,
these have been made in consequence of the innumerable and three other kinds of attraction, (independent of gravi-
experiments that have been instituted by various intelligent tation, of electricity and of magnetism,) viz., the attraction
persons. Thus it appears, that by means of trials and obser- of aggregation, which the homogeneous parts of matter have
vations, new
facts are ascertained, which, besides their
being towards each other, or by which they adhere together ; and
to the human
immediately useful species, furnish, at the same such is the power by which two small drops of mercury, when
time, the means of making farther discoveries ; and the trea- placed contiguous to each other, rush, as it were, into each
sures of the natural world are far, indeed, from a state of
other, and form a single drop ; the attraction of cohesion, or
exhaustion. Hence the improvements and the discoveries that power by which the heterogeneous particles of bodies
of experimental philosophy proceed in a kind of increasing adhere to each other without any change of their natural
geometrical progression ; unless they are impeded by some properties, such as the adhesion of water to glass, of oil to
extraordinary occurrence. iron, &c. ; and the attraction of composition, or of affinity,
In contemplating the intimate nature of natural bodies, which is the tendency that the parts of heterogeneous
when our mind goes beyond the bounds of our senses, (and bodies have towards each other, by which they combine,
our senses, even with the assistance of instruments and rea- and form a body, differing more or less from any of its
soning, are only capable of perceiving a few properties of components.
those bodies ;) we wander in the boundless field of probability It is to be remarked, that of all these
properties we know
and conjecture. Two principal hypotheses have been enter- their existence only, and some of the laws under which they
tained with respect to the primitive component particles of act ;
but we are otherwise utterly ignorant of their nature
bodies. One is, that the particles of each peculiar species and dependence.
of bodies are dilferent from the particles of another species of The investigation of some of the above-mentioned pro-
bodies. Thus the primitive particles of gold are supposed perties, whether general or particular, has been carried much
to be different from the particles of calcareous earth, dilferent farther than the investigation of other properties. The results
from the particles of water, &c. The other hypothesis is, of these investigations have likewise been various, both in
that there is one kind of primitive, or original particles of Some of them are so
point of extent and of application.
matter, and that from the different arrangement of those very extensive and so useful, as to form the foundations
ultimate particles, the various bodies arise. Experience shows, of very important branches of science, or of art, under peculiar
that certain bodies, which at first sight appear to be abso- Thus, upon the mobility, and the vis iuertise
appellations.
lutely different from each other, are, upon farther exami- of bodies, the doctrine of motion, or dynamics, is grounded,
nation, exactly of the same nature. On the other hand, which comprehends mechanics, hydrostatics, or the mechanical
a vast number of bodies are so distinct from each other, that
properties of fluids, pneumatics, &c. Transparency and the
no art has been able to form one of them from the particles
properties of light form the important foundation of optics.
of the other; thus gold cannot be converted into a diamond, The attraction of affinity is the foundation of chemistry, as
iron cannot be converted into lead, &c. The former of these well as of various arts ; and so forth.
observations seems to favour the second hypothesis ; the latter The phenomena of the universe, are the appearances which
seems to favour the first hypothesis ; but it is not in our take place in consequence of the above-mentioned properties
power to determine the real state of the matter. of natural bodies, together ( respecting some of them at least)
With respect to the number of bodies, which, by our not with some original impulse. The phenomena which take
being able to change one of them into the other, are called place amongst the luminous celestial bodies, properly so
elementary, or primitive and distinct ; it may be remarked, called, such as the stars, the planets, &c.. are examined by
 EXP 409 EXT
a particular science, called astronomy ; the meteors, or the ignition, to be sure, might be felt partially, like that of a
phenomena which take place within the limits of the terres- slight earthquake, but no superficial effects would be
trial atmosphere, such as shooting stars, northern lights, observable.
halos, rain, togs, hail, winds, &c., form, the subject of It has been already stated, that the powder must be
lodged
meteorology. in bulk ; and that it should be ignited at the centre. This
"EXPLOSION, in natu^ philosophy, a sudden and violent may, perhaps, appear superfluous; but all military men
expansion of an aerial or other elastic fluid, by which it know, that much powder is blown out of the muzzles of
instantly throws off any obstacle that may be in the way. pieces without ever being ignited and we have a most
;

It differs from expansion, properly so called, in this, that the remarkable fact in modern times, one indeed, which shows,
latter is a gradual and continued power, whereas the former that, unless in bulk, powder is not always sure to be fired
is always sudden, and of only momentary duration. in tola. The incident alluded to is as follows :

EXPLOSION, in military engineering. It is a matter of In the month of March, in the year 1809, a barge was
great moment, so to load, and indeed to construct a mine, proceeding along the new cut, from Paddington, laden with
that it may explode with the greatest precision, and with the casks of spirits and barrels of gunpowder. One of the crew,
maximum effect. Numerous theories have been given upon it is supposed, allured by the former, bored a hole for the

this subject, but it would be out of place to notice the whole purpose of drawing off a little wherewith to tipple. Unhappily
of what appertains thereto in a work like this. the action of the gimblet set fire to the contents of that barrel,
In commencing operations, it is
necessary in the first which the dishonest navigator had mistaken for one of spirits.
instance to ascertain, so nearly as may be practicable, what The barrel exploded, and drove eleven other barrels, filled
depth, and what weight of soil is to be removed by an with gunpowder also, to the distance of near a hundred and
explosion. This being done, the mine is formed, by con- fifty yards. It is curious, that although the whole of the

structing a gallery leading to the chamber in which the powder-barrels were together, indeed. in contact, only that
powder is to be placed. This must be deposited in a very in question exploded.
strong chest, let into a recess, and firmly secured in every Vaubangives us the following scale for exploding soils of
part. Now, it being the nature of rarefied air to escape by various descriptions. He calculates, or perhaps found from
that part which may be the weakest, it is evident, that if a experience, that for a cubic fathom (six feet) of soil,
mine is made under a rampart, so as to be within six feet of measuring in all 21C solid feet, the following proportions of
the surface, while all the sides are thicker by far than that gunpowder were needful.
measurement, the explosion will be directed towards that lb.

part which is thinnest, and which, from that circumstance, is

"
1. Light earth, mixed with sand ... 11
called the line of least resistance." 2. Common earth 12
But, in order to direct the explosion to that part, it will 3. Strong sand 15
be necessary to consider whether the soil be everywhere 4. Clay, or fat earth 16
alike for if the superincumbent portion should be part of
;
5. Old, and good masonry 18
a large stratified rock, while the sides are of a loose, inad- 6. Rock 20
hesive substance, the latter, though measuring more in dia-
meter will give the line of least resistance, which, in such In following this calculation, we are to consider the
case, Would follow the intcnacity, and create a false explosion. entonnoir to bo in diameter equal to only double the line of
For it must be recollected that explosions may be lateral as least resistance ; and not according to a maximum explosion.
well as vertical. Anew substance, gun-cotton, which is cotton wool steeped
It was formerly supposed, that the diameter of the enlonnoir, in nitric or nitro-sulphuric acid, and dried,
by which it
or explosion, was equal to double the line of least resistance ; becomes explosive, has been lately introduced as a substitute
but we find that six times that line may be exploded, by for gunpowder in blasting. It is not yet
sufficiently under-
allowing a load of 300 Ibs. of gunpowder, duly concen- stood to have come into extensive use.
trated, and fired in the middle of the mass, for every foot EXPONENT, in algebra, is a number placed over any
of the line of least resistance. We
are not to infer from power or involved quantity, to show to what height the root
this, that 300 Ibs. will be requisite to lift one foot of soil ; is raised
;
thus 2 is the exponent of a;' and 4 is the exponent
far from it ; for as a cubic foot of excavation will contain of x* or x x x x.
only 75 Ibs. of powder, the above
quantity (300 Ibs.) would EXPONENTIAL CURVES, those curves which partake
require a space of exactly four cubic feet; the proportion both of the nature of algebraic and transcendental ones.
would therefore be preposterous. But when we calculate They- are algebraical in their nature, because they consist
upon large masses of soil, such as those prodigious cones of a finite number of terms, though these terms themselves
thrown out from entonnoirs of great extent, we then find, are indeterminate, and they are in some measure transcen-
that, to produce the completest explosion, an immense quan- dental, because they cannot be algebraically constructed.
tity of powder must be supplied. EXPOSURE, the act of exposing or laying open to view ;
It is self-evident, power of the powder, according
that the as we say a building, a garden, or a wall, had a northern or
to the above only computed to that extent which
scale, is a southern exposure, and we speak of its exposure or exposi-
may be necessary towards the ordinary purposes of military tion to a free current of air, or to the access of
light.
devastation ; for if we were to contribute, ad infinitum, EXTEND, to stretch in any direction, to continue in
3001bs. of gunpowder for every foot in the line of least resist- length as a line, to spread in breadth.
ance, we should be accumulating power only in arithmetical EXTENSION, in philosophy, one of the general and
proportion, while the resistance would be increasing in & essential properties of matter; the extension of a body
being
geometrical ratio of course the power must be in a regular
: the quantity of space which the body occupies, the extremities
state of comparative diminution, in proportion as the line of of which limit or circumscribe the matter of that body. It is
least resistance is increased ; and this must, after a while, otherwise called the magnitude, or size, or bulk of a body.
occasion the powder to be inert ; or, if there should be any Aquantity of matter may be very small, or so as to elude
explosion, it could only follow the track of the train. Its the perception of our senses, such as a particle of air, a particle
52
 EXT 410 EXT
of water, &o. yet some extension it must have, and it is by lished only by the common consent or
agreement of persons
:

the comparison of this extension, that one

body is said to be of a certain nation, or profession, and used as standard mea-
larger than, equal to, or smaller than, another body. The sure by them only. Hence, the measures of different
nations,
measurement of a body consists in the comparison of the though sometimes they have the same name, differ consider-
extension of that body with some determinate extension, ably from each other. Great endeavours have been made by
which is assumed as a standard, such as an inch, a foot, a divers ingenious persons, at different times, for the
purpose
yard, a mile ; hence it is said, that a body is a foot long, or of determining an unalterable universal standard of
measures;
three inches long, &c. those endeavours, and the results with which
they have been
The extension of a body is measured three different ways; attended, will be found described under the article STANDARD
or a body is said to have length, breadth, and thickness. of Measures.
Thus an ordinary sheet of writing paper is about 16 inches Extension is usually described as consisting in the situation
long, about 14 inches broad, and nearly one hundredth part of parts beyond parts ; but to this definition some authors
of an inch thick. Either of these dimensions might be called object, maintaining, that we can conceive absolute extension
the length, or the breadth, or the thickness ; but, by general without any relation to parts.
custom, the greatest extension is called the length, the next If a man consider the distance between two bodies
is called the breadth, and the shortest is called the thickness.
abstractedly, and without any regard to bodies which may
The outside of a body, its boundary, or that which lies con- fill that
interval, it is called space ; and when he considers
tiguous to other bodies that are next to it, is called the the distance between the extremes of a solid it is called
body,
surface of that body, and this surface has two dimensions extension.
only, viz., length and breadth ; but it has no thickness, for Extension is frequently confounded with quantity and
if it had, it would not be the outside of the
body ; yet a magnitude; and, for what we can perceive, without much
surface by itself cannot exist. In mathematics, however, harm, the thing signified by them all appearing to be the
surfaces are mentioned, and are reasoned upon, same; unless we admit a distinction made by some authors,
abstractedly
from matter. But in these cases the surfaces exist in the that the extension of a body is something more absolute, and
imagination only, and even then our ideas have a reference its
quantity and magnitude more respective, or implying a
to body, for our senses cannot perceive a surface without nearer relation to much and little. The infinite divisibility
a body. of extension has been a famous question in all ages. It is not
As a surface is the outside or boundary of a body, so a line easy to reconcile the doctrine of mathematicians on this
is the boundary of a finite surface.
Suppose, for instance, that head with the tenets of some philosophers. Those who hold
a surface is divided into two parts, the common boundary of that all extension and magnitude are compounded of certain
the two parts is called a line ; this has one extension only, minima sensibilia ; and that a line, for instance, cannot
viz., it has length. increase or decrease, but by certain invisible increments or
The beginning or the end of a line, or the intersection of decrements only, must, consistently with themselves, affirm,
two lines which cross each other, is called a point, and this that all lines are commensurable to each other. But this is
has no dimensions ; or, according to the mathematical defi- contrary to the tenth book of Euclid, who demonstrates that
nition, a point is that which has no parts or magnitude, its the diagonal of a square is incommensurable to its side. And
use frequently is to mark a situation only as a point upon a further, if all lines were composed of certain indivisible
surface by the intersection of two lines, &c. Thus, if you elements, it is plain one of those elements must be the com-
divide a line into two parts, the division or boundary between mon measure of the diagonal and the side.
the two parts is a point. Bishop Berkeley observes, that the infinite divisibility of
Our senses are only capable of perceiving bodies which finite extension, though it is not expressly laid down, either
have three dimensions; or rather the surfaces of bodies, as an axiom or theorem in the elements of geometry, is yet
which surfaces have two dimensions, but a surface cannot throughout the same everywhere supposed, and thought to
be represented nor perceived without a body, and of course have so inseparable and essential a connection with the prin-
neither a line nor a point can be perceived without a body. ciples and demonstrations in geometry, that mathematicians
In the study of geometry, and in a variety of other branches, never admit it into doubt, or make the least question of it.
surfaces, lines, and points are represented upon paper, or And as this notion is the source from whence do spring
all those amusing geometrical paradoxes, which have such
upon something else ; but in those cases, the paper, or that
something else, is the body whose surface we perceive, and a direct repugnancy to the plain common sense of mankind ;
the surface of a particular figure is circumscribed, not by so it is the principal occasion of all that nice and extreme
real lines, but by a narrow slip of surface, which is sufficient subtilty which renders the study of mathematics so difficult
to direct our reasoning with respect to the geometrical pro- and tedious. Hence, says he, if we can make it appear, that
perties of lines and surfaces. Thus also, when points are no finite extension contains innumerable parts, or is infinitely
represented by themselves, the marks are not real points, divisible, it follows, that we shall at once clear the science of
but very small portions of the surface of a body. geometry from a great number of difficulties and contradic-
There is a case in which extension is often said to be per- tions which have ever been esteemed a reproach to human
ceived without the existence of a body, and this is the exten- reason, and withal, make the attainment thereof a business
sion between two bodies. But, upon consideration, it will of much less time and pains than it hitherto hath been.
easily be comprehended, that we may perceive the two Every particular finite extension, which may possibly be
bodies, and that they are separate from each other; but the object of our thought, is an idea existing only in the
we cannot perceive anything positive between them. So mind, and consequently each part thereof must be perceived.
that in this case the word extension is used in a figurative If therefore, says this author, I cannot perceive innumerable
certain
manner, as if some other body existed between the two parts in any finite extension that
I consider, it is

bodies. they are not contained in it ; but it is evident, that I cannot

The particular extension,whether under the name of distinguish innumerable parts
in any particular line, surface,

inch, foot, yard, metre, league, &c., with which other exten- or solid, which I either perceive by sense, or figure to myself
sions are compared, or by which they are measured, is estab- in my mind ; wherefore, I conclude they are not contained
 DETAIJLS, PLATE 6.

it 1/u-w .S.'.

N 1 Fan-trai-erv Vault in J. N4. Flying Buttre

'

;
N. 11 .

Hip knob.
 FAB 411 FAC
in it.
Nothing can be plainer to me than that the extensions and demonstrations of geometricians on this subject, it ought
I have in view are no other than my own ideas ;
and no
it is to be remembered, that a surface is not considered
by them
less plain, that I cannot resolve any one of my ideas into an as a body of the least sensible magnitude, but as the termi-
infinite number of other ideas; that is, that they are not nation or boundary of a body ; a line is not considered as
infinitely divisible. If infinite extension be meant
by an a surface of the least sensible breadth, but as the termination
something distinct from a finite idea, I declare I do not know or limit of a surface ; nor is a point considered as the least
what that is, and so cannot affirm or deny anything of it. sensible line, or a moment as the least perceptible time ; but
But if the terms extension, parts, and the like, are taken in a point as a termination of a line, and a moment as a termi-
any sense conceivable ; that is, for ideas ; then to say a finite nation of a limit of time. In this sense they conceive clearly
quantity or extension consists of parts infinite in number, is what a surface, line, point, and a moment of time, is; and the
so manifest a contradiction, that every one at first sight postulata of Euclid being allowed and applied in this sense,
acknowledges it to be so. the proofs by which it is shown, that a given magnitude may
Onthe other hand, it is observed by an eminent mathema- be conceived to be divided into any given number of parts,
tician, that geometricians are under no necessity of supposing appear satisfactory and if we avoid supposing the parts of
;

that a finite quantity of extension consists of parts infinite a given magnitude to be infinitely small, or to be infinite in
in number, or that there are any more number, this seems to be all that the most scrupulous can
parts in a given mag-
nitude than they can conceive or express it is sufficient that
:
require.
it
may be conceived to be divided into a number of parts Dr. Reid, in his " Inquiry into the Human Mind, on the
equal to any given or proposed number; and this is all that Principles of Common Sense," considers that it is absurd to
is
supposed in strict geometry concerning' the divisibility of deduce from sensation the first origin of our notions of exter-
magnitude. It is true, that the number of parts into which nal existence, of space, motion, and extension, and all the
a given magnitude may be conceived to be divided, is not to primary qualities of bodies ; they have, he says, no resem-
be fixed or limited because no given number is so great, but blance to any sensation, or to ay
operation of our minds,
a greater than it may be conceived and assigned but there : and therefore they cannot be ideas either of sensation or
reflection ; nor can he conceive how extension, or
is not therefore
any necessity for supposing that number any image
infinite and if some may have drawn very abstruse conse-
;
of extension, can be in an unextended and indivisible subject
quences from such suppositions they are not to be imputed like the human mind.
to geometry. Geometricians are under no necessity of sup- EXTERNAL, or EXTERIOR, (from the Latin externus,
posing a given magnitude to be divided into an infinite num- outward,) a term of relation, applied to whatever is on the
ber of parts, or to be made up of infinitesimals ; nevertheless surface or outside of a body, and opposed to internal or
they cannot so well avoid supposing it to be divided into interior.
a greater number of parts than may be distinguished in it by EXTERNAL or EXTERIOR ANGLES. See ANGLES.
sense in any particular determinate circumstance. But they EXTRA-DOS, (from the Latin, extra, outer, and dorsus,
find no difficulty in conceiving this ; and such a the back,) the external surface of a vault. The surface
supposition
does not appear to be repugnant to the common sense of man- on the upper side of the voussoirs of an arch. See ARCH,
kind, but, on the contrary, to be most agreeable to it, and to BRIDGE.
be illustrated by common observation. It would seem very EXTREME, (from the Latin extremus, utmost,) whatever
unaccountable not to allow them to conceive a given line, of finishes or terminates on one side of a
thing. The extremes
an inch inlength for example, viewed at the distance of 10 of a line are points.
feet, to be divided into more parts than are discerned in it at EYE, (from the Saxon,) a circular window in a pediment,
that distance since by bringing it nearer, a greater number
:
attic, the reins of a vault, or the like.
of parts actually perceived in it.
is Nor is it easy to limit EYE, Bullock's, (in French, nil de boeuf) a little skylight
the number of parts that may be perceived in it when it is in the covering or roof, intended to illuminate a
granary, &c.
brought near to the eye, and is seen through a little hole in It is also applied to the little lanterns in a dome, as at St.
a thin plate ; or, when by any other contrivance it is rendered Peter's at Rome, which has forty-eight, in three rows.
distinct at small distances from the eye. If we conceive a EYE OF A DOME, the aperture at the summit, as that of the
given line, that is the object of sight, to be divided into more Pantheon at Rome, or of St. Paul's, London.
parts than we perceive in it, it would seem that no good rea- EYE OF A VOLUTE, the circle at the centre, from the cir-
son can be assigned why we may not conceive tangible mag- cumference of which the spiral line commences. See SPIRAL
nitude to be divided into more parts than are perceived in it and VOLUTE.
by the touch ; or a line of any kind to be divided into any EYE, in perspective, the point where the organ of vision is
given number of parts, whether so many parts be actually fixed, in order to view the object.
distinguished by sense or not. In applying the reasonings EYE-BROW, the same as FILLET, which see.

F.
FAB FAC
FABER, a workman, the Romans gave this name to FAC. ADE, or FACE, (from the Latin fades, the front) the
artisans or mechanics who worked in hard materials. face or front view of an edifice; that portion of the surface
FABRIC, (from the Latin, fabrica, French fattrique, origi- of a building which presents itself to the eye. Fayade was
nally the workshop of a mechanic, a smith's shop or forge) the used originally to denote the principal front of a building ;
structure or construction of anything, particularly a building. and the term Facciata, used by the Italians, is, for the most
In Italy, the word is applied to any considerable building ; part, applied to such fronts as have a principal entrance. The
in France, it rather signifies the manner of building. word is now generally made use of when speaking of archi-
 FAH 412 FAR
tectural buildings, as the fayade of the Louvre, or the facade FALD-STOOL, a portable folding seat of wood or metal,
of St. Peter's, &c. often of elaborate workmanship, and covered with rich
hang-
FACE, or FACIA (from the Latin) a vertical member in ings of silk or other material. The term is applied to the
the combination of mouldings, having a very small projection, Litany stool, or low desk, used in churches, from which the
but considerable breadth ; such as the bands of an architrave. Litany is said. Its position is in the middle of the
choir,
See FASCIA. near the steps of the altar.
FACE MOULD, in the preparation of the hand-rail of a FALL. See MEASURE, and WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
stair, a mould for drawing the proper figure on both sides of
FALLING MOULDS, the two moulds which are applied
the plank ; so that when cut by a saw held at a certain .tothe vertical sides of the
rail-piece, one to the convex, the
inclination, the two surfaces of the rail-piece will be every
other to the concave side, in order to form the back and under
where perpendicular to the plan, when laid in their intended surface of the rail, and finish the
squaring.
position.
FALLING SLUICES, in
gates contrived to
engineering,
FACE OF A STONE,
the surface intended for the front of the fall down ofthemselves, and enlarge the water-way, on the
work. The face is easily known when the stone is scalped, increase of a flood, in a mill-dam, or the
pond of a river navi-
as being opposite to the back, which is rough as it comes gation.
from the quarry. The surface of the splitting grain ought FALSE ROOF, of a house, that part between the upper
always to be perpendicular to the face. room and the covering.
FACET, or FACETTE, a flat projection between the FANE. See VANE.
flutings of columns. FAN-SHAPED WINDOW, a window consisting of
FACIA. See FASCIA. rather more than a semi-circle, the circumference of which is
FACING, in engineering, a small thickness of common cut out in circular notches.
earth, soil, or stuff of a canal, laid in front of the side lining FAN-TRACERY VAULTING, a mode of vaulting
or puddle on the sloping sidfes. It is of use to hold
up the very much use in late Perpendicular buildings.
in In this
puddle while working and chopping, in the act of puddling, vaulting, all the ribs and principal lines diverge equally in
and afterwards to guard the puddle from being penetrated by every direction from a point at the springing of the vault,
the hitchers and poles used by the barge-men. every rib preserving the same curvature; the spaces between
FACING, a thin covering of a better material, to improve the ribs are piled up with
panelling and rich tracery. The
the appearance, or add to the strength of anything. Thus name is applied from the similarity of this kind of roof to an
the thin covering of polished stone, or the stratum of open fan. Beautiful specimens exist at King's
plaster, College Chapel,
or cement on a brick or rough stone wall is called a facing. Cambridge St. George's, Windsor and Henry VIl.'s Chapel,
; ;

FACING, FACADE, or REVETEMENT, in fortification, the por- Westminster also in many smaller erections, such as chan-
;

tion of masonry, or rather building, given to tombs, &c.

ramparts, with tries,
a view to prevent the soil of which they are composed from FANUM, among the Romans, a temple consecrated to
crumbling or giving way. When the wall is of masonry, it some deity. The deified mortals, among the heathens, had
should be 5 feet thick at the top, with tresses, called counter- likewise their fana: even the great philosopher, Cicero,
forts, at about 15 feet apart, to strengthen the facing. In erected one to his daughter Tullia.
order to prevent escalade, the facing is generally made full FANUM Jovis, a temple of Jupiter, in Asia Minor, near the
27 feet high, from the bottom of the ditch to the cordon. Thracian Bosphorus and the Syrnsan promontory.
When the facing is carried up as high as the soles of the FARM. It is not within our
province to enter on the
embrasures, it is called a whole revetement ; but when con- subject of the mangement of a farm ; but as the construc-
fined to the ditch only, it is called a half revetement. These tion of the buildings
belonging to one is frequently entrusted
must depend upon the nature of the soil, the facility of to architects and
surveyors, especially in a country practice,
obtaining materials, the time that can be allowed, the impor- it is desirable to offer a few observations
respecting farm-
tance of the post, &c. When difficulties occur, as also in buildings. The directions of Vitruvius are as follow :
"
temporary works, the facings are made with turf, in which The magnitude of the buildings must depend wholly on
case they are said to be yazoned. For field- works, and par- the quantity of land attached to them, and
upon its produce.
ticularly in the conducting of sieges, fascines or faggots, made The number of courts and their dimensions must be propor-
of various materials, are very generally tioned to the herds of cattle and
employed, and answer quantity of oxen employed.
the intention. The kitchen should be situated in the warmest part of the
FACINGS, in joinery, all those fixed parts of wood-work court, and the stable for the oxen contiguous to it; the stalls
which cover the rough work of the interior of walls, and should be made to face the hearth and the east, because when
present themselves to the eye in the completion. oxen are constantly exposed to light and heat
they become
FACTABLING. &eCopiKo. smooth-coated. No husbandman, however ignorant, will
FAIR CURVE, in ship-building, a winding line, used in suffer cattle to face
any other quarter of the heavens than
delineating ships, whose shape is varied according to the part the east. The width of the stables ought not to be less than
of the ship which it is intended to describe. 10, nor more than 15 feet, their length proportioned to the
FAHRENHEIT, the presumed inventor of the thermo- number of yokes, each of which should occupy an extent of
meter which bears his name. It is quite unknown on what 17 feet. The scalding-rooms should adjoin the kitchen, in
grounds he made choice of the fixed points on his scale, or order that the operation of cleansing the utensils may be
of the number of graduations between them, but it is sup- performed upon the spot. The courts for sheep, &c., should
posed that one of the fixed points was that of boiling-water, be so spacious as to allow not less than 4, nor more than
and that the other, the zero of the scale, was that at which the 6 feet, to each animal.
"
top of the column stood, when the instrument was exposed to The granaries should be above ground, and made to
an intense cold in Iceland, in 1709. The extent of the scale front either the north or the north-east, in order that the
between this last point, and that of boiling-water, is divided grain may not be liable to ferment ; but, on the contrary, by
into 212 parts, and the point of exposure to a cold atmosphere, may be preserved a long
freezing water is at the
thirty-second division from the zero point. time : all other prospects encourage the propagation of worms
 FEE 413 FIG
and destructive to grain.
insects The stables should be the purpose of fattening neat cattle. It should have a
dry
built in the warmest part of the villa, most distant from the warm of free ventilation, and be well cup-
situation, capable
hearth ; because when horses are stalled near fire they become plied with proper conveniences for the reception of food and
It is likewise expedient to have stalls for water.
rough-coated.
oxen at a distance from the kitchen, in the open air; these FELLING, of timber, the cutting of trees close by the
should be placed so as to front the east, because if they are root, for the purpose of building the proper season for this
:

led there to be fed in winter, when the sky is unclouded, they purpose, is about the end of April.
will improve in appearance. The barns, the hay-yards, the FELT-GRAIN when a piece of timber is cloven or split
:

corn-chambers, and the mills, ought to be without the walls, towards the centre of the tree, or transversely to the annular
so that the farm may be less liable to accidents by fire." rings or plates, that position of splitting is called the felt-
An excellent work on farm-buildings has been written by grain ; and the transverse position, or rather that which is
Mr. G. A. Dean, of Stratford. in the direction of the annular
plates, is called the quarter-
FASCIA, FACIO, or FACE (from the Latin, facia) a grain.
vertical member, of considerable height, but with a small FELTING, the splitting of timber by the fell-grain.
projection, used in architraves and pedestals. In the Grecian FEMUR, the plane space intervening between the chan-
Doric, the architrave under the band consists only of a single nels in the triglyphs of the Doric order.
face ; as does also the Ionic on the temple of the Illysus, in FENCE, (from the Latin defendo, to defend) any sort of
Attica. The Ionic on the temple of Erechtheus, at Athens, construction for the purpose of enclosing land ; as a bank
has three fascire ; as have several celebrated examples of the of earth, a ditch, hedge, wall, railing, paling, &c.
latter order. Vitruvius allows only a single face to the Tus- FENCE, the guard of a plane, which obliges it to work to
can and Doric orders that is, he makes it all plain, without
: a certain horizontal breadth from the arris all moulding
:

any divisions or cantoning into parts or fasciae. planes, except hollows, rounds, and snipes' bills, have fixed
In brick buildings, the jutting out of the bricks beyond the fences, as well as fixed stops but in fillisters and plows the
;

windows in the several stories, except the highest, are called fences are moveable.
fastias or fascia. These are sometimes plain, and sometimes FENESTELLA, a niche on the south side of the altar in
moulded ; but the moulding is only a sima reversa, or an churches, in which the piscina and sometimes credence table
ogee, with two plain courses of brick over it, then an astragal, also is placed. These niches are of various forms and degrees
and lastly, a boultine. of ornamentation ; some of them are very richly finished. In
FASCINE, (from fastis, a bundle,) in fortification, a some instances a double niche is found, one for the piscina and
number of small sticks of wood, bound at both ends and in the other for the credence table. See PISCINA, CREDENCE
the middle, used in raising batteries, in filling ditches, in TADLE, CHANCEL, &c.
strengthening ramparts, and making parapets. Smeaton and FENESTRATION, the arrangement of windows in a
other engineers have used wattled wood or hedge-work for building. The term is also used in contradistinction to
groins, &c., to retain the pebbles or beach, and break the calumniation, when speaking of the design and composition
waves on the shore. of a building generally; the former term being used in
FAST1G1UM, (Latin, a top or ridge) the upper or crown- reference to an edifice in which windows form the principal
ing member of a building. The term is also applied to PEDI- feature, the latter to that in which the columnar arrangement
MENT which see.
;
isadopted. Buildings in which both windows and columns
FATHOM (from the Saxon) a long measure of six feet, are employed, are termed columnar-fenestrated.
taken from the extent of both arms, when stretched in a right FERETORY, (Latin fern, to carry,) a bier, coffin, shrine,
line. It is used in measuring the depth of water, quarries, or tomb. The term is more properly applied to portable
wells, and pits. It is also always used in nautical matters, shrines.
as in heaving the lead, &c. FESTOON, a representation in sculpture of bands of
FAUX, a narrow passage used as a means of communica- flowers, drapery, foliage, &c., looped up or suspended at
tion between the atrium and peristylium, the two principal regular intervals. This decoration was used by the ancients
divisions of a Roman house. 111 (VlP7GS &iG
FAVISSA (Latin) a hole, pit, or vault under ground, to FETCHING THE PUMP, the act of pouring water
keep something of great value. into theupper part of a pump, to expel the air contained
FEATHER-EDGED BOARDS, those of a trapezoidal between the lower box, or piston, and the bottom of the
section that is, thicker on one edge than on the other they
;
:
pump.
are used in the facing of wooden walls, and sometimes for FIGURE (from the Latin fioura, likeness) in a general
the covering of an inclined roof, by lapping the thick edge of sense, the terminating extremes, or surface of a body.
the upper board upon the thin edge of the lower one boards
: Nobody can exist without figure, otherwise it would be
of this description are also employed in fence walls, but are infinite, and consequently all space would be solid matter.
then most frequently placed vertically. FIGURE, in geometry, any plane surface comprehended
FEATHER-EDGED COPING. See COPING. within a certain line or lines.
FEATHERING, an ornament in use in Early English, and Figures are either rectilinear, curvilinear, or mixed, accord-
the later periods of Gothic architecture-, consisting of an ing as the perimeter consists of right lines, or curved lines,
arrangement of small arcs in juxtaposition, and forming, at or both.
their intersection, projecting points or cusps. Sometimes The superficial parts of a figure are called its sides, or
we find a second and even a third series of these ornaments, faces, and the lowest side its base ; if the figure
be a tri-
one within the other. See FOLIATION. angle, the angle opposite the base is called the vertex, and
FEEDER, in engineering, a cut or channel, sometimes the height of the figure is the distance of the vertex from
called a carriage or catch-drain, by which a stream or supply the base.
of water is into a canal
brought sometimes the stream of
: FIGURE, in architecture and sculpture, representations of
water thus supplied, is called a feeder.
itself things made of solid matter, as statues, &c., thus we say,
FEEDING-HOUSE, or SHED, a building in a farm, for figures of brass, of marble, of stucco, of plaster, &c.
 FIR 414 FIR

Figures, in architecture, are said to be detached when FIR-POLES, small trunks of fir-trees from ten to sixteen feet
they stand singly, in opposition to those compositions called in length, used in rustic buildings and out-houses.
groups. FIR-NO-LABOUR, rough timber employed in walling, with-
FIGURE, in conies, the rectangle under the latus rectum out framing or planing.
and transversum, in the hyperbola and ellipsis. FIRE-BRICKS, are made from a natural compound of
FIGURE, in fortification, the interior polygon, which is silica and alumina, which, when free from lime and other
either regular or irregular. It is called a regular figure, when fluxes, is infusible under the greatest heat to which it can be
the sides and angles are all equal. subjected. Fire-bricks are brought to London from Stour-
FIGURES are either CIRCUMSCRIBED or INSCRIBED, EQUAL, bridge and from Wales ; they are also made near Windsor.
EQUILATERAL, SIMILAR, REGULAR, or IRREGULAR. See these See BRICK, and WINDSOR BRICKS.
words. FIRE-ENGINE, a term formerly applied to the steam-engine,
FIGURE OF THE DIAMETER, a name given to the rectangle but now confined to those machines which extinguish fires
under a diameter and its perimeter, in the ellipsis and by throwing water from a jet upon the burning materials.
hyperbola. FIRE-ESCAPE, a machine for escaping from windows when
FILLET, (from the French filet, a band) a small member, houses are on fire.
consisting of two planes at right angles, used to separate two FIRE-PLACE, that space in an apartment where the fuel
larger mouldings, to strengthen their edges, or to form a cap is consumed in communication with a flue
through which the
or crowning to a moulding, or sometimes to terminate a mem- proceeds of combustion are carried away. In modern houses
ber, or series of members. the fire-place is usually taken out of the space within the
The one of the smallest members used in cornices,
fillet is
apartment, and flanked by projecting walls, upon which is
architraves, bases, pedestals, &c. carried up a flue, also projecting within the apartment, but
It is called by the French,
reglet, bande, and banddette ; in ancient houses the fire-place and flue were often taken out

by the Italians, lista or listella. of the thickness of the wall, or projected outwards on the ex-
FILLET, in carpentry or joinery, any small timber scant- terior of the building.
ling, equal to, or less than, battens they are used for sup-
: The most ancient fire-places in England, now existing,
porting the ends of boards, by nailing them to joists or are those at Rochester and Conisborough Castles, which
quarters, &c., as in sound-boarding, and in supporting the date of the twelfth century. The former is deeply re-
ends of shelves. cessed, with a semi-circular back, while the back of the
FILLET GUTTER. See GUTTERING. former is flat, and not recessed at the level of the floor, but
FILLING -IN PIECES, in carpentry, short timbers,
slopes backward as it rises; the hearth consequently projects
less than the full-length, fitted against the hips of roofs, into the room, but is covered by a hood which projects from
groins, braces of partitions, &c., which interrupt the whole the wall to collect the smoke. Wehave not many specimens
length. of Early English work, but in the later styles they are more
FINE-SET, when the iron of a plane has a very small frequent. In Early English and Decorated buildings fire-places
projection below the sole, so as to take a very thin broad are not often very deeply recessed, and sometimes not at all,
shaving, it is said to be fine-set. but they are frequently covered with projecting hoods. In
FINE STUFF, in plastering. See PLASTERING. the Perpendicular style they are generally entirely recessed,
F1NIAL, (from the Latin, finio, to finish,) in the pointed and in that case are without the hood ; some specimens of
style of architecture, a termination to a building, or principal this period are of a very ornamental description.

part, in the form of a flower or knop of foliage; used in FIRE-PROOF HOUSES, such as are built without the use of
high-pointed pediments, canopies, pinnacles, &c. It is usually any combustible matter for this purpose, vaulted or cast-iron
:

in the form of a lily, trefoil, acorn, pomegranate, endive, &c., floors and roofs should be employed in every apartment.
or consists of four or more of the leaves which compose the Vaulting is well adapted to the lower story of a building, but
crockets tied up in one bunch. if used in the upper stories, the walling must be carried up

FINISHING, a term frequently applied to the termination very thick, in order to resist the thrust of the arches ; and
of a building, as also to the interior, in the plaster-work, in this extra substance not only darkens the apartments, but

giving the last coat ; and very frequently to the joiner's work, occasions an enormous expense. The builder is therefore
as in the architraves, bases, surbases, &c. obliged to have recourse to other modes of construction for
FINISHING, in plastering. See PLASTERING. common purposes. The most convenient substitute is cast-
FIR, (from the Welsh fyrr,) a species of timber much iron joists, vaulted between with brick, or covered with cast-
used in building. The native fur of this country is called iron boards flanged and keyed together.
Scottish fir, which is chiefly employed in out-houses, offices, Mr. Bartholomew strongly recommends that roofs should
&c. It is much inferior to the Baltic be so constructed as to lessen as much as possible the possi-
timber, which is used
wherever durability is required. See TIMBER. " "
bility of fire. It should be," he observes, the architect's
FIR, Wrought, that which is planed upon the sides and study, in all roofs, to have as little as possible that will either
edges. burn or rot ; if the roof-trusses were made of cast-iron, as
FIR, Wrought and framed, such as is both planed and Mr. Gwilt has made those to his restoration of the choir of
framed. St. Saviour's Church, Southwark ; and if slight horizontal
FIR, Wrought, framed, and rebated, is what its name rafters, reaching from truss to truss, supported tiles of the
imports. ornamental description above referred to, (tiles made of burnt
FIR, Wrought, framed, rebated, and beaded, is what its earth, moulded in the form of leaves, &c.,) all combustible
name imports. materials might be banished from our invaluable cathedrals."
FIR-BOARDS, the same as deal-boards. See DEAL. We quite agree with Mr. Bartholomew in principle, but,
FIR-FRAMED, is generally understood of rough timber in such cases, would beg to recommend a vaulted stone roof
framed, without undergoing the operation of the plane. in preference to one of iron.
FIR-IN-BOND, a name given to all timber built in a wall, The late Sir John Soane constructed nearly all the apart-
as bond-timbers, lintels, wall-plates, and
templets. ments of the Bank of England fire-proof, and without any
 FIX 415 FLA
carpentry whatever ; in his arches and domes, making use
Fixed points are of the utmost use in shortening the
largely of hollow pots or cones of coarse earthenware ; these, bearings of the exterior timbers of the frame ; neither is
while strong enough not to crush, by their lightness relieve there any other method by which this can be so effectually
the walls in a great measure, both from the lateral thrust, done. When two sides of a frame are similar, any points in
and the perpendicular pressure, caused by the use of heavier the length of the pieces rrfay be supported by as many beams,
materials. extending between the opposite points though this will keep
:

A method of rendering the of houses fire-proof, has

floors the frame in equilibria, it will not prevent it from being
been adopted with success in many parts of France. After shaken by heavy winds, or lateral pressure.
the joists are laid they are boarded over with rough boards, FLAGS, thin stones used in paving, from one and a half
and these covered with a coatiirg of plaster of about eight to three inches thick, and of various lengths and breadths,
inches in thickness, above which are laid tiles of an orna- according to the nature of the quarry.
mental description, or sometimes a floor of parquetry. In FLAKE WHITE, in painting, lead corroded by the
some instances, the boards on which the plaster is laid, are pressing of grapes, or a ceruse prepared by the acid of grapes.
omitted altogether, and the plaster inserted between the It is brought to England from Italy, and far surpasses, in the

joists. The staircases likewise are made of brick-nogging, purity of its whiteness, and the certainty of its standing, all
and covered with tiles. the ceruses of white-lead made with us in common. It is
It is a cause of wonder and regret, that these or similar used in oil and varnish painting, for all purposes where a
means for rendering buildings fire-proof, are not adopted in very clean white is required. Flake white should be pro-
London, where so great a loss is annually sustained by cured in lumps, as brought over, and levigated by those that
neglect on this head the immediate outlay would not be very
: use it as that which the colourmen sell ready prepared, is
;

much greater than at present, and in the end the practice levigated and mixed up with starch, and often with white-
would assuredly prove the more economical. Our timber lead, or even worse sophistications.
partitions, roofs,and staircases would seem to be made for FLAMBOYANT, a name applied to a style of Gothic
the purpose of burning ; and when once a portion of a building architecture prevalent in France in the 15th century, from
takes fire, there is little chance of saving the remainder ; the circumstance of the principal lines of the tracery con-
whereas if the chambers, or at least the floors, were isolated verging together in the shape of flames. This undulating
by fire-proof partitions, a fire could readily be confined to is the characteristic of the
distribution of lines style, if it may
that part of the building where it commenced. be so termed. The tracery is frequently of a very elaborate
But perhaps of all parts of a house, that which requires the character, and the ornamentation intricate and redundant,
greatest care in this respect is the staircase ; it is no easy while at the same time the mouldings are meagre. These
matter to calculate how great a loss of human life has been consist usually of large hollows separated with small and
occasioned by recklessness on this point. The staircase insignificant members of different contour,which gives the
forms a shaft to carry up the flames, and is one of the first whole an appearance of poverty, contrasting with the rich-
ill

things to be destroyed, thus cutting off" the means of escape ness of the tracery. The centre moulding in the mullions
from persons above the ground-floor : if nothing else be of windows, and similar positions, projects often to an unusual
attended to, surely our staircases should be rendered fire- extent, so as to give it the appearance of weakness. Pillars,
proof. piers, jambs, and such like, are often devoid of capitals, the
Iron has of late years been much used for the purpose of mouldings of arches which abut against them, dying into
rendering buildings more safe from the effects of fire, but them without any finishing ornament. The more ornamented
we are inclined to think the success of this application parts, such as foliage, &c., are very rich, and delicately
doubtful. This material is generally used as a substitute for carved, but are frittered away by the minuteness of their
summers, girders, or bond-timber, in which instances wood parts, thus losing all boldness and even distinctness of
is almost as secure as iron ; for in the former
cases, the outline.
timbers are of too great scantling thoroughly to ignite, and FLANK, (from the French, fane,) that part of a return
in the latter they are well protected, and will be seldom found In town-
body which adjoins the front; as flank-walls.
more than charred on the exposed surfaces. Besides this, houses, the flank-walls become party walls.
iron has its disadvantages, for it is liable to
expand and con- FLANK WALLS, same as the wing
in engineering, the
tract under the influence of heat and cold, and is known or return walls of a lock or bridge.
by
this means to destroy the brickwork.
FLAPS, folds or leaves attached to the shutters of a win
FIRE-STONE, is used in joinery, for rubbing away the dow, which are not sufficiently wide of themselves to cover
ridges made by the cutting-edge of the plane. the sash-frames, or to exclude the light.
FIRMER, ) FLASHES, in engineering, a kind of sluices erected upon
FORMER, [ See TOOLS. navigable rivers, to raise the water upon any shoals therein,
FURMER, ) while the vessels or craft are passing.
FISH-POND, a reservoir of water, for breeding, feeding, FLASHINGS, in plumbery, pieces of lead inserted in a
and preserving fish. wall for covering other pieces laid down for gutters, &c.
FISTUCA, (Latin) in antiquity, an instrument of wood, FLAT CROWN. Stt CORONA.
used in driving piles. It had two handles, and
being raised FLATTING, in house-painting, a mode of painting in oil,
by pullies fixed to the head of large beams, was let fall without any gloss on the painted surface when finished. The
directly on the piles ; sometimes it was wrought by hand only. paint is prepared with a mixture of oil of turpentine, which
FIXED AXIS, in geometry, the axis about which a plane secures the colour ; and when used in the finishing, leaves
revolves in the formation of a solid. the paint quite dead, without gloss. This is of great
FIXED POINTS, in carpentry, the points at the angles of importance to those who are desirous to have their rooms
a piece of framing, or where any two pieces of timber meet continue white. Flatting is only used for inside work,
each other in a truss. If a third
piece join the meeting of and rarely for any but principal rooms. Nut oil is some-
the two, it may be pushed or drawn in the direction of its times used for the purpose, but not often, on account of its
length, without giving any cross strain. high price.
 FLO 416 FLO
As useful a flatting as any, is such as is ground in poppy sap may be thoroughly expelled, and the shrinking prevented,
white which so frequently takes place when unseasoned timber is
oil. It ispleasant in working, and leaves a beautiful
for some years; but rather expensive.
it is used. The best timber for flooring is yellow deal, well-
FLEMISH BOND, that method of laying bricks in which seasoned. The quality of this material is such, that when
headers and stretchers appear alternately in the length of laid, it will be easily kept of a good colour; whereas white
each course. The appearance of this work is generally timber is liable to become black in a very short time.
external facings Narrow boards are called battens; these should never
preferred to that of English bond, for the
of walls, but the method of laying is much more complicated, exceed seven inches in width, nor be less than an inch in
and requires the insertion of a number of small pieces in thickness.
carrv ing up the work, to fill up the interstices between Floors are nailed either at both edges, or at one edge ; the
the bricks. See BRICKLAYING. longitudinal joints, or those in the direction of the fibres, are
FLEMISH BRICKS, in bricklaying, strong bricks, of a either square, ploughed and tongued, or rebated and lapped

yellowish colour, used in paving;

their dimensions are about upon each other. Ploughed and tongued, and rebated joints
6 inches long, 2 broad, and 1^ thick ;
72 set upon their may be used where the apartment is required to be air-tight,
widest sides, or 100 on edge, will pave a yard square, allow- and where the stuff is thought not sufficiently seasoned. The
ing a quarter of an inch for
the joints. heading-joints are either square or ploughed and tongued.
FLEXURE, or FLEXION, (from the Latin) the opposition In square longitudinal jointed floors, it is
necessary to nail
of curvature at a given point, where a straight line becomes the boards on both edges but where the boards are dowelled,
:

a tangent, having the curve on both sides of it, one portion ploughed and tongued, or rebated, one edge only may be
of the curve being concave, and that on the other side of the nailed, as the grooving and tonguing, or lapping, is sufficient
to keep the other edge down.
point of contact, convex.
FLIGHT, in staircasing, a series of steps, whose treads are Battens used in flooring are of three kinds, and are deno-
parallel, and
terminate against a straight wall. minated best, second best, and common. The best battens
FLIGHT, Leading.
' \
,, are those that are free from knots, shakes, sap, and cross-
,-, . > See STAIHCASING.
r LIGHT, Returning, \ grained fibres ; the second best are those free from shakes
FLIGHT, is also used in London for a whole stair, between and sap, but in which small knots are suffered to pass. The
two adjoining floors. common kind are such as remain after taking away the best
FLOAT, in plastering. See PLASTERING. and second best.
FLOAT-BOARDS, the boards fixed to undershot water- The best floors are dowelled and nailed only at the outer
wheels, to receive the impulse of the stream. edge, through which the nails are made to pass obliquely into
FLOAT-STOKE, among bricklayers. See BRICKLAYERS. the joists, without piercing the upper surface of the boards,
FLOATED LATH AND PLASTER, set fair for paper. See so that when laid no nails appear the heading joints of such
:

PLASTERING. floors are most commonly grooved and tongued. Some work-

FLOATED, RENDERED, and SET, in plastering. See PLAS- men dowel the battens over the joists, but it makes firmer
TERING. work to fix the dowels over the inter-joists. The gauge
FLOATING, in plastering. See PLASTERING. should be run from the under surface of the boards, which
FLOATING BRIDGE. See BRIDGE. should be straightened on purpose.
FLOATING RULES, in plastering. See PLASTERING. In the most common kind of flooring, the boards are folded
FLOATING SCREEDS, in plastering. See PLASTERING. together in the following manner supposing one board
:

FLOOD-GATE, a gate or sluice, that may be opened or already laid, and fastened, a fourth, fifth, sixth, or other
shut at pleasure, to give passage to, or retain the water of board, is also laid and fastened, so as to admit of two, three,
a river liable to be swollen by floods. Flood-gates are four, five, or more boards, between the two, but which can
necessary in many situations as, upon rivers where the
; only be inserted by force, as the capacity of the opening
water is retained lor the service of mills, canals,
navigations, must be something less than the aggregate breadths of the
docks, &c. boards, in order that the joints may be close when they are
FLOOR, (from the Saxon) the lowest horizontal side of all brought down to their places ; for this purpose a board
an apartment, for walking, or for performing different opera- may be thrown across the several boards to be laid, which
tions upon.
may be forced down by two or more men jumping upon it :

Floors were formerly covered with rushes, carpets being this done, all the intermediate boards are to be nailed down,
seldom used for such purposes, even at the close of Elizabeth's and the operation is to be repeated till the whole is complete.
reign. In much earlier times, however, This manner of flooring is called a folded floor.
tapestry-cloths
were occasionally used to rest the feet upon. Most of In folded floors, less than four boards are seldom laid
the old dramatists have frequent allusions in their works
together. No attention paid to the heading joints, and
is
to the practice of strewing rushes in the principal apart- sometimes three or four meet in one continued line,
joints
ments. equal in length to the aggregate of the breadths of the
Floors are of various kinds, according to the materials of boards.
which they are constructed. Those made of brick and stone, In dowelled floors, the distances to which the dowels are
are called pavements; those of earth are called earthen set, are from six to eight inches, generally one over each
floors;
those of plaster, lime floors ; and those of timber are called
joist, and one over each inter-joist ; and,
as has been already
timber floors. observed, the heading-joints of this kind of floor are generally
FLOOR, in carpentry, includes not only the boarding for ploughed and tongued ; and no heading-joint of two boards
walking upon, but all the timber-work for its support. ought to be so disposed as to meet the heading-joint of any
Boarded floors should never be laid till the building is other two boards, and thereby form a straight line equal to
pro-
perly covered in, nor indeed till the windows are glazed, and the breadth of the two boards.
the plaster dry. Previous to the lying of such floors, the In common floors, the boards are always gauged from the
boards ought to be rough-planed, and set out to season, a upper side, then rebated from the lower side to the gauge
twelvemonth at least, before they are used ; that the natural lines, and the intermediate part adzed down, iu order to
 FLO 417 FLU
it will appear, when rubbed with a little
bring them to a uniform thickness. In doing this, great thoroughly dried,
care should be taken not to make them too thin, which is oil, as transparent as metal or glass. In elegant houses,
floors of this nature are made of stucco, or plaster-of-paris,
frequently the case, and then they must be raised with chips,
which present a very unstable resistance to a pressure upon beaten and sifted, and mixed with other ingredients. Well-
the floor. wrought coarse plaster makes excellent safe upper floors for
Flooring is measured by throwing the contents into square cottages, out-houses, &c., when spread upon good strong
feet,and dividing them by 100, which is called a square of laths or reeds.
flooring ; the number of hundreds contained in the superficial Very dry and comfortable floors may be formed by cover-
ing the area of the rooms with a level
contents in feet are squares, and the remainder feet. stratum of concrete,
The method of measuring floors, is by squares of ten feet consisting of dry screened gravel or pounded stone, mixed
on each side ; the dimensions being multiplied together, cut with a small quantity of ground stone lime, or Portland
off two figures from the right of the product, and those cement, and laid about six inches in thickness ; over this, and
towards the left give the number of squares, and the two on before it sets, should be sifted a few ashes, or some fine
a hard
the right are feet. gravel ; which, if worked in and well finished, gives
EXAMPLE. Suppose the length of a floor 28 feet, and the and even surface. This description of floor is similar to those
breadth 24. used Devonshire, which are proverbial for comfort and
in
28 durability. The ordinary red paving tiles, 12 inches square,
24 make very good, dry, and comfortable floors, and they are
easily kept clean. Claridge's asphalte of Seyssel, has also
112 been used for the floors of basement stories, and answers very
56 well, especially in damp situations. For stables, railway-
and places of a similar description, perhaps there is
stations,
6,72 nothing better than wood. The wood-pavement of the
The product givessix squares, seventy-two feet. Metropolitan Wood Pavement Company, has been used with
When a naked floor is squared, and the contents found, great success for such purposes in the dock-yards by govern-

nothing is deducted for the chimney, because the extra thick- ment; and by the railway companies, for their stations, &c.
ness of the trimmers will make up for that deficiency. FLOORING-CRAMP, a machine invented by Mr. Andrew
FLOOR, in carpentry, the timbers which support the board- Smith, for laying down floors. This machine is used with
ing, called also naked flooring ',See CARCASE FLOORING, and great facility, and enables a person accustomed to it, to get
NAKED FLOORING. through his work with rapidity and ease making very tight
;

FLOOR also denotes any portion of a building upon the and close joints in his floors, with much less trouble than by
same level as basement-floor, ground floor, one-pair floor,
: the ordinary method.
two-pair floor, &c., but when there is no sunk story, the FLOORING-MACHINE, a machine for preparing complete
in the most perfect
ground floor becomes the basement the expressions one-pair
; flooring boards with great dispatch, and
floor, two-pair floor, &c., imply the floor above the first flight manner the several operations of sawing, planing, grooving,
:

of above ground, the floor above the second flight of

stairs and tongueing, being all carried on at the same time, by a
stairs above ground, &c. series of saws, planes, and revolving chisels.
The principal floor of every building is that which con- FLOOR-TIMBERS, the timbers on which a floor is

tains the principal rooms. In the country they are generally laid.
on the ground floor; but in town, on the one-pair-of-stairs FLORID STYLE, in pointed architecture, that beautiful
floor. style which was practised in England during the reigns of
FLOOR JOISTS, or FLOORING JOISTS, such joists as support Henry VII. and Henry VIII. Its general external character
the boarding in a single floor; but where the floor consists consists of large arched windows, with very obtuse angles at
of binding and bridging-joists, the bridgings are never called the summit, and with numerous ramifications, consisting
floor-joists. of light cuspidated mullions, filled with a variety of polyfoils.
FLOORS OF EARTH, or EARTHEN FLOORS, are commonly The buttresses, instead of having always rectangular hori-
made of loam, and sometimes, especially to malt on, of lime, zontal sections, frequently have those of polygons, as in
brook-sand, and gun-dust, or anvil-dust from the forge; the Henry VII. 's chapel, and are crowned with cupolas. The
whole being well wrought and blended together with blood. walls are loaded with niches, pinnacles, and crockets, termi-
The siftings of limestone have also been found exceedingly nating in open mullion-work, forming a parapet, or kind of
useful when formed into floors. balustrade, finished with finials or spiracles. The walls are
Earthen country habitations may be made
floors for plain decorated interiorly with panelling, moulded string-courses,
as follows take two-thirds lime and one of coal-ashes, well
:
niches, canopies, and other kinds of tracery, vaulted over
sifted, with a small quantity of loam clay mix the whole: with fun-groins. See GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
together, and temper it well with water, making it up into FLUE, a passage for smoke in a chimney, leading from
a heap : let it lie a week or ten days, and then temper it the fireplace to the top of the shaft, or into another passage.
again. After this, heap it up for three or four days, and See CHIMNEY.
repeat the tempering very high, till it becomes smooth, The same term is also applied to passages in walls made
yielding, tough, and gluey. The ground being levelled, lay for the purpose of conducting heat from one part of a build-
the floor with this material about two and a half or three ing to another.
inches thick, smoothing it with a trowel ; the hotter the Flues in hot-houses and vineries, frequently make numer-
season, the better ; and when it is thoroughly dried, it will ous turns on the floor, and then ascend to the wall with
make a good floor for houses, especially malt-houses. But several horizontal turnings.
should it be required to make the floor look better, take lime In the construction of a stack of chimneys, particular care
made of rag-stones well tempered with whites of eggs, and should be taken that the drawings show distinctly the turn-
ings of the flues ; this will prevent mistakes, and save
cover the floor about half an inch thick with it, before the the
under flooring is quite dry. If this be well done, and apartments from being incommoded with smoke.
53
 FLU 418 FON
FLUSH, a term among workmen, signifying a continuity Doric order. The do not reach higher than one-third
cables
of surface two bodies joined together. Thus in joinery,
in of the entire column. See COLUMN, CABLE.
the style, rails, and munnions are generally made flush ; that FLUXIONS, in mathematics, the analysis of infinitely
is, the wood of one piece on one side of the joint
does not small variable quantities, or a method of finding an infinitely
recede from that on the other. small quantity, which being taken an infinite number of
FLUSH, in masonry or bricklaying, signifies the aptitude times, becomes equal to a quantity given. The doctrine
of two brittle bodies to splinter at the joints, when the of fluxions, invented by Newton, is of great use in the
first

stones or bricks come in contact when joined together investigation of curves, and in the discovery of the quadra-
in a wall. tures of curvilinear spaces and their rectifications.
FLUSH AND BEAD. See BEAD AND FLUSH. FLYERS, a series of steps whose treads are all parallel.
FLUTES, FLUTINGS, prismatic cavities depressed
or FLYING BRIDGE. See BRTDOE.
within the surface of a piece of architecture at regular FLYING BUTTRESSES, in pointed
architecture, arches
distances, generally of a circular or elliptic section, meeting rising from the exterior walls up to those of the nave of an
each other in an arris or meeting the surface in an arris,
;
aisled fabric, on each side of the edifice, for counteracting the
and leaving a portion of the surface between every two lateral pressure of a groined or vaulted roof.
cavities of an equal breadth; or diminishing in a regular The contrivance of flying buttresses is due to the architects
according as the surface is plane or curved, or of the middle ages, and shows their skill in the application of
progression ;

applied to a prismatic or tapering body. mechanics to the science of architecture. See BUTTRESS.
When a portion of the surface is left between every two FOCUS, (Latin) in geometry, and in the conic sections,
flutes, that portion is called a, fillet. When the flutes are a point on the concave side of a curve, to which the rays are
parallel, or diminish according to any law, the fillets are
also reflected from all points of such curve.
in the same Focus, an altar, a hearth or fire-place the Latin motto,
parallel, or diminish degree. :

The proportion of each fillet to a flute is from a third to pro aris etfocis, is said to be derived from this word.
a fifth of the breadth of the flute. That species of fluting, Focus, of an ellipsis, hyperbola or parabola, is particularly
in which the flutes meet each other without the intervention defined under the heads of ELLIPTIC CURVE, HYPERBOLIC
of fillets, is generally applied to the Doric order and that
; CURVE, and PARABOLIC CURVE.
with fillets, to the shafts of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. FODDER, FUDDER, or FOTHER, (Saxon) a certain quan-
The flutes most frequently terminate in a spherical or tity, proportioned by weight.
spheroidal form, particularly in those which have fillets. The weight of the fodder varies, in different counties,
In the Ionic order of the temple of Minerva Polias at Athens, from 19^ cwt. to 24 cwt. Among the plumbers in London,
the upper ends of the fillets of the shafts of the columns the fodder is
19^ cwt., but at the Custom House 20 cwt.
terminate with astragals, projecting from the surface of the of 1121b.
fillet: the astragals may begin at a small distance from FOILS, the small arcs in the tracery of Gothic windows,
the top of the shaft, ascend upwards, and bind round the top panels, &c., which are said to be trefoiled, quatrefoiled,
In the Corinthian order of the monument of
of the flute. cinquefoiled, multifoiled, &c., according to the number of
Lysicrates, at Athens, the upper ends of the fillets break into arcs which they contain. An arch with foils in its tracery
leaves in a most beautiful manner. In the Doric examples is See CUSP and FOLIATION.
called a foiled arch.
of the temple of Theseus, and of the temple of Minerva at FOILS, FOLIATIONS, the spaces between the cusps employed
Athens, and of the portico of Philip king of Macedon, in the in the ornamentation of Gothic buildings.
island of Delos, the upper ends of the flutes terminate upon FOLDED FLOOR. See FLOOR.
the superficies of a cone immediately under the annulets, in FOLDING DOORS, such as arc made in two parts, hung
a tangent to the bottom of the curve of the echinus of the on opposite jambs, and having their vertical
edge rebated, so
capital. The same kind of termination takes place in that when shut, the rebates lap on each other.
may To
the temple of Apollo at Cora, in Italy but in this example,
: conceal the meeting as much as possible, a bead is most
the conic termination of the flutes is not under the abacus,
frequently run at the joint on each side of the doors.
but a small distance down the shaft, leaving a small part FOLDING JOINT, a joint made like a rule-joint, or the
quite a plain cylinder, and thus forming the hypotrochelean joint of a hinge.
or neck of the capital. In other ancient examples of the FOLDS, or FLAPS, of shutters, those parts that are hinged
Doric order, the flutes terminate upon a plane surface to the shutters, and concealed behind when the shutters are
perpendicular to the axis of the columns, or parallel to the in the boxings, so as to cover the breadth of the window
horizon, as in the Propylea at Athens. Palladio, and other when the shutter and flaps are folded out in the breadth of
Italian authors, have terminated the flutes of the shafts of the aperture. Folds are necessary when the walls are so thin
their designs of Doric columns in the as not to admit of shutters of sufficient breadth, when put
segments of spheres
tanged by the surfaces of the fluting. together, to cover the opening.
In the temple of Bacchus, at Teos, in Ionia, the lower FOLIAGE, in architecture, an artificial arrangement of
extremities of the flutes descend into the scape of the leaves, fruit, &c. See ORNAMENTS.
column. FOLIATION. See FOILS.
The Greeks never applied fluting to any member of the FONT, (from the Latin fans) the vessel used in churches
Doric order v except the shaft, and this was their general to hold the wafer consecrated for the purposes of baptism.
practice. In the early church, the baptistery formed a separate
Fluting was used by the Komans almost in every plane, building, numbered amongst the exhedrse or outbuildings
and in every cylindrical surface. See a very fine specimen which were detached from the church, but enclosed within
in the corona of the cornice of the
temple of Jupiter Stator, the consecrated area. Within the baptistery was the font
at Rome. or reservoir. These separate buildings continued to prevail
The number of flutes
in the Doric order is
twenty, and in tillthe sixth century, when all occasion for adult baptism
the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite,
twenty-four. Flutes ceased, and fonts within the church became general. Many
are sometimes filled with cables or staves,
except in the baptisteries, however, still exist in various parts of the
 FON 419 FOO
Continent, although there seem to be no specimens in Eng- but in later times they were carried
up in the form of a spire
land, unless indeed we consider as such the building surround- to a great height, ornamented with pinnacles and
buttresses,
ing the font at Luton church. This structure is octagonal, with crockets, finials, and other ornaments ; and not unfre-
about twenty-eight feet high, having open arches at the sides, quently the whole of the sides were pierced with the most
and a stone roof, the font being placed in the centre, thus elaborate panelling.
forming a small oratory capable of holding seven or eight FONTANA, DOMINIC, a distinguished architect, born
persons. A similar canopy occurs at Trunch, Norfolk, but in 1543, at a village on the lake of Como. Having acquired
it is of wood, and hexagonal. the elements of geometry, he went to Rome, where his elder
The material in use for fonts, is for the most part of stone brother John was a student in architecture. Here he applied
lined with lead, but we have some notice of fonts of metal ;
himself most diligently to the study of the works of antiquity,
that at Canterbury is reported to have been of silver, and and at length was employed by Cardinal Montalto, afterwards
that taken from Holyrood Chapel and brought to St. Alban's Pope Sextus V. Montalto had already begun to display the
was of brass. There is also a font at Chobham, Surrey, magnificence of his character, by undertaking the construction
which consists of a leaden basin enclosed within a screen of of the grand chapel of the Manger, in the church of St.
oak panelling, the date of which is about A.D. 1600. The Maria Maggiore. The pope, Gregory XIII., jealous of the
situation of the font is within the church, near the door, munificence of his cardinal, took from him the means of his
either in the aisle next the porch, against one of the piers designs, and thus put a stop to the works. Fontana, with a
between the aisle and nave, or in the nave near the spirit worthy of a great man, went on with the building at
west end. his own expense, which so gratified the cardinal, that when
The most rude fonts arc in shape little better than large he was raised to the pontifical chair, he appointed Fontana
stones, without any definite external form, but having a space to be his architect. The chapel and palace were finished in
hollowed out at the top in the shape of a bason such is that
;
a splendid style ; but this was a small part of the designs
in the church of Little Maplestcad. Norman fonts arc either projected by Sextus. Besides completing the dome of St.
of a cylindrical or cubical form ;
but which shape is the Peter's, he resolved to contribute to its grandeur, by con-
earlier, it is not easy to decide. In some instances the veying to the front of its piazza the obelisk, of a single piece
cylindrical fonts taper towards the base ; and at St. Martin's, of Egyptian granite, which had formerly decorated the
Canterbury, the reverse proportion is adopted. Next to Circus of Nero.
these forms came the square stone hollowed out in the This design had been contemplated by some of the pre-
centre, supported on a massive cylindrical stem, or on a decessors of Sextus, but none had actually attempted it.
central stem, and four smaller shafts, one at each corner, Sextus summoned architects and engineers from all parts, to
specimens of which form exist at Lincoln cathedral and consult upon the best means of effecting his purpose Fon- ;

Iffleychurch, Oxfordshire. In all these instances, the sides tana's plan obtained the preference, and he was able to exe-
of the font are ornamented with rude sculpture in low relief, cute what ho had advanced in theory. This was regarded
frequently of groups, and sometimes of single figures con- as the most splendid exploit of the age and rewards and
;

tained in shallow niches, as at Stanton Fitzwarren, Wilts. honours of the most magnificent kind were bestowed on
Symbolical representations arc frequently introduced, as are Fontana and his heirs. He was afterwards employed in
also scenes from the Sacred Writings, especially of such raising other obelisks, and in the embellishment of the prin-
events as relate to the subject of baptism. On the font at cipal streets of Rome. He built the Vatican library, and had
Castle Frome, Herefordshire, is a representation of the begun to make considerable additions to that place ; but
Baptism of Christ, which is a very favourite subject, they were interrupted by the death of Sextus. One of Fon-
the same occurring at Bridekirk, in Cumberland, and West tana's great works was the conducting of water to Rome,
Haddon, in Northamptonshire. Another usual subject is the distance of fifteen miles, in an aqueduct supported on
the Fall of Man, as at East Meon, Hants. arcades. The successor of Sextus, Clement VIII., was pre-
Early English fonts are in form very similar to those of judiced against the papal architect, and dismissed him ; but
the preceding style, but they are readily distinguished his reputation caused him to be engaged by the viceroy of

by their ornamentation, which consists of work peculiar to Naples as architect to the king. He accordingly removed
this style; the details also are of better execution. The oc- to Naples, in 1592, where he executed many works of con-
tagonal was a new form introducedinto this style. Decorated sequence. His last efforts were directed to a new harbour
and Perpendicular fonts are for the most part octagonal, and at Naples, but this he did not live to complete. He died
most frequently supported on a central stem ; many of them at Naples 1607, in his sixty-fourth year.
in
are of most beautiful form and workmanship. Those of the FOOT, (Saxon) a measure, either lineal, superficial, or
later period are usually covered with panelling, and have solid. The lineal or long foot is supposed to be the length
the sides filled up with armorial bearings. Hexagonal fonts of the foot of a man, and consists of twelve equal parts called
are sometimes, though not commonly, found ; we have inches ; an inch being equal to three barleycorns.
instances at Carlisle cathedral, Farringdon, Berkshire ; and Thus the English standard foot (31 Edw. I.) is =12 lineal
Bredon, Worcestershire. Five and seven-sided fonts are English inches, =: 36 barleycorns, =
16 digits, =
4 palms,
extremely rare ; of the former wo have an example at = 3 hands, ~
5^- nails,
= 1J spans, =
1.5151 Gunter's
Hollington, Sussex. At Patrington and Saddington, Leices- links, = .938306 feet of France, =
.3047 metres of France.
tershire, we find fonts of twelve sides; and at Stainburn, Geometricians divide the foot into 10 digits, and the digit
Yorkshire, one of fifteen sides ; but these are purely excep- into 10 lines, &c.
tions : the octagonal form is the most common, as it is also The French divide their foot, as we do, into 12 inches ;

the most appropriate. The font is usually raised on one or and the inch into 12 lines. See MEASURES.
more steps, the sides or risers of which are often in the The foot square is the same measure, both in length and
decorated with panelling, quatrefoils, &c. Fonts
later styles breadth, containing 144 square or superficial inches, =
were furnished with covers, which Edmund, archbishop of 2.295684 square links ; and the glazier's foot in Scotland is

Canterbury, A.D., 1236, ordered to be locked down. They

= 64 square Scottish inches.
were probably in the earlier periods merely flat lids of wood, The cubic, or solid foot, is the same measure in all the
 FOO 420 FOR
three dimensions, containing 1728 cubic inches English Paris Foot 1440
=6.128 ale gallons =3.478309 cubic links=.02&3 cubic Rhinland 1391
metres or steres of France. Roman 1320
The foot is of different lengths in different countries. London 1350
The Paris royal foot exceeds the English by nine lines and Swedish 1320
a half; the ancient Roman foot of the Capitol consisted of Danish 1403
four palms, equal to eleven inches and seven-tenths English; Venetian 1540|
the Rhinland, or Leyden foot, by which the northern nations Constantinopolitan 3120
go, is to the Roman foot as 950 to 1,000. The portions of Bononian 1682ij
the principal feet of several nations, compared with the Strasburg 1282f
English and French, are here subjoined. Nuremburg 1346^
The English foot being divided into one thousand parts, Dantzic 1721|
or into twelve lines, the other feet will be as follow : Halle 1320

In Scotland, this measure of

Th. Pts. Ft. Inch. Li. length, though consisting of
London ...... Foot 1000 12 twelve inches, exceeds the English foot, so that 185 of the
former is equal to 186 of the latter.
Paris foot, the royal, by Greaves 1068 1 9.7 Accordingly the Scot-
Paris foot, by Dr. Bernard . . 1066 1 9.5
tish foot =
12 Scottish inches 12 ^& English inches,
Paris foot, by Graham, from the y
according to some, and 12 T 4 English inches, according to
measure of half the toise of the others. The glazier's foot in Scotland =
8 Scottish
inches.
Chatelet, the toise containing
six Paris feet ...... 1065.416 1 9.8
its
For a
farther account of the foot, ancient and
modern, and
By Monnier, from the same data 1065.351 1 9 proportions in different countries. See MEASURE.
From both these it may be fixed at 1065.4 . 1 9.4 FOOT-BANK, or FOOT-STEP, in fortification. See BAN-
Amsterdam ..... Foot 942 11 3 QUETTE.
Antwerp ........ 946 11 3.57 FOOT -BASE, the moulding above the plinth of an
Dort ......... 1184 . 1 2 2 apartment.
Rhinland, orLeyden .... 1033 1 4 FOOT-BRIDGE, a narrow bridge for foot-passengers. See
Lorrain ........ 958 11 5 BRIDGE.
Mechlin ........ 919 11 FOOT OF THE EYE DIRECTOR, in perspective, that point
Middleburg ....... which is made by a vertical plane pass-
in the directing line
991 11 10
Strasburg ........ 920 11 ing through the eye and the centre of the picture.
Bremen ........ 964 11 6 FOOT OF A VERTICAL LINE, in perspective, that point in
Cologne ........ 954 . 11 5 the intersecting line, which is made by a vertical
plane
Frankforton Maine the . . . 948 11 4 passing through the eye and the centre of the picture.
Spanish ........
Toledo .........
1001 . 1 FOOT-IRONS, in engineering, pieces of iron plate, used by
899 10 7 navigators, or canal-diggers, to tie upon that part of the sole
........
.

Roman 967 11 6 of their shoes with which they strike the top of their spade
Bononia ........ 1204 1 2 5 or grafting tool, in digging hard soil.
Mantua ........
Venice .........
1569 . 1 9 FOOT-PACE, in hand-railing, a flat space in some stairs,
1162 1 1 11 always situated between the starting, or first step, and the
........
.

Dantzic 944 11 3 landing. See STAIRCASING.

Copenhagen ....... 965 11 6 FOOT-PACE, the dais or raised floor at the
upper end of an
........
.

Prague 1026 . 1 3 ancient hall.

1831 1 11 FOOT-STALL, the base or plinth of a pillar.

......... . ,

Turin 1062 1 8 FOOTING-BEAM, a term used in Cumberland, West-

.......
. ,

The Greek 1007 1 1 moreland, Somersetshire, and perhaps in other counties, for
Old Roman ....... 970 11 7.6
the tie-beam of a roof.
Roman from
foot, the monument of FOOTINGS, in bricklaying and masonry, projecting courses
Cossutius in Rome, by Greaves 967 of stone, without the naked of each face of a
11 7.2 superincumbent
From the monument of Statilius, wall, used as a base to the wall, in order to prevent it from
by the same ......
Of Villalpandus, deduced from the
973 11 7.9 sinking and rocking by heavy winds.
FOOTING DORMANT, the tie-beam of a roof; the term is
congius of Vespasian 986 used in Westmoreland.
. . . 11 9.9
FORCE, (from the Latin, foriis, strong) in philosophy,
the cause of motion in a body, when it
Mr. Rapier, who begins to move, or
industriously collected a variety of when it changes its direction from the course in which it
authorities
relating to the measure of the old Roman foot, was previously moving. While a body remains
determined the mean to be
in the same
nearly 968 thousandth parts of state,whether of rest or of uniform and rectilinear motion,
the London foot. And by an examination of the ancient the cause of its so remaining is in the nature of the
Roman buildings in
Desgodetz's Edifice* Antiques de Rome,
body,
which principle has received the name of inertia.
* ns he conclud ed that the Roman
'
1 ?' foot, before the Mechanical force is of two kinds that of a body at rest,
:

reign of Titus, exceeded 970 parts in 1000 of the London

'" the rei ns of s everus by which it presses on whatever supports it, and that of a
?^L S and Diocletian fell short
of 965. body in motion, by which it is impelled towards a certain
The Paris foot being point. The former is called by the names of pressure, tension,
supposed to contain 1440 parts, the force, vis mortua, &c., the latter is known by the appellation
rest will be as follow :
of moving force, or vis viva. To the first of these are
 FOR 421 FOR
referred centrifugal and centripetal forces because, though and always the most useful at the same time it implies no
;

they also reside in the vis viva, they are homogeneous to contradiction to the Newtonian definition. But the force
weights, pressures, or tensions of any kind. For want of a thus measured ought to be distinguished by some appropriate
true knowledge of the nature of force, we are accustomed name, e. g. the vis meckanica ; the Newtonian measure
to consider its measure by velocity, upon the supposition that, being applied to the vis matrix, as suggested by Mr. Wollas-
under precisely similar circumstances, the velocity is equal ton in the Bakerian Lecture for 1805.
to the force ; an hypothesis highly probable, though not FORCE, Direction of, the straight line which it tends to
easily demonstrable. Velocity itself is a compound idea, make a body describe.
derived from a certain relation between time employed and FORCES, Composition of.
If- two
be conceived to act
forces

space described. Thus, if two bodies be supposed to move on a material point, it is

they both act in the
evident that if

uniformly upon two different lines, the distances which they same direction, they will mutually increase each other's
describe upon their respective lines in any given time, may effect; but if they act in opposite directions, the point will
be measured and represented by some standard measure, move only in consequence of their difference, and it would
from which we acquire an idea of their relative velocity or remain at rest if the forces were equal. If the directions of
force ; and considering velocity as an abstract number, it is the two forces make an angle with each other, the resulting
said to be equal to the space, divided by the time; and thus force will take a mean direction ; and it can be demonstrated
we are led to consider velocity, or the space described in a geometrically, that if, reckoning from the point of intersection
given time, as the measure of force. of the two directions of the forces, we take on these directions
Force may also be expressed by other functions of velo- straight lines to represent them, and then form a parallelo-
city ; for it may be proportional to the square or cube of gram with such lines, its diagonal will represent their result-
the velocity ; and La Place has very ingeniously proved ing force, both as to its direction and magnitude. The
that the difference between the proportionality of force to resulting force thus determined, which likewise represents the
velocity, if any really exists, must be extremely small ; velocity of the moving point, may therefore be substituted
whence he argues it is highly improbable that any does exist. as a force equivalent to the two component forces ; and
If there were any material variation in this law, the relative reciprocally, forany force whatever, we may substitute any
motions of bodies on the surface of the earth would be two which according to this rule would compose it.
forces,
sensibly affected by the motion of the earth ; in other words, Hence we see that any force whatever may be decomposed
the effect of a given force would vary considerably, accord- into any two forces, parallel to two axes situated in the same

ing as its direction coincided with, or was opposed to, that plane, and perpendicular to each other. To effect this, it is
of the earth's motion. The effects of the same apparent only necessary to draw from the first extremity of the line
forces would likewise vary in different seasons of the year ; representing the force, to other lines parallel to the axis, and
the velocity of the earth being less by about one-thirtieth in to form with such lines a rectangle, whose diagonal will he
summer than it is in winter. But as no such variation is the force required to be decomposed. The two sides of this
discernible, we may justly conclude the proportion between rectangle, or parallelogram, will represent the forces into
force and velocity to be as 1 to 1 ; that is, there is no differ- which the given force may be decomposed, parallel to such
ence. To illustrate this, suppose two bodies moving upon axis. If the force be inclined to a plane in position, a line in
one straight linewith equal velocities; by impelling one of its direction may be taken to represent it, having one of its
them with a force which increases its original force, its extremities on the surface r>f the plane, and the perpendicular
body remains the same as if
relative velocity to the other falling from the other extremity will be the primitive force
both had been primitively in a quiescent state. The space decomposed in the direction perpendicular to the plane. The
described by the body, in consequence of its original force, straight line, which in the plane joins the other extremity of
and of that which has been added to it, becomes equal to the the line representing the force with the perpendicular (or the
sum of what each of them would have caused it to have been, orthographic projection of the line of the plane) will repre-
described in the same time therefore the force is propor-
;
sent the primitive force decomposed, parallel to the plane.
tional to the velocity. This second partial force may itself be decomposed into two
This law, and that of inertia above alluded to, may be others, parallel to two axes in the same plane, perpendicu-
considered as derived from observation and experiment: lar to each other. Thus we see that every force may be
they are simple and natural, and are sufficient to serve as a decomposed into three others, parallel to three axes perpen-
basis for the whole science of mechanics. dicular to each other ; which axes are termed rectangular
Early in the last century, a warm controversy arose co-ordinates.
relative to the measure of force, which was carried on with Hence we have a very simple mode of obtaining the
considerable acrimony, though it now appears that the ques- any number of forces supposed to act on a
resulting force of
tion was rather about words than facts. Sir Isaac Newton material point. This method was first adopted by Maclaurin,
had defined the measure of force to be " the mass of a body followed by La Grange, in the Mechanique Analytique, and
mutiplied into its velocity ;" which definition was not only also by La Place in the Mechanique Celeste. By decompos-
convenient for the philosophical investigation in which he ing each of these forces into three others, parallel to the given
was engaged ; but was really mathematically just. But in axes in position, and perpendicular to each other, we have
another point of view, in which the effects of force may be all the forces parallel to the same axis reduced to one
single
said, without any impropriety, to depend on the mass multi- force, which latter will be equal to the sum of the forces act-
plied into the square of the velocity, this product has been ing in the same direction, minus the sum of those acting in a
called the vis viva, and was considered by Bernoulli! and contrary direction : so that the point will be acted on by
Leibnitz as the true and universal measure of force, in oppo- three forces perpendicular to eachiother. From the point of
sition to Sir Isaac's definition ; though it now appears that intersection, or origin of the co-ordinates, take three right
they were led into an error by not duly considering all the lines to represent them in each of their directions, and on
circumstances of the question at issue. The measure adopted such lines form a rectangular parallelopipedon, and the
by them, the vis viva, however, merits attention, as in all diagonal of this solid will represent the quantity and direc-
cases of practical machinery it is frequently the most accurate, tion of the resulting force of all the forces acting on the point.
 FOR 422 FOE
forces is of the most number of weights would be in the same ratio as the lengths
The principle of the composition of
of the planes ; he concludes that the weights will be in equi-
extensive utility in mechanics, and is in itself sufficient for
case. Thus, if librio on the inclined planes when they are to each other as
determining the law of equilibrium in every
the lengths of the planes ; but that when the plane is vertical,
we successively compose all the forces, taking them by two s,
the power is equal to the weight ; and that therefore, in every
and then take the result as a new force, we obtain one that
inclined plane, the power is to the weight as the height of
is equivalent to all the rest, and which, in case of equilibrium,
the plane to its length.
must equal 0, when the system under consideration has no
Virtual velocity is that which a body in equilibrium is
fixed point ; but if the conditions of the problem insist on
an immoveable point, the resulting force must necessarily disposed to receive whenever the equilibrium is disturbed ;
it.
in other words, it is what a body actually receives in the
pass through
it is admitted by all writers on this subject, that first moment of its motion.
Though
the most abstruse propositions may be deduced from a few The principle of virtual velocity, in its most general form,
found who entirely agree in is as follows: suppose a system in equilibrium composed of
simple principles, yet few are
their choice of such principles. The most advantageous, and a number of points, drawn in any direction, by whatever
indeed the most natural method, seems to be that wherein forces, to be so put in motion, as that every point shall de-
the relation between various forces in a state of equilibrium scribe an infinitely small space, indicative of its virtual veloc-
is first investigated, and then the consideration extended to a ity the sum of the forces being each multiplied by the space
;

described by the point to which it is applied, in the direction

body in motion. If a body remain in equilibrium, at the
same time that it is solicited by several forces, each force is of the force, will equal ;
the small spaces described in the
direction of the forces being estimated as positive, and those
supposed to produce only a tendency to motion, which is
measured by the motion it would produce were it not checked in a contrary direction as negative. Galileo, in his Treatise
on Mechanical and in his Dialogues,
by the power of the others therefore, after expressing the
: Science, proposes this
effect of any one of the forces by unity, the relative force of principle as a general property in the equilibrium of machines ;
the others may likewise be expressed by words or numbers. he appears to have been the first writer on mechanics, who
La Place merely assumes the two foregoing principles, and was acquainted with it. His disciple Torricelli was the
speaks of them as experimental facts ; while Dr. Young does author of another principle, which seems to be but a neces-
not scruple to declare them capable of demonstration. (See sary consequence of Galileo's. He supposes two weights
his Lectures.) But this difference of opinion is of little im- to be so connected, that however placed, their centre of
portance, since the principles themselves are universally gravity shall neither rise nor fall ; in every situation, there-
admitted. fore, they will be in equilibrio. He contents himself with
La Grange has founded the whole doctrine of the equi- applying this principle to inclined planes ; but it equally
librium of forces on the well-known principle of the lever, the applies to all machines.
composition of motion, and the principle of virtual velocity ; DCS Cartes deduced the equilibrium of different forces from
each of which we shall here notice. a similar principle but he presented it under another, and
;

The principle of less general point of view, than Galileo had done; for he
the may be derived from the com-
lever

position of forces, or even from much less complicated con- argues that to lift a given weight to a certain height, pre-
siderations. cisely the same force is requisite that would be sufficient to
Archimedes, the earliest author on record, who attempted raise a heavier to a height proportionally less, or a lighter to
to demonstrate the property of the lever, assumes the equi- a height proportionally greater; therefore two unequal
librium of equal weights at equal distances from the fulcrum, weights will be in equilibrio, when the perpendicular spaces
as a mechanical axiom and he reduces to this simple and
;
described by them are reciprocally proportioned to them.
primitive case that of unequal weights, by supposing them, In the application of this principle, however, only the spaces
when commensurable, to be divided into equal parts, placed described in the first instant of motion are to be considered ;
at equal distances on different
points of the lever, which may otherwise the accurate law of equilibrium will not be attained.
thus be loaded with a number of small
equal weights, at Another principle, recurred to by some authors in the
equal distances from the fulcrum. solution of problems relative to the equilibrium of forces,
The principle of the straight and horizontal lever being arises out of the foregoing, viz. When a system of heavy
admitted, the law of equilibrium in other machines may be bodies is in equilibrio, the centre of gravity is the lowest
deduced from it. Though it is not without difficulty that the possible. For the centre of gravity of a body is the lowest,
inclined plane is referred to this
principle ; the laws relative when the differential of its descent is 0, as can be demon-
to which have been but
lately known. strated from the principle de maximus ct minimus ; that is,
Stevinus, mathematician to Prince Maurice of Nassau, when the centre of gravity neither ascends nor descends by
first demonstrated the an infinitely small change in the position of the system.
principle of the inclined plane by a
very indirect, though curious mode of reasoning. He con- J. Bernoulli! first perceived the great utility of generalizing
siders the case of a solid
triangle resting on its horizontal this principle of virtual velocity, and applied it to the solu-
base, whose sides then become two inclined planes over : tion of problems ; in which he was followed by Varignon, who
these he supposes a chain to be has devoted the whole of the ninth section of his Nouvelle
thrown, consisting of small
equal weights threaded together ; the upper part of such Mechanique to demonstrate its truth and exemplify its utility
chain resting on the two inclined
planes, and the lower ends in various cases in statics.
hanging at liberty below the foot of the base. His reason- In the Memoires de I' Academic for 1740, Maupertuis pro
ing is, that if the chain be not in equilibrio, it will begin to posed another principle, originating in the same source, under
slide along the " The Law of
plane, and would continue so to do, the same the title of Repose ;" which was afterwards
cause still existing, for ever thus producing a perpetual extended by Euler, and explained in the Memoirs of the
;

motion. But as this implies a contradiction, we must con- Berlin Academy for 1751 and the principle assumed by
:

clude the chain to be in Mons. Courtivron, in the Memoires de V Academic for 1748-9,
equilibrio ; in which ease, as the
efforts of all the is of the same nature
weights applied to one side would be an viz., that of all the situations which
:

exact counterpoise to those a system of bodies can successively take, that wherein the
applied to the other, and the
 FOR 423 FOR
system must be placed to remain in equilibrio, is that in fore, La Grange attempted to combine the principle of
which the vis viva is either a maximum or a minimum, because D'Alembert with that of virtual velocity in which he was
;

the vis viva is the sum of the respective masses composing so successful, that he was enabled to deduce the
general
the system, each multiplied into the square of its velocity. equations relating to the forces acting on a system of bodies.
Of all these methods, that of virtual velocity appears to be His description of the method is as follows :

most generally useful ; indeed all the others are derived from To form an accurate conception of the mode in which these
it, and are serviceable in proportion as they approach nearer principles are applied, it is necessary to recur to the general
to it. La Grange has given practical examples of the ana- principle of virtual velocity, viz. When a system of material
lytical processes for determining general formulae or equations points, solicited by any force, is in equilibrium, if the system
for the equilibrium of any system ; and La Place has demon- receive ever so small an alteration in its position, every point
strated the principle on which the calculus is founded. will naturally and consequently describe a small space ; each
In the foregoing observations, force is supposed to be the of which spaces being multiplied by the sum of each force,
product of the mass of a material point, by the velocity it according to the direction of such force, must equal 0.
would receive if entirely free. By confining these conside- Now, supposing the system to be in motion, the motion
rations to the case of a single material point, the conditions that each point makes in an instant may be considered as
of equilibrium will be found to be analogous to those above composed of two, one of them being that which the point
spoken of, but much simplified. acquires in the following instant ; consequently, the other
The most elementary equation to express the state of equi- must be destroyed by the reciprocal action of the points or
librium of a material point, acted on by any number of bodies upon each other, as well as of the moving forces by
forces, is, that every force, multiplied by the element of its which they are solicited. There wrll therefore be an
direction, equals thus, suppose the point to change its
:
equilibrium between these forces and the pressures or resist-
position in an infinitely small degree in any direction; then, ances resulting from the motions lost by the bodies from
in the case of equilibrium, if every force be multiplied by the one instant to another. Therefore, to extend to the motion
elementary space approached to, or receded from by the point, of a system of bodies, the formulas of its equilibrium, it is
the force being estimated in its direction, the product will only necessary to add the terms due to the last-mentioned
beO. forces.
Here the point supposed to be free but if constrained
is ;
The decrement of the velocities, which every particle has
to move on a curved surface, it will experience a reaction in the of three fixed rectangular co-ordinates,
direction
equal and contrary to the pressure which it exerts on such represents the motions lost in those directions ; and their
surface, but perpendicular to it, or in the direction of the increment represents such as are lost in the opposite direc-
radius of the curve. This reaction may be considered as a tions. Therefore, the resulting pressures or forces of these
new force, which, multiplied by the elements of its direction, motions destroyed will be generally expressed by the mass
must be added to the former equation. But if the variation multiplied into the element of the velocity, divided by the
of position, instead of being taken arbitrarily, be taken upon element of the time ; and their directions will be directly
the curve, so as not to alter the conditions of the problem, opposite to those of the velocities.
the preceding equation will still hold good, because the By these means the terms required may be analytically
elementary variation of the radius is equal to 0, as is evident expressed, and a general formula obtained for the motion of
from inspection. Again, if the magnitude of any force, or its a system of bodies, which will comprehend the solution of all
intensity, multiplied by the distance of its direction from any
the problems in dynamics; and a simple extension of it will
fixed point, be denominated its moment, relatively to such give the necessary equations for each problem.
point, it will be found that the sum of the moments of the
A great advantage derived from this formula is, that it
producing forces is always equal to that of the resulting gives directly a number of general equations, wherein are
force ; and in case of equilibrium the sum of the moments of included the principles or theorems, known under the appella-
all the forces equals 0. tions of conservation of (he vis viva ; conservation of the
on a point, or on a system of points,
If the forces acting motion of the centre of gravity ; conservation of equal areas ;
be not so proportioned as to maintain the system in equi- and the principle of the least action.
librium, a motion must necessarily take place, the laws of Of these, the first, the conservation of the vis viva, was
which may be deduced from an extension of the principles discovered by Huygens, though under a form somewhat
laid down for investigating the state of equilibrium a method ;
different from that which we now give to it. As employed
pursued by La Grange, and after him by La Place. The by him, it consisted in the equality between the ascent and
former combines the principle of virtual velocities with that descent of the centre of gravity of several weighty bodies,
of D'Alembert, which is very simple, and, though long unob- which descend together, and then ascend separately by the
served, may be considered as an axiom. It is as follows : force they had respectively acquired. But by the known
If several bodies have a
tendency to motion, in directions, properties of the centre of gravity, the space it describes in
and with velocities, which they are constrained to change in any direction is expressed by the sum of the products of the
consequence of their reciprocal reaction the motion so
;
mass of each body by the space such body has described in
induced may be considered as composed of two others, one the same direction, divided by the sum of the masses.
of which the bodies actually assume, and the other such, that Galileo, on the other hand, has shown in his problems, that
had the bodies been only acted upon by it, they would have the vertical space described by a weighty body in its descent
remained in equilibrium. This theorem is not of itself is proportional to the
square of the velocity acquired, and by
sufficient to solve a
problem, because it is always necessary which it will reascend to its former elevation. The principle
to derive some condition relative to the equilibrium from of Huygens is therefore reduced to this ; that in the motion
other considerations ; and the difficulty of determining the of a system of bodies, the sum of the masses by the squares of
forces and the laws of their equilibrium, sometimes renders the velocities is constantly the same, whether the bodies
this application more difficult, and the process more tedious, descend conjointly, or whether they freely descend separately
than if the solution were performed upon some principle more through the same vertical channel.
complex and more indirect. To obviate this objection, there- This principle had been considered only as a simple
 FOR 424 FOE
theorem of mechanics, till J. Bernouilli adopted the distinc- also in the same year, sent his Memoir to the Academy of
tion, established by Leibnitz,
between such pressures as act Paris, though it was not printed till 1752, wherein he says,
" The sum of the
without producing actual motion, and the living forces, as products of the mass of each body by the
motion as likewise the area traced by its radius vector about a fixed point, is always
they were termed, which produced ;

measures of these forces by the products of the masses by proportional to the times."
the squares of the velocities. Bernouilli saw nothing in this This principle, however, is only a generalization of Sir
but a of the theory of the vis viva, and Isaac's theorem of equality of areas described by centripetal
principle consequence
a general law of nature, in consequence of which, the
sum of forces and to perceive its analogy, or rather its identity with
:

as that of Euler and Bernouilli, it is only requisite to recollect,

the vis viva of several bodies preserves itself the same,
continue to act upon each other by simple pres- that the velocity of rotation is expressed by the element of
long as they
to the simple vis viva, resulting the circular arc divided by that of the time ; and that the
sures, and is always equal
first of these elements multiplied by the distance from the
from the action of the forces by which the body is really
moved. To this principle he gave the name of conservatio centre, gives the element of the area described about it. It
solution appears then that this latter principle is only the differential
vivium vivarum, and successfully employed it in the
of several problems that had not before been effected. expression of that of the Chevalier, who afterwards gave the
From this same principle, his son, D. Bernouilli, deduced same principle in another form, which renders it more
the law of the motion of fluids in vases, which he explains similar to the preceding, viz. The sum of the products of
in the Berlin Memoirs for 1748 a subject
: before but little the masses by the velocities, and by the perpendiculars drawn
understood. from the centre to the direction of the forces, is always a
The advantage of this principle consists in its affording constant quantity. Under this point of view, M. D'Arcy set
the velocities of the bodies up a kind of metaphysical principle, which he denominates
immediately an equation between
and the variable quantities which determine their position in the conservation of action, in opposition to, or rather as a

space so that
;
when by the nature of the problem these substitute for, the principle of the least action.
variable quantities are reduced to one, the equation is of But leaving these vague and arbitrary denominations,
itselfsufficient for its solution, as in the instance of the which neither constitute the essence of the laws of nature,
centre of oscillation. In general, nor are able to raise the simple results of the known laws of
problem relating to the
the conservation of the vis viva gives a first integral of the mechanics to the rank of final causes, let us return to the
several differential equations of each problem, which is often principle in question, which takes place in every system of
of great utility. bodies acting on each other in any manner whatever, whether
The second principle above alluded to, conservation of the by means of cords, inflexible lines, attractions, &c., and also
motion of the centre of gravity, is given by Sir Isaac Newton drawn by forces directed to a centre, whether the system be
in his Principia, as an elementary proposition ; where he entirely free, or constrained to move about it. The sum of
demonstrates, that the state of repose or
of motion of the the products of the masses by the areas described about this
centre of gravity of several bodies, is not altered by the recip- centre, and projected on any plane, is always proportional to
rocal action of these bodies, in any manner whatever so that
: the time ; so that by referring these areas to three rectangular
the centre of gravity of bodies acting upon each other, either planes,we obtain three differential equations of the first order,
by means of cords or of levers, or by the laws of attraction, between the time and the co-ordinates of the curves described
remains always in repose, or move uniformly in a direct line, by the bodies ; and in these equations, the nature of the
unless disturbed by some exterior action or obstacle. This principle properly exists.
theorem has been extended by D'Alembert, who has demon- The fourth principle, that
of the least action, was so
strated, that if every body in the system
be solicited by a denominated by Maupertuis, and has since been rendered
constant accelerating force, either acting in parallel lines, or celebrated by the writings of several illustrious authors.
directed towards a fixed point, but varying with the distance, Analytically it is as follows In the motion of bodies acting
:

the centre of gravity will describe a similar curve to what it upon each other, the sum of the products of the masses by
would have done, had the bodies been free. And, it might the velocities, and by the spaces described, is a minimum.
be added, the motion of this centre will be the same as if all Maupertuis has published two memoirs on this principle ;
the forces of the bodies were applied to it, each in its proper one in the Transactions of the Academy of Sciences, for 1744 ;
direction. This principle serves to determine the motion the other, in those of the Academy of Berlin, 1746 ; wherein
of the centre of gravity, independently of the respective he deduces from it, the laws of reflection and refraction of
motions of the bodies ; and thus it will ever afford three light, and those of the
shock of bodies. It appears, however,
finite equations between the co-ordinates of the bodies and that these applications are not only too partial for establish-
the times ; and these equations will be the integrals of the ing the truth of a general principle, but they are in them-
differential equations of the problem. selves too vague and arbitrary ; so that the consequences
The third principle, the conservation of equal areas, is attempted to be deduced become uncertain this principle,
:

more modern than the two former, and appears to have been therefore, deserves not to be classed with the three foregoing.
separately discovered by Euler, D. Bernouilli, and D'Arcy, There is, however, one point of view, in which it may be
about the same period, though under different forms. considered as more general and exact, and which alone merits
Euler and Bernouilli describe the principle thus In the
: the attention of geometricians. Euler first suggested the
motion of several bodies round a fixed centre, the sum of the idea at the close of his Treatise on Isoper {metrical Problems,
products of the mass of each body by the velocity of rotation published at Lausanne, in 1744, wherein he shows that in
round the centre, and by its distance from the same centre, trajectories described by central forces, the integral of
the
is always independent of any mutual action exerted by the
velocity multiplied by the element of the curve
is constantly

bodies upon each other, and preserves itself the same as long either a maximum or a minimum ; but he knew of this
as there is no exterior action or obstacle. Such is the prin- property only as pertaining to insulated bodies. La Grange
ciple describedby D. Bernouilli in the first volume of the extended it to the motion of a system of bodies acting on each
Memoirs of the Berlin Academy, 1746 and by D'Alembert,
; other, and demonstrated a new general principle, viz. That
in the same year, in his Opuscula. The Chevalier D'Arcy, the sum of the products of the masses by the integrals of the
 FOB 425 FOR
velocities multiplied by the elements of the spaces described, from the same simple principles, it must immediately be
is always a maximum or a minimum. divested of all pretension to the dignity of a final
cause;
From a combination of this latter principle with that of to which it can have no greater claim than
any other
the conservation of the vis viva, many difficult problems remarkable numerical property ;
for the reverse would imply
in dynamics may be solved ; as exemplified by La a mathematical contradiction. The which is curious,
Grange fact,
in the Memoirs of the Academy of Turin, vol. ii. may be thus analytically stated Suppose a material point
:

La Place, in the Mechanique Celeste, treats the doctrine to move under the impulse of several forces from one
of dynamics much in the same manner as La Grange, but point to another the curve which it describes possesses the
;

he carries his investigations much farther. lie agrees with remarkable property of having the integral or continued
that writer in adopting the principle of D'Alembert, and in product of the velocity (determined by previous considera-
resolving every motion into two ; that which the particle tions) when multiplied into the element of the curve, less
had in the preceding instant, and that which would have than any other curve passing through the same points.
maintained it in equilibrio but he differs from him in not
:
Maupertuis, who discovered this principle, carried it no
admitting the principle of virtual velocity to be assumed as further than to single bodies Eulerestablishod its
; generality ;
a fundamental axiom ; which he demonstrates by a regular and La Grange extended it to a system of bodies acting on
train of inductions. each other, as already noticed. The principle of the least
After having established nearly the same formula;, or action being therefore admitted as an established theorem,
differential equations, and deduced all the general principles it
may be resorted to for the solution of problems, and for
in the manner just described, he introduces others in the determining the trajectories of bodies moving in space ; but
nature of corollaries, many of which merit peculiar considera- in point of
practical utility, the necessary calculations are so
tion. From the principle of the conservation of areas, it much more complex and difficult than the more usual methods
follows, that in the motion of a system of bodies solicited only of investigation, that the latter are greatly to be preferred to it.
by their mutual attraction and by forces directed to the origin Upon these leading principles of the doctrine of forces, as
of the co-ordinates, there exists a plane passing through such laid down by the most eminent writers on the subject, it is
origin, which possesses the following remarkable properties: to be remarked, that they are for the most part mere develop-
1. That the sum of the areas traced on the plane ments of theorems easily deducible from the Newtonian laws
by the
projections of the radii veclores of the bodies, and multiplied of motion and that many of them were even established by
;

by their respective masses, will be the greatest possible. Newton himself. This generalization of mechanical prin-
2. That such sum is also equal upon all the planes ciples possesses, however, the advantage of enabling us to
perpendicular to it. take a more enlarged and comprehensive view of the subject,
As the principle of the vis viva, and that of areas, subsist than we could do by the consideration of a single problem.
relatively to the centre of gravity, even though the latter be Forces, which become the subject of mathematical compu-
supposed to have a rectilinear uniform motion, it follows, that tation, may be appropriately divided into the three following
a plane rnay be determined as passing through this moveablc classes :

origin, on which the sum of the areas, described by the pro- Such as act instantaneously, or for a short interval of
1.

jections of the radii vcctores, and multiplied respectively by time, and impart uniform motion to a particle subjected
their masses, may be the greatest possible. This plane being to their action provided it be not solicited by any force,
;

parallel to the one passing through the fixed origin, satisfies and is free to move in any direction.
the same conditions and another plane passing through the
; 2. Such as, acting with a continued uniform intensity,
centre of gravity, and determined according to the foregoing oblige a material particle, at liberty to obey their impulse,
conditions, will remain parallel to itself during the motion to describe its path with a uniformly accelerated motion.
of the system a circumstance of considerable utility and
; 3. Those, whose intensities, perpetually varying, though

importance. To this we may add, that any plane parallel according to some known law, produce a complicated action,
to the last-mentioned, and passing through any of the whose circumstances can only be investigated by means of
bodies, partakes of analogous properties. the integral calculus, or some analogous methods.
La Place next examines how far these results would be Forces whose mode of action is too arbitrary and uncertain
changed, if other relations subsisted between the force and to be included in either of these classes, may be considered
the velocity. Force, he observes, may be expressed in a as foreign to the present investigation.
great variety of ways relatively to the velocity, besides that The reader who wishes to have more scientific informa-
of the simple law of proportionality, without implying any tion on this subject, may refer to Gregory's Mechanics ;
mathematical contradiction. Suppose the force to be some Dr. Jackson's Theoretical Mechanics ; and may also con-
other function of the velocity, (analytically expressed by sult Marat's Mechanics, Wood's Mechanics, or Whewell's
F =(j> v;)
in this case the principle of the vis viva will Mechanics. Professor Leslie also, (in his Elements of Natural
be found to obtain in all the possible mathematical relations Philosophy,) -has given an excellent popular illustration, by
between the force and the velocity ; the vis viva of a body supposing the threads to act on light spiral springs adapted
being the product of its mass by double the integral of its to measure the forces,and commonly called spring steel-yards;

velocity, multiplied by the differential of the function of the but he acknowledges pulleys and weights have some advan-
velocity indicative of the force. tages.' By reversing the action of the springs, they might
The uniform rectilinear motion of the centre of gravity is be applied, with much advantage, to show the relations of
preserved by the law of nature alone ; by which also the compressing forces, by lecturers on mechanical science.
conservation of areas subsists. But a principle analogous to FORCE, Mechanical. Desaguliers, in his Experimental
that of the least action will be found to belong to every Philosophy, has many curious and useful observations con-
possible relation between force and velocity. cerning the comparative forces of men and horses, and the
The principle of the least action is not so obvious as the best mode of applying them. And Dr. Young, in his Lec-
others that have been mentioned, being more remote from tures, has given a table of a similar nature, compiled chiefly
the elementary theorems, from which they are all derived ; from the writings of Desaguliers and Coulomb, another writer,
nevertheless, if it be directly and mathematically deducible who has also displayed considerable ingenuity in pursuing
54
 FOR 426 FOR
(he subject. The following extract cannot fail of being use-
ful to all in practical mechanics.
concerned
In his introduction to his Table, Dr. Young observes, that
to compare the different estimates of moving power, it will be
convenient to take an unit as the mean effect of the labour of
an active man, and without impediment. This will be found,
on a moderate estimation, sufficient to raise lOlb. to the
hours in a day ; or to
height of 10 feet in a second, for 10
raise lOOlb., which is the weight of twelve wine gallons of
feet in a day or
water, 1 foot in a second, or 36,000 ;

or 1 foot in a day. This we

3,600,0001b., 432,000 gallons,
may call a force of 1 continued 36,000."
"Immediate Force of Men without Deduction for Friction.

A man, weighing ISSlb. (French) aseendec

62 feet (French) by slops in 34", but was
 FOR 427 FOR
"A horse can in general draw no more up a steep hill than
three mencan carry, that is, from 4501b. to 7501b. ; but a
strong horse can draw 20001b. up a steep hill, that is but
short. The worst way of applying the force of a horse, is
to make him carry or draw up-hill ; for, if the hill be steep,
three men will do more than a horse, each man climbing up
faster with a burden of lOOlb. weight, than a horse that is
loaded with 30011)., a difference arising from the position of
the parts of the human body being better adapted to climbing
than those of a horse.
" On the other
hand, the best way of applying the force of
a horse, is in an horizontal direction, wherein a man can exert
least force: thus a man, weighing 1401b., and drawing a
boat along by means of a rope coining over his shoulders,
cannot draw above 271b., or exert above one-seventh part of
the force of a horse employed to the same purpose.
"The very best and most effectual posture in a man, is
that of rowing ; wherein he not only acts with more muscles
at once for overcoming the resistance, than in any other
position ; but as he pulls backwards, the weight of his body
assists by
" The
way of lever. Desaguliers.
diameter of a walk for a horse-mill, ought to be at
least 25 or 30
feet. Deaayuliers.
"Some horses have carried 6501b. or7001b. seven or eight
miles without resting, as their ordinary work ; and a horse
at Stourbridge carried llcwt. of iron, or 12321b. for eight
miles. Desaguliers, Exp. Philos. vol. i.

"Work of Mules.
 FOR 428 FOR
the nature of the place opposes the proportion, and obliges the Rome, where causes were judicially tried, and orations deli-

symmetry to be different. But if the basilica have too much vered to the people.
length, ehalcidioc are made at the ends, as they are in the The Roman fora were of two kinds Fora Civilia and
basilica of Julia Aquiliana. The columns of the basilica are Venalia; the former were for law and political affairs, the
made as high as the porticus is broad. The portions is the latter for the purposes of trade. Of the Fora Civilia, there
third part of the space in the middle. The upper columns arc were at only three, viz., Romanum, Julianum, and
first
less than the lower, as above written. The pluteum, which is Augustum but their number was afterwards increased to
;

between the upper columns, should also be made a fourth part six, by the addition of the transitorium, called also palla-
less than the same columns, that those who walk in the dium, the Trajanum, and Salusti.
floor above may not be seen by the negociators below. The The first and most eminent of these was the forum
epistylium, zophorus, and corona?, are proportioned to the Romanum, called also forum veins. In the time of Romu-
columns in the manner explained in the third book. lus, this forum was only a large open space, without buildings
"
Nor will basilicas of the kind of that at the colony 01 or other ornament. It was first enclosed by Hostilius. adorned
Julia of Fanum, which I
designed and conducted, have less with porticos by Tarquin the Elder, and at length, by the
dignity and beauty the proportions and symmetry of which
;
additions of succeeding kings, consuls, and magistrates, it
are as follow The middle testudo between the columns is
: became one of the most elegant and noble places in the world.
120 feet long, and CO feet broad. The porticus around the It was called forum Romanum, or
simplv forum, by way of
.
testudo, between the walls and columns, is 20 feet broad. eminence, on account of its antiquity, in comparison with the
The height of the continued columns, including their capitals, other fora, and from its more general use in public affairs.
is 50 feet, and the thickness 5, having behind them parastatie was
It also calledforum Latinum, forum magnum, and old
20 feet high, 2-J feet broad, and 1^ foot thick, which sustain forum. The comitium, used sometimes for holding the
the beams that bear the floors of the porticos. Above these comitia, was a part of this forum, in which stood the rostrum,
are other parastataj 18 feet high, 2 feet broad, and 1 foot a sort of pulpit, adorned with the beaks of ships taken
thick, which also receives beams sustaining the canthers of in a
sea-fight from the inhabitants of Antium. In this the
the porticos, which are laid below the roof of the testudo : causes were pleaded, orations were made, and panegyrics were
the remaining space that is left between the beams which lie delivered on the merits of the dead.
over the parastatte, and those which lie over the columns, A
very beautiful restored view of the Forum Romanum
is left
open in the intercolumns, in order to give light. The was made by Mr. C. R. Cockerell, and a reduced view was
columns in the breadth of the testudo, including those of the engraved and published, with his permission, in the second
angles to the right and left, are four ; and in the length, on volume of the " Pompeii," published by the Society for the
that side which is next the forum, including the same DiiTiision of Useful to which we refer our read-
angle- Knowledge,
columns, eight. On the other side, there are but six columns, ers for an accurate notion of the splendour of the accumu-
including those of the angles, because the middle two on this lated architecture of the Forum and the Capitol, and its
side are omitted, that they may not obstruct the view of the
vicinity.
pronaos of the temple of Augustus, which is situated in the The Julian forum, called also Cccsar's forum, was built by
middle of the side-wall of the basilica, looking towards Julius Csesar with the spoils taken in the Gallic war. Its
the centre of the forum and temple of Jupiter. The tri- area alone, according to Suetonius, cost 100,000 sesterces ;
bunal in this building is formed in the figure of a hemi- and Dio affirms, that it much exceeded the Roman forum.
the extent of this homicycle in front is 46 feet, and
cycle Augustus's forum, built by Octavius Cccsar, was reckoned
:

the recess of the curvature inward 15 feet, so that those who the wonders of the city. The most remark-
by Pliny among
attend the magistrate obstruct not the in the able curiosity it presented was the statues in the two porticos
negociants
basilica. on each side of the main building. In one were all the Latin
"
Upon the columns, the compacted beams, made from kings, beginning with yEneas. In the other, all the kings
three timbers of two feet are
placed around and those from
;
of Rome, beginning with Romulus ; most of the eminent
the third columns which arc in the interior are returned
part, persons in the commonwealth, and Augustus himself among
project from the pronaos,
to the antse that and on the right the rest, with an inscription upon the pedestal of every
and left touch the hemicyclc.
" statue, descriptive of the chief actions and exploits of the
Upon the beams, perpendicularly to the capitals, the pilre person it represented. This forum was restored by the em-
are placed, three feet high and four feet broad, on
every side. peror Adrian.
Over these, other beams, well wrought from two Nerva's forum was begun by Domitian, but finished and
timbers, of
two feet, are placed around upon which, the transtrsc and
; named by the emperor Nerva. In this forum Alexander
capreols, being placed coincident with the zophorus, antte, and Severus set up the statues of such of the emperors as had
walls of the pronaos, sustain one culmen the whole been deified, in imitation of what Augustus had done in his
length of
the basilica, and another
transversely from the middle over forum. This forum was called transitorium, because it lay
the pronaos of the
temple so that it causes a double dis-
:
very convenient as a passage to the others, and palladium,
position of the fastigium, and gives a handsome appearance from a statue of Minerva which was set up in it. Scarcely
to the roof on the
outside, and to the lofty testudo within. anything remains of this forum except a decayed arch, which
Also, the omission of the ornaments of the epistylium, and the Italians, by a strange corruption, call Noah's ark, instead
of the upper columns and diminishes the labour of the
plutei, of Nervii's arch.
work, and saves great part of the expense. The columns
Trajan's forum was built by the emperor Trajan with the
likewise
being carried in one continued height up to the produce of the spoils taken in his wars. The porticos, which
beams of the testudo, increases the magnificence and diarnitv were exceedingly beautiful and magnificent, were covered
of the work/'
with brass, and supported by pillars of more than ordinary
FORUM is also used for any place in which the
governor of size, and of exquisite workmanship.
a province convened the The forum of Pompeii, which was constructed in the
people, to give judgment according
to the course of the law.
Greek style, cannot, however, be altogether considered, if we
FORUM also meant a public standing-place in the city of are guided by the authority of Vitruvius, a truly Greek
 FOS 429 FOU
Agora, which author states was to be made square in
this springing of the semi-circular head. The material employed
form. It however, many Greek features. The Pom-
has, in their construction, has of late years been meuliere or mill-

peian forum is of an oblong shape, surrounded on three sides stone, bedded in mortar made of lime and cement ; the inside
with rows of columns, forming, with the advanced columns of being well pointed, and rendered throughout with the same.
the various buildings, a colonnade or ambulatory above this
;
These cesspools are cleansed out when necessary, under th
there was a second, if we may judge from the remains of inspection and by the authority of the board of health of
stairs at several places at the back of the colonnade. The the city ; the carts employed, as well as all the materiel
fourth side of the forum is enclosed with two arches placed of the nightmen, being under the same surveillance. The
on each side of a large hyprctral temple, called the temple work is done between ten o'clock at night and six o'clock in
of Jupiter. On the west side are the prisons and the granary, the morning. The contents of the cesspools are generally
before these, and the temple of Venus, and the Basilica, is an fluid to allow of their extraction by pumps but
sufficiently ;

enclosed court. On the narrow side, opposite the temple of when this is not the case, they are conveyed from below in
Jupiter, are three buildings, generally considered to be the small iron vessels ; and great care is taken to prevent, as
Curice and jErarium. On the east side is an enclosure, (the much as possible, the escape of the noxious effluvia during
use of which has not been determined,) the Chalcidicurn, the operations. When the soil is pumped into carts, a small
the temple of Mercury, the Senaculum, and a building sup- furnace is placed over the bung-hole of the cart, to burn the
posed to be a large eating-house, generally known by the gas as it rises and directly the cart is filled, the bung is
;

name of the Pantheon, in front of which are the Tabnrnaj plastered over. The lids of the vessels used to remove
Argentariie. The enclosed area of the forum was paved with the more solid matter, arc also plastered over in a similar
large square pieces of marble, and the sides of the area were manner, before they arc brought out of the cesspools. For
adorned with statues. Opposite the Curite, and a short way a fuller description of the Fosses d'Aisances, see SEWER,
from them, is a small triumphal arch. The forum was closed SEWERAGE.
at night with iron-barred gates, and it does not appear that FOUNDATION, (from the French) the trench or trenches
chariots were admitted into it, as the pavement of the streets excavated the ground, in order to rest an edifice firmly
in
terminates at the back of the colonnade. The columns of the upon its base. The word also means the superstructure of
ambulatory are of the Greek Doric order, and were being a stone or brick wall under the lowest floor of a building,
restored in the same style, though with better materials, at contained within the trenches.
the time the city was destroyed. The columns were arreostyle, Foundations, according to Palludio, ought to be twice as
and the architraves were most probably of wood, as we may thick as the walls to be raised upon them, so that both the
infer from their being destroyed, while the frieze and cornice quality of the earth and the greatness of the building are to
of stone remain. be regarded, making the foundation larger in a soft and loose
The forum of Constantinople was erected by Constantino ground, or where there is a great weight to be supported.
when he established the city on the commanding eminence of The plane of the trench must be as level as possible, so that
the second where he pitched his tent during the siege
hill, the weight may press equally, and not incline more on one
and conquest of Byzantium. The edifice was of an elliptic side than the other. For this reason the ancients were
form the two opposite entrances formed triumphal arches;
;
accustomed to pave the plane with Tivertine but the
;

the porticos on every side were filled with statues, and the moderns most commonly lay planks or beams to build on.
centre of the edifice was occupied by a lofty column, of which The foundations ought to diminish in width as they rise ;
only a mutilated fragment is now left, and is degraded by the but in such a manner that the middle of the wall above may

appellation of the burnt pillar. This column was erected on fall plumb with the middle of the lowest part; this must also
a pedestal of white marble, 20 feet high. It was composed be observed in the diminution of walls above ground, because
of 10 pieces of porphyry, each of which measured about 10 by th.it means the building becomes much stronger than by
feet in height, and about 33 in circumference. On the summit making the diminution any other way.
of the pillar, above 120 feet from the ground, stood a colossal The various methods of treating the building of a founda-
statue of Apollo, of bronze, which had been according to the heterogeneous texture or uniformity
transported hither tion,
from Athens, or from the town of Phrygia, and was supposed of the ground, as may happen in the excavation, will be
to be the work of Phidias. The artist had represented the found under BRICKLAYING. Under the same head also will
god of day, or, as it was afterwards interpreted, the emperor be found ample directions for making a foundation of CON-
Constantine himself, with a sceptre in his right hand, the CRETE, as now so generally used by builders. But should
globe of the world in his left, and a crown of rays glittering the foundation prove unsound, or of that character that
on his head. This statue was thrown down in the reign of dependence cannot bo placed upon it, recourse must be had
Alexis Comnenus. to piling, in the followingmanner. Good sound piles must
FOSSE, a trench or ditch excavated round a fortified place, be prepared, of such dimensions, that their thickness may be
to secure it from attack. about a twelfth part of their length the distances at which
;

FOSSES D'AISANCES, a term used to designateN the those piles should be disposed, and the momentum requisite
cesspools of Paris. These cesspools are constructed of to drive them, will depend on the nature of the building to
materials sufficiently impermeable to filtration, so that the be erected and the weight they will have to bear the weight
; ;

matter contained in them shall not penetrate through of the ram ought not to be more than sufficient for driving
the walls, to the injury of the adjoining property. So the piles, as the heavier the ram, the greater the number of
any infiltration to a
strictly is this condition observed, that men required to work it, and consequently the greater the
neighbour's premises, according to the French law, gives a expense. When the piling is completed, so as to be sufficient
title to damages, and the architect and builder are held for supporting the intended structure, some builders lay a
responsible for ten years, not only to the proprietor, but also level row of cross bearers, called sleepers, ram the interstices
to the neighbours, should any nuisance arise from imperfect with stone or brick up to the level of their faces, and then
execution of the work. plank them over. This planking, however, may be dispensed
The Fosses d'Aisances are usually made about 10 feet long with, if the piling be sufficiently attended to, and the expense
by about 5 feet 7 inches wide, and 5 feet in height to the of the foundation will thus be materially 'ossened. Timber
 FOX 430 FRE
should not be used with its thickness standing vertical, as it FRACTION, in arithmetic and algebra, is a part or purls
is liable to shrink, which will make the building crack or of something considered as a unit or integer. Fractions aiv
fractions and decimal fractions.
split at the junctions with the return parts. distinguished into vulgar
Where the ground is not very soft, and where the wall Vulgar fractions consist of two parts or quantities written one
is to be supported upon narrow piers, a piece of timber, over the other, thus f f &c. ; the quantity above the line is
, ,

or balk, is sometimes slit in halves, and those are either called the numerator, and that below the line the denomi-
laid at the bottom, or at the height of two or nator. See Decimal.
immediately
three courses from the bottom of the wall ; which will FRAME, in carpentry, a combination of timber-work,
frequently prevent settlements when
the wall is to be so composed of one or more triangular compartments, or of a
mixture of triangles and quadrilaterals, the timbers being
supported.
Forced earth, or made ground, remains unfit for the founda- either joined together by joggles, or by being halved or
tion of a wall, for a considerable time. let into each other.

The breadth of a substructure should be proportioned to Three pieces of timber are the least number that can con-
the weight of the superstructure, and to the softness of the stitute a frame, for the same reason that less than three

ground on which it rests if the texture

;
of the ground is straight lines cannot constitute a space. See the articles

supposed to be constant, and the materials

of the same specific FLOCKING, NAKED - FLOORING, PARTITION, TRUSS, and
gravity, the breadth
of the foundation will be as the area of TRUSS-PARTITION*.
the vertical section passing through the line on which the FRAME, in joinery, an assemblage of various pieces of
breadth is measured ; thus, for example, Suppose a wall wood-work, forming certain compartments, according to the
40 feet high, 2 feet thick, to have a sufficient foundation design, surrounding panels of wood, which are inserted in
of 3 feet in breadth, what should be the breadth of the grooves made in every edge of each compartment of the frame,
foundation of a wall GO feet high, 2.^ feet thick? By propor- and thus filling up the interstices. This mode is a substitute
tion, it will be 40 x 2 3 GO x 21- the answer=5f feet.
: : : : for a board, which could not be procured in one breadth and ;

This calculation will give the breadth of the foundation of even if such a board could be obtained, framing would be
the required wall, equal to the breadth of the insisting wall preferable, as being much lighter, stronger, and less liable
itself; when the height of the required wall is equal to the to warp. The stiffness of a frame in carpentry depends
ratio, which is the first term (40 X 2
=
80) divided by chiefly upon the triangles in
its composition; but a frame in

joinery depends upon the inflexibility of the joints, taking

the second term (
3 )
=^= 26J. Thus a wall of 2G| feet every two pieces separately, by which each joint is formed.
FRAMING, of a house, all the timber-work, viz., the
would have the breadth of its foundation equal to its thick- carcase-flooring, partitioning, roofing, ceiling, beams, ash-
ness above the foundation, and less than 2G| feet would have lering, &c.
a thinner foundation than even the superstructure. But FRANKING, in sash-making, cutting a small excavation
though the calculation in this case gives the foundation less on the side of a bar for the reception of the transverse bar,
in breadth than the thickness of its
superstructure, it must so that no more of the wood be cut away than what is suffi-
be considered that it only calculates the true breadth of the cient to show a mitre when the bars are joined to each other ;

surface that should be opposed to the ground, in order to this means, the strength is
impaired only in the smallest
by
prevent the wall from penetrating by its weight though the :
possible degree.
rule gives all the width that is necessary, on account of FRATERY, OR FRATER-IIOUSE, the dining-hall of
the weight of the insisting wall, yet the breadth of the foot- monastic buildings, otherwise termed REFECTORY.
ing should always be greater than that of the superstructure ; FREEMASON, in ancient times was the term applied -to
as it will stand more firmly on its base when affected a person supposed to be skilled in the art of building, more
by
lateral pressure, and be less liable to rock
by the blowing of particularly in ecclesiastical construction.
freemasonA
heavy winds. The least breadth that is commonly given travelled from place to place, and by his learning in the
to the bottom course of stone walls is one foot thicker than
science, and his taste in the construction of edifices, executed
the superstructure. In damp situations, the works celebrated for beauty and grandeur. In the present
superstructure
should always be separated from the substructure
by layers day the word is identified with the society of Freemasons,
of lead, tarred paper, &c. Slate also may be used with whose various ramifications are said to extend throughout the
advantage for such purposes. known world.
FOUNTAIN, (from the French fontaine,) literally signi- FREEDSTOOL, FRIDSTOOL, OR FRITHSTOOL, a seat
fies a spring or
issuing of water from the earth, but the word placed at the east of some
churches, near the altar, for those
is also
applied to a machine or artificial contrivance by which who sought the privilege of sanctuary. They were usually
water is made to spout or dart up, called by the French a. of stone, specimens of them, in this material are still existing
jet
d'eau. There are various kinds of artificial fountains, but at Beverley and Hexham.
they are all formed by some description of pressure on the FREE-STONE. See STONE.
water, that is, the water of the fountain is made to spout up, FREE-STUFF, that which works easily in the operation
by the weight of a head of water ; by the pressure arising of planing, without tearing.
from the spring and elasticity of condensed
air, or by FREEZE, a part of the entablature of an order ; more
machinery. correctly spelt FRIEZE, which see.
FOX-TAIL WEDGING, a method of fastening a tenon FRENCH CASEMENTS, windows turning upon two
in a mortise, which when shut lap
by splitting the end of the tenon and inserting vertical edges attached to the jambs,
a projecting wedge, then
entering the tenon into the together upon the other two parallel edges, and are fastened
mortise, and driving it home ; the bottom of the mortise
by means of long bolts extending their whole height.
will then resist the
wedge, and force it farther into the French casements are made in the form of the old English
tenon, which will expand in width, so as not windows, the two meeting styles, which lap together, forming
only to fill the
cavity at the bottom, but be firmly compressed by the sides a munnion about four inches in breadth. The lower part only
of the mortise. is moveable, the upper is fixed, and has corresponding
 FRE 431 FRE
munnion, the lower rail of the fixed part and upper rail of the proceed to give the second coating, upon which the paint-
it

moveable part forming a transom. ing is done, it must be wetted with water,
that the two may
FRESCO PAINTING, a peculiar mode of painting, per- more completely incorporate. This layer, which requires to
formed by employing colours mixed and ground with water be more carefully prepared than the first, is made by
mixing
upon a stucco, or plaster, sufficiently fresh and wet to imbibe river-sand of an even and fine grain with chalk, which has
and embody the colours with itself The term fresco, as been burnt several months before, and exposed to the air, as
applied to painting, is said to have been adopted because the by that means the artist may be more sure of its general
practice ofit is used in the open air andare al fresco signi-
; decomposition and freedom from stony parts.
fying "to take the air," or "walk abroad in the air:" but it It requires considerable skill in the
person who prepares
seems more probable that another meaning of the word/re*co this ground, to lay it perfectly even, and he must be
very
has given rise to this particular adoption of it, viz., new, or careful in judging of the quantity proper to be laid on at
fresh, relative to the state of the plaster on which it is once. This ought not to be more than the painter can cover
wrought. Vitruvius (lib. vii. cap. 4.) calls it udo tectorio. and completely finish in a day ; and it requires great skill and
It is very ancient, having been practised in the earliest ages activity in spreading, to clean it from lumps and polish it

of Greece and Rome. evenly, so as to receive the painting with the promptitude
The theory of the art of painting extends its principles to requisite to leave the artist as much time as possible. The
all modes of execution, because theoretic rules are drawn painter, however, should himself superintend this part of the
from nature, which is the object of all imitation, and are process, for he alone can judge properly as to the rapidity
independent of the means employed in producing the intended with which he can work, or the advantages he may make of
effect. We propose, therefore, in this place, only to treat of accidental occurrences.
the mode of execution, and of the materials employed in fresco The operation of laying on the ground is performed with
painting; such observations as the recent revival of the art a trowel, and in doing this, care must be taken to clean it
has rendered necessary, being deferred till after our descrip- properly, that the surface may be even, particularly in those
tion of the practice. parts most exposed to view. The mason's labour is finished
Previously to the commencement of a painting in fresco, it by his polishing the surface to receive the painting ; this is
is necessary that a careful examination should be made of the done by applying a piece of paper on the face of the wall, and
fitness of the place to receive it. The artist must assure him- passing the trowel over it. It is very necessary that this

self, therefore, in the first place, of the perfect construction should be well done, for small inequalities in the surface
of the walls, or ceilings, on which he intends to employ his might, in certain views, produce great irregularities in the
genius, and entrust his reputation : above all, he must be drawing of the work.
careful to make secure from damp.
it When the second ground is thus prepared, cleaned, and
Satisfied with the construction of the wall, it is then polished, in the quantity, and on the part of the wall which
necessary the artist should see to the proper management of the artist requires, he begins to trace his design upon it, and
the first layer of plaster with which it is covered. The proceeds to the colouring of it ; completely covering the
materials employed for building in different countries will quantity prepared, and finishing so much of the picture in
vary according to the nature of those most easy to be obtained : the course of the day, in such a manner that he may not have
and therefore it will, of course, be necessary to adopt means occasion to re-touch it when the ground is dry. This is the
for rendering those not perfectly proper in themselves to characteristic peculiarity of painting in fresco, which, by this
receive fresco painting, more so by artificial means. Brick is mode of operation, is incorporated with the mortar, and dry-
certainly the one best calculated to hold the plaster perfectly ; ing along with it, becomes extremely durable, and brightens
both on account of its absorbing quality, and from the small- in its tones and colour as it dries.
ness of the size of the bricks causing a number of interstices From the necessity there is in the progress of this style of
between them; which irregularity in the surface greatly art, that it should be executed with rapidity, and from the
assists in retaining the plaster in adherence. A
wall built of impossibility of retouching it without injuring the purity of
rough stones full of holes may also be relied upon as a good the work ; the artist, unless he be endowed with very extra-
foundation for fresco ; but if, instead of that, it be constructed ordinary powers of imagination and execution indeed, is
of smooth or polished stones, it will then be necessary to obliged to prepare a finished sketch of the subject, wrought
render it uneven by making holes in it, fastening nails, and to its proper hue and tone of colour, and so well digested,
small wedges of wood, to hold the plaster together, and pre- that there may be no necessity for making any essential
vent its falling off. These precautions are of the utmost con- alterations in the design. This, which is a very useful mode
sequence to prevent its bending or cracking, which the least of proceeding in all historic works of painting, is absolutely
alteration that happens to the materials, or even a change of indispensable in fresco, to those who are not determined to
weather, producing alternately wet or dry, may occasion. give the rein to their ideas, and leave as perfect whatever
The first layer of plaster may be composed of well- washed may first present itself. There is no beginning in this, by
chalk made into a cement with pounded brick, or river drawing the whole of the parts at one time, and correcting
sand ; the last is better, being rather the coarsest, and pro- them at leisure, as is the custom in oil painting, where the
ducing thereby a roughness of surface which will better retain artist may proceed to work without a sketch. Here all that
the second coat. is begun in the morning must be completed by the evening ;

Tarras, composed of pounded sea-sand and chalk or lime, and that almost without cessation of labour, while the plaster
would perhaps be better still. The ancients had certainly a is wet; and not only completed in form, but also (a difficult,
better compost for this purpose than that at present known ; nay, almost impossible task, without a well-prepared sketch,)
if we may judge from that which still covers many of their must be performed, viz., the part done in this short time must
buildings; particularly the aqueduct they constructed near have so perfect an accordance with what follows, or has pre-
Naples, and the walls of the ruins of Herculaneum. ceded of the work, that when the whole is finished, it may
Before the second layer is given, the first must be perfectly appear as if it had been executed at once, or in the
usual
dry, on account of a disagreeable and noxious vapour which mode, with sufficient time given to harmonize the various
issues from the lime in drying ; but when it is so, and you forms and tones of colour. Instead of proceeding by slow
 FEE 432 FEE
degrees to illuminate the objects, and increase the vividness of marble dust be too strong for the chalk, it will become black.
the colours, in a manner somewhat similar to the progress The artist will therefore do well to confine himself to chalk
of nature in the rising day, till at last it shines with all its white, provided it has been well prepared, and kept a long
intended effect, which is the course of painting in oil ; the time. As this, however, has frequently been used, we deemed
artist working in fresco must at once rush into broad day- it
proper to be mentioned, that artists may, if they choose,
light at once give all the force in light and shade and colour,
;
make experiments upon its nature, and endeavour, if they
which the nature of his subject requires. This, be it observed find any peculiarly valuable quality in it, to ensure its con-
also, must be without the assistance (at least in the commence- tinuance hi clearness and perfection.
ment) of contrast to regulate his eye; and therefore may be Egg-shell While. There is also a third white, made of
considered almost impossible, as we have before said, unless egg-shells, which, though it has not the full texture of the
he be assisted by a well-digested and finished sketch. chalk, is yet very clear and good for use in fresco. It is
The sketch being completed, the next process is to prepare made by boiling egg-shells in water with a little quick-lime.
a cartoon or drawing of the design on paper pasted together They arc then put into a pot, and washed with pure water.
to the size of the intended fresco. This cartoon should be Then pounded fine, washed again till no tint is given to the
perfected in the outline to save time, and the artist has then water, and then ground by the muller and stone to the degree
nothing to do but to trace the line of the figures or other fit for use ; it is afterwards formed into little
cakes, which
objects which the design may be composed of, on to the are dried in the sun. Care must be taken not to let the
plaster, by either pricking with a pin through the paper, or by powder of the shells remain too long in the same water, as it
passing a hard point over the lines of the cartoon. By this will exhale a fetid vapour almost
insupportable, which cannot
means he saves himself the trouble of drawing the figures, be dissipated but by roasting it in a close vessel, well luted.
and also the time which would be required for doing it, and Red produced by burnt vitriol, in colour approaching to
proceeds at once to the painting; to facilitate the execution, Indian red, and ground in spirits of wine, acts well with the
and ensure the success of which, several precautions are lime, resists the action of the air, and mixes cleanly with the
requisite. other colours. This forms an excellent preparation to receive
The colours being ground fine in water, and a sufficient the bright red of cinnabar or vermilion, when the whole wall
quantity of the tints most likely to be employed prepared, iscovered.
they should be arranged in pots or basons, and several pal- Colours of earthy textures, such as the ochres, whether
lettes with raised edges should be
ready at hand to work burnt or not burnt, umber, both raw and burnt, Spanish red,
from, and assist in compounding the varieties of hues neces- Verd de Verona, Venice black, and blue black, made by
sary for producing brilliancy and harmony. A
few pieces of bruising vine-stalks, or shells of peach-nuts, are all excellent
tile or brick, or of
any absorbent stone, should also be pro- for the purposes of fresco
painting.
vided, to prove the tints upon, because all colours ground in Blues. The best is the ultramarine, as it never suffers
water become much lighter when dry, than they appear when Smalt or enamel blue
any change. is
good as to preserving
wet. To be certain therefore of their hue, before he
begins to itstone, and, if used early in the work, will adhere ;
but if
use them on the picture, and to avoid the trouble and neces- the ground should become too dry before it is used, it is apt
sity of much changing or labouring them,
(as the painters not to incorporate strongly with it, but to come off on the
term the blending of colours,) the should apply some of
artist least friction.
each tint with his brush to the dry brick, &c., which, ab- White lead, lake, verdigris, masticot, Naples yellow, the
sorbing the water, the colours immediately appear very nearly orpimcnts, and bone black, are all unfit for this purpose,
of the same hue they will be of when the fresco is
dry. Hence being liable to change.
he may proceed with great security in his work, and is sure
Painting in fresco, when carefully executed, is of all others
to have it much more fresh and vigorous in effect, than it the most durable, and therefore the most proper to be
would be ifmuch labour had been employed to obtain the
employed in adorning public buildings. The use of it for
tone on the wall. Norden speaks of
this purpose
appears to be very ancient.
It will be
requisite also to have at hand a vase or bason paintings in Egyptian palaces 80 feet high, which Winkelman
of water, or a wet sponge, and to take care not to
begin to quoting, concludes they were in fresco, from the description
paint till the layer of mortar is hard enough to resist the given of the prepared grounds, and of the manner in which
impression of the finger otherwise the colours would spread
:
the colours appear to have been used. And all the paintings
upon it, and prevent all possibility of neatness or clearness found at Ilerculaneum, at Portici, and at Eome, of ancient
in the execution, which should be effected with
great rapidity date, are of the same materials. No other kind of painting
and lightness of hand. would so effectually have resisted the action of the air for so
With respect to the colours employed in fresco, they are
great a length of time, and more particularly the excessive
fewer in number than those which
may be used in oil paint- aridity which those of Herculaneum must have endured,
ing, on account of the combined action of the lime and the being shut up entirely from the light, and amidst glowing
air upon the component parts of many of the latter. Those embers from Vesuvius, emitting of cooirse, especially at first,
most generally in use are the following, viz. : an intense heat around them. That, however, in one point
Lime --White. This, when made of well-washed burnt of view, was favourable to the preservation of those that
chalk or lime, is the best and most
simple white that can be escaped its immediate action ; for damp is the most powerful
used it mixes
; freely with all the other colours, and works destroyer of them, against which no caution taken can make
in itself with a full
body. The preparation of it requires them too secure. In this case of Herculaneum, dump must
that the chalk should be slacked a twelvemonth before it is have been effectually excluded, first by the heat of the ashes,
used, or at least, six months. It should then be dissolved in and afterwards, as the stratum of those ashes was so thick,
common water, and poured carefully off, it fall
(after letting water from above could not penetrate so low as to the pictures,
some short time,) into a vessel to settle.
particularly after the upper part was covered with the close
Another white is made by mixing one-third of white cake formed by the decomposed parts, on and near the
marble powder with two-thirds of chalk ; but it must be used surface.
with caution, as it is apt to change. If the
proportion of In ordinary situations, the choice of materials is the most
 FRE 433 FRE
important part, to secure the durability of the work, and par- reference to events in the history of the
country ; and that
ticularly the greatest care is necessary in the preparation of these paintings should be placed in compartments formed
by
the ground, and of the wall, to cause it to adhere. such a suitable arrangement of the architectural
designs of
Fresco painting has been chiefly employed in palaces, tem- the interior, as will best promote their effective union with
ples, and other public edifices. For large and important the arts of sculpture and architecture. With this view,
places no other kind of painting is so good. As the artist is I should consider it to be of the utmost
importance, that the
obliged, from its nature, to proceed with rapidity in its pro- paintings should be wholly free from gloss upon the surface,
duction, it has necessarily more spirit and vigour in the that they may be perfectly seen and fully understood from
"
execution, than paintings in oil, which may be repeated, and allpoints of view." By paintings with surfaces free from
re-touched, as often as the artist fancies he can improve, or gloss or glaze, we understand those wherein the colours
heighten their effect. In fresco there is not time to meddle, employed are mixed in other mediums than oils or varnishes;
and disturb the freshness of the colour, or the fulness and and though fresco is not named, yet the magnitude of the
freedom of the touch. But there can be no minute detail of surfaces to be covered, and the exception to those which are
forms, or extensive variety in the gradation of tints the ; glazed, leads us to suppose that it is intended to revive this
beauties of neatness, and delicacy of finishing, make no part branch of art. Now, though the buildings to be thus adorned
of the excellencies of this branch of the art; it will not bear are progressing with considerable rapidity, much time must
the close examination which well-finished pictures in oil do; elapse before the interior is
prepared to receive the embellish-
there something dry and rough in itsappearance, unpleasing,
is ments contemplated ; meanwhile, many will have their long-
to the common observer, on too close an inspection. It lacks ings to share in these distinguished labours, and, generally,
the full rich sweetness of hue and texture which oil paintings the revival will open a new field for talent, in which there
possess; and though it has more freshness, and retains it, will shortly be no want of encouragement for those who may
yet from the confined number of colours which can be have successfully cultivated it so oblivious, however, has
;

employed in it, it is not equal to oil in the perfection of the the art become, that we have repeatedly heard the question
imitation of nature. put as to its nature and mode of execution, and we think an
Whoever seeks to be pleased with fresco painting, must explanation will be useful to many of our readers. Fresco
learn justly to estimate the best, and not the most agreeable is the art of
painting in relievo with water-colours on fresh
qualities of the art. Character, contour, expression, are plaster; the amalgamation thus formed of the decorative
within powers and are the points which the great artists
its ;
materi.il with the body to which it is applied, is endued with un-
who practice it, knowing its limits, will endeavour most to changeableness and permanence of a very extraordinary kind."
exhibit in their productions. Harmony of colouring, chiaro- The appointment of "A Commission on the Fine Arts,"
"
oscuro, and the minute graces of execution, have never yet especially directed to inquire into the mode in which, by
been rendered in it, or but very partially, in
comparison with means of the interior decorations of the Palace of West-
works in oil. minster, the fine arts of this country can be most effectually
In the early part of the restoration of painting, a species improved," has no doubt led to the revival of the art of
of fresco was the only mode of practising the art, in use' fresco-painting. The various reports of the commission
A ground of chalk was prepared on tablets of wood, and the contain a great deal of valuable information on the subject,
colours laid on it, ground and mixed in water only, or with and the employment of several artists to furnish specimens,
some gluten soluble in it. The surface of the picture was has brought forward some beautiful examples of fresco-
afterwards covered with a varnish, to secure it from rubbing, painting, and elicited talent that might, but for these circum-
and to give the tints more force arid lustre. stances, have been lost to the world. In addition to the
" " was much
Fresco," observes a writer in The Builder, encouragement thus afforded, the stimulus of a public com-
used in England some four or five centuries since, in both petition,and the distribution of rewards to the successful
ecclesiastical and civil structures of importance ; the subjects candidates, Her Majesty and Prince Albert had given the
being chiefly scriptural, with occasional deviations in favour advantage of their countenance to the art, by ordering
of some legendary achievement, or as a pictorial record of the decoration of a summer-house in the gardens of Buck-
some well-contested battle-field. With these bold and ingham Palace with fresco paintings.
beautiful, but unresisting memorials of things sacred, The idea of this experiment, for so it must be called, was
and deeds that redounded to national glory, the fanatical surely a happy one and not the less seasonable, that every
;

spirit of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries warred to one who had considered the subject (at least every one who
extermination neither the enrichmentsof the temple bestowed
;
understood it), felt that it was a method which presented
by the constant piety of our ancestors, nor the grateful peculiar difficulties to some of the ablest and most distin-
reminiso,cnccs of heroic services of the state, were permitted guished of our painters, whose habitual style of treatment of
to escape the devilries enacted by the factitious saints of the their subject and effect, had been precisely the reverse
Puritan calendar the frescoes perished ; but better taste
: of what is
required in fresco.
and better feelings have supervened, bidding fair to re-estab- Theapplication of fresco-painting, it may be observed, to
lish both the art itself, and the influential purposes to which the decoration of architecture demands the adaptation of parts
itwas anciently devoted." to a whole ; a preconcerted mode of treatment, in which the
The report of Mr. Barry on the proposed decorations of painting shall seem to be in union with the original design
the interior of the new Houses of Parliament, is really a of the edifice
;
the harmonious combination of many minds,

splendid programme of the

association of sculpture and paint- working under the direction of one mind, to one purpose ;
ing, upon an occasion
too so fertile in appliances and means, and with regard to the mechanical part of the it
process,
that the principles of taste will, it is presumed, be developed requires much thought and study in the preparation of the
in a manner to serve as examples for much of future time. materials, and great care and precision, as well as great
"
With reference to painting, Mr. Barry says I would that
rapidity, in the execution.
the walls of the several halls, galleries, and corridors of The summer-house in question is
very small, and is situated
approach, as well as the various public apartments through- on an artificial mount in the gardens, overlooking the orna-
out the building, should be decorated with paintings, having mental waters.
55
 FRE 434 FRI

The commissioners having decided that six compartments

The entrance to the pavilion opens into the principal
inches from side to side, in the new House of Lords should te decorated with fresco-
apartment, an octagon 15
feet
to allot the several works in the follow-
and 14 feet 11 inches in height, to the centre of the vaulted paintings, proceeded
It is here, in eight lunettes at the foot of the vault, ing manner :

ceiling.
for the To Mr. Horsley, the subject of Religion.
that the frescos from "Comus" appear, of which
To Mr. Thomas, the subject of Justice.
most part types have been exhibited in the rooms of the Royal
the respective artists. Over the entrance-door,
To Mr. Maclise, the subject of Chivalry.
Academy, by
of the following passage To Mr. Dyce, the subject of the Baptism of Ethelbert.
is Stanfield's, illustrative :

To Mr. Redgrave, the subject of Prince Henry, afterwards

" there be that by due steps aspire
Tet some
on that golden key, Henry V., acknowledging the authority of Chief Justice
To lay their just hands
That opes the palace of Eternity. Gascoigne.
To such my errand is." COJTUS, v. 12 17. And to Mr. Cope the subject of Edward the Black Prince
over receiving the Order of the Garter from
Edward HI.
It is admirably transparent, and exhibits more power
In the Upper Waiting Hall, or, as it is to be called, the
the material than the majority of the works. Passing round "
Hall of Poets," the eight available panels which it affords,
with the sun, Mr. Uwin's follows, having for motto,
are appropriated to frescoes illustrative of Chaucer, Spenser,
" This is the place as well as I may guess,
Milton, Shakspere, Dryden, Pope, Byron, and Scott. Such
Whence even now the tumult of loud mirth
Was rife." of these paintings as are finished at the time we write, are
over the noble works, full of power and beauty, and fully justifying
Then comes Leslie : Ross follows. Eastlake's is
the commissioners in the selection they have made of the
mantlepiece ;
Edwin Landseer, and Dyce, complete
Maclise,
artists employed.
the eight. A copy of Mr. Maclise's work was in the The works that have been produced in former
principal
Academy exhibition of 1845, and will bo remembered by all. times are the series of biblical and evangelical
in fresco,
The lines illustrated are,
which adorn the walls and ceiling of the
historic pictures
"
If virtue feeble were,
would stoop to her." chapel of Sixtus V. at Rome, by M. A. Buonarotti the ;
Heaven itself
chambers of the Vatican, known by the name of the
Maclise shows the lady spell-bound in the marble chair, Stanze of Raphael which consist principally of religious
;

and displays much of his usual power. Mr. Landseer has histories interspersed with some legendary tales, relative
found in the following lines an opportunity to exhibit to the popes ; and the cupola of the duomo of Parma, or
his great skill in depicting the brute form :
church of St. Giovanni in that city, by A. Correggio. It

represents the Ascension of the Virgin, amidst a choir of

"
Their human countenance
Th' express resemblance of the gods, is changed angels, and with a number of figures of saints below regard-
Into some brutish form of wolf or bear,
ing it. One beautiful and grand work, by Daniel Ricciarelli,
Or ounce or tiger, hog or bearded goat"
COMUS, v. 68 71. commonly called Da Votterra, at the altar of the church of
Trinita da Monte, the subject of which is taking Christ
Comus, surrounded by his crew, is terrified by the approach down from the cross, is said to have been destroyed by the
of the brothers, who appear behind in the act of rushing French, in their endeavours to remove it to France. Dorigny
upon them. A bacchante, with a beautiful female form, and has engraved a large print of the design ; and the picture
the head of a hound, has thrown herself in affright upon the has been thought so well worthy of attention, that an
arm of Comus. Other monsters, half brute, half human, in infinite multitude of copies have been made of it.
various attitudes of mad revelry grovelling, bestial insen- FRET, (from the Latin, /return,) a species of guillochi,
sibility confusion and terror are seen round him ; the made of straight grooves or channclures at right angles to
pathetic, the poetical, the horrible, the grotesque, all wildly, each other ; the section of each channel being that of a
strangely mingled. In the spandrils are two heads a grinning rectangle. A
fret is generally one connected groove with
ape, and a bear drinking. some of its parts in the same straight line. The labyrinth
Mr. Dyce winds up the illustrations with the presentation fret is that which consists of many turnings or windings, but
of the lady and her two brothers to their parents, who come in all cases the
parts are parallel and perpendicular to each
forth to receive them, and he has produced what must be other. The prominent parts or interstices are generally of
considered the best fresco, although the same breadth throughout. In several Grecian examples,
perhaps wanting exactly
the right sentiment. intervals are left in regular positions throughout the length
The operations of the Fine Arts Commission seem tohave of the fret.
been highly satisfactory to the public in general, and, in FRET is also elaborate carved-work, the same as ENTAIL.
respect to fresco-painting in particular, must be viewed as FRIARY, the building inhabited by a fraternity of friars.
eminently successful. The exhibitions in Westminster Hall FRIEZE, or FRIZE, (called by the Greeks zoophorits) the
presented numerous paintings in this so long-disused art, of middle principal member of the entablature which separates
a highly artistic character ; and the number of the the cornice from the architrave.
prizes
awarded, testify the great merit of the productions. The The frieze was supposed to be originally formed by the
result of the
preliminary competition was shown in the transverse beams, which were necessary to prevent the walls
selection of several eminent artists to execute fresco-paintings or sides from spreading outwards by the pressure of the
in the new Palace of Westminster, and in the completion by rafters of the roof.
those gentlemen of some of the finest The Doric is the only order that has an enriched frieze
pictures in this peculiar
style, that have been seen since the days of the The ornaments with which the
great painters peculiar to the order itsrif.
of former times. friezes of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Roman orders are fre-
It would extend this article
beyond the limit assigned to quently decorated, are only accidental, and when introduced
it, to give a full description of these admirable works; are accommodated to the circumstances or use of the build-
we must therefore confine ourselves to a list of the artists When the frieze is charged with ornament, it ought to
ing.
selected, and the subjects allotted to each for illustration. be higher than when plain. Vitruvius directs the frieze
]p m E, T s /'/, /7A /
 ]R ]E T S /7..ITK.I

^
 FRI 435 FRU
of the Ionic to be one-fourth part less than the epistylium, FRONT, (from the Latin, frons, the face,) any side or face
when it is plain;
and one-fourth part greater when orna- of a building. The principal front should be that which
mented ;
this seems reasonable, in order to set off the commands the best prospect, or may be seen to the greatest
decorations to greater advantage. advantage and is generally the entrance-front.
;

Ancient examples show no authority for a general propor- FRONTAGE, the front part of an edifice.
tion in all the orders. In the Grecian Doric, the frieze is FRONTAL, the hanging suspended over the front of tho
being equal to the altitude of the architrave, and altar. It was made of the richest material, silk, velvet, and
very high,
each of these greater than the cornice ; the Corinthian, on cloth of gold, and worked in the most costly manner in
account of the numerous members of the cornice, has its embroidery. Otherwise termed Antependium.
frieze less than one-third of the height of the entablature. FRONTON, (French) a pediment, or other ornament
Vitruvius makes the line of separation between the frieze over doors, niches, &c.
and the cornice immediately under the dentils, and not at FROSTED, a species of rustic work, imitative of ice
the bottom of the cymatium, as by Palladio, Perault, and formed by irregular drops of water.
others; for the frieze must have a terminating member
as FROWEY TIMBER, such as works freely to the plane
well as the architrave. without tearing, and consequently has the grain nearly in
FKIEZES are either convex or pulvinated: examples of the the same direction.
latter are to be met with as follow at Rome, in the Com-
:
FRUSTUM, (Latin) the part of a geometrical parallelogram
posite order of the temple of Bacchus ;
Corinthian order next to the base, after cutting away the upper part, which
of the basilica of Antoninus; and in the Composite order of contains the apex. Thus we have frustums of pyramids,
the Goldsmiths' arch : in all which the curves are circular, cones, conoids, hemispheres, &c.
and not very prominent. At
Spalatro, in the Corinthian
order of the portico of the vestibulum of the Periostilium ; To measure the frustum of a square pyramid.
in the same order, exterior and interior, of the temple of To the rectangle of the sides of the two bases, add one-
Jupiter, and of the
entrance of the temple of jEsculapius :
third of the square of their difference; their product being
where the curves are all circular, and very prominent. In multiplied by the height, will give the solidity.
Wood's Ruins of Bailee (as represented in plate 31) of the EXAMPLE. In the frustum of a square pyramid, one side
Corinthian order, where the curve is elliptical. In the of the base A B or B c is 3 feet G inches, each side of the top
Corinthian order of Wood's Ruins of Palmyra, (plates 23 2 feet 3 inches, and the perpendicular height n I, 8 feet
and 40), the curve is elliptical and in plates 33 and 40, it
; 9 inches, the solidity is required.
is circular. In the Ionian Antiquities ; (vol. ii., plates 27
and 45) the curves are of a contrary flexure, with the con-
cave part above ; and in plate 50, the curve is circular.
By Duodecimals.
Swelled friezes are to be found among the examples of 3 6
a;.tiquity, particularly during
the decline of the Roman Deduct 2 3 the less side of the top.
empire ; but these precedents ought not to influence their
use, as they are unnatural, and defeat the purpose they were 1 --3 difference.
intended to answer, namely, to form a relief to the eye 1 3
between the cornice and the architrave.
3 9
FRIEZE, Panel, the upper panel of a six-panelled door.
FRIEZE, Rail, the top rail but one of a six-panelled door.
:;

FRIEZES, Flourished, such as are enriched with reeds or 9 square of difference.

3)1 6
imaginary foliages, as in the Corinthian frieze of the frontis-
piece of Nero.
FRIEZES, Historical, those which are adorned with bas-
6-3
relievos, representing histories, or sacrifices, as those of the
Parthenon and the temple of Theseus at Athens, and G
the arch of Titus at Rome. 2
FRIEZES, Marine, such as represent sea-horses, tritons,
and other attributes of the sea ; or shells, baths, grottos, &c. o 10
FRIEZES, Rustic, those whose courses are rusticated, as the 7
Tuscan frieze of Palladio.
FRIEZES, Symbolical, such as are adorned with the attri- 7 -10
Add
butes of religion, as the Corinthian of the temple behind the 6 3 one-third of the square of
Capitol at Rome, whereon are represented the instruments the difference.
and apparatus of sacrifice.
FRIEZE OF THE CAPITAL, the same as HYPOTRACHELION,
which see.
6 3 7
FRIGERATORY, (from the Latin, frigidus, to cool) a
in summer. 67 2
place in a house intended to keep things cool
FRIGIDARIUM, (Latin) an apartment in which to keep 73 -5-7 7 the solidity required.
things cool.
It also the cold bathing-room in the baths of the
means
ancients, as well as the vessel in which the cold water was
received. The word has been likewise applied to the reser- By Decimals.
voir of cold water in the hypocaustum or stove-room, which 3 - 6 = 3.5
was termed ahenum frigidarivm. 2 3 = 2.25
FRIZE. See FRIEZE. 8 9 = 8.75
 FRU 436 FUS
3.5 .7854
2.25 8*

1.25 difference of the two bases.

47124
1.25
2618

625 4.9742
9 the length.
250
125
44.7678 the solidity of the frustum.

3) 1.5625 sq.
of the difference of the two bases. FULCRUM, in mechanics, that by which a lever is

sustained.
.5208 FUMARIUM, an upper room used by the Romans for
collecting the smoke from the lower ones. The Fumariurn
2.25 was chiefly used, however, for smoking or ripening wines.
3.5 FUNNEL, that part of a chimney which is contained
between the fire-place and the summit of the shaft. See
1125 CHIMNEY.
675 FURCATED, having a forked appearance.
FURLONG, a measure of length, the eighth part of a
7.875 mile, forty poles.
Add .5208 being *
of the squ. of the difference. FURNITURE, the fastenings of doors and windows with
brass knobs, &c.
8.3958 FURRING, when the edges of any number of timbers in
8.75 a range are out of the surface they were intended to form,
either from their gravity, or in consequence of an original

419790 deficiency of the timbers in their depth ; the fixing of thin

587706 scantlings or laths upon the edges, so as to form that surface,
671664 is called
furring. Thus the timbers of a floor, though level
at first, are often obliged to be furred : in the reparation

73.463250 the of old roofs, the rafters have mostly to undergo this opera-
solidity required.
tion :and the ceiling joists, both of new and old floors,
To measure frequently require it.
the frustum of a cone.
FURRINGS, the pieces of timber employed in bringing
To the rectangle of the two diameters, add one-third of
any piece of work in carpentry to a regular surface, when
the square of their difference multiply the sum by .7854,
:

the work is deficient through the sagging of the timbers, or

and the product by the length.
other causes.
EXAMPLE. What the solidity of the frustum of a cone,
is

the diameter of the greater end being 3 feet, that of the

FUR-UP. See FURRING.
FUST, (from the French) the shaft of a column, or trunk
lesser end being 2 feet, and the altitude 9 feet 1
of a pilaster.
3 FUST, a term used in Devonshire, and perhaps in some
2 other counties, for the ridge of a house.
FUSTIC, sometimes called YELLOW WOOD. This wood,
1 difference of the diameters. the Morus tinctoria, is a native of the West Indies, and
1 affords much colouring-matter, which is
very permanent.
The yellow given by fustic without any mordant, is dull
1 sq. of the difference of the diameters. and brownish, but stands well. The mordants employed
3 with weld, act upon fustic in a similar manner, and by
2 their means the colours are rendered more bright and fixed.
The wood of this tree is also used in mosaic cabinetwork
and turnery.
Add FUSUROLE, or FUSAROLE, (from the Latin) a semi-
circular member cut into beads, generally placed under the
Sum echinus of the Ionic and Roman capitals.
 GAG 437 GAL

GABION, a hollow cylinder of wicker-work, resembling The mortise-and-tenon gage is a common gage with a lon-
a basket, but having no bottom. It is formed by planting gitudinal slider, moveable in a dovetail groove the slider
:

slender stakes vertically in the ground, at intervals from each has also a tooth fixed as near to the end next the tooth in the
other, on the circumference of a circle, and interweaving end of the staff as possible ; so that the teeth may be brought
with them osiers or other flexible twigs. almost to any distance from one another.
Such gabions are used during a siege, in executing trenches The internal gage is constructed similar to the staff of the
by the process of sapping for this purpose, they are placed
: mortise-and-tenon gage : it has a longitudinal slider, the
on end, with their sides inclining a little outwards, on that whole length of the staff, without a head, or any other tooth
side of the line of approach which is nearest to the fortress; than that of the slider.
and, being filled with earth obtained by the excavation of the The flooring gage consists of a head and staff fixed toge-
trench, they form a protection against the fire of the enemy. ther, at a very obtuse angle on the head are a number of
:

After the gabions are filled, the required thickness is given equidistant furrows at right angles to the staff: the section
to the parapet of the trench of each furrow is an internal right angle, one side of which
by throwing the earth below
the line. is in a straight line with the
tooth, and the other becomes
GABLE, (from the British, gravel) the upper portion of a fence in the act of gaging.
the end of a building wall, which closes the end of the roof, This gage is made to answer battens or deals of various
in shape similar to a triangle, and answering, in some widths :Each width is numbered, according to the furrow
respects, to the term PEDIMENT, applied to classic architec- that is applied as a fence so that a flooring board, which is
;

ture. The gable forms a prominent feature in mediaeval build- not sufficiently long, may be extended, by a piece of the same
ings, and its shape conforms to that of the roof; which is breadth, to the length required.
various at different periods. In Norman buildings, the angle GAIN, the bevelled shoulder of a binding-joist for the
of the roof is as nearly as possible a right angle, while in purpose of giving additional resistance to the tenon below.
Early English edifices the gable is frequently an equilateral See TUSK.
triangle. In the Decorated the roof is somewhat GALILEE, a porch, usually built at or near the west end
depressed,
which depression increases in the Perpendicular and later of the great abbey-churches, where the monks collected
buildings. The finish to Norman gables was probably a flat themselves, and drew up in returning from some of their pro-
coping, to Early English a moulded coping, sometimes further cessions ; where dead bodies were deposited previous to their
ornamented with crockets and finials; but these were more interment ; and where, in certain monasteries, females alone
frequently introduced in the later styles, in which also the were allowed to see the monks to whom they were related,
gables were sometimes finished with a pierced parapet or or to attend divine service.
battlement. In Domestic architecture, gables with over- Galileos exist in England in the cathedrals of Durham,
hanging roofs were ornamented with BARGE-BOARDS. Ely, and Lincoln. In the former instance, it is a large chapel
The term is also applied to the entire wall at the gable-end at the west end of the nave, measuring 80 feet by 50, and
of a building. divided into five aisles by semi-circular arcades on clustered
GABLE-ROOFED, having a roof abutting against a gable wall. columns; it likewise contained three altars. The gal lee at i

GABLE- WINDOW, a window in the gable end of a building. Ely is in the same position", but of much smaller dimensions,
GABLET, a small gable ; an ornament in shape like while that at Lincoln is on the west side of the south
a gable, frequently introduced over tabernacles, niches, but- transept.
tresses, &c. Many improbable conjectures have been formed concerning
GAGE, (French) in carpentry and joinery, an instrument the derivation of the name. The real occasion of it seems to
for drawing one or more lines on any side of a piece of stuff, be this when any female applied at the abbey-gate for leave
:

parallel to one of the arrises of that side. to see her relative, who was a monk, she was directed to the
There are four kinds of gages: the common gage, themor- western porch of the church, and told, in the terms which so
tise-and-tenon gage, the internal gage, and the flooring gage. frequently occur in the service of the pascal time, alluding
The common gage and the flooring gage are both applied to to Matt, xxviii. 10, and Mark xvi. 7, that she should see him
the drawing of a line parallel to an arris. in Galilee. This explanation is confirmed by a passage of
The common gage consists of two pieces of wood, one of Gervasius the monk of Canterbury. De Combust, et Repar.
which passes through a mortise in the other, and has an iron Dorob. Ecc. Twysd. X. Script.
or steel tooth fixed near one of its extremities ; s.o that the GALLERY, an apartment of a house, not always destined
point may be placed at any distance from the mortised piece : to answer the same purpose: the term is applied, in a general
then the piece which passes through the mortise is fixed by way, to any passage or apartment, the length of which greatly
a wedge also through that piece the piece through which
: exceeds its breadth. A common passage to several rooms in
the mortise passes is called the head, and the piece passing one range, in any upper story of a house, is called a gallery ;
through the mortise, in which the iron tooth is fixed, is called a long room for the reception of pictures is called a gallery ;
the staff. the platform raised upon pillars, or projected from the wall
When a line is drawn from the arris upon one side, at of a church, open in the front to the central space, for the
a given distance, the head is a fence that always keeps the accommodation of a greater number of people than the body
staff" at right
angles to the arris, and equidistant, in moving of the church would admit, is called a gallery. The whisper-
it to and fro. ing-gallery of St. Paul's, as also that of the chapel of
Green-
 GAO 438 GAR
wich Hospital, are projected, and supported by cantalivers on mortgage of the said rates, any sum not less than 50
from the wall. The whole, or a portion of the uppermost nor more than 100, and discharge the whole by yearly pay-
The appella- ments. 11 and 12 Will. III. cap. 19. 24 Geo. III. c. 54.
story of a theatre, is likewise called a gallery.
tion is also frequently given to porticos formed with long See PRISON.
ranges of columns on one side. GARD, Pont du. See AQUEDUCT, BRIDGE.
Savot, in his Architecture, derives the gallery from Gaul, GARDEN, Hanging, a sort of ancient garden, which is
as supposing the ancient Gauls to have been the first who said to have been formed in a raised manner, on arches, by
used them Nicod, from the Trench, aller, logo; q. d. allene:
:
Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, with the view of gratify-
others bring it from galore, galley, because it bears some ing his wife Amyctis,
who was the daughter of Astyages,
resemblance thereto in respect of health. king of Media. These gardens are supposed by Quintus
The of galleries is (according to Palladio) from Curtius to have been equal in height to the city, which is 50
length
feet. They contained on every side a square of 400 feet, and
eight to ten times their breadth.
GANG-LADDER, in canal-making, a frame answering were carried up in several terraces, surmounting each other,
the same purpose as a horsing block. to which there were ascents by different flights of stairs or
GANG- WAY, a temporary stair, made with planks set steps that had 10 feet in width. The arches that sustained
edge to edge of each other, having transverse pieces of wood the whole of this pile were raised above each other, being
nailed over for steps used particularly by masons, brick-
; strengthened by a wall on every side of above seven yards in
layers, and carpenters, for ascending or descending
the vari- thickness. The floors of the several terraces were laid first
ous stories of a building, before the stairs are put up. with large flat stones, of considerable lengths and breadths,
GAOL, (from the French, geole, formed of the Latin, over which was placed a stratum of reed mixed very fully
geola, gaoht, or gayola, a cage) a prison, or place of legal with bitumen, then two rows of bricks closely cemented toge-
confinement the word is now generally written JAIL.
;
ther with mortar, and the whole afterwards covered with
Every county has two gaols one for debtors, which may
;
thick sheet-lead, upon which the mould of the garden was
be any house where the sheritl' pleases the other fur the ; deposited, to such a depth as to admit large trees to take root
peace and matters of the crown, which is the county gaol. and establish themselves in it. Trees, plants, and flowers of
By 22 and 23 Car. II. c. 20, the gaoler shall keep debtors various kinds, were introduced into these gardens. The
and felons separate, on pain of forfeiting his office, and treble upper terrace, was likewise provided with an aqueduct or
damages to the party aggrieved; and by 31 Geo. III. c. 40, engine, by which the water was drawn up
from the river, and
transports are to be kept separate from other prisoners. As dispersed over the whole of the gardens when necessary.
the gaol is intended, in most cases, for custody, and not for Some have condemned these gardens as unnatural, while
punishment, it is enacted by 14 Geo. III. c. 59, that the jus- others have considered them as deserving of a portion of
tices, in their several quarter-sessions, shall order the walls praise ; but whatever merit may have
been allowed them,
and ceilings of the several cells and wards, both of the debtors they could certainly never have had anything of
the natural
and felons, and of any other rooms used by the prisoners in or rural character about them.
their respective gaols, where felons are usually confined, to GARDEN-SHEDS, erections for containing garden imple-
be scraped and whitewashed once in the year, at least, and ments, flower-pots, hot-bed frames, and glass sashes; also for
to be regularly washed and kept clean, and constantly sup-
working in, during bad weather. They are best placed on
plied with fresh air by hand-ventilators or otherwise ; and the back-wall of the tool-house, by which means they may be
shall order two rooms in each gaol, one for the men and an- made to hold the furnaces, fuel, and other articles.
other for the women, to be set apart for sick prisoners ; and GARGOYLE, GARGLE, GARGTLE, AND GURGOYLE, a
order a warm and cold bath, or commodious bathing-tub, to and
stone projecting from the wall of Gothic buildings,
be provided in each gaol, and direct the prisoners to be washed serving for a spout to convey the water
from the roof, and
in such warm or cold baths, or throw it off the wall. These stones are more frequently
bathing-tubs, &c., and they
shall appoint an experienced surgeon and
apothecary, at a carved into grotesque figures or animals, through the mouth
stated salary, to attend the gaol, and to report, at each quar- of which the water passes ; sometimes, however, the water is
ter-sessions, the state of the health of the prisoners ; order carried through a leaden pipe above or below the figure.
when they see occasion, prevent their
clothes for the prisoners Their usual position is in the cornice of buildings, but they
being kept under ground, when it can be done conveniently, are found also in other positions, such as buttresses, &c.
and from time to time make orders for restoring or preserving GARLANDS, from the
(from the French, guirlande ;

Latin, garlanda, or Italian, yhirlanda,) ornaments

the health of the prisoners ; the expenses to be paid out of of flowers,
the county rates, or out of the public stock of any city, fran- fruits, and leaves, anciently used at the gates
of temples,
chise, or place to which the gaols belong. The gaoler is where feasts or solemn rejoicings were held. Garlands of
subject to fine for neglect or disobedience of the orders of festoons were also on the heads of victims, in the ancient
put
justices, by complaint to the judges of assize, or to the jus- heathen sacrifices.
in the most
tices in their quarter-sessions. 31 By Geo.
III. c. 46, visit-
GARNETS, Cross, a species of hinge, used
ing-justices are appointed for inspecting gaols at least three common works, formed in the shape of the letter T, turned
times in each quarter of a year, in order to prevent abuses, or jamb
thus, EH , the vertical part being fastened to the style
&c., and they are to report to the quarter-sessions. The jus- of the door-case, and the horizontal part to the door or
tices in sessions may also appoint clergymen to officiate in shutter.
and allow them a salary to be paid out of the county of a
(from the French, yarite, the tower
cita-
gaols, GARRET,
rates.
del) the uppermost story of a house, when taken either par-
If a gaol be out of repair, insufficient, &c., the justices tially or wholly from the space within the roof.
of the peace in their quarter-sessions
agree with work-
may GARRETING, the insertion of small pieces of stone
men for rebuilding or repairing itand by warrant under
; between the joints of rough masonry, as in rubble and
flint
their hands and seals, order the sum
agreed upon to be levied walls.
upon the several hundreds and divisions in the county, by GARRISON, a fort, castle, or fortified town, furnished
a proportionate rate; and the justices in sessions may borrow, with troops to defend it.
 GAT 439 GEO
principal one for foot-passengers, and
a large door for shutting the entrance of parks, in others a similar one
GATE,
fields, towns, castles, palaces, or any other considerable on either side; they were called posterns. Remains still
exist in most of the old towns, amongst the most remarkable
buildings.
The width of gates is from eight to twelve feet the : of which are those of Battle Abbey, Sussex, Bristol, Bury
St. Edmund's, St. John's Gate, Clerkenwell, and St. Augus-
height depends upon the purpose to which they are applied.
See Door. tine's College, Canterbury.
GATE, in Rural JSconomy, a frame of wood constructed GATE-WAY, the passage through which entrance is obtained
with a number of bars, and fixed in such a manner as to into a town, building, &c.

swing upon hinges, for the purpose of affording convenient GATHERING OF THE WINGS, in a chimney, the
passage into and out of inclosed grounds, or other places. sloping part above the fire-place, where the funnel contracts
In the constructing of gates, of whatever kind or form or tapers till it reaches the tube or flue.
they may be, the materials should constantly be well prepared GAVEL, the same as GABLE, which see.
by proper seasoning before they are put together ; as, where GAUGE, See GAGE.
this is not the case, they soon become much injured by their GAUGE, a term applied to signify the width between the
constant exposure to the effects of the sun and wind. They rails on a railway.
also require that the different parts be put together with con- GEMMEL, GYMMER, or CHYMOL, an ancient term for a
siderable accuracy and correctness. In respect to durability, hinge.
there can be no doubt but that oak is by much the best sort GENERATING LINE, or PLANE, in geometry, is a line,
of wood to be employed ; but some of the more light kinds of or plane, moving according to a given law, either round one
wood, such as those of the deal, willow, and alder sorts, of its extremities, as a fixed point or axis, or parallel to
answer the purpose extremely well, and are very durable, itself, in order to generate a plane figure or solid,
which is
as, on account of their lightness, they do not destroy them- formed by the space it has gone over.
selves so much in shutting. It is found by
experience that GENESIS, (from the Greek, yeveoif, origin, or beginning)
the lighter gates can be made in their foreparts, so that they in geometry, the formation of a line, plane, or solid, by the
be sufficiently strong for the intended purpose, the better motion of a line, plane, or surface thus, a sphere is con-
;

they answer. For this reason, in some cases, as where horses ceived to be generated by the motion of a semicircle revolv-
are chiefly to be confined, the top bars, by being left of more ing on its diameter, which is called tlie axis of circumvolution.
strength, may admit of the others having less substance ; but A triangle may be conceived to be gene-rated by the motion of
if this be not done,
they are apt to be broken by the horses a line parallel to its base, in such a manner that the describing
rubbing their necks upon them, unless where they are made line must be a fourth proportional to the base, the altitude,
of great height. and the distance of the line from the vertex of the triangle.
The width of gates for general purposes is mostly from In the genesis of figures, the moving point, line, or surface,
eight and a half to nine feet, and the height from five to six iscalled the dexcribent, and the line round which, or accord-
feet ; the bars being five or six in number, and each four or
ing to which, the revolution is made, the diriyent.
five inches in breadth. Hence they are frequently denomi- GENTESE, in Early English architecture, cusps or fea-
nated five or six-barred gates. In cases where fowls or other therings in the arch of a doorway.
small animals are to be guarded against, it is better to run GEOD'SY, that branch of applied mathematics which
a smaller bar between the two lowermost ones, as by this determines the figures and areas of large portions of the
means their passage is prevented. earth's surface, the general figure of the earth, and the vari-
GATE, in Engineering, is
applied to the close-boarded doors ations of the intensity of gravity in
different regions by
of locks or sluices on canals or rivers, for means of direct observation and measurement.
penning up the
water in a lock these are distinguished by GEOLOGY, the science which treats of the internal
upper-gates and
:

lower-gates, according as they are placed at the head or tail structure of the earth as far as we have been able to pene
of the lock. trate below its surface, of the arrangement of the materials
GATE-HOUSE, a building erected over a gate, or that of which it is composed, and of the changes which have taken
through which entrance was obtained into the main building. place in them.
Gate-houses were very usual in the erections of the middle GEOMETRICAL, something that has a relation to geo-
ages, and were employed in all large buildings, ecclesiastical, thus we
metry :
say, geometrical method, geometrical genius,
military, and civil, also as entrances to fortified cities; thus geometrical strictness, geometrical construction, geometrical
in London we still
preserve the names of several gate-ways demonstration, &c.
in theold wall, as New-gate, Bishops-gate, GEOMETRICAL Locus, or PLACE. See Locus.
Lyd-gate, &c., at
each of which places was formerly a GEOMETRICAL PACE, a measure of five feet.
gate-house, through
which entrance was obtained within the These build- GEOMETRICAL PLAN. See PLAN.
city.
ings were often of an imposing character ; and in military GEOMETRICAL PLANE, in perspective, the same as ground
works consisted, for the most part, of a large with
arch-way plane, or original plane.
groined ceiling, and a portcullis at each end, flanked by two GEOMETRICAL SOLUTION OF A PROBLEM, a solution accord-
massive projecting towers, pierced with
loop-holes, through ing to the strict principles of geometry, by lines that are
which to annoy the enemy, and surmounted
by a battle- truly geometrical.
mented parapet. Those attached to civil and ecclesiastical In this sense, we say, a geometrical solution, in contradis-
buildings were generally of a more ornamental description, tinction to a mechanical or an instrumental solution, where
sometimes consisting of only a square tower with a turret at the problem is
only solved by ruler and compasses.
one or more angles, having a large Geometrical problems are distinguished into three kinds,
arch-way in the centre
with groined ceiling and room above, the window of which
viz., plane, solid, and linear.
frequently an oriel formed a picturesque addition to the Plane problems are such as may be solved by a right line
elevation. The forms of these gate-houses were, however, and a circle.
various, and admitted of different degrees of ornamentation. Solid problems are derived from the consideration of a
In some cases, there was a small
arch-way by the side of the solid that is a cone.
 GEO 440 GEO
Linear problems are derived from lines more compounded. even in the most flourishing time of their republic, that they
as Tacitus informs us, to
GEOMETRICAL STAIR, such as is only supported by the gave the name of mathematicians,
wall at the one end of the steps, with a continued string at those who pursued the chimeras of divination and judicial
astrology. Nor were they more disposed
the other. tocultivate geometry,
of yea as we may reasonably imagine, during the decline, and after
GEOMETRY, (from the Greek, yew^er/wo, formed
or and perpeui, to measure) the doctrine, or science the fall of the Roman empire. The case was different with
jr], earth,
of extension, or things extended, viz. of lines, surfaces, the Greeks ; among whom we find many excellent geometers,
or solids. Geometry has also been defined in general terms since the commencement of the Christian era, and after the
as the science of space. translation of the Roman empire. Ptolemy lived under
and Diodorus, the Marcus Aurelius ; and we have, extant, the works of Pappus
According to Herodotus, Strabo,
first inventors of geometry, and it is of Alexandria, who lived in the time of Theodosius ; the
Egyptians were the
asserted these ancient writers, that to the annual inunda-
by commentary of Eutocius, the Ascalonite, who lived about
tions of the Nile, we are to attribute the first steps in this the year of Christ 540, on Archimedes' mensuration of a
science. That river, in its overflowings, bearing away all circle; and the commentary on Euclid, by Proclus, who
the bounds and landmarks of men's estates, and covering the lived under the empire of Anastasius.
whole face of the country, the people were obliged to distin- The consequent inundation of ignorance and barbarism
guish their lands by the consideration
of their figure and was unfavourable to geometry, as well as to theother sciences;
quantity and thus, by experience and habit, they formed
;
and those few who applied themselves to this science, or
to themselves a method, or art, which was the origin of indeed to any branch of learning incomprehensible by the
geometry. A farther contemplation of the draughts of figures vulgar, were calumniated as magicians. In those times of
of fields thus laid down, and plotted in proportion, might, European darkness, the Arabians were distinguished as the
naturally enough, lead them to the discovery
of some of their guardians and promoters of science ; and from the ninth to
excellent and wonderful properties ; and as these speculations the fourteenth century they produced many astronomers,
continually improved, so the art gradually improved also, geometers, geographers, &c., from whom the mathematical
until it attained the perfection of the present day. Josephus, sciences were again received into Spain, Italy, and other
however, seems to attribute the invention to the Hebrews; parts of Europe, somewhat before the beginning of the
and others, the ancients, make Mercury the inventor.
among fifteenth century. Some of the earliest writers after this
From Egypt, geometry passed into Greece, being carried period, are Leonardus Piscnus, Lucas Paciolus or de Burgo,
thither, as some say, by Thales, where it was much culti- and others who flourished between 1400 and 1500. After
vated and improved by himself, Pythagoras, Anaxagoras of this period appeared many editions of Euclid, or commentaries

Clazomenc, Hippocrates of Chios, and Plato. The latter upon his Elements ; e.g., Orontius Fineus, in 1530, published
testified his conviction of the necessity and importance a commentary on the sixbooks; as did James Peletarius
first
of geometry, in order to the successful study of philosophy, in 1557; and about the same time, Nicolas Tartaglia pub-

by the following inscription on the door of his academy : lished a commentary on the whole fifteen books. We might
'
Let HO one ignorant of geometry enter here." Plato, con- also mention other editions or commentaries such as those;

ceiving that geometry was too mean and restricted an appella- of Commandine, Clavius, Billingsly, Scheubelius, Harlinus,
tion for this science, substituted for it the more extensive Dasypodius, Ramus, Herigon, Stevinus, Saville, Barrow,
name of mensuration ; and others have denominated it Tucquet, Dechales, Furnier, Scarborough, Keill, Cann, Stone,
pantometry. Other more general and comprehensive appella- and many others.
tions are perhaps more suitable to its extent, especially in At the revival of letters, there were few Europeans capable
the present advanced state of the science and accordingly,
;
of translating and commenting on the works of the ancient
some have defined it as the science of inquiring, inventing, geometers and geometry made consequently but little pro-
;

and demonstrating all the affections of the magnitude. Proclus gress till the time of Des Cartes, who published his Geometry
calls it the
knowledge of magnitudes and figures, with their in 1637. However, not to mention all those who extended
limitations ; as also of their ratios, affections, positions, and geometry beyond its elementary parts, such as Theodosius,
motions of every kind. About fifty years after Plato, lived in his Spherics, Serenus, in his Sections of the Cone and
who collected together all those theorems which had ; Kepler, in his Nova Stereometria, &c.
Euclid, in 1635,
Cylinder ;

been invented by his predecessors in Egypt and Greece, and Bonaventure Cavalerius, an Italian, of the order of Jesuits,
digested them into fifteen books, intitled the Elements of published his Geometry of Indivisibles ; Torricelli, his Opera
Geometry ; and those propositions which were not satisfac- Geometrica; Viviani, his Divinationes Geometrical,
Exerci-
torily proved, he more accurately demonstrated. The next tatio Mathematica, De Locis Solidis, De Maximis et
to Euclid, of those ancient writers whose works are extant, Minimis, &c. ; Vieta, Effectio Geometrica, &c. ; Gregory
is
Apollonitis Pergjeus, who flourished in the time of Ptolemy St. Vincent, in 1647, published his treatise, intitled Quadra-
Euergetes, about two hundred and thirty years before Christ, two, Circuli et Hyperbolae, a work abounding with excellent
and about one hundred years after Euclid. The third ancient theorems and paralogisms ; and Pascal, about the same time,
geometer, whose writings remain, is Archimedes of Syracuse, published his Treatise of the Cycloid. Geometry, as far as
who was famous about the same time with Apollonius. We it was
capable of deriving aid and improvement from
the
can only mention Eudoxus of Cuidus, Architas of Tarentum, arithmetic of infinites, was indebted to the labours of Fermat,
Philolaus, Eratosthenes, Aristarchus of Samos, Dinostratus, Barrow, Wallis, Mercator, Brounker, J. Gregory, Huygens,
the inventor of the
quadratrix, Menechmus, his brother, and and others; to whom we may add Newton and Leibnitz.
the disciple of Plato, the two Aristeuses, Conon, Thrasideus, But Sir Isaac Newton contributed to the progress of pure
Nicoteles, Leon, Theudius, Hermotimus, and Nicomedes, the geometry by his two treatises, De Quadratura Curvarum,
inventor of the conchoid ; besides whom there are many and Enumeratio Linearum Terlii Ordinis : and still farther
other ancient geometers, to whom this science is indebted. by his incomparable and immortal work, intitled, Philosophia
The Greeks continued their attention to geometry, even Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which will always be
afterthey were subdued by the Romans. Whereas the considered as the most extensive and successful application
Romans themselves were so little acquainted with this science, of geometry to physics.
 GEO 441 GEO
The modern Geometers are innumerable ;
and the names hend the parallelogram, including the rectangle and square,
of Cotes, Maclaurin, R. Simpson, T. Stewart, T. Simpson, &c. the rhombus and rhomboid, and the trapezium and
trapezoid ;
not to mention living writers, will always be held in esteem as multilateral or polygons, comprehending the
pentagon,
and veneration by those who are devoted to the study af hexagon, heptagon, &c. ; and as circles ; also as solids, in-
geometry and mathematics. cluding a prism, parallelopipedon, cube, pyramid, cylinder,
The province of geometry is almost infinite: fesv of our cone, sphere, and the frustum of either of the latter.
ideas but what may be represented to the For practical geometry, the fullest and most complete
imagination by
lines, upon which they become of geometrical consideration : treatises are those of Mallet, written in French, but without
it
being geometry alone that makes comparisons and finds the demonstrations; and of Schwenter and Cantzlerus, both
the relations of lines. in high Dutch. In this class are likewise to be ranked
Architecture, mechanics, astronomy, music, and in a word, Clavius's, Tacquet's, and Ozanam's Practical Geometries;
all the sciences which consider
things susceptible of more and De la Hire's Ecole des Arpenteurs ; Reinholdus's Geodccsia ;
less, i. e. all the precise and accurate sciences, may be re- Hartman Beyers's Stereometria ; Voigtel's Geometria Sub-
ferred to geometry;
for all speculative truths consisting
only terranea; all in
high Dutch
Halsius, Galileus, Goldmannus,
:

in the relations of things, and in the relations between those Scheffelt, and Ozanam, on &c. &c. An excellent
the Sector,
relations, they may be all referred to lines. Consequences treatise on practicalgeometry, particularly with reference to
may be drawn from them and these consequences, again,
;
the study of architecture and perspective, was published
being rendered sensible by lines, become permanent objects, some years ago by Mr. Peter Nicholson, and still holds its
which may be constantly exposed to a rigorous attention ground in public estimation, notwithstanding the numerous
and examination thus affording to us infinite opportunities
: works on the subject which have appeared from time to time.
both of inquiring into their certainty, and pursuing them The following short essay on Practical Geometry, containing
farther. the formation of plain figures arising from straight lines and
Geometrical lines and figures are not only proper to circles, will alsobe found exceedingly useful in the study of
represent to the imagination the relations between magni- architectural Curves of variable curvature,
construction.
tudes, or between things susceptible of more and less ; as as those arising from the sections of a cone by a plane, will
spaces, times, weights, motions, &c., but they may even be found under their respective heads; as, CONIC SECTIONS,
represent things which the mind can no otherwise conceive, ELLIPSIS, &c.
for example, the relations of incommensurable magnitudes. GEOMETRY, Analytical, or Descriptive, the method of
It must be observed, that this use of geometry among the finding the situation of a point in a plane. See DESCRIPTIVE
ancients was not strictly scientifical, as among us but rather
;
GEOMETRY.
symbolical they did not argue, or deduce things and pro-
:
GEOMETRY, Practical, the method of reducing or applying
perties unknown, from lines, but represented or delineated the rules of the science to practice, examples of which will
by them things that were known. In effect, they were not be found in the following problems.
used as means or instruments of discovering, O' but as images
o PROBLEM I. In a right line, A a, from any given point, c
or characters, to preserve, or communicate, the discoveries to erect a perpendicular.
already made. fiynre 1. When the given point is near the middle of the
The ancient geometry was confined to very na.rrow line. On each side of the point c, on the line A n, take any
bounds, compared with the modern. It only extended to two equal distances, as cd,ce; from d and e, with any radius
right lines and curves of the first order, or conic sections; greater than c d, or c e, describe arcs of equal radii, cutting
whereas in modern geometry new lines, of infinitely more each other in F through the points p and c, draw the right
;

and higher orders, arc introduced. line F c, and it will be the perpendicular required.

Geometry is commonly divided into four parts, or branches ; Figure 2. When the given point is at or near the end of
ALTIMETHY, STEREOMETRY, PLANIMETRY, and LONGIMETRY. the line. Take any other point, as d, in A u ; from d, with
See those words. the distance dc, describe an arc, c ef; take the portion o e,
It is
again distinguished into theoretical or speculative, and of the arc, at pleasure, and make the portion ef equal toe e;
practical. The first contemplates the properties of con- draw the chord c g f; from c, with the radius c e, describe
tinuity ; and demonstrates the truth of general propositions, the arc gen; make e H equal to e g ; and through the points
called theorems. The second applies those speculations and c and ii draw the right line c n, which is the perpendicular
theorems to particular uses in the solution of problems. required.
Speculative geometry, again, may be distinguished into Figure 3. Another method. Take any other point, rf,
elementary and sublime. The former is that employed in the as before: from c, with the distance c d, describe an arc,
consideration of right lines and plane surfaces, and solids def; from d, with the same radius, describe an arc at;
generated from them. The higher or sublime geometry is from e, with the same radius, describe an arc at o ; draw rfeo,
that employed in the consideration of curve lines, conic sec- and through the points G and c draw G c, which is the per-
tions, and bodies formed of them. pendicular required.
The science of geometry is founded on certain axioms, or PROBLEM II. From a given point, c, to drop a perpendicu-
self-evident truths ; it is introduced by definitions of the lar upon a given right line, A B.
various objects which it contemplates, and the properties of Figure 4. In A B, take any two points, /and g ; and from
which it investigates and demonstrates, such as points, lines, either point,/ with the radius /c, describe an arc, c E ; from
angles, figures, surfaces and solids : lines again are con- g, with the distance g c, describe arcs at c and E, of equal
sidered as straight or curved ; and in their relation to one radii ; and draw the right line c E, which is the perpendicu-
another, either as inclined or parallel, or as perpendicular : lar required.

angles, as right, oblique, acute, obtuse, external, vertical, &o.:

Figure 5. Another method. From the point c, describe
figures, with regard to their various boundaries, as triangles, an nrc,fg, cutting A B at/ and g ; from the points/and g,
which are in respect to their sides equilateral, isosceles, and with any equal radii greater than the half offg, describe two
scalene, and in reference to their angles, right-angled, obtuse- arcs, cutting each other in D ; draw c D, and c D is perpen-
angled, and acute-angled ; as quadrilaterals, which compre- dicular to A B, and drawn from the point c, as required.
56
 GEO 442 GEO
PROBLEM III. To draw a right line parallel to a given arc, cutting thecircumference at c ; join A c, c B ; and ABC
isthe equilateral triangle required.
right line, A n, at a given distance, c D.
PROBLEM XIII. In a given circle, A B c D A, to inscribe
Figure 6. Take any points, as e and f, in the right
line
A B ; then, with the distance c b, from the points e and f, a square ; or to divide the circumference into four equal
describe arcs, G and n, of equal radii ; draw the right line o H parts.
to touch the arcs at G and H and G H will be parallel to A B, Figure 19. Through the centre, E, and any point, A, in
;

at the distance c p, as required. the circumference, draw the diameter A c ; and the diameter
PROBLEM Through a given point, c, to draw a right
IV. BED, perpendicular to A E c ; draw the chords A B, B c, c D, D A ;
A B.
line parallel to a given right line, and A B c D A will be tho square required.
d and e, and PROBLEM XIV. //; a given circle, A B c D E A, to inscribe
Figure 7. In A B, take any two points, as
drawee d ; make the angle B e F equal to the angle B d c; a pentagon ; or to divide the circumference into five equal

make e F equal to d c; and draw the right line c F, which parts.

passes through the point c,
and is parallel to A B, as Figure 20. Draw the diameters Aif and g i h at right
required. angles to each other ; bisect the radius g i at k; from k, with
the distance k A, describe an arc A I, cutting g h at /; and
Figure 8. Another method. Take any point, as e,
in A B,

and from e, with the distance e c, describe an arc, c d, cutting from A, with the distance A /, describe an arc cutting the circle
A B in d; from c, with the same distance, c e, describe an at B ;
draw the chord A B ; make the successive chords, A B,
make e F equal to d c draw the right line c F, and B c, c D, D E, each equal to A B ; join E A, and A B c D E A will
arc, e F ; ;

it will pass through c, parallel to

A B, as required. be the pentagon required.
PROBLEM V. -To bisect a right line, A B, It/ a perpen- PROBLEM XV. In a given circle, A B c D E F A, to inscribe
dicular. a hexagon; or to divide the circle into six
equal parts.
Figure 9. Take any distance greater than the half of A n ; Figure 21. From any point, as A, draw the successive
from the points A and B, describe arcs of equal radii, cutting chords A B, B c, c D, D E, E F, each equal to the radius, and join
each other at c and D draw c D, and it will be perpendicu- ;
the last, F A ; then A B c D E F A will be the hexagon required :
lar to A B, and bisect A B at the point E, as required. or tho circle will be divided into six equal parts.
PROBLEM VI. At a given point, E, in a right line, E F, to COROLLARY. Hence, by the first of the three last pro-
make an angle, equal to a given angle, A B c. blems, the circle may be divided into eight equal parts; by
Figures 10 and 11. From B, with any radius, describe an the second, it may be divided into ten equal parts ; and by
arc, as g h, cutting B c at y. and B A at It ; from E, with the the third, it may be divided into twelve equal parts, only
same radius, describe another arc, i k, meeting E F at i ; make by bisecting the arcs and if each arc be again bisected, each
:

circle will be divided into four times the number of equal

i k
equal to g h ; draw the right line E k D and the angle ;

D E F is equal to the angle A B c, as required. parts, as at first. The above are the only truly geometrical
PROBLEM VII. To bisect a given angle, A B c. methods of dividing circles into equal parts, no general method
Figure 12. From A B, cut olf any part, as B d ; take the having been discovered.
part B e from B c, equal to B d ; from the points d and e, with PROBLEM XVI. Ujion a given straight line, \ B, to describe
any distance greater than the half of d e, describe arcs of an equilateral triangle.
equal radii, cutting each other at F; draw F B, and it will Figure 22. From the points A and B, with the distance
bisect the angle ABC, as required. A B, describe arcs, cutting each other in c draw c A and c B
; ;

PROBLEM Vlll. To bisect a given arc, A B c, of a circle. and A B c is the equilateral triangle required.
Figure 13. Draw the chord A c ; bisect A c by a perpen- PROBLEM XVII. Upon a given straight line, A B, required
dicular, B D ;
and the point B will divide the arc ABC into to describe a square, or tetragon.
two equal arcs, A B, B c. Figure 23. Bisect A B by a perpendicular e i ; make e i
PROBLEM IX. A circle, AB c A, and a tangent, D E, to the equal to the half of A B ; from i, with the distance i A or i B,
circumference, being given to find the point of contact. describe a circle ; draw the chords B c, c D, equal to A B; join
Figure 14. Let the centre, F, be given draw F A perpen- ;
D A; and A B c D is the square or tetragon required.
dicular to DE ;
and the point, A, where it cuts the tangent, is PROBLEM XVIII. Upon a given straight line, A B, to
the point required. describe a regular pentagon.
Figure 15. If the centre be not given, draw the chord F o, Figure 24. Draw B/ perpendicular and equal to the half
parallel to the tangent D E ;
bisect F G by a perpendicular, of A B ; produce A/to g, making/^ equal to/B ; from the
H A, meeting the tangent at A ;
then A is the point of contact points A and B, with the radius B y, describe arcs, cutting
required. each other at i ; from i, with the radius i A, or i B, describe
PROBLEM X. An
arc, ABC, and a point B, in the circumfer- a circle; inscribe the successive chords B c, c D, D E, each
ence being given ; to draw a tangent through the point, B.
equal to A B ; join E A ; and A B c D E A is the pentagon
Figure 16. From the point B, cut off two equal arcs, B D, required.
and i; E -

r draw the chord D E ; through B, draw F G, parallel PROBLEM XIX. Upon a given straight line, A B, to describe
to D E ;
and F G
the tangent sought. is a regular hexagon.
PROBLEM XI. Given a circle, A B c,and a straight line, D E, Figure 25. From the points A and B, with the distance A B,
equal to, or less than the diameter ; from a given point, A, in describe arcs, cutting each other at i ; from i, with the dis-
the circle, to inscribe a chord equal to D E. tance c A, or c B, describe a circle, A B c D E F A ; make the
Figure 17. From the point A, with a radius equal to D E, successive chords B c, c D, D E, E F, each equal to A B, andjoin
describe an arc, cutting the circumference at B draw A F A ; and A B c D E F is the hexagon required.
; B,
which is the chord required. PROBLEM XX. a given straight line, A B, to describe
Upon
PROBLEM XII. In a given circle, D, to inscribe an
A B c an octagon, a decagon, or a dodecagon.
or to divide
equilateral triangle ; the circle into three equal
Figures 26, 27, and 28. Find tho centre, i, of a circle,
parts. by such of the three last Problems as will contain a polygon
Figure 18. With the radius of the circle cut off the arcs of half the number of sides required draw i k upwards,
;

A D,D B join A B from A, with the radius A B, describe an

; ;
perpendicular to A B, equal to i A or t B and the point k will
;
 :K :M K'L^
I'Jl.irr/CAL. FL.ITE.I..

-A II-

l-'iq t /',,, H
 M OMETJRIT.
PRA CT ICAL .

.
27.

ftp. 3i.

'

KC, I I)

fig. 35
3.1.
Fig.
I -p

38

Fig. 41.

Tig. 44.
F E

H
-A
-B
-C

'Fig.
46.
G

CTT
E B

Drawn .fcv.AJ.A ..V

Eny'by.R The*.
 GEO 443 GEO
be the centre of a circle that will contain the polygon Figure 35. Make sf equal to B E draw E o perpen- ;

required. dicular to A B, and / G perpendicular to B D from o, with ;

EXAMPLE I. Figure 26. For an octagon, find the centre, the radius E G, or/G, describe the arc, H E/I, and it will
t,
as in Problem XIII. touch A B at E and B D, as required.
EXAMPLE II. Figure 27. For a decagon, find the centre, PROBLEM XXV11I. To describe an arc that shall touch
t, as in Problem XIV. a given circumference, \ B c, and a straight line, D E, in
EXAMPLE III. Figure 28. For a dodecagon, find the a given point, F.
centre, t,
as in Problem XV. METHOD I. Figure 36. Draw F i perpendicular to D E ;
Complete the remaining parts as above directed ; and thus from F i, produced if necessary, cut off F G, equal to the
a circle may be found to contain any duplical multiple of radius of the circle ABC; join K G, which bisect by a per-
these sides. pendicular cutting FI at i from i, with the radius IF,
;

PROBLEM XXI. Through three given points, A, n, c, to describe an arc, or circumference, A F u, which is the arc
describe the circumference of a circle, j}rovided the three required.
points be not in the same straight line. METHOD II. Figure 37. Draw perpendicular to D E,
F i

Figure 29. Join A B and B c, and bisect them by perpen- and A G parallel to F i
;
draw A F B and BIG; from i, with

diculars meeting each other at D; from D, with the. distance the distance i F. or i
B, describe an arc, F B 11, which is the
A of either point, describe a circle, and its circumference
D, arc required.
will pass through the other two points B and c. PROBLEM XXIX. With a given radius, G H, to describe
PROBLEM XXII. To describe a circle of a given radius an arc or circumference that may touch a given arc or cir-
through two given points, A and B, provided the radius be cumference, c A n, ini'l pass through a given point, D.
greater than half the distance between the two given points. Figure 38. From G n cut off G i, equal to the radius of
Figure 30. From A, with the given radius, describe an the given circle; from r, with the distance i n, describe an
arc from B ; with the same radius, describe another arc. cut- arc; from D. with the distance ft n. describe another arc,
ting the former at c ; from c, with the distance c A, or c B, cutting the former at E from E, with the distance E A or E D,
:

describe the circle ABU; and it will be the circle recjuircd. describe an arc. c, A D, and the problem is solved.
PROBLEM XXIII. To describe a circle to pass through PROBLEM XXX. In a given sector, A u c D, to inscribe
two given points, A and B, and touch a straight line, CD; a circle.
provided the two points and the straight line be not in the Figure 3!>. Bisect the angle B A n by A G c draw ;
EOF
same straight line. tangent to the circle; produce A ji to E, and A D to F; bisect
Figure 31. Produce A B and D c, to meet in E bisect the ;
the angle K A F by A G, and the angles A E F by E G ; from o,
angle A E D by the straight line E F bisect A o by the per-;
with the radius o c, describe a circumference, c H i, which is
pendicular G F ; from the point of concourse, F, with the the solution required.
radius F c, describe a circle, o u K, which is the circle
r PROBLEM XXXI. In a given circle to inscribe any num-
required. ber of equal parts.
PROBLEM XXIV. To describe a circle to pass through Divide the given circumference into as many equal parts
a given point, A, and touch two straight lines, B c and D E, as the number of inscribed circles: from the points of divi-
provided that the point be situated between the two lines. sion, draw radii, and .the circle will be divided into equal
Figure 32. Let the two lines, B c and D E, if not parallel, sectors in any one of these sectors inscribe a circle by the
;

meet in F ; join A F ; bisect the angle B F D, by the straight last Problem bisect the angle contained by each two radii;
;

line F K in F K, take
; any point, as o, and draw o n, perpen- from the centre of the given circle, with the distance of the
dicular to B c ; from G, with the distance o u, describe an centre of the circle inscribed in the sector, describe a circum-
arc, u i, cutting A F at i ; join i o, and draw A K parallel to ference, cutting the lines which bisect the sectorial angles ;
i o and K L
parallel to G u ; cutting B F at L ; from K, with and the points so cut are the centres.
the radius K L, describe a circle L A M, which will be the
circle required. EXAMPLES.
PROBLEM XXV. To describe a that shall touch
circle Figure 40. The given circle contains six equal inscribed
three straight lines, A B, c D, E F, provided all the three lines circles.
'

be not parallel. The given circle contains eight equal inscribed

Figure 41.
Figure 33. Produce the one of them, as
lines, so that circles.
c D, may meet the other two, A B and E F and let the meet- The given contains twelve equal
; Figure 42. circle in-
ing of A B with c D, be at o, and of c D with E F at H bisect ;
scribed circles.
the angles B G u and G n F by the straight lines o i and n i PROBLEM XXXII. Any three straight lines ABC, being
;

from i, drop a perpendicular, i o, to any one of the three given, to find a fourth proportional.
lines, c D from i, with the distance i c, describe a circle,
;
Figure 43. Make any angle, as on the straight DBF;
and it will touch the three straight lines A B, c D, E F, as line E D, make E o equal to A, and E D equal to B ; on the
required. straight line E F, make E H equal to c ; join G H ; draw D F
PROBLEM XXVI. To describe a circle that may touch a parallel to G H ; and E F is the fourth proportional or
; sought
straight line, A B, at a,
given point, c, and pass through an- EO:ED::EH:EF; that A B
is, c E F.
: : : :

other given point, D. N.B. When the lines B and c happen to be equal, the
Figure 34. Draw c / perpendicular to A B ; join c D, result or fourthterm is called a third proportional ; therefore,
w-hich bisect by a perpendicular, E /; from with the
/, suppose B equal to c, then A B B E F. So that finding
: : : :

distance / c, describe a circle, which will be the circle a third proportional is the same as finding a fourth, and may
required. be considered as only a particular case of it ; and in this con-
PROBLEM XXVII. To describe a circle that shall touch struction E D and E H would be equal.
a straight line, A B, at a given point, E, and another PROBLEM XXXIII. To divide a straight line, A G, in the
straight
line, B D, provided that the two straight lines be not in the same proportion as another line, \ D, is divided by the points
same straight line. B and c, &c.
 GEO 444 GEO
Figure 44. Join B o ; draw B E and c F parallel to D o, at F ; proceed in this manner to draw each successive side
the corresponding side of the figure constructed ;
cutting A G at E and F ; then will A o be divided by E and F, parallel to
as A D is by B and c or A E, E F, F G are to one another and
;
from the extremity of the last diagonal, cut the next dia-
in the same manner, to the
to the whole A G, as A B, B c, c D are to one another and to gonal, and from the last diagonal,
the whole A D. In the same manner may any given line be other side, adjoining the given point A; and the figure
divided into equal parts. A D E F G, thus constructed, will be similar to the figure
PROBLEM XXXIV. Between two straight lines, A and B, M N o P Q, &c. as required.
to find a mean proportional. PROBLEM XLI. Given two adjoining sides, A B, B c, of
Figure 45. Draw the straight line c D E ; make c D equal a parallelogram, in position and magnitude, to describe the
to A, and D E equal to B bisect c E m-f; from /, with the
;
parallelogram.
distance/c or/E, describe the semi-circle COB; draw D G Figure 52. From c, with the opposite side A B, describe
perpendicular to c E ; and D o is the mean proportional an arc ; from A, with the opposite side B c, describe another
required. Then CU:DO::DG:DF; that is, A D o : : :
arc, cutting the former at D ; join A D and D c, and A B c D
D o D. : is the parallelogram required.
PROBLEM XXXV. To divide a straight line, A B c D, har- N.B. If the angle c B A be given in quantity, but not in
monically in the given ratio ofi to K. position, make it equal to the given angle by Problem VI.
Figure 46. Draw any straight line, as e A g f; make A e PROBLEM XL1I. Given two sides, A and u, of a rectangle,
and A/each equal to i, and A y equal to K ; join/ h D ; draw to describe the rectangle.

g h parallel to A D, and h c parallel to e f ; join h B e ; then Figure 53. Draw a straight line, c D, equal to A ; draw
AD:UC::AB:BC. c F perpendicular to c D; and make c F equal to B; then
PKOBLEM XXXVI. Any three straight lines, ABC, being proceed as in the last Problem, and the parallelogram c D E F
given, to describe a triangle, provided the sum of any two be will be the rectangle required.
greater than the third. PROBLEM XLII1. Given the diagonal, A n, of a rectangle,
Figure 47. Draw the straight line D E equal to A; from and one of the sides, not exceeding the diagonal, to describe
D, with the distance B, describe an arc and from E, with the
;
the rectangle.
distance c, describe another arc,
cutting the former at F; Figure 54. On the diagonal A B, describe the circum-
draw D F and E F and D E F is the triangle required.
;
ference A c B n A ; make the chords A c and B D equal to the
PROBLEM XXXVII. Given the A B, of a triangle,
base, given side join A D and B c ; and A D B c A is the rectangle
;

(he angle, B A c, and the ratio, E to of the other two sides,

F, required.
to describe the triangle,
provided that E be to F in a greater Figure 55. If the rectangle be a square, bisect the
ratio than the radius to the sine
of the given angle BAG. diameter A B by another, c D ; and draw the four equal chords,
Figure 48. Make A h equal to E; from h, with the dis- which will form the square required.
tance F, describe an arc, PROBLEM XLIV. To make a triangle equal and similar
cutting A B at i ; draw i h, and B c
parallel to i h ; and ABC will be the triangle required. to a given trapezium, A B c D.
PROBLEM XXXVIII. To make a rectilinear figure equal Figure 56. Draw the diagonal B D, and draw c E parallel
and similar to a given rectilinear figure. to B D, meeting the side A n produced at E ; join D E, and A D E
RULE. Divide the given rectilinear figure into triangles, will be the triangle required.
by lines drawn from some one of its angles ; take any one PROBLEM XLV. To make a triangle equal to any given
of its sides, and make a straight line in
any situation equal right-lined figure, ABODE.
thereto ; upon the straight line thus A B on both sides of its extremities
posited, constitute a tri- Figure 57. Produce
angle, equal to the triangle on the corresponding line of the towards F and G draw the diagonals A D and B D through
; ;

given figure; upon the side of the triangle which is to form E draw E F, parallel to A D and through c draw c G parallel
;
a diagonal of the figure to B D ; join D F and D G, then D F G is the triangle required.
required, constitute another triangle,
equal to the corresponding one of the given figure ; proceed PROBLEM XLVI. To reduce a triangle, A B c, to a
to form triangles on each
succeeding diagonal in the same rectangle.
manner, till all the
triangles are constructed ; and the figure Figure 58. Bisect the altitude c G in D; through D draw
thus composed will be
equal and similar to the given figure. E F parallel to A B, and from B draw B F perpendicular to A B ;
PROBLEM XXXIX. To make a quadrilateral draw A E and B F perpendicular to A B ; then A B F E will be
equal and
similar to a given one, A B c D. the triangle required.
Figure 49. Divide the given quadrilateral into two tri- PROBLEM XLV1I. To make a rectangle, having a side
angles, by the diagonal A c make E F, equal to A B and
; ; equal a given straight line, A B, equal to a given
to
describe the triangle E F G,
having its sides respectively equal rectangle, c D E F.
to the triangle A B c
; upon E G, as a base, describe another Figure 59. Produce the sides c F. D E, F E, and c D of the
triangle, E G H, equal to A c D and the quadrilateral E F G H
;
rectangle ; make E G equal to A B ; through G draw L H
is
equal and similar to the given one, A B c D, as required. parallel to F E, cutting c F produced at L ; draw L E, the
PROBLEM XL. To make a rectilinear
figure similar to a diagonal, which produce to cut c D at K; draw K n parallel
given one, M N o p Q, &c., upon a given straight line, A B the ;
to E G, and E i n G will be the rectangle required.
extremity, A, being given, but unlimited towards B. PROBLEM XLVIII. To make a parallelogram with a
Figures 50 and 51. From the extremities, M, of the side given angle equal to a given parallelogram, A B c D.
of the given figure,
corresponding to the given point, A, draw Figure 60. Make the angle B A E equal to the given angle,
diagonals to every angular point cut off a part, A n, equal to
; and let A E cut c D, produced if necessary at E draw B p ;
the corresponding
side, M N, of the given figure ; upon A n parallel to A E, cutting n c at F then will the parallelogram
;
construct a figure,
Anopq, &c., equal and similar to the A B F E be equal to the given parallelogram, A B c D.
given figure, M N o p Q, &c., by the preceding problem ; from PROBLEM XLIX. To make a square equal to a given
A B cut off A D equal to the side of the rectilinear
figure to rectangle, A B c D.
be described ; draw D E parallel to n
o, cutting the diagonal Figure 61. Produce A B, the side of the rectangle, and
A E at E ; draw E F parallel to make B E equal to B c bisect A E in i on i, as a centre, with
op, cutting the diagonal A F ; ;
 GEO 145 GEO
the radius i E or i A, describe a semicircle,A H K ; produce b. iii. Euclid, viz., that if a straight line touch a circle, and
the other side, c B, of the rectangle, to cut the circle in H ; from the point of contact a straight line be drawn, cutting
describe a square, B H G F, upon B H ;
then B H a r is the the circle, the angles made by such line with the line touch-

square required. ing the circle, will be equal to the angles in the alternate
PROBLEM L. To make a square equal to two given segments.
squares. Either of these instruments, in the description of flat seg-
Figure 62. Let A and B be the two given squares. Con- ments, may be applied occasionally ; but the latter, by reason
struct the right-angled triangle cab; let one of the sides, of the obtuseness of the angle, slides with less friction along
c a, containing the right angle, be equal to the side of the the pins, takes up much less room, and can be applied in

square, A and let the other, a b, be equal to the side of the

; any cases where it is impossible to use the other.
square B. On c b, describe the square c, which is the square N.B. If c D is very small, the instrument may be made
in one piece.
required.
In the same manner may A circle be made equal to two Besides the methods here shown for the description of the
given circles ; for, if c a, a b, be considered as diameters, or segment of a circle from the rules of geometry, the following
radii of the two given circles, c b will be a diameter or radii arithmetical rule will be found eligible on many occasions,
of a circle, equal in area to them both and also in the same
:
particularly, where there is a want of a floor to draw the
manner, if two similar rectilinear figures be given, a lines upon, or a want of space at the ends of the curve.
rectilinear figure may be found similar to either, and equal KULE. Divide the square of the half chord by the versed
to both ; for, if c a and a b be considered as homologous sine, or height of the segment add the height of the seg-
;

sides, that is, those which are opposite to the equal angles, ment to the quotient ;
then half the sum is the radius of the
c b will be the homologous side of the figure required. circle.
PROBLEM LI. To make a square equal to three given EXAMPLE. Suppose the chord of the segment of a circle
squares. to be 24 feet, and the versed sine or rise of the segment 5
Figure 63. Let A, n, c, be three given squares. Make feet ;
the radius of the circle is required.
a right angle, c a b ; let a c be equal to the side of the
2)24
square A, and a b equal to the side of the square B ; join b c,
and it will be the side of a square equal to A and n. Draw
12 half chord.
b d
perpendicular to b r, and make b d equal to the side of 12
the remaining square c join d e, and it will be the side of
;

a square equal to the three given squares, A, B, c, as was

5) 144
required.
From this
process, evident that a square may be
it is
28.8
found equal to any given number of squares, by first finding
5
one equal to any two of them, and then another equal to
the square found, together with one of the remaining squares ;
then find another equal to the square last found, together 2) 33.8
with one of the other remaining squares; and so on, till
16.9 the radius required.
all the squares are made use of, and the last square found
will be equal to all the given squares. is derived from Prop. XXXV. b. iii. Euclid, where
This
SCHOLIUM. frequently happens in the description of
It it shown, that if two straight lines in a circle cut each
is

the segment of a circle, when the height of the segment is other, tho rectangle under the segments or parts of the one,
very small in proportion to the chord, that there is no room is
equal to the rectangle of the segments of the other; and
to find the centre ; the following problems show how to consequently, if the segments of one of the lines be equal to
describe the arc without finding the centre : each other, the rectangle under the parts of tho other line
PROBLEM L1I. Having the chord and height of the will be equal to the square of either part of the line, which

segment of a circle, to describe the segment without finding is divided

equally ; but the contents of a rectangle, divided
the centre. by one of its sides, gives the other side ; or the area of the
Figure 64. First Method. Let A B be the chord of the square, which is equal to the rectangle, being divided by the
segment, and c D its height ; join D A and D B ; make an given side of the rectangle, gives the other side of the rect-
instrument, E F o, so that the angle E F o may be equal to angle ; and adding the versed sine, gives the diameter.
the angle A D B, and the sides p E and F o at least equal to The method of dividing the circumference of a circle into
the chord A B ; put a pin at A, and another at B ; slide the any number of equal parts, or to inscribe any polygon
instrument along the pins, keeping the side F E close to the therein, according to the approximation of Renaldinus, will
pin A, and F o to the pin B ; a pencil being held at the be found under the article CIRCLE, Figure 5.
angular point F will describe the arc A F B, as was to The various methods of describing the ellipsis upon a
be done. plane, will be found under the article ELLIPSIS ; but, besides
Figure 65. Second Method. Join D B, and draw D H what is there shown, the following problems, concerning this
parallel to B A ; make an instrument, E F o, so that the angle curve, will also be found necessary in the art of perspective
E F o may be equal to the angle n D B, and the sides E F and delineation.
E o at least equal to the half chord D B ; put pins in the PROBLEM LIII. Given the trapezium, A B c D, and a
points A and D, and sliding the instrument along them, a point, E, in one of the sides, to Jind a point in each of the
pencil at F will describe half of the arc; and by moving the other sides, so that if an ellipsis were to be inscribed, it would
pin out of A, and putting it in B, the other half will be touch the trapezium in those points.
described in the same manner. Figure 66. Produce the sides of the trapezium till they
The former of these Problems depends on Prop. XXI. meet at K and L then draw the diagonals A c and B D, cut-
;

b. iii. Euclid, viz., that all the angles in the same segment produce B D, till it cut K L, at M.
ting each other at F ;

of a circle are equal ; and the latter, on Prop. XXXII. Through F, and the given point E, draw E o, cutting B c
 GIO 446 GIR

at oand from M, through the points E and o, draw M H and wards obtained the title of architect royal to the French
;

M then king, but did not live long after ; the

exact period of his
cutting the other two sides in the points i and H,
o,
K, H, o, i, will be the four points required.
death is uncertain. He
published several works which did
PROBLEM LIV. A
trapezium, A B c D, being given,
and a him much credit as a writer, and extended his fame as
point, E, in one of the sides, to find the centre of an ellipsis
an artist. Amongst others, an edition of Pliny's Epistles,
that may be inscribed in the trapezium, and pass through the and a correct edition of Vitruvius, illustrated with figures,

point of contact, E, without drawing any part of the ellipsis. the latter he dedicated to Pope Julius II. He assisted in
Figure 67. Find the points of contact H, o, i, E, as in the editing many other works of the ancients, and was the first
last Problem. Join the points G and E, by the right line person who gave a design for Ciesar's bridge over the Rhine.
o E bisect it in M, and from K, where the opposite sides A D In 1506, he wrote four dissertations, addressed to the magis-
;

and n c meet, and through the point M, draw K M indefinitely ; tracy of Venice, concerning the waters of that city. He
also join any other two points of contact, as H i; bisect n i was employed with Raphael and San Gallo, in superintend-
and N from L, where the opposite sides B A and c D meet ; ing the erection of St. Peter's. His last work was probably
draw L N, meeting K M at p; then p will be the centre of the the rebuilding of the stone bridge at Verona.

ellipsis required. GIRANDOLE, (Italian) a chandelier; a large kind of

In like manner,if the
points G and H were joined, and
branched candlestick.
bisected at Q, and a line being drawn from B, where the GIRDER, (from the Saxon) a large beam, either of one entire
opposite sides A B and c B meet, through Q, it would also piece, or consisting of several, in order to shorten the joists
meet in P, the centre, &c. of a which would otherwise have too great a bearing.
floor,
PROBLEM LV. Given a trapezium, A B c D, and a
point, When girders arc made double, they should be turned the
E, in one of the sides, to find the two axes of an ellipsis that contrary way to that in which they were sawn, that the
may be inscribed in the trapezium, and pass through the point, stronger end may support the weaker. If it be found neces-
E, without drawing any part of the ellipsis. sary to truss girders, the truss should be similar to that of
Figure 68. Find the opposite points of contact, H, E, F, G, a roof. The best form of girder for floors of moderate
by Problem L1II. from thence, find the centre, p, by the
; dimensions, consists of two braces and a straining piece,
last Problem. From E, and through the centre p, draw E M, having one-third of the whole length, excepting the part at
making p M equal to p E and through n or any other point
;
each end, which is necessary for the butment or wall-hold.
of contact, draw n K, parallel to D c, cutting E M at K; then The two braces are strained by means of queen-bolts, and
K n is an ordinato to the diameter E M. Through p, the resisted at the other end by iron butments, which are formed
centiv, draw p u parallel to H K; then find the extremities, to the same section as the braces, and are made to go
through
it and s, of the diameter B s, by Problem 3, of ELLIPSIS. on each side, so as to have a bolt at either end ; the braces
The conjugate diameters, E M and K s, being now found, then and straining piece being let into each beam.
find the two axes, v w and x Y, When girders have a very great bearing, and have only
by Problem 4, of ELLIPSIS.
GIBLEA CHEQUE, GIBLE CHECK, or JIBLET CHEEK, the depth of a single piece, it is well known that the strain
a recess made by cutting away the right angle formed by at the joggles and abutments is prodigious girders of long
:

the front and returns of the aperture of a stone door-case, in bearing should therefore be made into two flitches, one above
the form of a rebate or reveal, so as to make the outside of the other, and braced as above.
the door, or closure, flush with the face of the wall. The By this plan, the depth allowing of an upper and lower
term is used by stonemasons in Scotland. beam, the girder will be infinitely more stiff" than one of the
GIGANTIC ORDER, a name given by Scamozzi to the depth of a single piece, and consequently more able to sup-
Tuscan order. port the naked flooring and boarding.
GILDING, the art of
applying to various substances an No summers or girders should be over the heads of doors
extremely thin coating of gold. If the substances to be gilt or windows.
be metallic, this is ellected
by simple adhesion of the sur- No summer or girder should lie less than ten inches into
faces, but if not, the gold is attached means of some adhe-
by the wall nor joists less than eight inches.
;

sive medium. The use of gilding in the ornaments and The ceiling joists ought to be framed about half an inch
decorations of an apartment, adds below the girder, and the girder ought to be furred to the
greatly to the richness of
its appearance, but unless level of the ceiling joists.
applied judiciously, and sparingly,
it is
apt to have a tawdry effect, most offensive to good taste. Girders ought to be made of heart wood, as free from
GILL, a measure, the fourth part of a pint. The imperial knots as possible, because they destroy the continuity of the
gill now in use contains 8.6648125 cubic inches. fibres, and impair the strength of the girder.
GIMLET, or GTMBLET, (from the French) a piece of steel The following rules for finding the scantlings, are given
of a semi-cylindrical form, hollow on one in his
side, having a cross by Tredgold Elementary Principles of Carpentry.
handle at one end, and a worm or screw below at the other "
: Case 1. To find the depth of a girder when the length
its use is to bore a small hole in a of bearing and breadth of the girder are given.
piece of wood. The screw
draws the instrument forward into the wood while it is " Rule. Divide the square of the length in feet, by the
turned by the handle, and the excavated breadth in inches ; and the cube root of the quotient multi-
part, forming a
sharp angle with the exterior, cuts the fibres across, and plied by 4.2 for fir, or by 4.34 for oak, will give the depth
contains the core of wood cut out.
required in inches.
" Case To find the breadth when the length of bear-
GINyECONITES, (Greek) apartments in the surrounding 2.
porticos of the Greek houses, which contained the family ing and depth are given.
rooms tricliniums and cubiculums. See HOUSE. " Rule. Divide the square of the length in feet, by the
GIOCONDO, an architect, who flourished in the sixteenth cube of the depth in inches ; and the quotient multiplied by
century, was a native of Verona, where he first taught 74 for fir, or by 82 for oak, will give the breadth in inches.
"
languages for a subsistence, and was also well qualified in Example to Case 2. Let the bearing be 20 feet, and the
mathematical learning. On visiting France, he was
employed depth 13 inches ; to find the breadth, so that the girder shall
to build two bridges over the Seine. He very soon after- be sufficiently stiff.
 & IE O M IE T BY"
PRA CTICAL PL.1 TK 111

N M h D re A

S3. Fig .54

Tig 67

F A B G

Fy 66.

D
Dnwn.liv MA ti
H. Thew.
Knu'ly
 GLA 447 GLA
of the
articles, which were cut, engraved, gilt, and
The cube of the depth is 2197, and the square of the stained
4
length is 400 ; therefore 7 I 8 T X 74
^
13.47 inches, the most brilliant colours, in imitation of precious stones. The
breadth required. Romans employed and have left
glass for various purposes ;

"In these rules, the girders are supposed to be 10 feet in Herculaneum, of window-glass, which must
specimens
apart, and this distance should
never be exceeded ; but have been blown by methods analogous to the modern. The
should the distance apart be less or more than 10 feet, the Phenician processes seem to have been learned by the
breadth of the girder should be made in proportion to Crusaders, and transferred to Venice in the 13th century,
the distance apart. where they were long held secret, and formed a lucrative
" When the 22 commercial monopoly. Soon after the middle of the 17th
bearing exceeds about feet, it is very
difficult toobtain timber large enough for girders ; and it is century, Colbert enriched France with the blown mirror
usual, in such cases, to truss them. The methods in general glass manufacture."
adopted for that purpose, have the appearance of much The application of glass to the glazing of windows, is of
in northern and
ingenuity ; but in reality, they are of very little use. If comparatively modern introduction, at least
a girder be trussed with oak, all the strength that can western Europe. In 674, artists were brought to England

possibly be gained by such a truss, consists merely

in the from abroad to glaze the church windows at Wcarmouth in
difference between the compressibility of oak and fir, which Durham ; and even in the year 1567, this mode of excluding
is very small indeed; and unless the truss be extremely well cold from dwellings was confined to large establishments,
fitted at the abutments, it would be much stronger without and by no means universal even in them. An entry then
trussing. All the apparent stiffness produced by trussing made, in the minutes of a survey of Alnwick Castle, the
a beam, is procured by forcing the abutments, or, in other residence of the Duke of Northumberland, informs us that
words, by cambering the beam. This forcing, cripples and the glass-casements were taken down during the absence of
injures the natural elasticity of the timber and the con-
;
the family to preserve them from accident. A
century after
tinual spring from the motion of the floor, upon parts already that time, the use of window-glass was so small in Scotland,
crippled, it may easily be conceived, will soon
so far destroy thatonly theupper rooms in the royal palaces were furnished
them as to render the truss a useless burden upon the beam. with it, the lower part having wooden shutters to admit or
This is a fact that has been long known to many of our best exclude the air.
carpenters, and which has caused them to seek for
a remedy At an early period of its history in this country, the glass-
in iron trusses; but this method is quite as bad as the former, manufacture became an object of taxation, and duties were
unless there be an iron tie as an abutment to the truss; for from time time imposed on it, which operated most inju-
to
the failure of a truss isoccasioned by the enormous com- on the manufacture itself, but on building
riously, not only
generally, by preventing the more extensive use
of so orna-
pression applied upon a small surface of timber at the abut-
ments. The defects of ordinary trussed girders are very mental an article. Within the last few years, however,
apparent in old ones, as it is not simply strength that is a more enlightened policy has prevailed and so great a
;

required, but the power of resisting the unceasing concussions reduction of the duties on glass has been granted, that an
of astraining force, capableof producing a permanent derange- enormous increase in the manufacture and use of it has taken
of our
ment in a small surface at every impression." Girders of place. The result is seen in the improved appearance
of
wrought and cast iron are now used extensively in railway dwelling-houses, in the great superiority of the quality
and canal works, for bridges, &c. the glass used at present, and in the magnificent plate-glass
GIRDING BEAM. See GIRDER. windows now so generally adopted in shop-fronts.
GIRDLE, (from the Saxon) a circular band or fillet sur- Of the glass used in building, there are three qualities in
rounding a part of a column. common use, denominated best, second, and third. The best
GIRT, the same as FILLET, which see. is that which is of the purest metal, and free of blemishes,
GIRT, in timber measure, according to some, the fourth as blisters, specks, streaks, &c. The second is inferior, from
part of the circumference, and is generally taken for the side its not being so free of these blemishes. The third is still
of a square, equal in area to the section of the tree cut through both in regard to quality and colour, being of a
inferior,
where the perimeter is taken in order to obtain the girt. greener hue. They are all sold at the same price per crate,
GIVEN DATUM, a term frequently used in mathe- but the number of tables is different, according to the
matics, signifying a thing supposed to be known, whether quality: best, 12 tables; second, 15 tables; third, 18
in position or magnitude ; which is accordingly said to be tables.
given in position, or in magnitude, or both, as one or the These tables are circular when manufactured, and about
other, or both, are known. four feet in diameter ; in the centre is a knot, to which, in
GLACIS, (French) an easy slope or declivity. the course of the process, the flashing rod was fixed, but, for
GLASS, (from the Saxon, glacs) a hard, brittle, transparent the safety of carriage and conveniency of handling, as well as
lactitious substance, formed by the fusion of silicious matter, utility in practice, a segment is cut off,
about four inches
such as powder flint or fine sand, blended with alkaline earth, from the knot: the large piece with the knot, still retains
metallic oxide, and other substances. In building, glass is the name of smaller piece is technically termed a
table, the
used in thin transparent plates for windows, which admit slab. From these tables being of a given size, it is reason-
light, while they exclude wind and rain. able to suppose that when the dimensions of squares are such
The time at which glass was invented, is very uncertain. as cut the glass to waste, the price should be advanced.
" Itwas known," says Dr. Ure, " to the Phenicians, and Crown glass is the best description of window-glass. It
constituted for a long time an exclusive manufacture of that is made without any mixture of metallic oxide, and is both
specifically lighter, and much harder, than
flint glass. Broad
people, in consequence of its ingredients, (natron, sand, and
fuel,) abounding upon their coasts. It is probable that the
glass is an inferior kind of window-glass, made with a cheaper
more ancient Egyptians were unacquainted with glass, for kind of alakli. Plate-glass is superior in quality and in
we find no mention of it in the writings of Moses. But, appearance to all other glass. From the quantity of metal
according to Pliny and Strabo, the glass-works of Sidon and it contains, it must be almost, if not altogether, colourless

Alexandria were famous in their times, and produced beautiful that sort which is tinged, being of an inferior quality. It is
 GLA 448 GLA
both blown and cast. Plates which are blown are limited the rebates, for bedding-in the glass, and for finishing the
in dimensions, while those that are cast are made of very front putty. A
bradding-hammer is made with a head in
great size, the limit being caused by the expensiveness of the the form of a small parallelepiped, with a socket for the
machinery required for the management of very large masses handle, rising at an obtuse angle from the middle of one of
of the material. Plate-glass is its sides the square edges of the head drive the brads in a
necessarily costly, because of ;

the numerous and laborious horizontal position, and

operations which it undergoes, is less liable to accident than if per-
and of the risks of fracture while subjected to them. In formed by another tool : some use the basil of the chisel.
sashes it has a magnificence peculiar to itself; objects seen Brass points are esteemed the best ; small cut brads are
through it are not distorted ; and objects seen in it, have the also used. All new work should be bradded, to prevent
same fair appearance. It is now made of very large the glass being moved out of its bed.
dimensions. The duster is used in brushing up the front pulleys, and
Glass has also been introduced as a material for the manu- taking off the oil from the glass. The sash-tool is used in
facture of pipes. Mr. Jatnes Hartley, of Bishop wearmouth taking off the oil from the inside, after the back pulleys are
Glass Works, has, after extensive experiments, succeeded in cleaned off, and is generally used wet. The hacking-knife
establishing the practicability of making glass pipes, suitable is for
cleaning out the old putty from rebates, where squares
for the conveyance of gas or water, and has, it is also said, are to be stopped in. The use of the rule needs no explanation.
proved that pipes, stronger than the ordinary metal ones, N.B. Glaziers' rules are two feet long, in four different
and much cheaper, may be made of glass. pieces. Lead-work is used in inferior offices, and is in
A still more novel
application of this material is noticed general practice throughout the country.
in The Builder, viz., the importation from Frames are made to receive these lights, with bars across,
Antwerp of a
small parcel of glass-tiles. These tiles are similar in form to which the lights are fastened
by leaden bars these bars :

to the common clay-tile for roofing buildings, the advantage are called saddle bars, and where
openings are wanted, a
held out being their lightness, and being pervious to the casement is introduced, either of wood or iron. Sometimes
rays
of the sun. The latter quality is presumed to render them a sliding frame answers the same purpose. Church windows
suitable for the roofs of green-houses, as are in general made in this manner, in quarries or in
they will not inter- squares.
rupt the heat and light, whilst they are sufficiently strong to The tools which this work, in addition to the former, require,
resist the effects of hail-storms, which will much reduce the are these : a vice, with different cheeks ; and cutters, to turn
cost of insurance on green-houses. They have the appear- out the different kinds of lead, as the magnitude of the win-
ance of the common green glass, dow
they vary in price from or the squares may require.
eleven to sixteen shillings per dozen, common broad and narrow lead. The German
according to their In there is
thickness and weight. See STAINED GLASS. vices are esteemed the best, and turn out a variety of lead in
GLAZING, the business of the glazier, consisting in fitting different sizes.
glass in sashes, frames, and casements, and fixing it either in There are moulds belonging to these vices, in which bars
putty or lead. of lead are cast in which form the mill receives them, and
;

It
may be classed under the denominations turns them out with two sides parallel to each other, and about
following:
Sash-work, lead-work, and fret-work. three-eighths of an inch broad, with a partition connecting
The tools necessary for sash-work are, a diamond, a the two sides together, about an eighth of an inch wide,
ranging-lath, a short-lath, a square, a rule, a glazing-knife, forming, on each side, a groove nearly T^ by -g- of an inch,
a cutting chisel, a beading hammer, duster, and sash-tool and about six feet long.
;
and in addition, for stopping-in The remainder of the
squares, a hacking knife and tools, besides a vice and moulds,
hammer. The diamond a speck of that
is
precious stone, are, a setting-board, a latterkin, setting-knife, rosin-box, tin,
polished to a cutting point, and set in brass in an iron socket, glazing-irons, and clips.
to receive a wooden handle, which is so set as to be held in The setting-board is that on which the ridge of the light
the hand in the is marked and divided into squares, and struck out with a
cutting direction the top of the handle goes
;

between the root of the fore-finger and chalk line, or drawn with a lath, which serve to guide the
middle-finger, and
the under part, between the workman. One side and end are squared, with a projecting
point of the fore-finger and
thumb ; there is, in general, a notch in the side of the bead or fillet.
socket, which should be held next the lath. See DIAMOND. The a piece of hard wood, pointed, and so
latterkin is
Some diamonds have more cuts than one. formed as to clear the groove of the lead, and widen it for
Plough diamonds have a square nut on the end of the the more readily receiving the glass.
socket next the glass, which on The setting-knife is a blade with a round
running the nut square on point, loaded
the side of the lath,
keeps it in the cutting direction. Glass with lead at the bottom of the blade, with a long square handle.
benders have these plough diamonds without The square end of the handle serves to force the squares home
long handles,
as, in cutting their curious productions, of greater
they cannot apply tight in the lead ; being loaded with lead, it is
a lath, but direct them
by the point of their middle finger weight, and also cuts off the ends of the lead with greater
gliding along the edge of the glass. The ranging lath must ease, as, in the course of working these lights, the lead is
be long enough to extend rather
beyond the boundary of the always longer than necessary, till trimmed.
table of glass.
Banging of glass, is the cutting it in breadths, The rosin-box contains powdered rosin, which is put on
as the work
may require, and is best done by one uninter- all the joints previous to soldering.
rupted cut from one end to the other. A
short lath is applied Tin is for preparing the glazing before soldering.
to stripping the The clips are for holding the irons.
square to suit the rebate of a sash ; as in
ranging, they are generally cut full. A
square is used in All the intersections are soldered on both sides, except the
cutting the squares from the range, that they may be more outside joints of the outer side, i. e. where they come to the
certainly cut at right angles. The carpenter's chisel is used outer edge. These lights should be cemented, which is done
in paring
away some of the rebate of the sash, when the glass by thin paint being run along the lead bars, and the chasm
does not He so flat as to allow a filled with dry whiting, and after it has stood a short time,
proper breadth for front
The glazing knife used for laying-in the putty quantity of dry red or
putty. is in till the oil is secreted a little, a small
 GLU 449 GOB
white lead is dusted over
it
again it then dries hard, and
;
ounces of India-rubber cut into small pieces, to each gallon of
will resist the weather well. naphtha, stirring it from time to time, until the India-
Fret-work is the ornamental part, and consists of working rubber is dissolved ; then, to one part, by weight, of this
ground and stained glass, in fine lead, into different patterns. mixture two parts of lac are added, and the whole is tho-
In many cases, family arms and other devices are worked in roughly blended together by the application of heat, accom-
it. It is a branch capable of great improvement, but at panied with occasional stirring. When greater elasticity is
present neglected. required, a larger proportion of the India-rubber solution
Old pieces are very much esteemed, and valued high. The is used ; if
greater hardness is necessary, a larger proportion
same expense would, doubtless, were it not for prejudice, fur- of lac is employed ; and where the India-rubber would be
nish elegant modern productions. They are placed in halls, liable to injury from great exposure and pressure, a much
and stair-case windows, or in some particular church win- less proportion is used, and it is sometimes dispensed with

dows; in many instances, they are introduced where there is altogether; asphalte, pitch, or resin, or other materials of that
an offensive aspect in a place of particular or general resort. nature, may in some instances be substituted for the lac.
Glaziers clean windows ; and in London it is a great part The materials for building-purposes to which this cement
of their work. is
applied are, slate, tiles, stone, glass, and metal-plates.
GLOBE, (French) a spherical body, more usually called a When being used, the cement kept in a heated state in a
is

sphere. See SPHERE. dish or vessel containing a narrow trough, termed a stamper;
GLUE, (from the French) a tenacious viscid matter, made which slides up and down therein between guides; the slate
of the skins of animals, for cementing two bodies together. or other material is brought to the heat of 150 degrees
Glue is bought in cakes; and is better, as the skin of the Fahrenheit, and placed upon the dish, and the stamper being
animal from which it is made is older: that which swells then raised, imprints or stamps a margin of cement thereon.
much when steeped in water, without dissolving in it, is of The requisite margins of cement for forming overlapping
the best quality. joints being thus applied to the slate or other material, the
To prepare glue; break the cakes into small fragments of cemented portions or margins are laid in contact with each
convenient size soak them in as much water as will just
: other, and in a short time become firmly united, forming
cover them; after it has remained about twelve hours, boil water-tight surfaces. Sometimes, to expedite the process, a
the whole in a copper or leaden vessel, over a gentle fire, till coating of naphtha, or other spirit that will act upon the
the glue is dissolved in the water, stirring it constantly with cement, or a solution made by dissolving the cement in
a wooden stick it should then be poured through a sieve, to
:
naphtha or other spirit, is applied to the cemented portions, or
separate it from the scum and other filth and lastly, it :
margins. The cement may also be nsed for securing the
should be boiled over a smart fire, and put into a wooden above materials to the building, as well as to each other."
which to remain for use. " The
vessel, in it is
patentee connects pieces of glass together with the
To make good for' external work:
glue grind as much above cement v.'hen making skylights, conservatories, frames
white lead with linseed oil as will just make the liquid of a for horticultural purposes, &c. he also cements slate, stone,
;

whitish colour, end strong but not thick; and it will then metal, and manufactured clays and cements, together, or to
be fit for use. wood, or to woven and other fabrics, to wood for building or
The following is given by Mr. Clentiel as a good method other purposes ; he likewise cements pieces of leather for
of making glue. The materials above enumerated are "first making boots and shoes, and hose or pipes for fire-engines ;
digested in lime-water, to cleanse them from grease or dirt; also leather and cork together, or to wood, metal, or woven
they are then steeped in clean water with frequent stirring, or other fabrics, and woven and other fabrics to wood, for
and afterwards laid in a heap, and the water pressed out. the manufacture of trunks, portmanteaus, packing cases, and
They are then boiled in a large brass cauldron with clean other purposes. When joining these materials, the parts
water, scumming off the dirt as it rises, and it is farther must be dry and from dust, and should be warmed pre-
free
cleansed, by putting in, after the whole is dissolved, u little vious to receiving a coat of the cement, in order that it may
melted alum, or lime, finely powdered. The scumming is not be chilled at the moment of application. If the joint is
continued for some time, after which the mass is strained to be made at once, the parts must be expeditiously put
through baskets, and suffered to settle, that the remaining together and pressed, as the cement rapidly loses its heat^
impurities may subside. It is then poured gradually into the and becomes solidified, but the junction may be effected at
kettle again, and farther evaporated by boiling and scum- any subsequent period by the application of heat, or the spirit
ming, till it becomes of a clear dark-brownish colour. When or solution before described."
it is thought to be
strong enough, it is poured into frames or GLYPH, any canal or cavity used as an ornament; hence
moulds about six feet long, one broad, and two deep, where the tablets in the frieze of the Doric order are called triylyphs,
it
gradually hardens as it cools, and is cut out when cold by from their having three vertical channels ; that is, two whole
a spade into square cakes. Each of these is placed in a sort ones and a half one at each edge of the triglyph.
of wooden box, open in three divisions to the back ; in this, GNEISS, is the name of one of the great mountain forma-
the glue, while yet soft, is cut into three slices, by an instru- tions, being reckoned the oldest of the stratified rocks. It is
ment like a bow, with a brass wire for its string. The slices composed of the same substances as granite, viz. quartz, mica, :

are then taken out into the open air, arid dried on a kind of and feltspar. In gneiss, however, they are not in granular
coarse net-work, fastened in moveable sheds, four feet square, crystals, but in scales, so as to give the mass a slaty structure.
which are placed in rows in the glue-maker's field. When It abounds in metallic treasures.

perfectly dry and hard, it is fit for sale." GOBELIN, the term applied to the celebrated tapestry,
Mr. Austin, of Hatton Garden, some time since, took out a introduced France by the brothers Gobelin. In the
into
"a
patent for new method of glueing or cementing certain mate- year 1677, Colbert purchased the dye-houses from the Gobe-
rials for building and other purposes." The mode of manufac- lin family, in virtue of an edict of Louis XIV.,
styled it the
ture and applying it, is thus described in the specification : Hotel Royal des Oobelins, and established on the ground a
" The cement used by the patentee is made by mixing great manufactory of tapestry, similar to that of Flanders.
India-rubber with cold naphtha, in the proportion of eight The celebrated painter Le Brun was appointed director-in-
57
 GOT 450 GOT
chief of the weaving and dying patterns. Under his adminis- Pointed architecture which is by most writers designated
were produced many magnificent pieces of tapestry,
tration Pure or Decorated Gothic.
which have ever since been the admiration of the world ; The term Gothic seems to have been first brought into use
the Italians, who applied it to all styles of building then
such as Alexander's battles, the four seasons, the four by
elements, and the history of the principal events in the reign prevalent which deviated from the Classic. Vasari, an Italian
of Louis XIV. There is an academy within the Gobelins architect who lived at the commencement of the sixteenth
"
for the instruction of youth in the various branches of the century, after speaking of Greek orders, says, there is an-
fine arts, in physical science, and mechanics, subservient to other kind called Gothic (Tedesca) which differs
materially
both as to ornament and proportion from that of ancient and
the improvement of the manufacture.
GNOMONIC COLUMN, See COLUMN. modern date. Sodeficient is it in systematic rules, that it
GNOMONIC PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE, that in which the may be deemed the order of confusion and
inconsistency. The
eye is situated in the centre of the sphere, and projects all portals of this description of buildings, which has so much
the circles upon a plane touching its surface. infested the world, are adorned with slender columns en-
It is evident, that in this projection, all the great circles of twined like vine-branches, and
unequal to sustain the weight,
the sphere are projected into straight lines, since they all pass however light, which is placed above them. Indeed, the
whole exterior, with its other decorations, its
through the centre of the sphere. Every lesser circle parallel profusion of
to the plane of projection is projected into a circle, and any canopied niches raised above one another, with so many pyra-
lesser circle not parallel to the plane of projection, is
projected mids, leaves, and points, renders it apparently impossible, not
into one of the conic sections. only that they should be durable, but that it should support
A very excellent tract upon the projection of the sphere, itself giving the whole an air of being made of pasteboard
by Mr. Emerson, contains the full theory of the gnomonical rather than of stone and marble. This
style was invented by
the Goths, who spread the
projection. contagion through Italy. May
GOCCIOLATOIO, See CORONA. God deliver every country in future from the adoption of
GOLA, GoLA-DiRETTA, GotA-RovEsciA, See CY.MATIUM. plans, that substituting deformity for beauty, are unworthy
GOLDMAN, an architectural writer, as also a mathema- of further attention."
tician, born at Breslaw, in Silesia, in the year 1623, and died From the description which he gives in this passage, it will
at Leyden, 10G5. lie published his Elements, Architecture! be very reasonably inferred, that he refers to the Pointed
Mditaris, 1043: another treatise of his, on the same subject, style of architecture, but it is evident that he also includes
was published in 1090, accompanied with numerous engra- the modes adopted on the decline of Roman
art, for he cites,
vings, and a life of the author. as examples, the
palace of Theodoric at Ravenna, and the
GONIOMETER, (from yuvia, an angle, and jtterpw, I churches of St. John the
Evangelist, and of St. Vitalis,
measure] an instrument for measuring solid angles. most A in the same
city, as also other buildings of Lombardic and
convenient instrument for this purpose was invented by Byzantine architecture. Amongst the first writers who intro-
Dr. Wollaston. duced the term into England was, we believe,
Evelyn, and he
GON10METEICAL LINES, lines used in order to gives the following description :
"
Gothic architecture," says
determine the quantity of an angle. Such are the lines of he, "is a congestion of heavy, dark, melancholy, monkish
sines, tangents, and secants, commonly placed upon plane piles, without any just proportion, art, or beauty;" and else-
scales, the sector,Gunter's scale, &c. where he describes it as " a fantastical light species of build-
GORGE, (French) a concave moulding, much less recessed ing." Sir Christopher Wren confirms the use of this
term,
than a scotia, used chiefly on frames, chambranles, &c. for, after describing edifices erected after this mode of build-
GORGE is sometimes used for the cyma recta. It is used ing as "mountains of stone, vast gigantic buildings, but not
for the neck of a column but it is more "
; properly called col- worthy the name of architecture," he says, This we now
larino, goryerin, or r/orge. call the Gothic manner ; so the Italians called what was not
GORGERIN or GORGE, in architecture the little frieze in after the Roman style." In another
place our author applies
tne Doric capital, between the astragal at the the terra Saracenic to buildings in the Pointed
top of the shaft style, sup-
of the column, and the annulets. Some call it collarino. posing that form of arch to have been brought from the East
Vitruvius gives it the name of hypotrachelium. by the Crusaders. But to show what vague notions he held
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, a title generally under- upon the subject, we must add, that he attributes the cathe-
stood in the present day to apply to that style of dral of Winchester, and the church of St. Cross, to a
building in period
which the Pointed arch is the most prominent, though not preceding the Norman conquest. Warton's ideas upon this
the only characteristic. The term has been head must have been also very indefinite, for he makes his
variously applied
at different times, and by different writers, whether contem- earliest division of the style to commence about A. D.
1200,
poraneous or otherwise indeed, so great is the confusion on
; which he calls Gothic Saxon, as distinguished from the true
the subject, that it is not always easy to define the class of Gothic, of which he makes tracery in the window-heads the
buildings alluded to under this title. Some authors include chief characteristic. He even denies the title of Gothic to
under the term all styles of building.which differ from those
Salisbury cathedral, which he includes under the term Gothic
adopted by the Greeks and Romans, all modes of
embracing Saxon. Bishop Warburton gives the name of Norman to
building which were in vogue from the decline of Classical Pointed architecture, reserving that of Saxon for those
styles
architecture to its revival in the sixteenth ce;itury. Others in which the semi-circular arch
prevailed.
limit the phrase to those modes which
prevailed from the Captain Grose, a few years later, adverting to the use of
decline of Roman art to the introduction of the Pointed the title in question, says, " Most of the writers who mention
arch,
including the Romanesque, Lombardic, Saxon, and Norman our ancient buildings, particularly the religious ones, notwith-
styles, in all of which the semi-circular arch was employed. standing the striking difference in the styles of their construc-
A third class of writers apply the name solely to the Pointed tion, class them all under the common denomination of
style, under which restriction the term is for the most part Gothic ; a general appellation, by them applied to all build-
employed in the present
though some would still farther
day, ings not exactly conformable to some one of the five orders
limit the application by adopting it of architecture. Our modern antiquaries more accurately
solely for that division of
 GOT 451 GOT
divide them into Saxon, Norman, and Saracenic ;
or that considered as invented by the Goths, the notion in either
species vulgarly, though improperly, called Gothic."
case is false and without foundation. The Goths had no
Mr. Bentham, a cotemporary, remarks upon the same sub- architecture of their own ; and not only are they innocent of
" The term
ject as follows :
Gothic, applied to architecture, introducing any new style into Italy, but more than that, they
was much used by our ancestors in the last century, when do not seem to have caused any alteration in the old. What
they were endeavouring to recover the ancient Grecian or changes did take place arose very naturally from the gradual
Roman manlier ; whether they had then a retrospect to those decline of art. It is not our intention in this place to enter
into any discussion on the origin of Gothic Architecture ; we
particular times when the Goths ruled
in the empire, or only
used it as a term of reproach to stigmatize the productions defer that for a future paper on POINTED ARCHITECTURE ;
of ignorant or barbarous times, is not certain ; but I think all we desire to state at present, is that neither the Pointed

they meant it of Roman Architecture not such certainly as

:
style nor that preceding, in which the semi-circular arch con-
had been in the age of Augustus, but such as prevailed in tinued to be employed, were introduced by the Goths ; and
more degenerate times, when the art itself was almost lost, that, therefore, the term Gothic could not justly be applied
and particularly after the invasion of the Goths : in which to them on that score.
state it continued many ages without much alteration. Of writers the term is doubtless used as a term of
By many
this kind was our Saxon and earliest Norman manner of reproach, and is intended as equivalent to the words unci-

building, with circular arches and strong massive pillars, but vilized, barbarous ; on which account, many persons of the
really Roman architecture,
and so was called by our Saxon present day have objected to its continued use. At the time
ancestors themselves. Some writers call all our ancient of the revival of classical architecture, or rather of the adap-
architecture, without distinction of lound and pointed arches, tation of classic orders and details to modern architecture, the
Gothic ; though I find of late the fashion is to apply the excellencies of Pointed architecture were but little under-
term solely to the latter, the reason for which is not very stood or appreciated and hence the desire to stigmatize it as
;

apparent.The word Gothic, no doubt, implies a relation barbarous. Since then, however, the prejudice for the orders
some way or other to the Goths and if so, then the old
;
has ceased, and Gothic art is viewed with a more favour-
Roman way of building with round arches above described, able, and, we may add, more experienced eye, and men are
seems to have the clearest title to that appellation ; not that I desirous of rescuing it from any stigma, even though it be
imagine the Goths invented or brought it with them ; but that but a nominal one.
it had its rise in the Gothic age, or about the time the Goths From this cause, many names have been suggested in lieu
invaded Italy. The style of building with pointed arches is of the contemptuous Gothic, amongst which we may enume-
modern, and seems not to have been known in the world till rate the following Christian, Cutholic, English, and Pointed
the Goths ceased to make a figure in it. Sir Christopher as being the most usual. It is true the word Gothic is

Wren thought this should rather be culled the Saracen way ill-devised, insignificant, and entirely inapplicable, yet we
of building ; the first appearance of it here was certainly in cannot think that any of the terms proposed are sufficiently
the time of the Crusades ; and that might induce him to expressive to explode a title of so long standing and such
think the archetype was brought hither by some who had universal acceptation. The term was originally, without
been engaged in those expeditions, when they returned from doubt, employed as a mark of reproach, but now-a-days no
the Holy Land." such moaning is implied by it, and no one is misled by its
After these remarks, no one will wonder at Dr. Milner use. In applying the term now, no one ever thinks of its

complaining of the confusion and difficulty with which the original intention, but considers it solely as a phrase descrip-
study of Gothic architecture had been surrounded by the tive of a certain class of buildings, of which each man forms
vague and unsettled manner in which terms had been em- his opinion, quite independently of its appellation. Even
ployed by his predecessors and cotemporaries who had written supposing we were explode this expression, what could be
to

upon the subject. substituted in its placeno one term has been universally
:

The employment of the term and its application seems to agreed upon ;
and we should have a general scramble, each
have arisen from an idea entertained by the Italians, that the partisan seeking to adopt his own peculiar title, and probably
style of building to which they applied it was introduced by maintaining it to the utmost of his power; so that instead of
the Goths after their incursion into Italy ;
this is evident one, we should have several titles, each striving for, but none
from the expressions of Vasari, above quoted. Now, Tf the obtaining universal adoption.
*

use of the title were restricted to those buildings with round We

submit, that it is better to have one term well estab-
arches which were prevalent after the fall of the Roman lished, even though it be confessedly a very incorrect one,
empire, there might bo apparently some grounds for its than several exceptionable ones of only partial use.
assumption, but this does not seem to be the case even with Sir James Hall speaks to the point when he says : " In
the Italians, and certainly not with our own countrymen, the present unsettled state of public opinion, both with
although some of them doubtless thought that the Pointed respect to the origin and the history of this style, I have
arch was an invention of the Goths, in illustration of which judged it best to attempt no innovation in this matter, and
we quote a passage on the subject from Sir Henry Wotton. have made use of the name of Gothic Architecture ; which,
"
He says : As for those arches which our artisans call of the though certainly no less objectionable than many of those
third and fourth point, and the Tuscan writers de tergo and that have been offered to the public, has the advantage of
de quarto aculo ; because they always concur in an acute being universally known and understood amongst us."
angle, and do spring from a division of the diameter into The two first names which we have mentioned as proposed
three, four, or more parts at pleasure. 1
say, such as these, substitutes for the word Gothic, namely, Christian and
both for their natural imbecility of the sharp angles them- Catholic, are objectionable, on the grounds hat this is not
I

selves, and likewise for their very uncomeliness, ought to be the only style which is entitled to such designavions. Both
exiled from judicious eyes, and left to their first inventors the Lombardic and Byzantine were styles adopted by the Chris-
Goths or Lombards, amongst other reliques of that barba- tian church ; nay more, in a certain sense they may be said
rous age. to have been of Christian growth. Mr. Pugin contends, that
Whether the Pointed style, or that previously existing, be although other styles have been employed in early ages, they
 GOT 452 GOT
were rather of Pagan or arose from unsuccessful other apertures, without proportion ; nonsensical insertions
origin,
imitations of in fact, that they were mere of various kinds of marbles impertinently placed; turrets and
Pagan buildings ;

make-shifts, used only for a temporary purpose, until a more pinnacles, thick set with monkeys and chimeras, and abun-
should dance of busy-work and other incongruities, dissipate and
perfect system, and one more thoroughly Christian,
arise. Weare most willing to admit that Gothic architecture break the angles of the sight, and so confound it that one
the same time, cannot consider it with any steadiness where to begin or end
is the
perfection of Christian art, but, at ;

cannot in justice allow its exclusive title to that term. The taking off that noble air and grandeur, bold and graceful
third term can only be of partial application, and only then manner, which the ancients had so well and judiciously
" "
correctly employed when applied
to the style as practised in established. Nothing was thought magnificent that was
our own country the theory that Gothic architecture origi-
:
not high beyond measure, with the flutter of arch-buttresses
nated in this country, lias, we believe, been long since so we call the sloping arches that poise the higher vaulting
The term Pointed, though on many accounts a of the nave. The Romans always concealed their butments
exploded. ;

correct one, is still open to similar objections to those whereas the Normans thought them ornamental. These, I
very
inasmuch as would naturally have observed, arc the first things that occasion the ruin of
urged against the two first, it

include other styles besides the one to which it is intended to cathedrals ; being so much exposed to the air and weather,
be applied. the coping, which cannot defend them, first failing, and, if
In the quotations which we have above introduced from they give way, the vault must spread. Pinnacles are of no
writers of the last two centuries, we have been necessitated use, and of little ornament. The pride of a very high roof
to admit some contemptuous and opprobrious observations on raised above a reasonable pitch is not for duration." Else-
the merits of Gothic buildings, when compared with those of where speaking of their construction, he says :"Few stones
Greece and Koine ; but we cannot permit such remarks to were used but what a man might carry up a ladder on his
pass by unheeded. At the period of what is called the revival back from scaffold to scaffold, though they had pulleys and
of classic art, such unworthy opinions as those we have spuked wheels upon occasion ; but having rejected cornices,
alluded to were far from uncommon ; indeed, it was fashion- they had no need of great engines. Stone upon stone was
able in those days to stigmatize everything belonging to the easily piled to great heights, therefore the pride of their
up
work was "
middle ages as dark and barbarous, and no one could give inpinnacles and steeples." The Gothic way
better proof of his admiration of classic antiquity than by carried all their mouldings perpendicular, so that they had
reviling and sneering at every other kind of art, more espe- nothing else to do but spire up all they could." "They
cially at that which threatened a most dangerous rivalry. affected steeples, though the Saracens themselves used
The quotations which we have already given on this head cupolas."
have been taken from Vasari, Wotton, Evelyn, and Wren ;
We do not feel so much surprised at such expressions
we will now give some more extracts of the same tendency, escaping men unattached to the profession, or even Vasari,
taken, for the most part, from the writings of the last-named for he was an Italian, and therefore naturally biassed in favour
architect. In his Parentalia, he says: "It was after the of classic art ; but to hear such opinions from a man like Sri-
irruptions of swarms of those truculent people from the north, Christopher, must ever be a subject for wonder and regret.
the Moors and Arabs from the south and east,
overrunning Wren was, without controversy, a man of great talents and
the civilised world, that wherever they fixed themselves, high attainments ; of considerable taste, and of unusual
they
began to debauch this noble and useful art, when instead of scientific knowledge ;
nor was he ignorant either of the nature
those beautiful orders so majestical and
proper for their of Gothic architecture for he had made a special profes-
stations,becoming variety, and other ornamental accessories, sional examination of its finest examples or of its princi-
they set up those slender and misshapen pillars or, rather ples ; for. as we believe, he learned much from thejn, and
applied them in his own buildings.
bundles of staves and other incongruous props to That prejudice should
support
incumbent weights and ponderous arched roofs, without have extorted from such a man such unhappy tirades in con-
entablature and though not without great industry, not
; demnation of Mediaeval art, is, we repeat, at once a matter
altogether naked of gaudy sculpture, trite and busy carvings; for wonder and regret. It is pitiable to hear such a man
such as gluts the eye, rather than gratifies and
predecessors with so great self-satisfaction,
it is his
pleases challenging
with any reasonable satisfaction. For proof of this, without and inviting a comparison between his own works and theirs ;

travelling far abroad, I dare report myself to any man of complaining, too, of their faulty construction and useless
judgment, and that has the least taste for order and magnifi- ornaments, when he himself received no little scientific infor-
cence, if, after he has looked a while upon King Henry mation at their hands ; and as regards the useless ornaments
VII.'s chapel at Westminster gazed upon its sharp angles, if, indeed, we
do not give him too much credit for con-
jetties, narrow lights, lame statues, lace, and other out-work structive skill was not only aware of their practical utility,
and crinkle-crankle, and shall then turn his
eyes on the but even adopted their principle, though in a less skilful
Banqueting House, built at Whitehall by Inigo Jones, after manner, in his own vaunted Cathedral. But we will not
the ancient manner or on what his majesty's rest satisfied with our own authority. Since Wren's time,
;
surveyor has
done at St. Paul's, and consider what a Mediteval art has met with less prejudiced judges ; and many
glorious object the
cupola, porticoes, colonnades, and other parts present to the writers of high stand ing, and architects of well known ability,
beholder; let him well consider and compare them judicially, have given ample testimony in its favour. It is now more
without partiality and prejudice, and then
pronounce which fully understood, and its beauties better appreciated in;
of the two manners strikes the
understanding, as well as the short, Gothic art is now what Classic was in Wren's days
eye, with more majestic and solemn greatness, though they, the " fashion." But ere we proceed to bring forward any
in so much plainer and more more favourable witnesses, let us do Wren justice, and give
simple dress, conform to the
respective orders and entablature, and, accordingly, determine another extract from his works, which tends in some measure
to whom the preference is due. Not, as we have said, there to qualify his previous language.
isnot something solid, and oddly artificial,
too, after a sort ; Even he recognizes, in some few buildings of this style,
but the universal and unreasonable thickness of the "a discernment of no contemptible art, ingenuity, and geo-
walls,
clumsy buttresses, towers, sharp-pointed arches, doors, and metrical skill, in their design and execution." Also " Thus
 GOT 453 GOT
the work required fewer materials, and the workmanship was, to give a bodily form to her teaching, that it seems to have
for themost part, performed by flat moulds, in which the war- clothed her spirit, almost as if the invisible things had put
dens could easily instruct hundreds of artificers. It must be forth their unseen, but powerful and plastic energies, and
confessed, this was an ingenious compendium of work suited gathered around them on all sides the very forms and figures
to these northern climates and, I must also own, that works
;
which might best serve to embody them to the eye of sense.
of the same height and magnificence in the Roman way, A Gothic church in its perfection is an exposition of the dis-
would be very much more expensive than in the other tinctive doctrines of Christianity, clothed upon with a mate-
Gothic manner, managed with judgment." rial form ; and is, as Coleridge has more forcibly expressed,
'
Hut to pass on to later writers Rev. J. Milner, alluding the petrifaction of our religion,' or, as it has been expressed
"
to Evelyn and Wren's remarks, says Every man who has by a mind essentially differing from Coleridge's, which makes
an eye to see, and a soul to feel, on entering into York Min- the coincidence the more remarkable, ' the divine order and
ster and Chapter-House, or into King's College or Windsor economy of the one seems to be emblematically set forth by
Chapel, or into the cathedrals of Lincoln or Winchester, is the just, plain, and majestic architecture of the other; and as
irresistibly struck with mingled impressions of awe and plea- the one consists of a great variety of parts united in the same
sure which no other buildings are capable of producing; and regular design according to the truest art and most exact pro-
however he may approve of the Grecian architecture for the portion, so the other contains a decent subordination, various
purposes of civil and social life, yet he instinctively expe- sacred institutions, sublime doctrines, and solid precepts of
riences in the former a frame of mind that fits him for prayer morality, digested into the same design, and with an admi-
and contemplation, which all the boasted regularity and mag- rable concurrence tending to one view, the happiness and
nificence of Sir Christopher's and the nation's pride. I mean exaltation of human nature.'
"
St. Paul's Cathedral, cannot communicate, at least, in the same Much has been said about the proper designation of this
degree." style. The term Gothic has use on its side to so great a
"
Bishop Warburton says Our Gothic ancestors had degree, that it will never be superseded, and though it has
juster and manlier notions of magnificence on Greek and no truth in it at all, and was at first given in ignorant derision,
Roman ideas, than those mimics of taste who profess to study one would scarce wish it altered ;
the style which it desig-
only classic elegance ; and because the thing does honour nates is exclusively Christian, and it is nothing new or dis-
to the genius of those barbarians, I will endeavour to pleasing to that which is distinctively Christian, to take a name
explain it." from a scorner, and to convert the opprobrium into a glory.
Mr. Dallaway says " Certain it is, that the Gothic " Such then is Gothic architecture :
theological, ecclesi-
churches, whatever be the peculiar manner of their era, astical, and mystical, in all its parts and characters. It grew

present their beauties to every eye. We

cannot contemplate to fts perfection both in general design, and in more minute
them without discovering a majestic air well worthy of their details of ornament and execution, during many successive
destination, with a knowledge of what is profound in the sci- generations; and although we have few churches entire and
ence and practice of building, and a boldness of construction, unmixed of its earliest forms, we have remains more or less
of which classic antiquity furnishes no examples." perfect in almost every variation in its style, from the Nor-
The following words of Coleridge are remarkable in com- : man of the twelfth century, to the elaborate perpendicular of
paring the Classic and Gothic modes of architecture, he says, the Tudor."
"
The Greek art is beautiful. When I enter a Greek We conclude with the following remonstrance from Mr.
church, my eye is charmed and my mind elated ;
I feel exalted, Pugin, a gentleman to whom we are pre-eminently indebted
and proud that I am a man. But the Gothic art is sublime. for his perseverance in the study and defence of Mediaeval art,
On entering a cathedral, I am filled with devotion and with and to whoso " Contrasts," although somewhat overdrawn,
awe I am lost to the actualities that surround me, and my
;
we would beg to refer the reader, as apropos to the question
whole being expands into the infinite; earth and air, nature before us.
and art, all sweep up into eternity, and the only sensible Mr. Pugin says " Before true taste and Christian feelings
impression left is, that I am nothing." can be revived, all the present and popular ideas on the sub-
Whewell, referring to the use of the word Gothic as a term ject must be utterly changed. Men must learn, that the
of reproach, says " If we would employ the term barbarous period hitherto called dark and ignorant, far excelled our
with any significance, it is not to be applied to one style of age in wisdom, that art ceased when it is said to have been
art merely because it differs from another. A Gothic build- revived, that superstition was piety, and bigotry faith. The
ing is no more barbarous than a Grecian one, if the ideas most celebrated names and characters must give place to
which govern its forms be fully understood and executed : others at present scarcely known, and the famous edifices of
but those attempts rather are to be called barbarous, which modern Europe sink into masses of deformity by the side
imitate the features of good models, and which, not catching of the neglected and mouldering piles of Catholic antiquity.
the principle of the art, exhibit such parts incongruously com- If the renunciation of preconceived opinions on this subject,

posed and imperfectly developed. In writing Greek, an and the consequent loss of the present enjoyment derived
Anglicism is a barbarism but we shall not be willing to allow
; from them, be considered as a great sacrifice, does not the
English to be barbarous, because it is not Greek ; and a mix- new and glorious field that is opened offer far more than an
ture of the two is equally barbarous, whether it pretends to equivalent? What delight, to trace a race of native artists
be one or the other." hitherto unknown, in whose despised and neglected productions
Mr. Poole, a recent writer on the subject, is very warm in the most mystical feeling and chaste execution is to be found,
his admiration he says " But there arose in the west in
: and in whose beautiful compositions the originals of many of
the middle ages a style of architecture growing in all its parts the most celebrated pictures of more modern schools are to
and characters out of the wants of the church and adapting ;
be traced what exquisite remains of the sculptor's skill lie
!

itself to the expression of the very things which she desires buried under the green mounds that mark the site of once
to express in all her methods of embodying herself to the noble churches what originality of conception and masterly
!

eyes of the world, and to the hearts of her sons. And so execution do not the details of many rural and parochial
entirely did this style arise out of the strivings of the church churches exhibit There is no need of visiting the distant
!
 GOT 454 GOT
shores of Greece and Egypt, to make discoveries in. art. which we believe to be correct, and maintain the superiority
of Gothic over Classical art, not only as regards its general
England alone abounds in hidden and unknown antiquities,
of surpassing interest." effect, but also in scientific construction, correct and tasteful
Of the peculiar effect produced upon the mind by Gothic ornamentation, accommodation, and general convenience. In
and of the principles upon which its excellencies our previous extracts we have alluded more especially to the
edifices,
depend, Milner gives us the following explanation
"The :
general effect of the two styles, we will now touch upon each
however great and mag- of the other qualities seriatim, and, in doing so, we shall give,
eye is
quickly satiated by any object,
nificent, which it can take in all at once,
as the mind is with as before, greater prominence to the opinions of those who
what it can completely comprehend ; but when the former, have arrived at a high standing in their profession, and prin-
having wandered through the intricate
and interminable cipally of those who have devoted their time specially to this
length of a pointed vault in an
ancient cathedral, discovers subject, than to any observations of our own ; as we deem their
two parallel lines of equal length and richness with it ; thence authority will carry more weight with it than anything we
proceeding discovers the transepts, the side chapels,
the choir, can say. We
need" only mention the names of
Pugin and
the sanctuary, and the ladye chapel, all equally interesting Bartholomew, Willis, and Whewell, to obtain an attentive
for their design and execution, and all of them calculated for perusal, and would refer our readers for more extensive
different purposes; the eye, I say, in these circumstances is information on the subject than our space will allow of, to
certainly much more entertained, and the mind more dilated
the standard works of those gentlemen.
and gratified, than can possibly be effected by any single In some of the extracts from the Parentalia,
previously
view, even though our modern architects should succeed in given, we hear Wren inveighing against the Mediaival builders
their attempts to make one entire sweep of the contents of a on account of their rude and unskilful construction ; we con-
cathedral, in order to show it all at a single view, and to make trast their remarks with some others on the same
subject by
one vast empty room of the whole." the late Mr. Bartholomew, than whom we could
scarcely
Mr. Poole adds " But surely some part of the effect of a have a more impartial judge, for while on the one hand he is
Gothic cathedral resides in that very excess of length over a great admirer of the Mediaeval architects, he is no less
pre-
breadth, affording a long perspective, directing the eye disposed in favour of Wren, on whose scientific skill in con-
towards the altar, through an avenue of oft-repeated similar struction, he is continually pouring forth the most warm we
parts, and creating, as it were, an artificial infinite. The roof had almost said the most extravagant encomiums. Let us
as well as the walls of a Gothic building is so composed as to hear what are his opinions in this controversy ;
they are
help this effect to the utmost. Groin beyond groin, boss expressed as follows :

"
beyond boss, pendant beyond pendant, is seen, first of all During the middleages, geometrical science was applied
each distinct and clear, but by degrees approaching and to architecture in the loveliest manner ; the general
plan, the
touching one another in the perspective, and at last, lost in columns, the arches, the doors, the windows, the galleries,
the complexity not confusion, but complexity of the whole. the vaulting, the flying buttresses, every panel, every com-
The plain becomes obscure, the defined indefinite, in the long- partment, the most minute ornament, exhibited an intimate
drawn distance. acquaintance with that profound and masterly science, without
"
Even irregularity of structure lends
its aid to produce which building becomes vicious, cumbrous, expensive, mean,
this effect, and irregularity is The
a beauty purely Gothic. fragile, absurd and disgusting.
" After the decline of
eye that wanders in an oblique direction, travels through the Gothic architecture, a foolish notion
nearer arches to some unexpected aisle or chapel, and seems went abroad in the world, that cumbrousness and extrava-
lost in an undefined distance. It is
scarcely possible to exag- gance of material were characteristics of Gothic architec-
gerate the effect of this combination of elevation, length, and ture ; even that great and talented man, John Evelyn, who
irregularity, so averse from the Grecian concinnity and uni- possessed a very superior knowledge of architecture, enter-
formity especially when they are helped by the dim religious
; tained the then current opinion but of late, mankind have
:

light poured through the painted windows. become strangely undeceived on this point; and the plans
"
Fancy yourself for a moment standing just within the and sections of ancient and modern buildings, brought toge-
great western entrance of one of our cathedrals, and you will ther in parallel, now fill the mind with astonishment, that so
feel what is meant
by breadth in architectural effect. The comparatively small a quantity of materials, and those fre-
eye is of course directed eastward, and there it has its point of quently of minor quality, could have been piled up to exist,
repose and the great east window limits its view, at a dis-
; with little failure or decay, such a long course of time. It is
tance, which, with all the accessories before mentioned-, seems not that Gothic buildings are always perfect in construction,
indefinite. But the aisles at either hand have absolutely no but in general they are nearly so ; in fact, so light are some
termination to the mind's eye. Fora while you see through of them, that they need more substance, as well as harder
the intervening arches but
you see less and' less at each
; materials, to resist the mere operation of time upon their sur-
interval, and long before the actual termination of the aisle, faces. The Gothic architects always built with the greatest
the piers, approaching one another in the when square
stone was easily procurable, they
perspective, close economy :

upon the unfinished view. The mind's eye goes forward, formed their walls but when, from the length of the
very thin
;
while the eye of sense is arrested. The limit is as effectual
carriage of it, it became costly, they used for their walls the
as if it had been
abrupt but it is so gradual that you scarce
; most ordinary rubble-stone of the country, and they then
feel where it occurred. There is a perfect consciousness of gave to their walls thickness sufficient to prevent them from
the length beyond,
notwithstanding the absolute impossibility rending and rolling apart from the fluent nature of their
of discerning it." materials."
Thus much for the Elsewhere he says "Now the Mediaeval Christian builders
impugners and apologists of Gothic
architecture ; it will somewhat incredible that so arrived to such a delicate and intimate acquaintance with
appear
great a difference of opinion should exist amongst men all architectural dynamics, that, by the discovery of the way in
eminent for taste and judgment, but such is the case what which all the particles of their materials are affected by gra-
;
Wren's time was considered
in^ barbarous, is now as upheld vity, they were enabled, by merely subjecting them to fran-
scientific and beautiful. We follow the taste of our age,
gibility caused by compression, so to economize them and
 GOT 455 GOT
reduce their quantity, thatmany members of Gothic edifices Roman architecture is but the germ, Gothic its complete
hundred years' devastation by time, are more sound
after five development.
than corresponding members of our modern buildings which We cannot forbear offering one or two instances of the
have not subsisted fifty years, and which contain five times scientific skill of the Gothic architects, as exemplified in their
their proportion of materials. mode of construction. It is a matter which has been fre-
" It was this scientific economy which enabled those real quently alluded to in other works, but one, we think, without
jiagicians to rear up securely their works so high towards which any treatise on Gothic architecture would be imper-
heaven in the beauty of architectural holiness it was this;
fect. It was their custom, as we all know, to cover their

scientific economy which left them money enough to cover large buildings with vaults of masonry, a method of roofing
their sweet fabrics within and without with the richest in which they greatly excelled their predecessors. The
intaglio, and the goldsmith's work of heaven,
while their Romans were acquainted with this method, and applied it in
patrons grumbled not, nor grudged the rich profusion, but many instances, yet their specimens of vaulting, when com-
joined heart and soul in the goodly work, and the wise and pared with the Mediaeval, appear but clumsy expedients they;

noble fabricator needed none of that kind of over-persuasion, were confined to the use of the common cylindrical and quad-
or cajolery, or intentional misunderstanding, or tasteful out- ripatrite vaulting, or that of which each compartment con-
witting, by which alone the modern architect is frequently sisted of four cells only, the latter kind being caused by the
enabled to wring from his employer other than bare walls ; intersection of two cylindrical vaults at right angles to each
this scientific economy rendered unnecessary the rabble of other. But even in this simple kind of groining they found
cement-makers and sand-concreters those spendthrift em- a difficulty, for when the intersecting vaults were of different
pirics, which suck out the brains of architecture, rifle her span, and of the same elevation, their arches being confined
pockets, violate her chastity, bruise her face to a mummy, to the semi-circular form, they were at a loss how to proceed.
and then cover it with oil-plasters and cosmetics of white- In Gothic architecture, the difficulty is entirely obviated by
wash and iron oxide. the employment of the Pointed arch, and by its application
"So admirable in general is the skill displayed in the the Mediteval builders were enabled to construct vaults of so
dynamic disposition of the material of a Gothic cathedral ; elaborate and varied a character, such as the Romans, with
so shrewdly are the forces of its gravitation reduced to sim- their forms, dared never to have dreamed of. But this is not
ple compression, that the whole is like a wonderful piece of the only improvement our ancestors effected in vaulting the ;

shoring, sublimely and permanently imitated in stone. He Roman vaulting consisted entirely of large stones, and was
who compares its fly ing- buttresses to a piece of wood-scaffold- therefore of very great weight, a circumstance which was
ing, at once confesses that it is raised with that art which very detrimental to its application, for as the wall had to bear
emanates from the workman's most delicate and anxious the entire burden, it was absolutely requisite that they should
caution." be of extraordinary strength. Now, our Gothic builders
In truth, the erections of this style are but the embodi- obviated this difficulty likewise in a most scientific manner ;

ments of constructive science, not only docs the main form they made their vaults equally secure with a much smaller
and general outline depend thereon, but even those pecu- consumption of material, by which means they not only saved
liarities which an unpractised eye would be tempted to esteem the walls an undue pressure, but also considerably reduced
mere decoration but those who have made themselves ac-
: their expenditure throughoutthc building. This they managed

quainted with the subject, are well aware that the Mediasval in the following manner. In their large works, such as cathe-
architects never constructed decoration, but decorated con- drals, in which vaulting was more frequently applied, it was
struction ; they made their building perfect, and then applied their custom to carry up a pier or bearing shaft on the face
their ornament with most correct judgment and refined taste. of the nave-shafts, either springing directly from the ground,
A Gothic building is a practical illustration of the principle or supported on a corbel at some point immediately above
of the arch, and: of its application in the most perfect form. the piers. From the top of these shafts, as points of bearing,
We had almost termed it the extension and perfection of were extended ribs or arches across the nave from the bear-
Roman architecture, for they were the first to apply the prin- ing-shafts on the one side to those on the other, in three or
ciple,but only in a partial and imperfect manner the idea ;
more directions; in the more simple forms, each compartment
was new to them, and they did not fully comprehend it, they of the vaulting consisted of six entire arches, enclosing four
did not understand its universal applicability, and therefore cells or spaces between the ribs, which were arranged in this

only partially adopted it. In their buildings many of tha manner ; from each of the four bearing-shafts sprang three
forms of Grecian architecture still remained they were fet-
;
arches ; one, the longitudinal, extending to the next shaft on
tered by its rules, by its influence, and thereby prevented the same side of the nave, that is, in the direction of the
from bringing their new theory to perfection. They had length of the building ; another, the transverse, stretching
been used to the forms, they knew of no others, and hence at right angles to the longitudinal to the shaft immediately
arises their inconsistency. Roman architecture was, so to opposite on the other side of the nave ; and a third, the dia-
speak, a transition, and, so far, imperfect style ; in it we see gonal, extending between the most distant shafts from one
the new and old principles struggling for the mastery, yet angle of the bay to the opposite. These diagonal ribs inter-
each maintaining a certain influence ; we have indeed the i
sect each other, and at the point of intersection butt against
arch, but there still remains the entablature, which was in a key-stone, which generally extends below the level of the
this place totally useless and inconsistent, they were each the vault, and is sculptured in the form of foliage or some
exponent and characteristic of its own theory, and as the two other ornament ; this key-stone locks the system together
systems were repugnant the one to the other, so was their in- securely. The ribs formed the constructive portion of the
troduction into the same building liable to the charge of incon- vault ; they were the skeleton, as it were, on which the
sistency. The entablature in the one case answered the same covering or cuticle was stretched they were the only por-
:

purpose as the arch in the other, and therefore, where the tions of the vault in which large stones were used, the cells
one prevailed, the other should have disappeared ; but being filled up with much smaller stones, and they of less
this we know was not at first the case, it was left to the ponderous material, by which means the whole vaulting was
Mediaeval architects to bring the new system to perfection. rendered lighter and more secure. In this way did they gain
 GOT 456 GOT
no less than it is decisive. After speaking of the
an incalculable advantage over the Romans ; nor did their summary " This view
skill cea.Se here ; having so far reduced the forces of the principles of Gothic architecture, he says :

thrust of the furnishes a complete answer to the common objection made

enemy, they prepared to carry the remaining
to the Gothic style, of wanting proportions, for that accusa-
vault away from the walls of the clere-story, and conduct it
with tion has always been the consequence of judging the Gothic
safely to the foundations, and this they accomplished
equal or even greater skill. From that point of the clere- by Grecian rules, in which case it could not fail to appear
was collected, the absurd and disproportioned ; whereas when tried by its own
story wall, where the thrust of the vaulting
it will be found completely consistent and harmonious
force was carried over the aisles by means of an arch termed laws,
in all its parts ;" of course, if persons commence by assuming
a flying-buttress, which rested at its lower extremity on the
to the aisle-walls. But here it is Grecian proportions to be the acme of perfection, and all
pillar buttresses attached
which might be that differs from them to be false and barbarous, we may at
necessary to notice one or two peculiarities
of a transient observer. Hav- once yield the argument, for the question is decided ere we
likely to escape the observation
collected the active force of the vaulting to one spot by commence.
ing "
means of the ribs, they there spread out the flying-buttress Mr. Pugin alluding to the same subject says Under
:

in the same manner as"now-a-days we place a board against

the head of architectural propriety, we have also to consider
a wall in cases of temporary shoring, and sometimes placed one the scale and proportions of buildings. Without vastness of
arch below another, the two being separated at the wall, but dimensions impossible to produce a grand and imposing
it is

the wall-buttress, by which method the effect in architecture still, unless these be regulated on true
uniting ere they reach ;

force was concentrated at that point, while the whole of the principles, they may destroy their effect by their very size ;
conducted and here I wish to draw your attention to a point which will
clere-story wall was equally supported. Having
the drift to this point, it remained to bring it safely to the prove the great superiority of the Christian architecture of
and how could this be effected 1 The method, which the middle ages, over that of classic
ground ; antiquity, or of the
would at once naturally have suggested itself, would have been revived pagan style. In Pointed architecture the different
to extend the buttresses from the wall to such an extent as details of the edifice are
multiplied with the increased scale of
to receive the thrust within its mass until it reached the the building ; in classic architecture
they are only magnified."
earth but this would necessitate a very great projection, and
;
This principle of multiplying parts with the increased size of
therefore a large consumption of space and materials. This the building, is a characteristic of the
style, and is one in our
they met and nullified in the most skilful manner,
difficulty opinion in which it greatly excels its rival.
and by a most simple contrivance. It was by merely super- It now only remains to touch
upon two subjects of com-
adding a pinnacle to the wall-buttress above the point at parison the first as regards the application of ornament, and
;

which the force was collected. We have now another force the last as to convenience and accommodation. The writers
in operation, that of the downward pressure or gravity of the of Wren's time were too apt to consider Gothic architecture
materials composing the pinnacle, and this combining with the as a system of decoration, gaudy and puerile ; a system in
thrust of the vault, changes the direction of that force so as which useless ornament was the chief aim and object,
to make it more nearly perpendicular, and bring it within and in which it was introduced without reason or modera-
a buttress of moderate projection, which, be it remembered, tion, and hence they termed it meretricious and barbarous.
served a further purpose of strengthening the aisle-walls and Investigation has taught us differently and where they saw
;

diminishing their thickness, for it is well known, that a wall naught but confusion and redundancy, we detect order and
with buttresses at intervals, is as strong, or stronger, than sound judgment. Ornamentation was seldom introduced by
a mere wall of the combined thickness of the wall and but- our old church-architects without a cause or without a mean-
tress. In this manner did they press everything, whether ing we do not mean to go so far as to assert that such
:

friendly or inimical, into their active service, and succeeded was never the case, but we do say that there was, for the
in rearing edifices of the most skilful construction, most
rigid most part, a nice adaptation, a propriety, in their decoration ;
economy, and chaste and delicate decoration. the parts to be enriched were not introduced without a specific
How Wren could have inveighed against the construction object,and their manner of enrichment was made subservient
of our Gothic buildings we cannot understand, especially as to that object ; for instance, look at the projecting string-
he scorns to have imitated them in several particulars, though course, the weather-mouldings of the heads of windows, to
not certainly with equal taste or skill. lie has used very conduct the moisture from the enriched and delicate part of
similar means to those above described, in their work, so as to preserve it from injury, and the termi-
resisting the
thrust of his vaulting, in his vaulted Cathedral ; buttresses nating dripstone to throw it off" the walls. Each part was
arc carried over the aisle to the outer wall, and are concealed decorated so as at once to delight the eye, and answer an
by a screen running round the building, and having the useful end ; each moulding was beautiful and appropriate to
appearance of an additional story, which certainly gives its own peculiar
duty ; their contours varied, not from an}
the building a more imposing appearance on the exterior, wild fancy or exuberant imagination, but simply to make it
but at the expense of truth, and, like the dome, creates a feel- efficient to the purpose for which it was employed. Look
ing of disappointment when you enter the interior. To this again at their buttresses, to which we have already alluded,
circumstance Mr. Pugin alludes in a passage which we shall and the gorgeous pinnacles, not a mere decoration, as our
have occasion hereafter to quote. As regards Wren's objec forefathers would have it, but a most useful and indispensable
tion respecting the size of the stones used in Gothic
edifices, addition. But we can almost forgive them for seeing only
we need say nothing, it refutes itself, for surely if a building the beauty, at least where they acknowledge so much, for the
can be raised with equal security by the use of small stones graceful finish given to the buttress thereby, is sufficient to
which a man can carry on his back, it is much
superior, at justify such an addition, even supposing it served no other
purpose than mere ornament, and we need not wonder at
least in point of
economy, to one raised with large blocks
which require ponderous machinery to move them to their their resting satisfied with it as a means of decoration with-
destined positions. out looking to any further purpose. The buttresses them-
We leave Sir James Hall to answer
objections made on selves likewise were equally agreeable to the eye, as they
the score of false proportions ; he deals with them in a were useful and essential to the construction ; by them we
way
 GOT 457 GOT
obtain a bold and pleasing variety in the main outline of the nature. Their edifices were chaste and grand, but chargea-
building, nnd that play of light and shade which adds so ble at the same time with sameness and monotony ; the one
greatly to the appearance of a Gothic edifice. Looking once idea was universally resorted to, and probably because they
more at the smaller members, we find niches, corbels, bosses, had no occasion for any other. The Romans, however, did
vaulting ribs, each answering two ends, one useful, the other not restrict themselves to this form, their wants were more
ornamental. What objects can be more beautiful than extensive than those of the Greeks, from whom they borrowed
some of the Gothic niches, especially of the later styles, and the main idea of their architecture; they wanted something
yet what more necessary in a climate like ours; on the ex- more than temples; in short, they were a more secular people
terior of buildings, more especially, they serve to protect the than the Greeks, and thought their secular buildings worthy
higher branches of carving from the inclemency of the of as costly magnificence as the temples of their gods. To
weather, and in the interior from accident or injury ; but it this circumstance we owe the introduction of the practice of
was probably their unusual elegance rather than their useful- grouping, as it is termed, and the adaptation of the plans of
ness, which caused their introduction as a means of internal the buildings to the various purposes of life; the Romans
decoration. In short, the Mediaeval artists did not construct broke through the ancient rules of uniformity, and struck
ornament, but ornamented construction. On this subject we out into a wider and bolder path, which led by many direc-
add the following remarks from Pugin's Principles of Pointed tions to a great variety of results. But even the Romans
Architecture : were but tyros in this new system, which they left to after-
"The two great rules for design are these: 1st. That ages to bring to perfection. The old Greek style was but
there should be no features about a building which are not little
adapted to this altered state of things; and as much as
necessary for convenience, construction, or propriety ; 2nd. the Romans gained in convenience, by so much they lost in
That all ornament should consist of enrichment of the essen- appearance; the old principles could but ill brook their forced
"
tial construction of the building.'' In pure architecture the adaptation to new rules, and in process of time they died,
smallest detail should have a meaning, or serve a purpose ; (if we may be allowed the expression,) a natural death. The
and even the construction itself should vary with the material principles of Gothic architecture took their rise from the
in which they are executed." "Strange as it may appear at wants of the times, and gave completeness to that of which
first sight, it is in Pointed architecture alone that these great the Romans had originated the idea; and the style has this
principles have been carried out; and I shall be able to superiority over every previous one, that it can easily adapt
illustrate them, from the vast cathedral to the simplest itself to any purpose. No matter what shape you require
erection. Moreover, the architects of the middle ages were your plan, nay, it matters not, though it be of no acknowledged
the first who turned the natural properties of the various or describable shape at all, you may rear upon it an eleva-
materials to their full account, and made their mechanism a tion in accordance with the principles of the style, and one
vehicle for their art." which only requires a skilful hand and practised eye to make
Pointed architecture does not conceal her construction, but it at once tasteful and convenient. Sir James Hall has the
beautifies it: classic architecture seeks to conceal, instead of following trite remarks, which are very much to the point;
decorating it. he says :

"The clumsy vaults of St. Paul's, London, mere coffered "In order therefore to apply Grecian architecture to our
semi-arches without ribs or intersections, have their flying purposes, it has been found necessary very much to alter the
buttresses: but as this style of architecture does not admit old Greek plan ;
but this having but little variety, could not
of the great principle of decorating utility, these buttresses, easily admit of any change. And a Grecian colonnade being of
instead of being made ornamental, are concealed by an enor- itself a most perfect form, we cannot well conceive how any-
mous screen, going round the building so that in fact one-
:
thing should be taken from it or added to it without injury;
half of the edifice is built to conceal the other. Miserable at least, to do so would require a hand no less dexterous than
expedient! worthy only of the debased style in which it has that by which it was originally designed. It is not, therefore,
been resorted to." wonderful, that our artists, employing Grecian architecture
"An architect should exhibit his skill by turning the diffi- for new purposes, and introducing without ceremony forms
culties which occur an elevation, from a convenient
in raising unknown to the Greeks, should produce works devoid of those
plan, into so many picturesque beauties ; and this constitutes beauties for which theirs arc so highly distinguished.
the great difference between the principles of Classic and " The
greatest detriment seerns to have been occasioned by
Pointed domestic architecture. In the former he would be the introduction of windows, for which the old Greek masters
compelled to devise expedients to conceal these irregularities; had made no regular provision, but which are indispensable
in the latter he has only to beautify them But I am quite in most of our buildings. For by thus obtruding a new form
assured that all the irregularities that are so beautiful in upon the old style, its unity of design must be violated.
ancient architecture, are the result of certain necessary diffi- The more so, that a set of windows partake, by their form
culties,and were never purposely designed ; for to make a and arrangement, of the regularity of a colonnade, and con-
building inconvenient for the sake of obtaining irregularity, sequently occasion more disturbance of the general effect,
would be scarcely less ridiculous, than preparing working- than if there had been no resemblance between them.
drawings for a new ruin. But all these inconsistencies have "The necessity among the moderns of forming edifices
arisen from this great error ; the plans of buildings are spacious within, has been a source of great confusion ; for
designed to suit the elevation, instead of the elevation being the old Greek masters not having need of room, have left us
made subservient to the plan." no good examples of the kind, and our own artists, in pursuit
The last observation of Mr. Pugin's leads us very naturally of that object, have piled order upon order, and have joined
to the consideration of the next subject. The Greeks were together various parts in the same building, which, though
confined to one plan in their edifices, the parallelogram; and each may be beautiful in itself, have no connection together,
in their application of this form they had but little choice, and can only deserve the name of more or less elegant pieces
the main variation consisting in the arrangement of the ex- of patch-work.
ternal colonnade. It was a form well enough adapted to their Thus Grecian architecture, though rich in ornamental
religious observances, and restricted to buildings of that details, was susceptible of little variety in tho general plan.
58
 GOT 458 GOT
It has therefore failed when applied to our purposes, though again exceedingly extended, more especially those attached
in the hands of the old Greek masters, and employed in the to walls or piers, which become little better than vertical
construction of works suited to the wants of that people, it mouldings ; the practice of including two or more arched
has far surpassed any other style. Gothic architecture, on openings under one common arch ; and seme few other par-
the other hand, with great variety of ornamental details, ticulars, which it is not necessary to mention. We
give the
admitting of the greatest latitude in the general plan and following description of the buildings of the period to which
distribution of the parts, and being susceptible of almost any we allude, as laid down by one of the writers already quoted.
It will be seen to differ, in some
shape, is applicable to every purpose, and might be suited respects, from our own
to the manners of every nation. account, but this may arise from his more especially alluding
"AGothic edifice receives and accommodates an immense to some particular class of
buildings, or because he was de-
multitude of people, and furnishes an unbounded supply of sirous of making a marked distinction between the erections

light in a manner which constitutes one of its principal orna-

of this style, and of that which followed it, the Gothic. He
ments. And this advantage seems to belong to the Gothic gives notice of some particulars which we have omitted.
" The " are
exclusively; for it does not appear, that in any other style arches," he says, round one supported on
;

of architecture, a provision has been made for the provision pillars retaining traces of the Classical proportions; the
of light in an ornamental manner. It possesses, in the highest pilasters, cornices, and entablatures have a correspondence
degree, several different and seemingly incompatible qualities. and similarity with those of Classical
architecture; there is a
When entire in all its parts, everywhere clean and fresh, and prevalence of rectangular faces and square-edgedprojections;
enlightened by a bright sunshine, we admire its airy light- the openings in walls are small, and subordinate to the sur-
ness and lively elegance ; but when clothed in a majestic veil faces in which
they appear, the members of the architecture
of obscurity, or reduced to ruins and overgrown with moss are massive and
heavy ; very limited in kind and repetition ;
and ivy, we are struck with awe by its solemn grandeur. the enrichments being introduced rather
" by sculpturing sur-
It results from this
comparison, that the Grecian style faces, than by multiplying and extending the component
excels in all those qualities of elegance and grace which de- parts. There is in this style a predominance of horizontal
pend upon the nice adjustment and masterly execution of lines, or at least no predominance and elongation of vertical
details. Whereas the Gothic style, which with great truth ones. For instance, the pillars are not prolonged in corres-
has been compared to the genius of Shakspeare, is lively, ponding mouldings along the arches ; the walls have no pro-
picturesque, and sublime, qualities which are derived from the minent buttresses, and are generally terminated by a strong
bold variety, and often from the wild irregularity, of its forms." horizontal tablet or cornice."
WT
ith this passage we naturally close our
comparison ; we The style, although an approach in that direction, differs
have stated our own opinions on the subject, and produced au- in
manymaterial points from the later Gothic ; but as we
thorities (in both sides the render must form his own decision. have occasion to notice the main features of distinction be-
Wonow proceed to a description and arrangement of the tween the Roman and Gothic modes of building, and have
style, but, before doing so, it will be needful to take some nlso noticed the differences between the former and the
notice of those styles which immediately preceded it. Soon Romanesque we do not deem it necessary to insti-
styles,
after the disruption of the Roman empire, we find architecture, tute a detailed comparison between the intermediate and
lapsing into barbarism, still retaining strong characteristics Gothic systems.
of the previous style, but exhibiting only a clumsy imitation. Sir Christopher Wren
takes notice of the variations of the
The buildings of this age were but heaps of discordant parts, two extreme and although his deductions as to ques-
styles,
put together without reference to unity of design or arrange- tions of merit cannot justly be assented to, his
comparison as
ment. Out of this medley arose a style, which, however to principlesis, for the most part, correct. He says :

barbarous it may be deemed, can still boast some title to "In they essentially differed from the Roman way,
this

consistency, for, by this time, architects had broken through who laid all their mouldings horizontally, which made the
the trammels of the old methods which had hitherto fettered best perspective ; the Gothic way, on the contrary, carried
them. The style, known by some under the general title of all their
mouldings perpendicularly ; so that the ground-work
Romanesque, and by others divided according to some marked being settled, they had nothing else to do but to spire all up
peculiarity, or to the countries in which it was adopted, into as they could. Thus they made their pillars a bundle of little
Byzantine, Lombardic, and Norman, was the immediate pre- tori, which they divided into more when they came to the
cursor of the Gothic or Pointed style. It differs
essentially roof, and these tori split into many small ones, and, travers-
from the Roman method in many respects, and presents us ing one another, gave occasion to the tracery work, as they
with several new principles, amongst which may be enumer- call it. They used the sharp-headed arch, which would rise
ated the entire disuse of the entablature, the arches with little centering, required lighter key-stones and less
springing
directly from the capital of the pier or column ; the total butment, and yet would bear another row of doubled arches,
disregard of classic proportions, and an unusual variety and rising from the key -stone, by the diversifying of which they
license in this respect, some columns
being of the average erected eminent structures, such as the steeples of Vienna,
height of the Classic orders, others much stunted, and others Strasburg, and many others."

Mr. Rickman, to whom we are so much indebted for his researches on this subject, gives the following more
detailed comparison in a tabular form:
Grecian. .
English.
The general running lines are horizontal The general running lines are vertical.
Arches not necessary. Arches a really fundamental principle, and no pure English
building or ornament can be composed without them.
An entablature absolutely
necessary, consisting always of No such thing as an entablature composed of parts and ;

two, ^and mostly of Ihree, distinct parts, having a close what is called a cornice bears no real relation to the shafts
relation to, and its character and ornaments determined which may be in the same building.
by, the columns.
 GOT 459 GOT
Grecian. English.
The columns can support nothing but an entablature, and no The shafts can only support an arched moulding, and in no
arch can spring directly from a column. case an horizontal line.
A flat column may be called a pilaster, which may be used Nothing analogous to a pilaster; every flat ornamented pro-
as a column. jected surface is either a series of panels or a buttress.
The arch must spring froiTi a horizontal line. No horizontal line necessary, and never any but the small cap
of a shaft
Columns the supporters of the entablature. Shaft bears nothing, and is only ornamental, and the round
pier still a pier.
No projections like buttresses, and all projections stopped by Buttresses essential parts, and stop horizontal lines.
horizontal lines.
Arrangement of pediment fixed. Pediment only an ornamented end-wall, and may be of almost
any pitch.
Openings limited by the proportions of the column. Openings almost unlimited.
Regularity of composition on each side of a centre necessary. Regularity of composition seldom found, and variety of orna-
ment universal.
Cannot form good steeples, because they must resemble un- From its vertical, lines may be carried to any practicable
connected buildings piled on each other. height, with almost increasing beauty.

Mr. Willis, in the annexed table, treats the subject in a somewhat different form, referring rather to rules of
principles, than details of practice:
Classical styles. Middle-Age styles.
Different planes of decoration avoided, and never exceeding Different planes of decoration placed behind each other to
two in an entire composition. any number, and in every possible degree of variety, even
in a single member, as in an arch.

Superincumbent weights united as far as possible, by resting Superincumbent weights divided into as many parts as pos.
on the horizontal cornice, which combines them into one sible, and then given to independent props,
mass.
Arch, foreign to this style, and when introduced its
diagonal Arch, the essential feature; its diagonal pressures studiously
pressure excluded from the decoration. manifested, and the rest of the composition harmonized
with them by other inclined lines.
Artifices of construction concealed, as impairing the simpli- Every artifice of construction displayed.
city of effect.
Chamfered surfaces inadmissible, and mouldings can only Chamfered surfaces universal mouldings are applied to
;

stop against a surface perpendicular to their course. them, and may die against them or any other surface at
any angle.
Panels mere superficial ornaments. Panels are apertures between the parts of the decorative
frame of the building.

Elsewhere he adds : to resist its lateral pressure ;

its sinnmit may be carried
"These decorative features differ in many respects from the upwards indefinitely, by the joint thrust of its two sides. All
Classical, but the leading principle is to be found in the the parts agree in this character of infinite upward extension,
increased multiplicity of parts, and in a system which affected with an inclination or flexure to allow of their meeting at top;
to support them all independently,
arranging them in groups, and they obviously require, and depend on pressures acting
in opposition to the Classical scheme, in which the
parts are obliquely."
simple, and bound together by the dominant cornice." He acids the following particulars in a more tangible and
" It is
suggested to me by a friend," says the Rev. W. Whc- systematic form.
" 1. The arch is
well, author of Architectural Notes on German Churches, essential, the entablature is not, and the
" that this distinctive
principle of construction in the Gothic columns support arches instead of entablatures.
" 2. There are
architecture, appears to be the admission of oblique pres- any number of planes of decoration one
sures and inclined lines of support ; in Greek architecture, behind the other. When we have in tlm way several arches
the whole edifice consists of horizontal masses reposing on under one, we are led, as Mr. Willis has shown, to tracery ;
vertical props. In Gothic buildings, on the
contrary, the when we have arches of different forms one under another,
pointed arch is always to be considered as formed by two we are led to foliation.
" 3. The
sides, leaning against each other at the top, and pressing out- weights are divided into as many partsas possible,
ward at their lower ends. The eye recognizes this statical and these are given to independent props whence we have, ;

condition in the leading lines of the edifice, and requires the among other results, clustered piers and pillars.
details to conform to it. We have thus in the Grecian buildings "4. The diagonal pressures of the arch are displayed,
nothing but rectangular forms and spaces, horizontal lines whence we have buttresses and pinnacles.
with vertical ones subordinate to them. The pediment is "5. And, generally, the running and dominant lines are
one mass with its horizontal cornice, and does not violate vertical in this style, as they were horizontal in the ancient
this rule. Arches, when they occur, are either subordinate styles the characteristic forms of the one being horizontal,
:

parts, or markthe transition style, in which the integrity of reposing, definite ;

of the other, vertical, aspiring, indefi-
the principle is no longer preserved. In Gothic works, on nite."
the other hand, the arch is an indispensable and governing We do not feel it incumbent upon us to add anything to
feature : it has pillars to
support its vertical, and buttresses the above, the subject having been fully treated of by each
 GOT 460 GOT
writer, the difference of treatment which may have been degrees, that it is difficult to determine where the one com-
noticed, arising from the fact, that some of the writers have mences and the other ends, although when each style is seen
looked at the grand principles of the two styles, while the in its matured and perfect form, it is readily distinguishable
others have confined themselves to a comparison of the from its neighbour. The most prominent characteristics of
results of such principles, as applied in practice. each style are to be seen in the windows, where the distinc-
Having thus given a general description of the Gothic tion is usually very manifest ; the shape of the arches also,

style, and its main characteristics, as distinguished from the forms another principal feature by which the date of a build-
Classical and succeeding modes of building, we will now pro- ing may be to a certain degree determined, although not very
ceed, in order to give a more detailed account of it as a dis- accurately, for the same shaped arches are used in different
tinct style, without any reference to other systems. In order styles. Perhaps the most certain distinctive marks are to be
to do this, it will be requisite to adopt some systematic observed in the mouldings and matters of detail ; and these,
arrangement in connecting and subdividing the various taken together with the more prominent -features, will in
examples, so as to arrive at some clear notion of the rules general lead to a tolerably accurate decision. We
shall con-
which guided the Mediaeval architects in the erection of their sider the peculiarities of each
style in a systematic and
buildings and in doing this we shall confine ourselves to the
;
detailed form, dividing a building into its several
component
methods usually employed, not only because they are well parts, and comparing them, as it were,
analytically. Before
established, but further, because they have been determined entering on this task, however, we deem it advisable to refer
upon with great judgment. to the nomenclature and
system of classification in the des-
Amongst the earlier writers, there does not seem to have cription of particular buildings, recommended by Mr. Willis ;
been much attention given to this part of the subject Warton, so that should any of his terms occur in the
;
following pages,
however, in his tract, attempts a classification, in which he they may be correctly understood. We must recommend
thus distributes the different varieties : In the first division, them for adoption, as affording, for the most part, a
simple,
which he denominates Gothic Saxon, as not fully entitled to intelligible, and systematic mode of arrangement.
Ihe name of Gothic, but having a decided In the description of a
tendency to that style, building, he advises that one bay
lie
places Salisbury Cathedral, and gives the thirteenth cen- of the interior should be taken as an
example ; divided into
tury as the epoch of that division. The next division, which its several
parts, and each of these treated fully and syste-
he terms Absoluts Gothic, he extends over the fourteenth
matically. This, with a specification of the number of bays,
and first half of the fifteenth century he lays down as the will form a description, generally
;
speaking, of the main por-
characteristic feature, the ramification of the decoration in tion of the building, unless
any differences occur in the other
the window-heads, and
gives as an example, the bodv of bays, and in such case it will be requisite of course to note
Winchester Cathedral. To the third division he The same course is to be pursued on the
gives a the variation.
duration of only forty years, from A. D. 1441, to exterior of the building, but here it will be
1480, at requisite to note,
which latter period ho places the commencement of the in a more
especial manner, the arrangement and decoration
Florid Gothic, the third division
having the title of Orna- of the principal fa9ades, as also of the towers and
spires, if
mental Gothic ; of the hitter he gives there be any, and of any other similar addition.
King's College Chapel,
as a specimen; and of the The following are some of the principal terms employed
former, the chapels of St. George,
Windsor, and of Henry VII., Westminster. by him in his nomenclature.
Mr. Dal la way arranges the styles as follows :
Impost, the line or surface of common section between
the arch and the support upon which it rests not, as hereto-
;
A. D.
During the reigns of fore explained, the mouldings or capital from which the arch
Semi or Mixed Norman.. 1170 1220. .Henry II., Richard 1., A John
Lancet-arch Gothic 12201300. springs, but the plane upon which the arch and pier meet.
.Henry III., <fc Edward I.
Edw ? rd L - & IIL n& Continuous imposts, those in which the mouldings of the
Transition or Pure Gothic 13001400 J ,
' >

arch are continued, without interruption, to the ground.

\
Richard II.
Decorated Gothic 14001460. .Henry IV., V, it VI Discontinuous imposts, where the mouldings of the arch
Tudor or Florid Gothic. 14601540. .Edward
IV., to Henry VIII. die into the pier without any band of mouldings.
Corbelled imposts, where the mouldings of the arch spring
But the arrangement which most modern writers have fol-
from a corbel without being continued to the ground.
lowed, is that of Rickman, which is more simple, consisting of Arches he divides into simple and compound, the latter
only three divisions, viz. :

term being applied to such as consist of several different

A. D.
surfaces projecting one beyond another, or such as may be
Early English 11891307
Decorated English 1307 1377 resolved into a number of concentric archways successively
Perpendicular English 13771630 placed within and behind each other.
Shafted archways are those in which the horizontal sec-
Mr. Bloxam subdivides the Early
_ English into two dis- tion of the shaft differs from that of the arch.
tinct styles, and in this he
agrees with Mr. Dallawav, but he Bunded archways, those in which the horizontal sections
names the earliest division Semi- or Mixed and the of the pier and those of the arch coincide, but which have
Norman,
later Early English.He also subdivides the period allotted impost mouldings or capitals.
by Rickman to the Perpendicular
style, restricting that title Shafts are divided as follows :

to those
examples erected before A. D. 1540, and to the later Vaulting shafts, those which sustain the ribs of vaulting.
buildings applying the term Debased.
Bearing shafts, those which sustain the whole superincum-
Others again have retained the
tripartite division of Rick- bent weight.
man, but have used other titles, denominating the first divi- Sub shafts, such as sustain arches of which the upper side
sion First Pointed, the second Middle
Pointed, and the last is united to the soffit of the next arch or wall.
Third Pointed.
Face shafts, such as sustain arches of which the back only
The difficulty in classifying the examples of this is united to the wall, and which
style appear as though placed
arisesmainly from the gradual development of each particular
the one
upon the face of the wall.
dwision, merging into the other such by imperceptible Edge shafts, those which support arches united by their
 GOT 461 GOT

sides and back to the nearest wall or arch, so as to appear to occurrence at any period. The segmental, on the contrary,
which contains a portion of a circle only, and which springs
support the edge only.
Nook shafts, are similar in plan to edge shafts, but the above its centre, is of occasional employment at every period,
rib differs from an edge-rib in not being united to the con- more especially as an arch of construction, but also in aper-
into the re-entering tures, as doors and windows. There is yet another method
tiguous wall, but, like tho shaft, nestled
of using the semi-circular arch, by stilting it on uprights, so
angle formed by the side and face of the contiguous
arches.
The same terms are to the arches which are sus- that the curve of the arch is continued downwards in a straight
applied
tained respectively by the above-named piers ; thus we have line below the springing of the course; this is found more

sub-arches, face arches, &c. Shafts which sustain vaulting especially in the pro-Gothic styles.
ribs are termed by Mr. Whewell Building pillars ; and com- Of the Pointed arch, which is characteristic of the style.
there are many varieties. In the first place, they divide
pound pk'rs, pilaster masses.
Whenan arch is indented with foils or cusps, it is said to themselves into two-centred and four-centred arches, of the
be but when it has another foiled arch below the
foiled,
former of which there are at least three descriptions; the
simple one, it is said to bo foliated. Lancet, the Equilateral, and the Obtuse.
Thus, in describing an archway, it is first designated as The Lancet consists of two segments, the centres of which
fall outside the arch, the radius being of greater length than
simple or compound, and, if compound, it is described as
consistingof so many orders, according to the number the span : it
may be described about an acute-angled triangle.
of arches consists of, or, in other words, according to the
it The equilateral has the centres of the segments on the oppo-
number of the different soffits or projections, and thereupon site extremities of the span, the radii of the circles therefore
each order is described separately in reference to the nature being equal to the span of the arch; it may be described
of the impost, whether continuous or discontinuous, as to the about an equilateral triangle. In the obtuse arch, the cen-
tres of the segments fall within the arch, and has therefore
position of the shafts and arches, as sub-shafts,
face shafts,

&c., and so on, in accordance with the nomenclature above the radii less than the span of the arch ; it may be described

given.
about an obtuse-angled triangle.
Mr. Whewell describes the arches of a vault as lonr/i- The four-centred arch, which is also named the Tudor
tudinal, transverse, and diagonal, the first term being applied arch, from the dynasty during which it was in use, is
to those running in the direction of the length of the build- described from two centres on either side, the one being on
ing; the second, those carried
at right angles to the longitu- a level with the springing, and the other at a considerable
dinal ; and the last, to those, carried diagonally, intersecting distance below it, the curves of lesser curvature, or those
each other at the centre, and connecting the extreme angles described with the longer radius, meeting at a point, and thus
of the severy. leaving the arch still pointed.
Vaulting is also described as quadripartite, sexparti/e, octo- There is another kind of arch termed the ogee, each side
partite, &c., according to the number of cells contained in
of which consists of a curve of double curvature, the lower
each bay. curve being concave on its under side, and having its centre
Mr. Willis divides the intersections of vaults into groins on a level with the spring, and the upper convex, with the
and ridges, the former term being applied to those forming centre on a level with the apex.
an external angle or edge, and the latter to those forming an There yet remains to be noticed a more ornamental kind
internal angle or nook. Hence we have groin rifts, ridge ribs, of arch, which is by no means uncommon, and is what is
and surface ribs, the last expression applying to those spread termed a foiled or, to designate it still more closely a tre-
over the surfaces of the vaulting cells. foilcd arch. The appellation arises from the shape or out-
It will bo further necessary ere proceeding to the parti- line, which is that of a trefoil, or rather of a semi-quatrefoil.
cular description of the styles, to give some account of the There are two kinds of these; the round-headed trefoil, in
various kinds of arches employed in Gothic buildings. This which the curve between the cusps is .a semi-circle, and the
is especially necessary, as the arch forms a very strong cha- pointed trefoil, in which the same curve is composed of seg-
racteristic of the style, and is of very great assistance in ments less than a semi-circle. There are also what are termed
deciding, by its shape and formation, the period to which square-headed trefoil arches, in which the centre compart-
any particular example may belong. ment, instead of being circular, is square or rectangular,
The arches in use Mediaeval buildings, are the triangular,
in leaving the side-ones still circular.
circular, and pointed. Of these, the first, composed of two Such are the arches most frequently applied in Gothic
straight lines inclined towards each other, and forming
two buildings; there are some few other varieties, but they are
sides of a triangle, are almost peculiar to the Saxon style, of so rare occurrence, that it is scarcely worth while taking
but are occasionally, though rarely, found at a later period ; notice of them.
the second, the outline of which consists of a curve of con- But to return to the classification and description of the
stant curvature, or some portion of a circle, may be divided various styles; the first of which, the Early English, dates
into three different kinds, according to the proportion of the from A. D. 1180 to 1300, including the reigns of Henry II.,
circle which it includes. Richard I., John, Henry and Edward I., may be called,
III.,
The most simple of these three kinds, and that which is in general terms, the style of the thirteenth century. The
the more frequently used, is the semi-circular, comprising architecture of this period is exceedingly beautiful and chaste,
one half of the circle, the centre of which is in the springing simple and elegant in design, and excellent and delicate in
line of the arch. This form was in. general use from the execution, equally applicable to the modest village church,
time of its introduction by the Romans, until the establish- and the noble abbey or cathedral, remarkable in the one for
ment of the Gothic style, from which it was almost discarded ; its unobtrusive
simplicity, and, in the other, for its solemn
some few instances are, however, still to be found, in exam- and majestic grandeur.
styles, we shall
In describing this and the succeeding
ples posterior to that period.
The horse-shoe arch, as it is called, containing a larger follow the method commenced by Rickman, and adopted by
portion than the half of the circumference,
and having the most of the later writers, of considering them in detail ; that
centre of the circle above the spring-line, is of very rare is to
say, we shall select the most important of the component
 GOT 462 GOT

inserted between them. In the larger and richer specimens,

parts of a building, and describe them separately
as to their
character and treatment in each style. We
shall arrange the bell is covered with foliage, which springing from the
these parts and their descriptions in the following manner :
necking, is curled over with a graceful curve beneath the
Arches ; next their supports, Piers, which we subdivide into upper mouldings. The foliage is somewhat stiff in appear-
Shaft Capital, and Base ; then Windows, Doorways,
Hut- ance, but of a bold and striking character, and is sometimes
tresses, Parapets, Hoofs, and so forth, including Towers,
undercut to such an extent as to be partially detached from
the bell ; it consists for the most part of a variety of adapta-
Spires, and decorative features, such as mouldinys, patera;,
tions of the trefoil leaf, and we rarely meet figures of any
foliage, and other sculpture.
Arches. The arches principally in vogue at this period, kind. In clustered piers, the capitals follow the form of the

were pointed, either lancet

acutely
or equilateral, the former pier as also in the single shaft they adopt the same form,
;

with the exception that the multangular shaft has not unfre-
being most prevalent in the larger structures;
in
which,
however, the latter was not unfrequent, as may be seen at qucntly a circular capital. The abacus is either circular or
Salisbury cathedral, where
it is more frequent than any other octagonal, and sometimes square in plan, and consists of
shape. It is, however, a rule that the arches are compara- mouldings varying in number, and made up of deep hollows
more acutely pointed in larger churches and cathedrals, with overhanging rounds, which are either plain or filleted.
tively
and accordingly we find the obtuse-pointed arch most exten- The base consists of a series of mouldings, frequently of
sively used in small parish churches. The semi-circular arch a deep hollow and fillet between two rounds, of which the
was not entirely out of use at this period, as we find it fre- lower one projects beyond the other it is also often similar
;

the pointed, two or more of which

quently combined with
to the Attic base, with the exception that the
proportions
are sometimes included under one of the former shape, as at differ, the upper torus being greatly reduced, and the con-

Whitby Abbey, and in other examples. There are also not cave mouldings deeply undercut. The base most frequently
a few instances in which the semi-circular form is used alone, stands upon a single or double plinth, which in the earlier
and sometimes treated in a similar manner as regards decora- examples is square, having the angle covered with a leaf
tion, to those of a later date. Segmental arches were likewise which springs from the mouldings of the base, and falls
in use, not only as constructive arches, but aJso as coverings over the plinth. In later specimens, the plinth assumes the
for apertures, and more especially doorways. form of the base, and is either circular or polygonal it is
;

The of the arches were, in the more magnificent

soffits sometimes of great height, having a second series of mould-
examples, richly moulded with a series of projecting rolls ings below the base.
with deep hollows intervening, but in smaller churches they The windows of this style are for the most part long and
were for the most part merely cut in recession, so as to narrow, with acutely-pointed heads. The earliest and simplest
present two or more surfaces, having the angles of each pro- form is that of a long narrow single light, with arched head,
jection plainly and broadly chamfered. and without moulding of any kind either internally or exter-
In large edifices the shafts of the piers were often
Piers. nally, the exterior angle being merely chamfered, and (he
composed of a series of pillars clustered together in various interior widely splayed. Such windows were sometime.s
forms, to the number of four and upwards. Sometimes these without any weather-moulding, but occasionally a string-
shafts were attached to each other, but they were frequently course was carried from one window to another, at a level
detached, consisting of a massive central pier, usually circular, with the springing of the head, and then lifted over it,
but sometimes octagonal or square, and surrounded by four adopting its form, and carried on to the next aperture. In
or more slender pillars, entirely detached from each other and later times such windows appear in groups of two, three, or
the central shaft, except at the base and capital, and occasion- more, the first being commonly found in the side- walls of
ally at one or two points in the height of the shaft, where churches, and the latter being almost confined to the east
they were connected by narrow bands or annulets of moulding. end, except in very large buildings, where it is found in all
These annulets are used also in the other kinds of shafts, and positions. The separate lights of these groups are generally
are characteristic of the style. The smaller pillars, when de- placed at some distance apart on the exterior, so as scarcely
tached, are often constructed of a more costly material than to appear as belonging to the same window ; but in the
the other parts of the shaft, being sometimes of Purbeck mar- interior, owing to the great splay given to each light,
ble and polished. The same arrangement of central shaft, the distance between them appears inconsiderable, giving
with four surrounding pillars, is to be found with the pillars them the appearance of a single compound window. This
attached to the main pier; specimens of both kind exist at idea is sometimes manifested on the outside by the two or
Westminster Abbey. The pillars are usually simple rounds, more lights being contained under one drip-stone. The
but sometimes they have a narrow vertical fillet. glass is inserted near the outer face of the wall, which
In smaller churches the shafts were a simple circle or circumstance, taken in connection with the great thickness
octagon in plan; more frequently the former, and are distin- of the walls, accounts for the difference of the size of the
guishable from those of a later date only by the details of aperture on the two faces of the wall. This arrange-
base and capital. It frequently
happens that the shafts ment was in all probability adopted for the purpose of
of piers in the same edifice differ in form, and they are obtaining a larger proportion of light, or rather spreading
frequently so arranged as to have circular and octagonal what they obtained over a larger portion of the interior.
forms alternately in the same arcade. The arches of the splay on the interior, seldom follow the
The capitals of this period are usually bell-shaped, and form of the window heads on the exterior, but spring from
are often, especially in the smaller examples, quite plain, a lower level, and are almost always chamfered or moulded at
with the exception of a necking, and one or two
mouldings their angles or edges; the mouldings projecting below the
beneath the abacus. In such cases, they are distinguished soffit, and either dying into the jamb, or resting upon
corbels
from the capitals of later styles only their mouldings,
by at the spring of the arch.
which consist of rounds and deep hollows the bell is
;
In windows of three lights, the centre one is almost
generally very deeply undercut, which is a strong character- always of a greater length than those at the side, its head
istic of the style. The mouldings are generally plain and rising considerably above theirs, so as to preserve the arched
few, but sometimes the nail-head or dog-tooth ornament is form in the entire window. We occasionally meet with
 GOT 463 GOT
windows of four lights, the two centre ones rising above the The doorways of this period are most frequently furnished
others, but more frequently with others of five or seven with nook-shafts in the jambs, which are, for the most part,
lights rising in gradation to the centre one, which is higher detached from the walls, except at the capitals and bases.
than the These large windows have a very beautiful
rest. The more simple doorways have only one shaft on either
effect, occupying as they do nearly the whole of the east wall. side, supporting an archivolt of a few bold mouldings, the
In all the above cases the jarnbs are sometimes plain, being whole surmounted by a simple hood-moulding conforming to
merely chamfered and splayed as before described ; but at the shape of an arch, and terminating in a head or bunch
other times we find them decorated with small detached of foliage, or returned in a horizontal direction along the
pillars, with moulded arches. This is most frequent in the walls. More elaborate specimens have two or more shafts
interior, where the shafts are not unusually of polished on either side, and a greater number of mouldings in the
marble, but such decoration is also to be met with on the arch. The jamb is cut in recession to receive the shafts, and
exterior, especially in large buildings. In windows of a the spaces between the mouldings or shafts are frequently
late date, the arched heads are sometimes foiled. filled up with the dog-tooth ornament or a running pattern
Before the termination of this style, windows of a some- of foliage. The arched heads of doorways are most fre-
what appearance were introduced, which originated
different quently pointed, but not rarely round-pointed or square-
thus : In cases where windows of more than one light were headed trefoil.

employed, it was, as has been mentioned, a not unusual prac- The doorways of the larger structures are mostly divided
tice to include them under one arch, the head of which was into two arched apertures by a simple or clustered shaft,
left plain ; but in the course of time this space began to be which is often of polished marble, and furnished with a richly
pierced with another small light in the form of a circle or moulded or foliagcd capital. The arches are also foiled or
trefoil, which at once relieved the blank space beneath the foliated, and enclosed under one main arch, the space between
arch, and admitted a greater amount of light. At Brown- being perforated in circles, trefoils, &c., and sometimes filled
sover church, Warwickshire, there is a very simple arrange- with groups of sculpture.
ment of this kind, in which the third light is somewhat in The doors are either plain or covered with iron scroll-
the shape of a diamond placed between the arched heads of work, sometimes proceeding from the hinges, which are often
the principal lights, to which two sides of the figure are of a very ornamental character, but at other times nearly
parallel, the two remaining sides being parallel to the curved plain. In some cases this scroll-work is very elegant, and
sides of the larger connecting arch. In the earlier specimens completely covers the door.
of this class, the openings are still chamfered only, with The buttresses of this period are, for the most part, of a
shafts sometimes on the inside; but at a later period the simple character, consisting, in smaller churches, of two or
lights were brought closer together, and were divided by more stages, the lowermost projecting beyond the other, each
slender shafts, and the arches and ornamental lights in the set-off being sloped at the top so as to carry off the rain.
head mouldedand foliated. We have many beautiful examples The buttress finishes at the top under the parapet, or eaves,
of windows of three lights, with three foliated circles in the with a simple slope similar to that of the other projections.
head, and sometimes oi'live or more lights similarly decorated. In larger buildings, the buttress is frequently finished with
The windows of the Chapter-house, York, are most beautiful a triangular head or gablet, but is seldom carried above the
specimens of five lights, which are arranged in two pairs of parapet, except where stone vaulting is employed, and, in
two lights each, connected under one arched head containing such cases, it is covered with a pinnacle which is cither plain
a foliated circle the central light being also surmounted by
: or enriched with blank arcades. Sometimes each set-off is
an arch containing a trefoil. The whole of these are enclosed finished with a triangular head, and, at others, the water-
under the principal arch, which contains above the lights, table is continued round three sides of the buttress. The
three large foliated circles. The effect of this design is grand edges of such buttresses are often chamfered, or the angles
in the extreme. The east window of Lincoln Cathedral is ornamented with slender shafts ; occasionally, too, the face is
another magnificent example it contains
:
eight lights in all, formed into a niche to contain a statue.
which are divided into two compartments containing four There is a peculiarity about the position of buttresses of
lights each, with arched heads filled with foliated circles, this period, which is often the only means of distinguishing
whilst the principal head is filled with one large circle con- them from those of later date ; at the angles of buildings
taining seven of a smaller size. This is probably the largest they are not placed diagonally, but at right angles to the
window of the kind we possess. wall, so that whereas in this style we require two buttresses
Circular or rose-windows arc not unfrequent in this style, at each angle, placed at right angles to each other and to the
and are divided into compartments by slender shafts with adjoining walls, in the following styles we need but one.
from the centre, and sustaining at the
capitals, &c., radiating Flying-luttresses, which are arches springing from the
circumference small arches, which are usually trefoiled. wall-buttresses over the roof to the clerc-story, were now
Smaller windows of this form are either left plain, foiled, or first introduced, and are common in all
large buildings with
filled with quatrefoils, &c. Windows of vaulted roofs. They are of simple design, with a plain cap-
triangular shape are
also found, as well as a peculiar sort of window in the form ping and archivolt.
of what is called the Vesica Piscis ; but these are always Parapets are not frequent in small buildings, the roof
small, and placed in subordinate situations, such as the being carried over the walls with dripping eaves ; but when
gables or the clere-stories of parish churches. Small square- they occur, they are of a simple character, finished at the
headed windows are sometimes employed, but only in towers top with a moulded capping, and supported underneath by
and similar situations. a corbel-table, which consists of a scries of blocks moulded
The dripstones follow the form of the arch, and usually or sculptured in the form of heads or masks, and sometimes
terminate on a projecting head or knob of foliage, but are of foliage ; these are often connected together by trefoiled, or
sometimes returned horizontally along the wall ; the moulding other arches. The projection of the parapet above the
has a deep hollow on the under side to prevent the rain running corbel-table is often merely chamfered, but in the richer spe-
over it. A
string-course is generally carried along the exter- cimens moulded, and sometimes decorated with the dog-
nal and internal walls, immediately below the windows. tooth ornament. In cathedrals, we occasionally see th
 GOT 464 GOT
where the pan- Tie-beams do not seem to have been of frequent occur-
parapet relieved by panelling, as at Salisbury,
els are of the form of trefoiled arches, and sometimes pierced rence, and king-posts are still less usual, their absence being
in roofs
with trefoils, &c. Battlements are not often found in this style. very readily accounted for by their necessary weight
build- of a high pitch when tie-beams are employed, they are
Pinnacles, which rise above the general level of the ;

of the rectangular buttress sometimes supported underneath by sloping braces abutting

ings, are often mere continuations
capped with simple pyramids of square or polygonal bases, against the wall, and this method removes, in a great degree,
without any ornamentation, but in more costly examples the the objection made against ties, of destroying the vertical
latter form is chiefly employed for the entire pinnacle, and tendency of the general design.
is enriched with one or more series of blank arcades, which The timbers of the roof are often plain or chamfered on
in some instances, the edges, but in the richer specimens they are moulded, or
give them a light and elegant appearance ;
the arcades are perforated. at least the main beams, such as principals, purlins, wall
The Hoofs are of a high pitch, the angle at the apex coin- plates, and such like, but the common rafters are mostly

ciding mostly with that

of an equialateral triangle, but some- plain.
times they arc more depressed. In small buildings, as we The Towers of the period are of various proportions, but
have above stated, they not unfrequently overhang the walls, generally bear a substantial, massive appearance ; they are
but in larger ones they are stopped by the parapet. In the almost always square on plan, but sometimes octagonal, and
interior of large churches and cathedrals the roof is gene- in a few instances square below and octagonal above. They
the vaulting being of the simplest kind, are strengthened at the angles by buttresses, two at each
rally vaulted,
or that which has been described as quadripartite, that is, corner, projecting at right angles to the walls, which generally
consisting of four cells in each bay, and being
divided only terminate a stage or more below the top ; projecting stair-
transverse and diagonal ribs, not having a longitudinal turrets are not uncommon, but are sometimes concealed by
by
one along the apex, as in later examples. The mouldings the buttresses.
of the ribs consist generally of rounds plain or filleted, and The tower is divided into stages by set-offs or otherwise,
of which the upper ones are frequently decorated with blank
deep hollows, and are covered at their intersection by bosses
of sculptured foliage. arcades, a few being perforated, to serve as windows ; some-
The wooden roofs of the period were like all Gothic roofs, times the faces are perfectly plain, with the exception of the
except those of a very late date, open to the ridge, and un- apertures for windows, which consist of one or more light,
ceiled, so as to afford a view of the timbers from the body of the most important being placed in the upper stories. Here,
the building. In recent times, however, most of these open in smaller churches, we generally have a window of two
roofs have been excluded from view by the intervention of lights divided by a shaft, and having a foiled aperture under
a modern ceiling, and it is seldom they are brought to light, the arched head, but in larger churches we find windows of
three lights, or triplets, but of equal height in the lower
except on the occasion of an extensive repair or restoration ;

of the entire fabric. This fact will account fur the paucity stories weusually find single lancets.
of information respecting this portion of a building, a want These towers are occasionally covered by a low pyramidal
which is more particularly felt in respect of the early styles ; or a gable roof, but more frequently by a lofty spire of
so much so, indeed, that we scarcely know for certainty how stone or wood, although for the most part less acutely
to distinguish the early English from the Decorated exam- pointed than those of a later style. The spires are almost
ples, and it is probable that there is no very marked differ- invariably broach-spires, that is to say, such as spring directly
ence between them, although it is usual to make a distinction from the roof, without the intervention of a parapet ; their
in treatises of this nature. plan is almost always octagonal, four of the sides sloping
The most simple roofs, which we may attribute as more down to the eaves, but the four corner ones leaving a trian-
particularly belonging to this period, consist only of common gular space at each angle of the tower uncovered, which is
rafters placed at short distances apart, without the interven- occupied either by a pinnacle, or more frequently by a tri-
tion of trussed principles, and have a very good effect, owing angular pyramid, which connects the angles of the tower with
to the lengthened perspective produced by the frequent repe- the angular faces of the spire. Towards the lower part of
tition of the same parts. The rafters are very often secured the spire, the cardinal sides are furnished with windows,
by means of collar beams and braces, or by intersecting braces which rise perpendicularly, so as to give a projection at the
springing from purlins about half-way up the rafters, and top which is covered with a gable-head, and sometimes we

rising to a higher purlinon the opposite side of the roof. have two or more tiers of such windows placed often on
These two systems are very common and simple, but not alternate sides of the spire. The whole is surmounted by a
uufrequently the two were united, so as to have a collar beam finial and vane. The cornice below the eaves is frequently
with cross braces intersecting a point usually above it ;
ornaaiented with the dog-tooth moulding, or a running pat-
and sometimes, in addition to these, we have a strut belo\T, tern, and is often supported upon a bold corbel-table.
allresting upon the wall-plate, so that the entire outline of A very elegant substitute for tower and spire, is employed
the under side presents the appearance of a polygonal arch. in small churches, in the shape of a bell-gable, with one or
In some instances, the braces are curved in the form of a more openings to contain the bells.
pointed arch. Where the roof is carried over both nave and The Mouldings of the style have no great variety of form,
aisles, the portion over the nave is of a similar description but consist almost universally of bold rounds with deep under-
to those above mentioned, and in that over the aisles, the side cut hollows intervening, so as to produce a great amount of
next the nave is supported by short beams or struts
abutting shadow. The rounds are sometimes filleted with one or more
against the nave walls; this is also common in lean-to roofs. fillets, but this is not usually
the case with the smaller
Although the practice of adopting only common rafters may mouldings. Where several mouldings are connected together,
be more usual, the introduction of principals is not unfre- there is considerable difference of size, the entire series being
quently resorted to, which, in such instances, follow the generally divided into a few distinct portions by mouldings
same constructive form as the common rafters before refer- of a large size, which are often filleted, and the intermediate
red to, the common rafters, however, are of a more spaces filled up by smaller plain mouldings.
In such cases,
simple
character than the principals. it will be generally found that the mouldings are so arranged,
 SEMI-HOffiMAK ISARLY ENGLISH KXAMPI.3RS

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 GOT 465 GOT
that if a line bedrawn to touch the most prominent points, seem to be struggling for pre-eminence, and which bear
it form a succession of rectangular recesses. The large
will evident marks of their near affinity to both systems remark-
:

rounds are sometimes brought to a pointed edge in the mid- able examples of the kind are the Church of S. Cross, and
dle, and the smaller ones very deeply undercut on one side :
Malmesbury Abbey.
in some cases, a fillet intervenes at the junction of the round The general characteristics of this division consist in the
and hollows, but they mostly unite in a continuous line with- use and combination of round and pointed arches in the same
out any interruption. String-coui-ses often consist of a plain building ; in some instances, pointed arches are surmounted
round-moulding, or of a roll-moulding of two different curves, by others of the semi-circular form, in others semi-circular
so as to cause the upper half to overlap the lower; some- arches are made to intersect, and thus form pointed arches.
times they are mere slopes with hollow underneath. Hood- Another characteristic is the existence of pointed arches on
mouldings consist for the most part of an overlapping round massive piers of Norman design. The piers are mostly
with deep hollow underneath. The base-mouldings are Norman in character and proportion, but have their capitals
composed of a series of slopes, with sometimes a string-course often ornamented with a simple description of foliage. In
moulding along the top, but in more elaborate works they other respects, the details of such buildings are for the most
comprise a series of mouldings consisting of projecting and part Norman.
overhanging rounds deeply undercut. Sometimes the piers are of more slender proportions, and
The hollows of the mouldings are often filled with orna- attached to a large central pier, which is either square or
ments peculiar to the style, of which the most usual and round and a still closer approximation to the Early English
;

characteristic is that termed the doy-tooth ornament. It is examples is shown in the horizontal bands surrounding the
a kind of pyramidal flower of four leaves, the division be- piers about midway.
tween the leaves being placed in the centre of each side of The of arches are frequently recessed, which shows
soffits
the pyramid the flower is placed in an inverted position,
;
an advance upon previous examples, but the chamfer com-
the base of the pyramid being placed against the hollow, with mon to Early English buildings is omitted, the edges being
the apex projecting. This ornament varies to some extent left square.
in different examples, but always preserves the same general The Decorated style.
appearance; it is very effective on account of the deep Otherwise termed, in architecture, the Middle-pointed,
shadow produced at the division of the leaves. They are stands next in respect of time and decoration. It had its

placed in a hollow moulding, or in the edge of a jamb, either commencement in the reign of Edward the First, and arrived
singly, with a space. intervening between each two, but more at maturity during the reigns of the two succeeding Edwards,

frequently in close proximity to each other. Single leaves from which circumstance the name of Edwardian has some-
and flowers of a different character are sometimes inserted times been applied to it. It dates from 1307 to 1377, or a

in a similar wav, and sometimes a

running pattern of leaves little later, and
may be named generally the style of the
or foliage. fourteenth century. This period of architecture is of all
Sculptured foliage is much used in the more costly build- others the most beautiful it rivals the
; preceding in chaste-
ings, forming capitals, corbels, crockets, and bosses, and is ness, while it surpasses it in richness; and at the same time
usually of a stiff character, that is to say, the leaves have a is free from the
extravagant and redundant ornamentation of
crisp appearance not observable in other styles. It is very the succeeding styles.
beautiful, however, and worked with much taste and free- The arches of this period are described from equilateral or
dom ; although.it does not present an appearance so natural obtuse-angled triangles, and in many instances are not easily
or flowing as that employed during the next period. Amongst distinguishable by their shape from those of the previous style;
other varieties of foliage, the trefoil is predominant, the two and in smaller buildings, where the soffits are merely recessed
lower lobes of which, and sometimes all three, are worked and chamfered without mouldings, it is a difficult matter to
with a bulb or swelling in the centre, the middle lobe being distinguish them at all ; the date, however, may usually be
frequently of larger size than the others. determined by the mouldings of the caps and bases of the
The crockets likewise arc usually in the form of a trefoil- piers. In larger or more costly buildings, the arches are
leaf, curled back like the head of a pastoral staff. moulded, and the distinction marked by their contour. The
The walls of large buildings are frequently ornamented by mouldings consist of rounds projecting to the extent of from
a series of blank arches supported on pillars. These are one to three-quarters of the circumference, and are frequently
common, running round the base of the walls on the interior, filleted, alternating with plain soffits and faces. As arches of
and are employed in many other situations, both externally decoration, the trefoiled was not uncommon. Hood-moulds
and internally, so much so as to become a characteristic of frequently occur, and are terminated on heads or foliage.
the style. Another method of ornamenting blank walls is The shafts of piers in small parish-churches are mostly of
by diapering, or carving them in low recession after some a simple circular or octagonal plan, similar to those of the
small and recurring pattern, frequently in the form of square preceding period, and, like the arches, arc only distinguished
leaves, as in the triforia, Westminster Abbey. by their capitals and bases. The alternate arrangement of
Niches were in use at this period, but of a less elaborate the circular and octagonal piers is still adhered to. In larger
character than those of succeeding styles. The figures were buildings the piers are clustered, and consist of four or more
frequently set on small pedestals, and surmounted by a shafts, which are in contour, either half or three-quarter
canopy consisting oftentimes of a three or five-foiled arch cylinders. They differ from Early English examples in being
with plain pedimental head ; in many cases, the canopies attached to each other, whereas the latter are detached from
project or bow forwards. Niches are often placed in ranges each other, and frequently from the central shaft. The plan
of two or more, under one common arch, and in such cases of these clustered piers is often that of a lozenge, or of a
are generally separated by single shafts. square placed diagonally ; another shape is that of a quatre-
Mr. Bloxam has subdivided this style into two, the earliest foil, but many other forms are found which we cannot stop
of which he names the Semi-Norman style. It is the same to mention. In many instances, we see four or more main
as that styled by others the Transition style, and embraces shafts with smaller shafts introduced between them, and
that class of buildings in which the round and pointed arches sometimes mere mouldings in the place of the secondary
59
 GOT 466 GOT
a mental description, being of an hexagonal form, or made in
shafts; in late examples, small shafts occur, separated by
hollow and two a form which prevails in the the shape of a leaf or flower.
deep fillets,
the hollow The windows of this period are usually of a large size, and
succeeding style, but in perpendicular examples
is very shallow in comparison. In all the above cases verti- of several lights, but there are also windows of a single light
cal fillets are employed to a very large extent both upon the which are of a Jess elongated form than the Early English,
shafts and mouldings. In very large structures the piers are and their heads are frequently trefoiled. Larger windows
made up of a very great number of shafts. are divided into two or more lights by vertical mullions, but
The capitals are either bell-shaped or octagonal, and in are seldom divided horizontally except in tall spire-lights, or
clustered pillars usually follow the general form of the pier, in domestic edifices. These vertical mullions are carried up
but sometimes are continued in one sweep all round without as far as the springing of the arch, and from that point branch

They are frequently out in various directions, interlacing and forming patterns
regard to the contour of the
shafts.
any
of varied and beautiful design, known under the name of
only moulded, the prevailing mouldings being rounds, plain
or filleted, ogees and hollows, in which some ornament, such tracery. The variation from Early English practice is here
as the ball-flower, is often introduced. The mouldings are distinctly marked, first in the employment of mullions in the
not so deeply cut as in the Early English examples. In place of shafts with capitals and bases, but more prominent-
most of the clustered, and many of the single pillars, the vase ly in the method of filling the head or arch, of the origin of
is covered with rich and beautiful foliage placed horizon- which we have taken notice above. In the earlier speci-
of very perfect and natural imitations mens the tracery is composed of circles, trefoils, quatrofoils,
tally, and consisting
of the oak, ivy, vine, &c., very freely and delicately ex- triangles, and other simple and complicated geometrical
ecuted. Some capitals are ornamented with sculptures of forms, arranged in various patterns, and is hence termed,
heads, figures, and such like. The abacus is either circular geometrical tracery but at a later period the lines assumed
;

or polygonal in plan, and its mouldings are composed of a more wavy or flowing appearance, and were disposed with
rounds, frequently with an overlap, of ogees, and hollows. greater freedom, such description of work lieing distinguished
We have instances of continuous imposts in this style, where as flowing tracery. A
very simple kind of window is that
the mouldings of the pier are carried round the arch without in which the mullions merely cross in the heads; and ano-
the intervention of a capital. ther of two lights with a simple trefoil in the head. This
There is great variety in the bases of this period. In plan last approximates very closely to some Early P^nglish
they usually agree with the shaft, but are sometimes octa- examples, but there is another kind which bears a close re-
gonal where the piers are circular, the mouldings following semblance to the earlier specimens or triplets, and consists
the contour of the pier, and overhanging the plinth; in merely of three lights comprised under one arch, the centre
some few instances the mouldings are raised on a square one of which is higher than the two side ones, and separated
plinth. The plinths arc frequently double, and of consider- from them by mullions. The subordinate arches formed by
able height, the lower one projecting beyond the upper with the intersections of the mullions, are generally foiled, as are
a simple splay, reversed ogee, or hollow, with sometimes one also the principal compartments of the tracery; but there
or two small mouldings above. The base mouldings vary, are some few exceptions.
but consist, for the most part, of reversed ogees or quarter- The heads of the windows are principally two-centred
rounds, with the occasional insertion of one or two small pointed arches of various proportions ; but segmental arches
rounds. In clustered columns the bases follow the general both simple and pointed, not unfrequcntly occur, as also does
outline of the pier. the ogee. Square-headed windows are by no- means uncom-
The doorways have one or more shafts in the jambs, mon, especially in subordinate parts of the building, and have
which differ from the Early English examples in being con- their heads filled with tracery, as in the other cases ; some
stantly engaged. These have moulded or sculptured capitals, few, however, are entirely devoid of tracery. Common hood-
but the jambs are filled up with mouldings, which are mouldings resting on masks, heads, &c., are most frequent,
continued round the arch without interruption. Many door- but sometimes in rich examples we find pedimental and ogee
ways are without pillars, being entirely composed of mould- canopies introduced, and ornamented with crockets and finials.
ings, which are continuous with those of the architrave, and The mullions are most frequently simply chamfered, or
are composed of a series of quarter-round and semi-cylindrical in laterexamples slightly hollowed, but in more costly
mouldings, the former being often filleted up the face. The buildings each mullion is
composed of a series of mouldings,
hollows are frequently filled up with sculptured foliage, set diamond-wise, and sometimes the hollows are filled up at
such as the ball-dower, or a square ornament placed at inter- intervals with some ornament peculiar to the style. In some
vals, and sometimes with a running pattern of ivy or vine cases we find shafts with capitals and bases still introduced,
leaves, &c. ; occasionally we find a series of niches carried more especially against the jambs. String-courses are seldom
up the jamb. The doorways are not usually so much omitted on the exterior beneath the windows. The windows
recessed as those of the previous style, and the shafts arc are splayed on the interior, and the inner arch is frequently
more slender, approximating more nearly to mouldings. In of a different form to that on the exterior, its edge being
large buildings the arch is mostly pointed, but in smaller moulded or chamfered, similar to the practice followed in
examples the ogee arch is not unfrequent, and the square- Early English examples.
headed trefoil occasional the architrave is usually moulded.
:
Very beautiful windows of this style are to be seen at
The hood-moulds are seldom returned, but terminate in a Exeter cathedral, almost every one of them being of a dif-
head or knop of foliage. The arches are ferent pattern ; the most elaborate, however, and the largest,
frequently sur-
mounted by a triangular, or ogee canopy, which is finished is over the west entrance.
with crockets and finials, and the windows uncommon
spandrels filled with sculp- Circular filled with tracery are not
ture of various kinds. The doors themselves are often hung in large structures, and are sometimes of excellent design.
with ornamental hinges, as in the Windows
previous style, but the in the shape of squares, trefoils, quatrefoils, sphe-
iron-work is of somewhat different design. In other rical triangles, and sex-foiled circles, are common, but are of
respects
the doors are mostly plain, though sometimes
panelled and small size, and are usually seen in subordinate situations,
with tracery in the heads. The nails are often of an orna- such as clere-stories, gables, &c.
ARCflfllTBCTURE _ JSR'roHATKSt

^^m*wm
iflfraKi '=i5~-<S*
 GOT 467 GOT
The more simple buttresses are not easily to be distin- braces, which stand upon the wall-plates, and are carried up
guished from those of other styles, consisting, as they do, of under the common rafters. In some instances both king-
plain piers, with one or more slopes or set-oil's without any posts and collars are employed, in others, king-posts with
further decoration ; but in some cases they may be known from struts on either side, and occasionally queen-posts and strain-
those of the Early English, by their position at the angles ing pieces arc introduced.
of buildings, where they are set diagonally. This, however, A curious roof of this date is thus described by Mr.
is not a very sure criterion, for some Decorated buttresses Bloxam : little desecrated church of Horton, near
"In the
stand in the same position as those of the preceding style. Canterbury, an open wooden roof, of a construction diffe-
is

la many instances the set-ofls are finished with a pedimental rent to those which have been described. It is divided into

head or gablet, which is sometimes plain, but more frequently bays by horizontal tie-beams, with the under parts moulded,
foliated, and decorated with crockets and finials. In rich resting on the wall-plates and on vertical wall-pieces sup-
examples, the faces are often recessed for niches, which are ported on corbels, with a curved brace between each wall-
surmounted by rich canopies, small buttresses, pinnacles, &c. piece and the tic-beam. From the centre of each tie-beam
The buttress seldom reaches above the parapet unless sur- rises an antagonal-shaped king-post up to about two-thirds
mounted by a pinnacle, which is mostly of an elaborate in height of the valley of the roof, where it supports a longi-

description, being finished on all sides by a pedimental head tudinal rib or beam. From the principals of the roof, at
similar to that above described, and the whole surmounted by about two-fifths in height, spring plain braces, which cross
an acute pyramidal top with crockets and finials. diagonally just above the longitudinal rib, and rest on the
The parapet is frequently embattled with plain or moulded opposite principal. Above these there is neither collar-
capping, but very often consists of a plain horizontal cap. beam nor apparent ridge-piece. From four sides of the
Some horizontale xamples are pierced or sunk in trefoils, &c., king-post spring curved braces, both longitudinal and lateral;
and very often with trefoils inserted in the spaces left on cither the former support the longitudinal rib, the latter the braces
side of an undulating moulding. L'oi-bel-tables are of rare oc- which cross above it. The roof is high-pitched." Other
currence, but the parapet is usually finished on the under side examples of this or a similar description occur, and the
by a cornice consisting of a roll-moulding, overlapping a arrangement of curved braces springing from the four sides
deep hollow, in which are sometimes inserted ball-flowers, of the king-post are not uncommon.
masks, and other ornaments. In the richer class of roofs the spandrels formed by the
The roof still continues of a lofty pitch, but somewhat intersection of the timbers are frequently filled with tracery.
more depressed than in the previous style. The larger The general arrangement of the lowers is similar to that
churches are vaulted as before, but there is some difference of the previous style, the greatest differences appearing in
in the arrangement of the ribs, which are greatly increased the apertures and decorations. The windows of the lower
in number. Each bay or compartment of the vaulting is stories are many of them of small dimensions, and of single
intersected, not only by longitudinal, transverse, and diagonal lights with ogee or foliated heads, and
label or square hood-
ribs, but these again are intersected by others in a variety of mould. The belfry-windows are the most important
ways, so as to divide the vault into a greater number of cells, features, and are arranged singly or in pairs ; they ar<:
a practice which gives the roof a more complicated and richer of a large size, frequently filling up the entire story. The
appearance. Bosses of elegant design, and excellent workman- largest window, however, frequently occurs
on the west face
ship, cover the
intersections of the ribs, which are moulded, and of the lower story, or that above the entrance, and forms
the hollows frequently filled with the ball-flower ornament. one of the general range in the interior of the church it is ;

The same remarks apply to the wooden roofs of this period often of very large dimensions and elaborate design, standing
as to those of the preceding: we have but few examples now in this respect next to that in the cast wall of the chancel.
remaining, roof's of a later period having frequently been Blank arcades are not so much in vogue as in Early English
substituted in buildings of this style. The early roofs are examples, and when used are of a form and decoration
doubtless of much the same character as the Early English, common to the period.
but in later examples there are some distinctions, although it Thu but in some cases are
spires are very acutely pointed,
is a somewhat difficult task to decide the exact date of
any. very low, forming merely a low pyramidal roof to the tower :

In some examples the beams are merely chamfered as the latter is mostly constructed of wood, a material frequently
before, but in many they are moulded or have their edges emploved in the construction of the loftier kinds, which in
foiled or cusped in such a manner that the spaces between of stone.
larger structures, however, are almost universally
the timbers present the appearance of some description of The large spires boast a larger number of spire-lights than
polyfoil.
Tie-beams seem to have been of frequent occur- those of earlier date and not only so, but they are of a more
;

rence in this style, arid are often suspended by king-posts, elaborate description, being capped by lofty pediments
which are sometimes but plain timbers, but at others assume enriched with crockets and finials. They are also some-
the form of an octagonal shaft with moulded base and capital. times divided into a number of compartments by horizontal
Polygonal roofs having the timbers so disposed as to present bands of panelling, and the angles of the spire enriched with
to view a number of canted surfaces, are not unusual, they crockets running all the way up, and terminating in a large
are mostly of six sides, but sometimes in later examples hep- finial. The tower is mostly finished with a parapet, which
tagonal. The principles of high-pitched roofs are frequently is and sometimes pierced in quatre-
either plain or embattled,
disposed in the form of an arch, and where tie-beams are &c., and is supported on a moulded cornice, the hollows
foils,
employed, the same outline is preserved, by supporting them of which arc often filled with the ball-flower or some other
on curved braces, fixed to a wall-piece and resting on corbels. ornament. At the angles we frequently find projecting
Longitudinal braces are frequently carried from the king-post gurgoyles in the form of animals, &c. Pinnacles of a pro-
of one principal to that of the next, and are often of an arched minent and elaborate character are of constant occurrence,
form resting at each end on tie-beams, and reaching to and sometimes behind them rise ornamented flying-buttresses
the ridge-piece at the apex, such arches being frequently to support the lower portion of the spire. Parapets and
foiled. A somewhat similar arrangement is adopted on the gutters, however, are not universal, for we not unfrequently
sloping sides of the roof, the purlins resting on arched purlin- meet with broach-spires nf thU period.
 GOT 468 GOT
The mouldings consist for the most part of a greater num- by pedimental or ogee canopies, which are sometimes bowed
ber and variety of members than those of the Early English forward in the form of an ogee, and are almost always
Rounds and hollows still prevail, but the latter are decorated with crockets and finials. The arches are foliated,
style.
not so much undercut as before; in the earlier examples as are also frequently the spandrels above them. Some
niches have conical coverings like spires crocketed at the
they arc still deep, but grow more shallow towards
the
termination of the style. Quarter, half, and three-quarter angles, and surrounded with a series of canopies one on
rounds are most prevalent, and are often filleted and separated each face of the spire. The sides, too, are often enriched
by small hollows ; ogees, too, are of frequent occurrence,
as with small ornamental buttresses. Some again have flat
are also ovolos and cavettos. Another undulating moulding, tops.
similar to that in use in the next period, but of somewhat The Perpendicular style dates its rise towards the close of
different projection, is also used, and is in appearance some- the fourteenth century, at the latter portion of the reign
what like a double cyma, consisting of a convexity in the of Edward III., and prevailed until the disuse of Gothic
centre between two hollows. The roll-moulding, in which architecture. It is characterized
by the exuberance and
the upper half overlaps the lower, is in constant use. Rounds redundancy of its ornaments, and is wanting in the simpli-
and hollowsare sometimes separated by fillets, but frequently city of the Decorated style. In the earlier examples, this
run into each other without any interruption. enrichment is not carried beyond bounds, but in later times
For string-courses, the overlapping roll-moulding is very it becomes excessive, and the chief aim of the architects

common, but sometimes a simple roll or a roll filleted, or seems to have been to employ as much labour as possible on
what is termed keeled, is used in its place the latter term
;
decoration. This practice proved injurious, and at last fatal,
being applied when the roll comes to a sharp edge in the and Gothic architecture may date its decline from the com-
centre. These mouldings are used either separately, or with mencement of the fifteenth century.
other subordinate ones a hollow is not unfrequently carried
;
This style is called by some Third-pointed,
and by others
underneath. Hood-moulds are formed of quarter-rounds or
>
Florid. The term Perpendicular was given to it on account
ogees with a hollow or plain chamfer beneath, and are seldom of the peculiar arrangement of the tracery in window-heads,
returned. The base-moulds consist of one or more slopes which forms a very marked characteristic of the style ; but
with or without a projecting edge, the whole being surmount- some have objected to the name, as of only partial applica-
ed by a filleted or keeled round. In all the above cases the tion, and suggest the term Horizontal, as being much more
ball-flower and other ornaments are often inserted in the hol- appropriate and significant of the general tendency of the
lows and carcttos. style; and in this they are certainly correct, as witness the
The leaves selected for imitation in the foliage of this depressed arch, low-pitched roof, square-headed windows
period, are those of the oak, vine, ivy, fern, white-thorn, &c., and door-ways, square hood-moulds, and the horizontal tran-
which are copied with a boldness and freedom not common soms. But on this subject we shall not here enter ; the term
in previous examples.
They are also more naturally disposed, is well established, and could not
readily be laid aside, sup-
and have a less stiff and formal appearance than those of any- posing such a course to be desirable.
other style ; there are not so many sudden projections, and Pointed arches of all descriptions are to be met with in
the outline is of a more gently
undulating form than in the this style, nor do they differ
materially from those of the
Early English specimens in capitals, the stems are twined
:
preceding period, but drop arches are perhaps more preva-
about in various directions, instead of rising vertically from lent. An arch of a peculiar kind, however, began to be
the neck. used some time ere the close of the style, which is not
The most usual and characteristic of the ornaments is the to be found in any other it is described from four centres,
;

ball-flower,which consists of a round ball enclosed within a two of which are on the springing line, and describe arcs of
(lower of three or four petals, the ball
appearing beneath the very small radii, and the other two at some distance below
s!ight opening of the petals ; it is supposed by some to repre- it. Such arches have a very depressed appearance, the
sent a rose-bud. It is used in almost above the springing line being inconsiderable when com-
every situation, but rise
more especially in the hollow mouldings of jambs, arches, pared with that of the two-centred arches the rise, how-
;

cornices, &c., in which it is inserted at intervals. Another ever, varies tosome extent in different examples. This
ornament consists of an open square flower of four leaves, arch is termed the Tudor arch, and was introduced about
with a small ornament in the centre, which is the middle of the fifteenth century.
employed in Ogee arches are of
the same manner as the
preceding ; but a series of them is constant and universal occurrence, and foiled arches are
som&timcsused, the (lowers being placed in contact with each very frequent in decorative work.
other, in which manner it is frequently applied as a diaper. Arches are very frequently moulded, but in the plainei
are sometimes introduced alternately with the ball-
They examples are only recessed and chamfered. The mouldings
flower. A representation of a very beautiful ornament which consist of much the same members as before, but they are
occurs at Adderbury, is given by Mr. Bloxam in his manual. of a less prominent character; the hoi lows are more shallow,
It bears some
affinity. in form to the dog-tooth moulding, and and the projecting mouldings less prominent the contour is
:

consists of foil r. ivy leaves placed in the

angles of a square, of an undulating appearance, the junctions of the different
with their upper sides to the wall, the stems
projecting out- members being but indistinctly marked. A
large but shallow
wards, and meeting in one point, which gives the ornament cavetto is of frequent occurrence, and is sometimes orna-
a pyramidal form. Leaves, masks, heads, mented by the insertion of a square flower at intervals.
&c.,are often used
in similar The soffits of some arches are ornamented with panelled
positions.
The crockets of finials are of various
descriptions, but are work.
readily distinguished from the Early English by their natu-al The skafts of piers are sometimes simple octagons in plain,
and flowing outline, and by the crumpled leaves, so different as in the preceding styles, but are not of such frequent
from the crisp appearance of the latter. occurrence as before, and sometimes differ in contour, hav-
The niches are of a very elaborate
description, and are ing the sides of the octagon slightly concave; they may be
usually of a considerable depth, having thereof covered with distinguished from earlier examples by their capitals and
minute ribs and bosses. They are almost surmounted bases. Clustered piers are very frequent, and their general
always
GTHIC ARCHITECTrRE-PERPENJOICr LA R KXAMPLKf!.

Hi I

1
 GOT 469 GOT

plan is that of a square set diagonally,

but the breadth of springing of the arch, on heads, shields, &c., or have the
the pier between the aisles is frequently greater than the mouldings twisted round in the form of a lozenge, or circle,
depth between the arches. They are composed of four or with some little ornament in the centre. The hood is usually
more slender shafts, engaged, with hollows, ogees, and fillets placed immediately above the apex of the arch, but in some
intervening. A
very common arrangement presents a sec- specimens it is considerably elevated, the intermediate space
tion of the form of a square, having its angles cut in abroad above the spandrels being filled with quatrefoils, or other
but shallow concavity, and the four sides or flat faces orna- panelled work the upper members of the hood sometimes
;

mented with a half or three-quarter round shaft attached, coincide with the lower portion of a string course. -Double
and projecting beyond the face. This shall does not occupy doorways are of very rare occurrence.
the entire face, but leaves a flat surface on either side ; it is The jambs are not unfrequently ornamented with shafts
finished with distinct cap and base, but the surface and con- with caps and bases, but they are mostly small, and often
cave angles of the parallelogram are frequently continued not well defined, except by the capitals and bases; in many
round the arch without interruption. When piers are placed instances all the mouldings are continued round the arch,

diagonally, the angles are often ornamented with slender without apparent impost. Large hollows are very frequent
pillars with caps and bases,
while the intermediate spaces, amongst the mouldings of doorways, and are occasionally
which constitute the main body of the pier, are moulded and filled with foliage or other decoration.

continued uninterruptedly to the apex of the arch. The The doors themselves are often covered with panel-work
sub-shafts are sometimes the only ones furnished with capi- of a rich description, and sometimes with tracery in the
tals, the face-shafts being carried up to
the whole height of head. The smaller doors are often weather-boarded, with-
the building to the wall-plate without caps, but sometimes out an v ornament; the iron scroll-work being rarely employed
the shaft is continued above the capital. Three or more at this period.
shafts clustered together are not unfrequently found at the The ifiiitlnipn of this style are easily distinguished from all
angles in the place of the single one above alluded to. others, by the vertical disposition of the tracery in the heads ;
The plan of such small shafts is
commonly circular and the muriions of the lights, instead of branching out at the

plain, but they are sometimes filleted, and occasionally poly- springing into (lowing lines, are continued vertically to the
gonal, with concave sides.
The
piers are not unfrequently intrados, and secondary mouldings are continued in the same
composed of mouldings only, and these carried up conti- direction from the centre of each light, and converge once or
nuously, without capital or any other projection, to the apex twice ere thev reach the arch. The principal and subordi-
of the arch ;
and where arches are neither moulded or nate lights are all arched and foliated, the principal being
recessed, the sides of the pier and soffits of the arch arc frequently divided horizontally by transoms, which are a
usually enriched with panel-work. further characteristic of the style. Windows which consist
Capitals arc either circular or octagonal, but the necking of several lights are divided into two or more compartments,
is
usually of the former, and the upper members of the abacus containing each two or more lights, and these are frequently
almost invariably of the latter form, whether the capital and arched over in the heads. The transoms are often finished
its mouldings be circular or octagonal. The vases are mostly at top with a small ornamental battlement ; and the mullions

plain, but sometimes

enriched with foliage, which is of a present a concave outline. The heads of windows offer a
more conventional form than in the previous style. The great variety of form, some being two-centre-pointed of
mouldings consist of ogees, rounds, beads, and hollows, the various degrees of acutencss, others four-centred, others
second and fourth of which are frequently combined without again scgmcntal, triangular, and square-headed. Windows
forming edges, and have a bead underneath. The top of the of the last class are very common, having perpendicular
abacus is often splayed, and sometimes ornamented with a tracery in the heads ; they are frequent in clere-stories,
crest of small battlements the sides are occasionally hollowed
: where we also find circles and quatrefoils used for the same
out. In clustered piers, the capital is sometimes carried all
purpose.
round without interruption, and the vase covered with foliage, The plainer buttresses, are similar to those of the preceding
but more frequently the capital of each shaft forms a separate styles, consisting of one or
more projections, with plain faces
and distinct member. and setofis, frequently terminating in a slope under the
The base mouldings are usually set
upon a lofty polygonal parapet, but sometimes finished with a crocketed pinnacle.
plinth,which is sometimes double the lower one In the richer examples the faces are covered with panel-
; projecting,
and the projection moulded with a hollow or reversed ogee. work, and are finished with square pinnacles, sometimes set
The upper members of the base-mouldings follow the form diagonally and terminated with a crocketed spire, or finished
of the shaft, but the lower ones are often polygonal, like the with an animal or such like ornament.
plinth which they overhang. In clustered piers, the bases The parapets are often embattled, and have usually the
are mostly treated separately, as is the case with the
capitals, coping carried all round the embrasures ; the plain surface
but sometimes the mouldings are continued all round, as are down as far as the cornice, is not unfrequently panelled or
the plinths almost invariably. pierced in quatrefoils, foiled-arehes, &c. The top of the
The earlier doorways of this style have two-centered pointed parapet is as often horizontal, and either plain or covered
arches, but the most common and characteristic form is the with sunk or pierced ornaments, consisting of trefoils and
four-centered for smaller other polyfoils inserted within square, circular, or triangular
:
doorways, the ogee is sometimes
used. The two centered arch
is often surmounted
by an ogee- compartments. The cornice consists of a few mouldings, the
shaped hood-mould, enriched with crockets and finials, but most prominent of which is frequently a large shallow
some of them, and nearly all the four- centered, are enclosed cavctto, which is often enriched with flowers placed at
within a square head formed by the outer
mouldings, with intervals.
hood-mould of the same form, the spandrels being filled The early roofs of this style are of a moderate height, but
with quatrefoils, flambeaux, roses, shields, &c. Sometimes, The vaulting is still
later examples are of very low pitch.
however, the hood-mould follows the form of the arch, even more complicated than in the preceding style ; the number
in the four-centered
examples. The hood-mouldings are of ribs is increased, and they are frequently disposed so as to
often returned horizontally, and when not so, terminate at the form geometrical patterns, as in the choir of Oxford cathe-
 GOT 470 GOT
dral, and in many other examples. A kind of vaulting pecu- hammer-beams, one above the other, as at Hampton Court,
liar to the later period of this style, is termed fan-tracery
where the roof is a sort of curb it is very strong, but corn-
;

vaulting. In it several ribs diverge at equal angles, and in posed of many timbers, which are somewhat complicated in
all directions, from one and spread on the roof their disposition. We must not pass over unnoticed, the roof
bearing-post,
in the form of a having somewhat the
circle, the entire figure
of Westminster Hall, which is one of the most magnificent in
appearance of a semi-cone all the ribs preserve the same
Its principal feature is an arched rib
:
existence. composed of
curvature. These spring from cither side of the roof, and often three thicknesses of timber, which completely spans the
meet in the centre, or the space left between, as also the span- building, and is carried down below the top of the walls to
drels are filled with ribs, forming geometrical tracery when, ;
the corbels. Immediately above the apex of this arch is a
however, a large space intervenes, it is frequently occupied collar-beam, having in the centre a king-post reaching to the
with pendent figures of the same description, forming a kind ridge, and at the sides two queen-posts with a straining piece.
of inverted cones suspended from the roof, the surface of The hammer-beams are carried out beyond the line of the arch,
which, like those at the side<, is covered with divergent ribs, and are supported at the extremities on curved braces resting
and richly panelled. Hoofs of this kind are more frequent on the corbels, a similar curve being also carried upwards to
in small structures, such as chantries and the like, but we touch the large arch so as to form by their combined outline
have magnificent specimens of a grander description in a trefoiled arch. Above the ends of the hammer-beams rises
Henry VJl.'s chapel, "Westminster, St. George's, Windsor, an upright or queen-post, which is carried up to the end of
Peterborough cathedral, and some few other churches. the collar, and supports the principal rafters at about mid-
The wooden roofs of this period are more numerous, and way. This, as also most roofs of the kind, is moulded and
more readily defined, than those of any previous era. Their enriched with perforated panel-work, and other ornaments;
increased number arises probably from a practice common the hammer-beams are often carved into representations of
at the time, of substituting more enriched roofs in the place angels bearing shields, musical instruments, &c.
of plainer examples of earlier date, a practice which is often The obtuse low-pitched roofs peculiar to this period, are
evinced by the form of a more highly-pitched roof than often framed with tic-beams and king-posts, with curved bra-
that existing, being still visible on the tower, against which cing-ribs underneath, resting against an upright wall-piece
it abutted. The majority of examples of this style arc of a supported on a corbel the braces being mostly curved in the
;

very low pitch, so much so as sometimes to be entirely hid form of an obtuse arch. The spandrels are often filled with
on the exterior of the building by the parapet ; but roofs of open tracery, as are also the spaces above the tie-beams.
a lofty pitch are by no means uncommon. Sometimes roofs of an exceedingly low pitch, or even per-
In the loftier examples tic beams are not used, but the fectly flat, are formed without any truss whatever, consisting
principals are usually connected by a collar beam imme- only of principal and common rafters, and purlins, without
diately below the ridge, or by a block-collar completely either tie or collar beams. In such cases the principals are

filling up the angle of the ridge ;

where the collars are in often supported at the end by upright wall-pieces resting
a lower position, a king-post is sometimes carried from upon corbels at a considerable distance below the wall-plates,
them to the ridge-beam. The collars arc often ornamented and from the foot of the wall-pieces curved braces are carried
with mouldings or small battlements, which have a very good up to the centre of the principals. These braces are often
efli-'Ct. A simple form of roof consists of principals of stout solid, constructed out of a piece of stout planking and
planking resting on corbels, and cut in the form of an arch, up the spandrels.
entirely filling
with block collars underneath the ridge, as at The sloping bays of low-pitched roofs are often divi-
Stourbridge
church. Sometimes arched planking of this kind is sup- ded into square compartments by purlins and common
ported on projecting hammer-beams, with curved braces rafters, the former being increased in number, and the latter
underneath resting on corbels, which method gives the out- placed at a greater distance apart than usual. The intersec-
line of the entire roof the form of a trefoiled arch either round tions of the timbers are almost always covered with orna-
or pointed. A similar form is often constructed of the usual mental bosses, and the timbers themselves richly moulded.
timbers, and springs from the level of the wall-plate, without Sometimes these compartments are subdivided by other
curved braces, as at Athelhampton Hall, Dorset. secondary mouldings, with bosses likewise at the intersec-
Tie-beams are sometimes used in roofs of this kind, supported tions. The larger beams in almost all these examples are
by braces resting against wall-pieces, and these again, on cor- moulded, and the horizontal timbers, such as wall-plates, ties,
bels or shafts, the spandrels and collars, are often enriched with small battlements, or
being often filled with tracery. The
principal rafters above the tie-beam frequently consist of have the mouldings ornamented with some decoration peculiar
planking of arched outline, pierced with quatrefoils, &c., as at to the period.
Malvern Abbey. Some roofs again are constructed without The towers are frequently constructed on a very grand scale,
principals, the common rafters being tied at the top with and arc very often devoid of spires, being occasionally sur-
a collar-beam resting upon timbers disposed so as to form a mounted by octagonal lanterns, as at Boston, Lincolnshire,
circular arch, the lower extremities of which rest where the tower is of great height and magnificence. Another
upon
hammer-beams. very beautiful and lofty example occurs at Dundry, near
The hammer-beam is
peculiar to this style, and is found Bristol, but in this case it is finished at the top by four little
to a very great extent in the
employed large hall-roofs of square turrets, placed one at each angle ; the turrets, as also
the period. A very common form for these roofs con- the lofty battlemented parapet, being pierced in panel-work, a
sists of two
principal rafters tied at the upper part with practice very common in parapets of this period. At Magdalen
a collar-beam, under the extremities of which are two College, Oxford, is another very beautiful example, the corners
queen-posts resting on hammer-beams, and these again on of which are finished above the battlements with octagonal
curved braces. The latter are fixed to turrets or pinnacles, carried up from the ground in the shape
wall-pieces, which
stand on corbels at some distance down the walls. Arched of buttresses ; another buttress is carried up the centre of
braces are frequently carried from the end of the hammer- each face, and is finished above the parapet with a pinnacle
beam to the centre of the collar, which is sometimes sus- of smaller dimensions. Another ornament in this example
pended by a king-post. Some examples have two sets of is of common occurrence, and consists of bands of sunk quatre
 GOT 471 GRA
foils or other ornaments. In smaller churches the tower is as did all ecclesiastical building to a very great extent.
often finished with a plain parapet or simple battlement, but The sacrilegious plunder
of Henry VIII., his destruction
it is a very prevalent practice of the period to carry up a of the monasteries and religious houses, and the wholesale
of the works of antiquity whieh
polygonal stair-turret at one angle, which rises some feet spoliation and destruction
above the general level of the tower, and forms a very pic- was carried on under his orders, tended to discourage per-
turesque object. The windows and general arrangement of sons from the erection of churches or religious edifices, and
the towers are much the same as in the last style, differing the art was soon entirely lost. The introduction of the
Italian style assisted greatly in the overthrow of a mode of
only in matter of detail ; square-headed windows are of
frequent occurrence, and often appear in the belfries, espe- building which had been in vogue some three or four hundred
cially in that class of towers just alluded to. years. Pure Gothic architecture may
be said to have ceased
Spires are not so frequent as in other styles, and are never about the middle of the sixteenth century, but it still retained
what are termed broach-spires, the tower being invariably some influence for a few years later. Tho method of build-
crowned by a parapet. Where spires occur, they are of the ing adopted during this interval, has been fitly denominated
same form and general description as before. They are often the Debased.
supported at their angles by flying-buttresses, springing from Tho characteristics of this style, if it may be so termed,
the corners of the tower. The angles are also frequently may bo briefly enumerated as follows:
The windows are
crocketed. square-headed, divided into bays by perpendicular mullions,
The mouldings of this period are in general flatter, or of the heads of each bay being frequently left square, but some-
less projection, and therefore less effectiveness, than those times obtusely-arched, and occasionally foiled. The mullions
of previous styles. There is also a greater prevalence of are plain and unfinished, without mouldings of any kind, and
angles or corners. Kound and hollow mouldings are often all the workmanship is of a very inferior kind. Hood-moulds
connected without any apparent line of separation but ;
are often, but not always, used.
members of a different description are separated by either The doorways are either obtusely-pointed, or round-headed
quirks or fillets. A
large shallow concave moulding is very with prominent key-stones. In late specimens, many of the

prevalent, and forms a characteristic mark of the style. It features of Italian architecture are introduced in details

appears very often in archivolts and cornices, and is often and construction. Examples of the Debased style exhibit
enriched by the insertion of flowers, leaves, and other orna- a poverty of design and clumsiness of execution, in com-
ments. Ogees are perhaps more frequently used than any parison with those of previous styles, which will at once
other kind of mouldings, but rounds, beads, and cavettos decide their date and position.
are of very common occurrence. An arrangement of ogees In the above sketch, we have made no allusion to Conti-
in close contact, with the convex sides next each other, nental Gothic our remarks and descriptions having been
;

is of constant occurrence, and is characteristic of the in our own country;

style. entirely confined to the style as developed
A moulding of an undulating contour, being convex in the nor have we space here to treat of the former separately.
middle, and concave on either side, is common in abaci and Wo can only refer to those writers who have treated this
dripstones, as is also the reverse of this, the hollow being in subject specifically, amongst whom
the following names
the middle, and the convexity on either side. Fillets are stand pre-eminent. WhewclPs
Architectural Notes on
used, but are not often applied to larger mouldings. In German Churches Willis on the Architecture of the Middle
;

general, it may be observed, that in all cases the mouldings Ages in Italy; and Holler's Memorials of German Gothic
of this stylo are more flat, the hollows and Architecture.
projections
approaching more nearly to a straight line. From this article, we refer to the words CHURCH, CATHE-
The ornaments used, consist mainly of detached flowers DRAL, ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE, and to various
or leaves usually of a square outline, of articles of the same nature.
running patterns and
bunches of foliage, of grotesque heads and figures of animals; GOUF1NG FOUNDATIONS, a term used in Scotland,
of shields, and various kinds of heraldic devices. The rose, and particularly at Glasgow, for the under-pinning of a wall
the badge of the houses of York and Lancaster, is a charac- when found insecure.
teristic ornament, as is also a
lozenge-shaped leaf, supposed GOUGE, a concave and convex chisel, the section of
to represent the strawberry-leaf, and
generally known under which is the frustum of the sector of a circle, serving to cut
the name of the Tudor flower. The foliage is very elabo- a concave excavation in wood or stone. The basil is made
rately and delicately carved, but does not exhibit the same from either the concave or convex side.
amount of freedom of design or execution, which is manifest GOWT, or GO-OUT, in engineering, a sluice used in
in the earlier styles. embankments against the sea, for letting out the land-waters
The walls are often covered
internally, and sometimes when the tide is out, and preventing the ingress of salt
externally, with panel-work tracery, which is a characteristic water.
feature of the style. GRACES, GRATIS, or CHARITIES, in the heathen
The niches of the period arc somewhat similar to those of mythology, were fabulous deities, and represented as three
the Decorated style, but sometimes consist of mere recessed young and handsome sisters, attendant on Venus.
panels. They are usually, however, either octagonal or Their names are Aglaia or jEgle, Thalia, and Euphrosy ne ;
sexagonal in plan, with vaulted covering. Of canopies, i. e.
shining, flourishing, and gay. They were supposed by
some are flat, and others projecting ; the latter being either some to be the daughters of Jupiter and Eurynome, tht
semi-circular, or polygonal in plan, and either finished daughter of Oceanus, and by others to be the daughters of
horizontally, or capped with a small spire or bell-shaped Bacchus and Venus. Vossius de Idol. lib. xiii. cap. 15.
roof. The angles are occupied with buttresses and pin- Homer (Iliad, lib. xiv.,) changes the name of one of the
nacles, the latter being sometimes suspended from the Graces, and calls her Pasithca ; and he is followed by Statius.
overhanging covering, which is enriched with crockets and (Theb. lib. ii.) Some will have the Graces to have been four,
finials, and other ornaments in profusion. and make them the same with the Horce, Hours, or rather
With the commencement of the Reformation, the practice with the four seasons of the year.
of Gothic architecture may almost be said to have ceased, The Lacedaemonians admitted only two of them, whom
 GRA 472 GRA
they worshipped under the names of Klyta, Kleta, or Clita, An object receding from the light, and gradually losing it,
and Phsenne. The Athenians allowed the same number, but becomes at its farthest extremity obscurely defined. A
denominated them Auxo and Hegemone. coloured body, pure or bright in tint, under the same circum-
A marble in the king of Prussia's cabinet represents the stances, gradually diminishes in clearness of hue throughout
three Graces in the usual manner, with a fourth seated, and its receding
parts, and becomes dull and dark. By fixing
covered with a large veil, with the words underneath, AD the scale of gradation in both these particulars, effects of
SORORES mi. Yet Mons. Beger will by no means allow the great force or great simplicity may be produced. The scale
Graces to have been four the company there present, ho
:
of descent being made rapid, great force will ensue, from the
understands to be the three Graces, and Venus, who was strong oppositions it promotes ; and the reverse will take
their sister, as being daughter of Jupiter and Dione. place when the degrees of descent are prolonged, and less
They are always supposed to have hold of each other's contrast thereby effected. The nature of the subject, and
hands, and never parted. Thus Horace, (lib. iii. od. 21.) the situation of the figures with regard to
light, must be the
describes them : artist's guide in this matter.
"
Segucsquc nocliim solvere gratiie."
The gradation of colour includes not only the different
degrees of purity, or brilliancy of the same colour, but also
They were also represented in the attitude of persons dancing; the approximations of each colour to its
whence Horace says (lib. i. od. 4) : neighbour, necessary
to produce harmony ; and also the art of
" gradually losing the
Altornn terrain quutiunt peek ." 1

local colour in
obscurity, and yet maintaining its character in
They were commonly thought to be young virgins. In the object ; which is
extremely difficult, and of great im-
the earlier ages they were represented only by mere stones, portance, in the art of painting.
that were not cut; but they were then represented under GRADETTO, GKADETTI, or ANNUI.I. See ANNULETS.
human figures, at first clad in gauze. The custom of giving GRADIENT, in engineering, a term indicative of the
them drapery was afterwards laid aside ; and they were proportionate ascent or descent of the several planes upon a
painted naked, to show that the Graces borrow nothing from railway, thus: an inclined plane four miles long, with a total
art, and that they have no other beauties than what are fall of 36 feet, is described as
having a fall of 1 in 5S6, or
natural. 9 feet per mile. Mr. Macncill suggested the word CLIVITY,
Yet, in the first ages, they were not represented naked, as a more appropriate term than
gradient ; and its compounds,
as appears from Pausanias, lib. vi. and ix., who describes
acclivity and declivity, arc very comprehensive and sig-
their temple and statues. They were of wood, all but their nificant.
head, feet, and
hands, which were white marble. Their GRAFTING TOOL, in engineering, a kind of spade,
robes or gowns were gilt; one of them held in her hand a used by navigators in railway and canal works; it is made
rose, another a die, and the third a sprig of myrtle. very strong and curving; often called only a tool.
They had temples, as we learn from Pausanias, at Elis, GRAIN, the plates of wood or stone, in the direction of
Delphos, Perga, Perinthus, Byzantium, and in several other which it may be split into various thicknesses.
places of Greece and Thrace. The temples consecrated to GRAIN, in mining, is
applied by quarry-men and masons
Cupid were likewise consecrated to the Graces and it was : to the minute figures inmost blocks of stone, by which they
also customary to give them a place in those of Mercury, in are disposed to split more easily in some certain direction,
order to teach men, that even the god of eloquence needed than in any other,.as wood is disposed to split in the direction
their assistance. Indeed, some authors reckoned the of its grain.
goddess Beat, sheet, lamella, and stratula, are other
of Persuasion in the number of the Graces, thus terms of almost similar import. Experienced masons can
intimating,
that the great secret of persuasion is to please. The Muses generally discover the grain of the most homogeneous or per-
and the Graces had commonly but one temple and Pindar ; fect freestone blocks, or such as will cut with equal ease in
invokes the Graces almost as often as he does the Muses.
any direction. This they often do, by observing the direc-
Festivals were appropriated to their honour through the tions of the very minute plates of mica, or silver, as they
whole course of the year, but the spring was chiefly conse- call it, which are
frequently found arranged in the stone, in
crated to them as well as to Venus. Greece abounded with the direction of the grain, or beat of the stone ; which, it
monuments sacred to these goddesses and their figures were ; must be observed, is not always that of the beds or stratifi-
to be seen in most cities, done by the 1

greatest masters. They cation, many rocks having stratula which cross their beds
were also represented on many medals. The favours which
obliquely, often at an angle of from 30 to 45 degrees with
these goddesses were thought to
dispense to mankind, were the bed or plane of the stratum ; and such stratula not un-
not only a good grace, gaiety, and
equality of temper, but commonly dispose the stone to split into flags, or paviers, or
also liberality, eloquence, and wisdom, as Pindar informs even tile-stones, or slates for houses, and into the most thin
us;
but the most noble of all the prerogatives of the Graces and perfect lamina. Sometimes these oblique stratula cross
was,
that they presided overall kindnesses and stone beds of very great thickness, and have been fre-
gratitude; inso-
much that, in almost all languages, their names are used to
quently mistaken, by inattentive observers, for the stratifi-
express both gratitude and favours. cation itself.
GRADATION, (from the Latin, gradus, a degree,) in GRANARY, a building contrived for laying up and sto-
architecture, an artful disposition of parts, rising as it were ring corn, in order to preserve it for a length of time.
by steps or degrees, after the manner of an amphitheatre ; so The construction of this class of buildings has not, we
that those placed before do not obstruct the view from those
believe, received that attention which the importance of it
behind.
deserves, and we consider therefore that some account of the
The painters also use the word gradation for an insensible mode of designing and erecting granaries on scientific
proper
change of colour by the diminution of the tints and shades. principles will be both interesting and useful.
GRADATION, in painting, relates both to chiaro-oscuro and It must be evident to all, that, owing to the uncertainty
to colour: that is, all the different
degrees in which light of harvests, the produce of a year may be either abundance
and dark, and colour, may be modified, are or dearth, the frequent recurrence of the latter, in the ear-
comprehended
in it.
lier ages, obliged most of the ancient nations to seek meana
 GUA 473 GBA
of preserving the superabundant produce of plentiful years, from sieve to sieve, which cleans and sorts them in the least
in order to be prepared against the privations of less fortu- expensive manner.
nate ones. This necessity was more imperative, when the The lowest floor, should be sufficiently elevated above the
means of conveyance by land and water were less perfect earth to prevent damp, and to facilitate carting. Experience
than at present. In modern times a higher state of civili- has proved that a height of 8 feet is sufficient for the curve
zation has taught mankind to feel the advantages of a free that is described by the wheat when thrown up by a shovel.
circulation of produce, famine is not now therefore so fearful Each floor should therefore have a height of 10 feet.
an evil as formerly. The improvements in the mode of cul- The walls of tho granary should be thick, not only on
ture have also much increased the produce of the earth; but account of strength, but also to keep out damp and heat.
the probabilities of famine, though decreased, still remain The windows should descend to the level of the floor, so that
to a certain extent, and the construction of proper reposi- the air may circulate through the lowest part, and strike the
tories for storing up grain must be always important, as a foot of the heap of grain. The entrance of the air is facili-
means of lessening its evils. tated by widening the openings from the interior to the
In some countries public granaries are established upon exterior. They should be grated with iron wire to prevent
a very large scale, and in them is preserved the grain col- the entrance of birds, and furnished with shutters which,
lected from the whole of the surrounding districts. The when open, fall back on the thickness of tho wall.
French have given great attention to the subject, and the When the granary is of considerable size, it appears
following plan for a public granary, by an eminent French natural to place the entrance in the middle of its length.
engineer, is well worth imitation. M. Uruyerc observes, This entrance should be large enough to permit vehicles to
that in the calculations necessary to fix the dimensions of a cross the building, so as to load or unload under cover. To
granary destined to contain a determinate quantity of grain, prevent the division of the lowest floor, this passage is some-
the following considerations must be attended to. times made by a projecting porch, under which the vehicles
A granary of reserve, as termed in France, contains
it is can be ranged, though in a less convenient manner. The
wheat of different ages, and the duration of their preserva- staircases should be placed, near the passage, for the carts,
tion three years, the grain being supplied by thirds every
is but, to prevent interruption of the heaps of corn, some place
year. The disposition to ferment being caused by the degree them in a projection opposite the porch, or in one of the
of moisture, and by tlic quantity, and the oldest corn being angles of the building.
the drycst, it follows that the mean depth of the heap should It is desirable that granaries should not be of too
great an
vary with the age of tho corn. From these data, and by extent, in order that the grain may more readily dry by the
the help of experience, the depths of the heaps of corn may currents of air. On the other hand, as it is always necessary
be fixed as follows : to reserve the passagesalong the walls, the size of tho interior
should not lie less than 40 feet, or exceed (55 feet. In all
Corn of one year 1!).V inches. cases, they are divided by pillars of stone, wood, or cast
" " two years 24" "
iron. (Bruyere Etudes Relatives a tart dcs Constructions.)
" " three years .... 27 "
The following may be taken as a guide for the erection of
a granary in this country. The building should be rectangular
A distance of about a yard should l)e left between the foot in plan, the height about twice the distance between the
of the heaps' and the wall, and an empty space of thirteen
opposite walls, that is, 20 feet high by 10 feet in width on
to sixteen feet between the heaps, for the operation of turn- each side, and provided with numerous air-holes,
declining out-
ing. To these spaces must be added also those occupied by wards, to prevent the entrance of rain or snow. From each
the staircases, rollers, trap-doors, working-rooms, &c., and air-hole to a corresponding one on the opposite side, should
the whole must be deducted from the superficial content of be fixed an inverted angular spout or gutter, to permit the
each floor. The remainder, multiplied by the number air to pass through unimpeded
by the corn lying about; as
of stages, and the mean height of the heaps, will give the
many of these gutters should be fixed, as there are holes to
solid content of wheat that the granary can contain. receive the ends after crossing the building; and the
The situation of a public granary is important; if possible extremities of the holes should be covered with wire gauze,
it should be
placed near a canal or navigable river, in order to defend them from vermin.
to. receive or send out the grain by water, or by any other The first floor of the granary should be divided into a
easy method of transport, as the expense is thereby much series of hoppers, these hoppers to
empty themselves into
diminished. one large hopper underneath, provided with a sliding door to
For the same reason, granaries should be near a sufficient regulate the passage of the grain into a sack or other recep-
quantity of mills, whose motive power can, in certain cases, tacle. At the top of the building a loft should be erected, to
be applied to the different machines used- in the manipulation which the corn may be first hoisted by a tackle or crane, and
of the corn. These mills should not, however, be placed in be discharged over a cross-bar into the body of tho
building,
the same building with the granaries, or be too near to them which operation may be continued until it is filled to the
top.
on account of tho danger of fire, and because the two ope-
Upon drawing off any corn at the bottom, the whole of it will
rations are hurtful to each other ; the dust of the wheat be put in motion, and the airing of every part promoted ;
injuring the flour, and the motion of tlie water rendering the the process of airing should, however, be
continually going
grain too moist. forward through the numerous passages under the inverted
The aspect of granaries should be south, as the change of gutters, the angles of which do not fill up by the lateral
temperature will then be sufficient to keep a current of air pressure of the grain.
between the opposite openings, and it is most important to use GRAND STAIRCASE, the principal staircase of a large
the driest winds for ventilating and drying the grain. edifice, for the use of the family and visitors. See Staircase.
In order to diminish the extent of granaries, it is the ancient name of a barn ; sometimes
necessary GRANGE, applied
to add to their height, by multiplying the number of floors ; to the farmhouse itself. The term grange was also used in
and, as it is easy to raise the grain by the help of machines, former times to designate the farming establishmcntsattached
we thus gain the advantage, of being able to make it descend to religious institutions.
GO
 GEA 474 GRA
GRANITE, an aggregate rock, the essential ingredients is exactly like this, except that its
feldspar crystals are of a
of which are feldspar, quartz, and mica, being the same as rose-colour.
those of gneiss, from which granite differs chiefly in the GRANITE, Gray, of Lavezzi, a small island near Bonifacio,
south of Corsica, in the straits which separate that island
arrangement of the three component parts. In granite these
are mingled without order or regularity, which produces a from Sardinia, is composed chiefly of small irregular crystals
of feldspar, mixed with a little black mica, besides which it
granular structure, while that of gneiss is generally slaty.
" GRANITE is one of the most abundant rocks at or near contains also feldspar crystals, of a milk-white colour. In the
the surface of the earth, it is likewise considered as the foun- quarry of that island a large unfinished column is to be seen,
dation rock of the globe, or that upon which all secondary which had been relinquished by the Roman workmen.
rocks repose. In alpine situations it presents the appear- GRANITE, Gray, of Elba. Its grain is pretty uniform ; its
ance of having broken through the more superficial strata of colour sometimes approaches to light violet. There are four
the earth; the beds of other rocks in the- vicinity rising columns of this variety to be seen in the Musee Napoleon :
towards it, at increasing angles of elevation as they approach they were taken out of the church which contained the tomb
it. It forms some of the most lofty of the mountain-chains of Charlemagne, at Aix-la-Chapelle.
of the eastern continent and the central parts of the principal
; They gray granites are much more common than the green
mountain-ranges of Scandinavia, the Alps, the Pyrenees, and or greenish, of which the following deserve to be mentioned.
the Carpathian mountains, are of this rock. No organic fossil GRANITE, Antique green. Its predominant ingredient is
remains have ever been found in granite, although it is some- white quartz, with here and there some light green feldspar.
times found overlying strata containing such remains." There is a column of it in the Villa Pamfili, near Rome.
(Imperial Dictionary.) GRANITE, fine-grained antique. (Basalte verd oriental.)
Of all materials for building, granite is the most durable, The component parts of this sort are so minute and intimately
us shown by many of the ancient Egyptian monument*. By blended, that they can scarcely be distinguished by the naked
the Egyptians and other very ancient nations it was more Its colour
eye. approaches to deep olive. It is
very hard
particularly applied, together with sienitc, for the purposes of and takes a fine polish. The Egyptians have much employed
architecture and statuary, and many very interesting monu- it for the construction of monuments and several statues of
;

ments of and patience are still existing in the col-

their skill it
may be seen in the Capitol and the Villa Albani. There
lections of antiquities. As instances of the extreme dura- is another
variety with white spots, known at Rome under
bility of granite,wo may mention, that the obelisk in the place the name of Basalto Orientate pidochioso ; but it is very rare,
of Saint Jean de Lateran at Koine, which was quarried at for there are but two columns of it in existence, namely, in
Syene, under the reign of Xetus, king of Thebes, 1300 years the church of St. Pudentiana at Rome. Some varieties
before the Christian era; and tile one in the place of Saint bearing that name are silenite.
Pierre, also at Home, consecrated to the sun by a son of GRANITE of St. Christophe: composed of violet quartz,
Sesostris, have resisted the weather for full 3000 years. white feldspar, and green mica. This magnificent rock is
The use of granite for architectural and economical purposes found at Oisans, in the department of the Isere.
is
perhaps nowhere more amply displayed than at St. Peters- GRANITE, C'orsican, orbicular. This beautiful rock (which
burg, where not only the imperial and other palaces, but probably belongs to the sienite formation) was discovered by
even ordinary dwelling-houses, have their lower parts lined M. Barral, in the island from which it derives its name. Its
with slabs of granite. The left bank of the great Neva, composition is very extraordinary it has a basis of
; ordinary
from the Foundry to the Gulf of Cronstadt, and both banks gray granite, which, however, in most parts exhibits a con-
of the Fontanka and of the Catharine canal, are lined by siderable portion of hornblende. But what more particularly
high walls constructed of such slabs of granite ; as are many characterizes it, is a number of balls, of from one to two
bridges over the Neva, balustrades, &c. The pillars, stairs, inches in diameter, each composed of several concentric and
balconies, &c. in the palace of Cronstadt, are almost all of the perfectly parallel layers, the outermost of which, generally
finest kinds of granite. Those employed for ornamental white, opaque, and two or three lines thick, is composed of
architecture are cut and polished by lapidaries; but those
quartz and feldspar, blended in various proportions, and
intended for less delicate purposes, such as common slabs, exhibiting a radiated appearance, rather converging towards
steps, cylinders, troughs,&c. are worked by peasants, particu- the centre of the ball. The second layer, which is of a
larly by those of Olonesk. The government-towns, however, greenish black colour, and about one line thick, is composed
Moscow not excepted, are too distant from the chief granite of fine laminar hornblende ; and this is succeeded by a white
mountains, to be enabled to make frequent use of that rock and usually translucid quartz layer, of about four or five lines
for the above purposes. in thickness, inclusive of two or three very thin layers of
Mr. Brand has divided the different granites used in the hornblende, that are commonly seen within the substance of
arts after their predominant colours ;
the following are the this third principal layer. Each of these layers is generally
principal varieties, in which, however, the black-and-white of equal thickness in the whole of its circumference. These
kind is not included, one of its ingredients three parts may bo considered as the coating the interior of
being hornblende, :

which assigns it a place among the sienites. each ball is less defined than the surrounding layers, and
GRANITE, Gray, of Chessi, in the department of the Rhine, consists of a blackish and a whitish substance, the former
consists of white quartz and black mica, with surrounded by, and passing into the latter, the centre of
large crystals
of rose-coloured feldspar. The columns of the Eglise which is usually a dark gray spot.
d'Enee (ancient temple of Augustus) at Lyons, are of this The quarry of this rook is unknown, a single block only
kind of granite, which has also been worked
by the Romans. having been found in the gulf of Valinco, in Corsica its :

GRANITE, Gray, of Tkain, consists of gray quartz, black weight was about 801b., but it was soon broken into small
mica, and white feldspar crystals, which are sometimes from fragments, which arc now distributed among collectors. There
two to three inches long. The quarries of this granite are on is a beautiful vase of it, one foot six inches high, in the
the road from Lyons to Valence, on the cabinet of M. Dedree.
right bank of the The granite of Corsica is figured by
Rhone. It is very well adapted for the construction of large M. Faujas de St. Fond, in his Essai de Geologic, and in
monuments. The granite of St. Peray, not far from Thain, Mr. Sowerby's Exotic Mineralogy.
 GRA 475 ORE
Among the red granites, we have what is called red oriental GRANITE, Graphic, of Autun. Of a pale rose-colour;
granite, which usually contains hornblende, often in large quartz crystals gray, very numerous ; found in the neigh-
separate patches. bourhood of Autun, department of Saone and Loire, particu-
"
GRANITE, Red, of Inyria. This granite," says M. Patrin, larly at Marmagne. This, in Mr. Brand's opinion, is the.
l;
distinguished from others in this, that the feldspar,
is most beautiful of all granites. Another variety of this stone
instead of being in grains, or parallelepiped crystals, as in is found at the same place its
:
feldspar is white; the quartz
most other granites, constantly appears in the shape of round gray, in small crystals it is susceptible of a very fine polish.
;

or oval pieces, of from half an inch to two inches in diameter. GRANITE, Graphic, of Corsica. Likewise of a rose-colour ;
This granite takes a very fine polish, and in this state exhibits but generally paler than that of Autun, from which it is also
the feldspar in the shape of-white, round, or oval (cliatoyani) distinguishable by its quartz crystals being larger, and at
spots, in a reddish ground. The rock which serves as a greater distance from each other. It contains some thinly

pedestal of the equestrian statue of Peter the Great, at St. disseminated bronze coloured mica, and takes a fine polish.
Petersburg, of this granite the block was originally 32
is :
GRATICULATION, a term used by some writers for
feet long, '21 feet thick, and 17 feet wide; but, in order to dividing a drawing into compartments of squares, in order to
give it its present shape, imitative of a picturesque natural be reduced.
rock, it has been much diminished in size. This block was GRAVITY, Table of Specific, See SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
disengaged from a swamp, about forty versts from Peters- GREAT CIRCLE OF A SPHERE, a circle passing
burg its weight was calculated to be above three millions
:
through the centre, which one of the greatest.
is
of pounds." We have seen several fragments that were GREAT STAIRCASE, See GRAND STAIRCASE.
detached from the very block forming the pedestal of the GREEK ARCHITECTURE, such as was practised by
statue but in none of them did we observe the form ascribed
;
the Greeks. For information on this general subject we must
by Patrin to the feldspar. refer to the description of each order given under their several
Tlie publicsummer promenade-garden at Petersburg is titles, where will also be found some account of their origin
decorated with a superb colonnade of this granite : the and progress. See below, GREEK ORDERS also ARCHITEC-
;

columns, which are sixty in number, arc of the Tuscan order ; TURE,ROMAN ARCHITECTURE, 6cc.
their shafts, made of one piece, are about 20 feet GREEK CROSS. Sec CROSS.
high, and
three feet in diameter. The island, called Kotlin-Ostrow, on GREEK MASONRY, the manner of bonding walls, as used
which is the fortress of Cronstadt, is covered with blocks of by the Greeks. Sec MASONRY.
this granite, the
feldspar of which is sometimes of the kind GREEK MOULDINGS, See MOULDINGS.
called Labrador-stone. GUEEK OEci's. See (Ecus.
GRANITE, Red, of the Vosycs ^fountains. This granite is GREEK ORDERS, are the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian
composed of large lamina; of rose-coloured feldspar, gray orders. See Dome, IONIC, and CORINTHIAN; also ORDERS,
grains of quartz, and small scales of mica. It has so strong and ARCHITECTURE.
a resemblance to the Egyptian red granite, that it is difficult GREEK ORNAMENTS. See ORNAMENTS.
to distinguish them. Its
quarries are on the heights of GREENING, inplumbery, the rubbing of a new sheet of
Montaujeu, near the Papean mountains, in the Vosges. lead with any green vegetable, where it is to be soldered, in
GRANITE, Violet, of Elba. The feldspar of this variety is order to prevent the solder from adhering except at the places
in large violet crystals. Tlie pedestal of the equestrian where it is scraped oil'.
statue, in the Piazza della Santissima Annon/iata at Florence, GREENHOUSE, a house of shelter in a garden, contrived
is made of it, as are also the soJes in the for preserving the more tender and curious exotic plants.
chapel of St.
Laurence in the same town. Structures of this kind were formerly erected with slated
GRANITE, Rose-coloured of Beveno. This beautiful granite roofs, like dwelling-houses, and with large upright windows
consists of flesh-coloured feldspar, white
quartz, and some in front, divided and
supported by pillars; examples of
grains of black mica. Considerable quarries of it are found which may yet be seen in several of the royal gardens about
on the borders of the Lago Maggiore, which are worked
London, and also in different parts of the country. It was
without intermission, for supplying Milan, and the whole of soon found that handsome specimens of plants could not be
the neighbouring country, with this granite. It takes a very grown in houses of this description and the only purpose to
;

fine polish here and there it exhibits ribands, or zones, of

: which they are now applied, is the growing of orange or
a gray colour, which are composed of the same ingredients lemon-trees, and protecting other plants in winter.
as the rest of the mass, but reduced into very minute
particles. GREENHOUSES, as now built, serve not only as conser-
Many columns, porticos, &c. are seen of it at Milan. but likewise as ornaments of gardens; being usually
vatories,
The name of Graphic granite is given to those kinds in large and beautiful structures, sometimes in the form of
which the feldspar forms large concretions, intermixed with galleries, wherein the plants are handsomely ranged in cases.
gray quartz crystals, exhibiting, when cut transversely, See CONSERVATORY.
angular figures, mostly shaped like a 7; while others are less The greenhouse is a sort of building designed for the
regular, and bear a distant resemblance to rude alphabetical purpose of preserving various kinds of exotic shrubs, &c.,
writing. They are not considered to be genuine granite by through the winter season, and for growing and protecting
some mineralogists. those kinds of plants which are too tender to live in the open
GRANITE, Graphic, of Porlsoy. The feldspar is of various air. It is fronted and covered with glazed frames, but the
tints of pale flesh-red the quartz dark, but transparent, with
; aid of artificial heat is not necessary except in intensely cold
now and then some small particles of mica. This rock is weather. It is advisable, however, in constructing such

minutely described by Dr. Ilutton. houses, to erect flues to use occasionally, which may prove
GRANITE, Graphic, of Siberia. Its feldspar is of a yellow- serviceable, not only in severe frosts, but also in moist, foggy
ish white, or reddish colour the quartz, exhibiting figures
; weather, when a moderate fire will now and then dry up the
similar to those of the quartz in the preceding sort, is of the
damps, which would otherwise prove pernicious to many of
variety called smoky topaz. Mica occurs in it in small the tender kinds of plants.
nests, and black shorl in acicular crystals. It differs from the conservatory chiefly in this circumstance,
 GRE 476 GRI

that the plants, trees, or shrubs, are in pots or tubs, and houses consist of three divisions, whereby the different
placed upon stands, frames, or stages, during the winter,
to qualities and temperatures of the various plants can be more
be removed to proper situations in the open air, during the eligibly suited. The middle, or main division, may be for all
hot summer season ; while in that, there are beds, borders, the principal and more hardy, woody, or shrubby kinds, which
and clumps, laid out in the ground-plan, and made up with require protection only from frost; one of the wings appro-
the best earthy materials, to the depth of three or four feet, priated for the succulent tribe, and the other to the more
in which the shrubs, trees, &c. are regularly planted ; the tender kinds, that require occasionally heat in winter, but
whole of the roof being removed during the summer to admit which can live without the heat of a stove or hot-house.
fresh air, and replaced on the approach of the autumn, to On whatever plans greenhouses are constructed, the whole
remain until the following summer. of the inside walls should be neatly finished off with plaster
Greenhouses should stand in the pleasure-ground, near and whitewash, and the wood-work painted white ; the bottom
the house, if possible, upon a somewhat elevated spot, full to being paved with large square paving tiles, or some similar
the south, and where the sun has access from its rising to its material.

setting. These buildings are generally of brick or stone, In greenhouse there should be stands, frames, or
the

having the fronts and tops almost wholly of glass-work

and ; tressels,which may be moved in and out, upon which rows
east and west. They are generally con- of planks may be fixed, so as to place the pots or tubs of
ranging lengthwise
structed upon some ornamental plan. As to the general plants in regular rows, one above another ; by which their
dimensions, in respect to length, width, and height, they may heads may be so situated as not to interfere with each other.
be from 10 to 50 feet, or more, in length, according to the The lowest rows of plants next the windows should be placed
number of plants to be contained and in width, from 10 or
;
about four feet from them, that there may be a convenient
15 feet to 20 feet but, for middling houses, 15 or 18 feet is
;
breadth left to walk in front; and the rows of plants should
a sufficient width and in height in the clear, nearly in pro-
;
rise gradually from the first, in such a manner, that the heads

portion to the width. of the second row may be entirely advanced above the first,
The walls on the backs and ends, particularly the former, the stems only being hid ; and at the back of the house a
should be carried up two bricks thick; and if more than 15 space allowed of at least five feet, for the conveniency of
feet high, two bricks and a half thick ; at one end of the watering the plants, and to admit a current of air round them,
back wall, on the outside, a furnace may be erected for burn- that the damps occasioned by their perspiration may be the
ing lirus occasionally, communicating with flues within, better dissipated ;
when this is not done, the damps, pent in too
ranging in two or three returns along the back wall, having closely, often occasion a mouldiness upon the tender shoots
one flue running along the front and end walls, raised wholly and leaves, and, when the house is close shut up, this stagnat-
above the floor of the house. ing rancid vapour is often very destructive ; for which reason
The fronts of the buildings should have as much glass as the plants should never be crowded too close to each other,
possible, and wide glass doors should be made in the middle, nor should succulent plants ever be placed among them.
bath for ornament and entrance, and for moving in and out GRIFFIN, or GUIFFON, (from the Greek ypv-i/>,) a fabu-
the plants. It would also be convenient to have a smaller lous creature, usually supposed to have the head and wings
entrance door at one end; the width of the windows for the of an eagle, with the body, legs, and tail of a lion; but
glass sashes may be five or six feet: and the piers between sometimes with the head of the latter, and the horns and
the sashes may be either of timber, six, eight, or ten. inches beard of a goat, as in the Ionian antiquities. The ancients
wide, according to their height, or if of brick or stone work, adorned the statues and temples of their gods with symbols
two feet wide at least, sloping both sides of each pier inward, of their supposed influence. The griffin, which was
that by taking oil' the angles, a free admission may be given particularly sacred to Apollo, and in fabulous antiquity
to the rays of the sun. For the same reason, the bottoms of believed to be ever watching the golden mines on the Scy-
the sashes should reach within a foot of the floor of the house, thian aud Hyperborean mountains, is introduced as a guar-
and their tops almost as high as the roof; and if brick or stone dian of the lyre, which belonged to him, as inventor of
piers two feet wide, shutters may be hung on the inside, to music. It has a lion's head, because Apollo, or the sun, is
fall back against each pier. The roof may be either wholly most powerful when in that sign of the zodiac. The Per-
or only half glass-work, next the front ; the other half slated, sians also had a statue of him, with the head of that
especially if the upright or front piers are of timber ; and the animal.
shutters lo cover the top glasses may be so contrived as to GRILLAGE, in engineering, a term applied to a kind of
slide under the slated roof: where the piers are of brick or frame-work, made something like a grating, of heavy pieces
stone, it is common to have the roof entirely slated or tiled ; of timber laid lengthwise, and crossed by other pieces, notched
but slating is the most ornamental for a half or whole roof; down upon them. It is used to sustain foundations, and pre-
and the ceiling within should be white which, as well as the
;
vent their irregular settling, in soils of unequal firmness
whole inside wall, must be well plastered and white-washed, or solidity. This frame-work is firmly bedded, and the earth
so as to render it clean and neat. packed into the interstices between the timbers; a flooring
But in greenhouses of modern construction, in order to of thick planks, termed a platform, is then laid on it, and
have as much glass as possible in front, the piers between on this the foundation-courses rest.
the sashes are commonly of timber only, from six to eight GRINDSTONE, a cylindrical stone, mounted on a spindle
or ten inches thick, according to the height, so as to admit as through the axis, and turned by a winch-handle, for grinding

great a portion of light and heat of the sun as possible, and edge-tools.
the roofs are wholly of glazed frame-work. GRINDING, the act of wearing off the redundant parts
The greenhouses for large collections of plants have some- of a body, and forming it according to its destined surface.
times two wings of smaller dimensions, added to the main GRIT-STONE, a stone consisting of particles of sand
building, at each end, in a right line, separated sometimes agglutinated together. Of this kind of stone there are
from by a glass partition, with sliding sashes for communi-
it
many varieties, differing in the size of the particles of sand
cation, and the front almost wholly of glass-work, and half or that compose them, the several properties of these sands, and
whole gla^s roofs. Thus, by these additional wings, the their various degrees of compactness and agglutination.
 GHO 477 GRO
Some of them are used for building, others for grinding, with each respective wall. When all the openings of a groin
others for whetting sharp steel instruments, and others for are equal, the groin is termed an equilateral.
filtering water. See STONE, and WHETSTONE. The branches of a groin are each of the two opposite parts
GRIT-STONE, in mining, a hard granular or gritty stone, of each simple vault.
composed of grains of silex or quartz, cemented together, The invention of groins must have been subsequent to that
generally either by a silicious, an argillaceous, or a ferru- of simple vaulting, and probably originated from arched pas-
ginous cement. The first of these, or the silicious grit-stones, sages, when it was necessary to occupy the whole height.
are alone fit to be used in repairing roads. The other sorts, At what time they were first introduced in architecture, is
in wet weather, soon become a uncertain ; the remains of antiquity show that they are of
heavy sandy mire upon the
road ; when the argillaceous parts are dissolved and washed very remote date, which, however, cannot be traced beyond
away by the winter rains, this mire changes in summer to the times of Roman power and grandeur. Use or necessity
loose sand, rendering the roads almost intolerable. Most tra- was, without doubt, the occasion of their invention, but in
vellers will have observed this in the argillaceous grit-stone process of time they were used as ornament-!, and became
district about Ashby de la Zouch, in Leicestershire, and fashionable at the decline of the Roman empire ; they are to
numerous other coal countries, and the ferruginous grit-stone be found in the amphitheatre at Rome, formed at the inter-
district about Woburn, in Bedfordshire, and other places. sections of the radiating and elliptic passages. In the temple
The greater part of the numerous grit-stone rocks and beds of Peace, and baths of Diolcetian, at the same place, instead
of such stone in the coal-mines, are argillaceous, of a fine of massive piers, they are supported upon columns, the most
grit, with minute plates of mica, and are unfit for roads, until feeble of all supports, and which would be incapable of
hardened by the action of fire ; being still, however, very resisting the lateral pressure of the arches, were it not for
weak and improper materials for road-making, if better can the auxiliary support of the walls immediately behind them,
be produced. at the sides and angles of the building, which act as
Alarge portion of the argillaceous grit-stones have but buttresses.
a slight disposition to perish or moulder when exposed, and Groins continued to be used after the dissolution of the
can be used in walls and ordinary buildings others will ;
Roman empire, in ecclesiastical structures; and wherever
perish in a few years and a large portion of what appears,
; grundeuror decoration was required, they were never omitted ;

when first dug, at proper distances below the surface, to be they became the most principal ornament of the time, and
very hard grit-stone, will, after a very short time of expo- formed the most conspicuous features in the edifices in which
sure, fall to a loamy or clayey sand such very perishable
; they were employed at first they were used in the same
:

grit-stone strata are called, by the colliers, stone-binds, gray- manner as by Romans, but in after-times the groins
the
beds, &c.,except about Newcastle, where they are denomi- were supported upon ribs, which sprung from cylindrical or
nated sand-stones. polygonal pillars, with capitals of the same form this pro-;

In some places, crystallized granular lime-stones occur, as duced a necessary change in the figure of the vaulting, as the
in the yellow or magnesian lime-stone range, near Mansfield bottoms of the ribs rose from the circumference of a circle,
in Nottinghamshire, and such are sometimes, though impro- instead of the angles of a square, with its sides parallel to
perly, called yril-slones, or gritty lime-stones. See SAND- the walls and as the spaces between and over the ribs were
;

STONE. vaulted ina twisted or winding surface, so as to coincide in

GROIN, in architecture, the hollow formed by the inter- every part with a straight line level between the ribs, the
section of two or more simple vaults, crossing each other at angles of the groined surface were thus very obtuse at the
the same height. bottom, but diminished continually upwards, and ended in a
In the geometrical point of view, the centre of a groin is right angle at the summit of the ceiling. Afterwards, when
formed by the entire meeting of the surfaces of two or more the pillars were formed upon a square plan, the sides of which
cylindrits; that is, such, that every straight line around the were obliquely disposed with regard to the sides of the
whole circumference, on the surface of the one cylindrit, will building, and decorated with vertical mouldings,
or small
meet, every straight line around the circumference of the one attached columns, and the number of ribs increased, tiro first
adjoining. idea of fan-work would be presented at the springing of the
Hence the sections parallel to the axes of all the cylindrits ribs;
but in this the architects would soon perceive an
which form the groin are in the plane of their spring- incongruity of form in the surface, as it approached the
ing ;
otherwise the surfaces could not meet each other summit of the vaulting the ribs would be formed all of
;

entirely. equal radii, and disposed around, to support a concavity,

Hence,also, the axes of all the cylindrits are also in the which might be generated by revolving a curve round an
same plane, and cut each other in the same point. axis which was in the centre of the pillars; and being accus-
In the above definition of a groin, it must, however, be tomed to groins meeting in lines crossing each other, it was
observed, that its surface is no portion of that of the solid natural to suppose they would at first permit the ribs to run
which would be contained by the surfaces of the cylindrits out and meet each other, which would then be of unequal
and a plane passing through their axes, but only that part of lengths. If the difference between the openings was not
the whole which is formed on the outside of the space which very great, the intersection thus formed by the meeting of
would be thus enclosed in the centre of the groin and form the opposite sides of the vaulting would not differ materially
a polygonal dome. The surface of the groin is therefore from straight lines, but would not be parallel to the horizon,
equal to the whole of the cylindritic surfaces, deducting that as they would run upwards towards the centre of the groin;
of the dome. but this would depend on the angle formed by two opposite
The surface of any cylindrit is either that of a cylinder or ribs in the same plane. Thus, if the tangents formed at the
cylindroid. vertex of the opposite curves contained an angle of 120
When the cylindrits which form the groin are all cylinders, degrees, the apex line on the ceiling would form a curve
in
the two vaults are of equal breadth. receding from the vertical angle of the said ribs, of a very
In any simple vault of a groin, the planes which are tan- decided convexity but in going progressively forward, the
;

gents to the surfaces at the springing, have equal inclinations curvature would change into a concavity, and then would
 GRO 478 GRO
begin again to descend. The idea of intersecting the ribs timber-work, lathed and plastered. In the former case, a
thus disposed in vertical planes around a common axis, by timber centering is made to form the concavity, and to sup-
circular horizontal ribs, was natural ; and thus again would port the groin during its erection. The centering consists ot
several ribs, disposed at three or four feet distance, made to
generate another idea of supporting the upper ends of the
the size of the vault which has the greatest opening The
ribs, by a circular ring concentric with the axis of the pillar, :

and this being done from four pillars, would leave a space extremities of these ribs rest on beams supported by standards,
and are boarded over without any regard to the transverse
enclosed by tour convex arcs of circles nothing farther was
:

required to complete this system of vaulting than to fill up openings, which are afterwards formed by another set of ribs
the space, and the whole would be keyed together. In this adapted thereto, and then boarded so as to meet the boarding
manner, by slow and imperceptible changes, a species of of the first vault, which if of considerable breadth, must have
vaulting was invented, very different from that of the Greeks
short ribs fixed upon its surface, in order to shorten the bear-
and Romans. Instead of closing the space, if we suppose ing of the boarding of the transverse openings and thus;

another ring, forming a complete circumference, to be built the centering will be completed. It is obvious, that in form-

interiorly to touch the former arcs, and the four triangular ing the ribs for each vault, the outer curve must be the arc
curved spaces closed and wedged together with masonry, the of a circle or ellipsis within the curve of the vault, and dis-
whole will stand equally firm as if the middle had been solid, tanced from it towards the axis
equal to the thickness of the
and thus an aperture for light will be formed the same as in boarding. In making the groined centre, it will be necessary
dome-vaulting. This species of vaulting has also another to find the place of the angles on the boarding of the
large
property, that it can be carried up from a square plan with vault, in order to ascertain the place of the ribs and boarding
less hazard than the common mode of groining. of the transverse vault ; this may be done by three different
Inwarehouses which are loaded with the greatest weights, methods. First, let two straight edges be placed vertically
and where the walls are placed at a remote distance, it at the angles, and a third straight edge, or an extended line,
becomes necessary to introduce many supports to the floors : be made to touch the surface of the boarding, and marked at
these, if constructed of timber, being liable to accidents from all the points of contact, keeping the latter straight edge or
fire, and to rot, are consequently exposed to sudden danger to
;
line always upon the edges of the two vertical straight edges.
prevent which, every precaution should be taken, at least as The defect of this method is, that the place of the angles
far as may appear to be warrantable from the profits to arise at the bottom can never be found, since it would require the
from the articles to be deposited. This will be fully accom- cross straight edge or line to be of infinite length, and the
plished by the introduction of groins, which not only answer vertical ones of infinite height. A
more eligible method,
the same purpose as the flooring of timber-work with its therefore, where there is room, is, secondly, to fix two ribs
wooden supporters, but are more durable, and proof against in the transverse part, and direct a level
straight edge upon
fire and rot.
Though groins arc only employed in the lower their edges, so that the end may come in contact with the
stories of buildings, on account of the great
expense and loss boards, and mark the boarding in this place ; find a sufficient
of space which would be occasioned by the requisite thickness number of points for the purpose, in the same manner, and
of the walling ; yet they may at all times be used in cellars draw curves through the points, which will give the curves
and ground stories, without much additional labour or expen- for fixing the end of the filling-in ribs, otherwise called
diture of materials. jack ribs.
It
having been found that brick groins, rising from rect- In constructing groins to be
finished with plaster, the
angular piers, are inadequate to the weight they have to angle-ribs must be first then straight longitudinal
fixed,
support, and are incommodious to the turning of goods round pieces parallel to the axis of the groin fixed, either flush
the corners of the piers, it will be found convenient to with the under sides of the angle-ribs, or their under sides a
employ octagonal piers, and to cut off the square angles of little below those of the angle-ribs, so as to admit of their
the groin, equal to the breadth of the side of the
piers. This being nailed together ; this is the most eligible method of
mode of construction is decidedly preferable to that in which constructing plaster groins.
square piers are used ; for the angles of the groins, built in the There is another mode, by forming curved ribs, in planes
common way, as they form a right angle, are hardly capable perpendicular to the axis of each simple vault but here, as:

of sustaining themselves, much less the load the curve of these ribs must be the same as that of the cylin-
required to be
supported, owing to the bricks being so much cut away at drit of each simple vault, the waste of timber will be very
the angles, in order to fit them thereto and to each other, so great though not if the ribs are constructed in straight
;

that they have little or no lap. This scheme should

certainly be pieces. Whatever mode is adopted in the formation of
carried into practice, wherever groins are applied to such uses. plaster groins, the under sides of the ribs must always range
In the construction of edifices for dwelling, they ought in the intended surface of each simple vault. These con-
always to be employed in cellars, and other damp situations, structions will be more clearly understood in the following
particularly where there are paved apartments above. explanations.
Groins for use only, may be indifferently constructed of Plate 1. (CENTERING FOR GROINS,) Figure 1, No. 1.
brick or stone, as one or other material may be most
easily A plan of the widest opening of the groin, first boarded
the
procured. whole length without interruption ; then the cross vaults are
If employed by
way of proportion or decoration, their boarded ; the two cross openings upon the left hand appear as
beauty depends on the generating figures of the sides, the finished, to receive the masonry or brickwork, while
ready
regularity of the surface, and the acuteness or sharpness of that on the right exhibits the ribs without the boarding.
the angles, which should not therefore be obtunded. In th