BLOCK 1: INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY

The sociological imagination

Sociology is the systematic study of social interaction, social groups, institutions and
society. Sociologists try to explain social phenomena by studying groups and individuals,
who are shaped by society and society is shaped by interacting people, who by interacting
with each other can change society.
Sociology sees the general in the particular (it sees patterns in distinct actions) and the
strange in the familiar (it uncovers the constructs of society), giving people a new
perspective and proper awareness. Sociology explains that every action is the product of the
individual background, their social environment and their historical context (Durkheim’s
studies on suicide).

The origins of sociology

The founding father of sociology was Comte, who lived in a chaotic historical context such
as the Industrial Revolution, when industrialisation completely changed society (new
economic system, urbanization, political change, from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft). He
wanted to understand society in a scientific and positivistic way, sociology was meant to be
the science aimed at bettering society.

Grand theories: theories that are meant to explain everything that goes on in society and
therefore have to be very abstract.
Middle range theories: theories that deal with a specific subtopic in society.
Macrosociology: studies society as a whole.
Microsociology: studies social interactions at the individual level.

Durkheim and the studies on suicide

Durkheim claimed that sociology is an actual science by pointing out that even the most
personal act possible (suicide) is affected by social factors. Durkheim identified four
different types of suicide, which he connected to two social factors (rules and integration).
1. Anomic suicide: suicide is the product of a rule free society, there are some instincts
that can only be regulated externally (by society), if society doesn’t put limits, the
individual will fall into a state of anomy.
2. Fatalistic suicide: suicide is the product of a society that is too regulated.
3. Egoistic suicide: suicide is the product of a society lacking in integration and
cohesion: the individual feels alone and isolated and take their life.
4. Altruistic suicide: the individual is too integrated and loses theirself in the social
group, so they offer their life to society.

Classical theories of sociology

Functionalism: functionalism is the oldest sociological perspective, founded by Comte and

furthered by Spencer, who described society as similar to the human body (every part of
society has a defined function to sustain a functioning structure). According to functionalists,
everything in society exists to have a particular function.
Parsons saw society as a cohesive system with needs that have to be fulfilled by
subsystems; he elaborated the AGIL scheme (first grand theory) to explain how a
functioning society works:

● A: adaptation, a society has to sustain itself (role of economy)

● G: goal attainment, a society has to set and reach goals (role of politics)
● I: integration, a society has to have strong and internalized norm and values (role of
legal system)
● L: latency, a society must preserve its norms and transmit them to the next
generation (role of family, communities etc.)

Functionalism’s aim is not to fix inequality, but rather to preserve order, inequality has a
function and has to be maintained. Merton recognised different types of functions, which are
Manifest (intended function), Latent (not intended function or hidden function), Eufunctions
(functions that bring to social cohesion) and Dysfunctions (functions with negative
consequences on social order).

Conflict perspective: conflict perspectives see society as an arena of struggle where

stability is just apparent, Marx was the first to elaborate this view. It’s the dominant class
versus the oppressed class: the dominant class struggles to keep and legitimate its
position, the oppressed one tries to get equal rights and opportunities. The criticism lays on
the fact that this approach doesn’t involve an end and that it cannot explain the order that
inequality brings to society. Also, who can say what is unjust and what is not? To which
extent do the values of the sociologist play a role in studying the phenomena?

Social action perspective: social action perspectives focus on the actions that people do
intentionally towards other people (ex: respecting the road rules). According to this
perspective founded by Weber, ideas shape societies and change is made if ideas change
collectively. This is a macro level theory with an idealist approach.

BLOCK 2: SOCIETIES

This block will focus on society at the highest level possible (societies in general, as a
whole). Societies are based on interactions, they share a space, a structure and a
culture. Societies exist at many levels (subculture, substructure etc.).
Lenski’s sociocultural evolution theory saw societies’ evolution as something moved by their
dominant technology. He recognised five types of society through human history, the
engine for revolutions according to him is technology.

1. Hunting and gathering societies: they were quite small societies covering vast
landscapes (they were nomadic). The labor division was rudimental and the system
was egalitarian (the leader doesn’t have that much authority and it’s based on the
persona). The followed religion was tribal, so still no idea of God. Due to climate
change the population grew without a growth of food resources: food wasn’t enough
for everyone and this led to the Neolithic revolution.
2. Horticultural and pastoral societies: it was still a kind of rudimental society, they
were semi sedentary and the groups were larger. The idea of religion started to
 change: people started developing an idea of god. Material surplus started to be a
thing, this led to the birth of storage and property. Property started to cause
inequalities, first governments shaped a more sophisticated labor division.
3. Agrarian societies: with a new kind of technology and the invention of irrigation,
there was an increase in fertility and production. The population started to become
sedentary and the first cities were founded. The agrarian revolution led to an
increase of surpluses and to the invention of money: the consequence was a
dramatic increase in social inequalities (elites-peasants-slaves) legitimized by
religion. During this era the first political and administrative system was invented.
4. Industrial societies: with the Industrial Revolution there was another shift in society.
New technology for production was invented (steam power, combustion engine and
electricity revolution) and this led to a richer and healthier society, with new social
relations (Gesellschaft was substituted by Gemeinschaft). The industrial society saw
a decrease in social inequality since the oppressed started to demand and the
elites started to need a healthy and skilled labor population.
5. Post industrial societies: this type of society is also called information society or
postmodernist society. The production is now focused more on information and
scientific knowledge rather than goods, the goal is not mere survival anymore but
rather quality of life. This new society is flexible and globalized, the work organization
is flexible and there is no reference point (many perspectives can coexist).

How do different pillars of sociology see society?

Marx: according to Marx there is a foundation (economic system) and everything is built on
that: if the economic system changes, so does everything that is built on it (political system,
culture etc.). There has always been a class conflict between an oppressed class and an
oppressor class. The oppressed group thinks that they deserve the place and conditions
where they live because they have a false consciousness the elites crafted for them,
actually, it’s the infrastructure’s fault. Dialectic materialism means that if one wants to
change society, they have to change the economic system (the engine is class struggle).
Through class consciousness the proletarians would be able to revolt, but they’re too
alienated to unite and become aware.

Weber: according to Weber, ideas (beliefs and values) have transforming power on society
(the engine is modes of thought). Modern society is not only the product of the Industrial
Revolution, but also of a significant increase in rationality. Pre-industrial societies would
cling to tradition to find a way to solve a problem, modern societies embrace rationality and
look for the most efficient way to solve a problem thinking of the present and future
consequences. Technology has swept away sentimental ties to the past. To prove that ideas
shape society, Weber saw the link between Calvinism (religion according to which wealth is
a sign of God’s grace) and capitalism: the Industrial Revolution wouldn’t have been possible
in places where the Calvinist mentality was not rooted. The rational society has seven traits:
social institutions (the family doesn’t have to provide for everything), large scale
organizations (bigger realities), specialized tasks (everyone has a different task),
personal discipline (pursue of success), awareness of time (rigid schedule), technical
competence (skills gain a huge value) and impersonality (judgment based merely on
skills). This bureaucratization of society leads to impersonalization and alienation.
Weber distinguished different kinds of social action, according to the subject’s motive:

● Traditional social action: individuals act that way because they (or people like
them) have always acted in the same way. Ex: kissing a person because that’s how
you’ve always done with the people you love.
● Value oriented social action: the individual acts that way because they believe in
the meaning of that action (it is good to do so). Ex: kissing someone because you
believe in the profound value of a kiss.
● Affectual oriented social action: acts that come because of an individual's
emotions. Ex: kissing someone because you’re very happy.
● Instrumental oriented social action: this type of action aims to the fulfillment of a
goal or to an external reward. These actions are undertaken to maximize efficiency,
this is why they’re the dominant form of social action in bureaucracy. Ex: kissing
someone in order not to cook that evening.

Durkheim: according to him, society exists beyond the individuals, it’s an independent
body. Patterns of human behavior form established structures (also called social facts),
which are for example cultural norms, values, religious beliefs etc. Society has the power to
shape individuals’ thoughts and actions because the individual internalizes social facts.
Durkheim is a functionalist: according to him even crime is necessary (shapes people’s
morals). Society’s main function should be to regulate and build discipline in its members
because humans are naturally insatiable and they need an entity that prevents them from
self destructing themselves (in fact, the least regulated categories suffer the highest rates of
suicide). Industrial societies impose fewer restrictions to everyone, leading to a rise in
anomies. Solidarity is the key factor for division of labor in both industrial and preindustrial
societies, but the goal is completely different (the engine is expanding division of labor).
Mechanical solidarity is what brought together members of preindustrial communities: it’s
social bonds based on a shared morality leading everyone to pursue continuity (solidarity to
preserve likeness). Organic solidarity is what characterizes industrial society: their
members come together to pursue a common goal, but their bonds are not rooted in mutual
trust, they are just functionally interdependent to promote efficiency.

BLOCK 3: CULTURE

Culture is how individuals in a society make sense of the world in a collective way. It means
sharing meaning to actions and objects in a common environment. There are five elements
of culture: symbols, language, values, norms and artifacts. These elements can be divided in
material culture (artifacts), non material culture (norms) and cultural practices (rituals).

Symbols: object that carries a particular meaning. Symbols are the key of a culture because
they serve as vessels to share meaning. A symbol’s meaning might change according to
space, context and time (ex: svastica).
Cultural shock is a phenomenon where one cannot read the symbols of a culture.
Semiotics is the study of symbols, they are just building blocks to create systems.
Language: a language is a system of symbols that allow communication, they are
essential for culture because they construct and share culture. Communication through
language constructs bonds and meaning, it also allows culture to be kept alive: culture must
be reproduced and shared through new generations and new members of society. Language
can be verbal or non verbal, oral or written.
Linguistic determinism is a theory according to which the words that we use shape our
reality. Linguistic relativity means not having a specific and direct translation for every
word in every language (one can see cultural differences just from language).

Values and beliefs: values are a general standard of what is good or bad (morality is in
fact a system), beliefs are specific statements about specific matters (they are values but
put in practice). Values inconsistency is when values don’t match actions or don’t match
other values (ex: being against animal violence but eating meat/seeing meat consumption as
morally acceptable).
The studies of Inglehart defined traditional vs rational values (values based on tradition vs
values based on rationality) and materialist vs postmaterialist values (values linked to
survival vs values linked to quality of life).
Cultural backlash is the feeling that your cultural values are getting lost, this provokes a
reaction aimed at going back to them.

Norms: norms are sets of rules, which might be written or unwritten. Norms are divided into
prescriptive (they tell you what to do) and proscriptive (they tell you what you shouldn’t
do). Norms can be either Folksways (they define what is polite and what is not, they are
etiquette rules) or Mores (they define what is right and what is wrong, infractions of mores
are formally sanctioned). Mores must somehow fit with folkways or otherwise they will not be
followed.

Material culture: material culture is formed by products and tangible elements of culture.
Even culturally significant people can fit into material culture.

Cultural diversity

Monocultural society: society whose members share one and only one culture. This kind
of society is very rare and unusual.
Multicultural society: society whose members share more than a culture. This doesn’t
necessarily mean that the two (or more) cultures interact with each other but it means that in
one society different cultures coexist.
Subculture: patterns that set apart a group from mainstream culture, they create their own
culture within the same society.
Counterculture: cultural patterns aimed at opposing the dominant culture within the same
society (ex: hippie culture opposing mainstream American culture).
Ethnocentrism: judging another culture by using personal cultural standards, placing a
culture in the center to look at another.
Cultural relativism: judging another culture by using that culture's standards, in this vision
every culture has the same importance. The problem is that one might end up justifying
everything.
Cultural change: cultural change can happen through invention, discovery or diffusion.
Elements of culture and components of society’s mindsets don’t change at the same speed
and this results in cultural lag and problems in cultural integration.
Material culture might change but values and norms might change at a different speed.
Some people might adapt to values shift faster than others.

Why do we have culture?

Functionalist approach: according to functionalists, minds that think alike will act alike and
this creates a cohesive society that works together following common values and norms,
this is why cultural values must be reproduced.
Functionalists claim that there are some universal cultural elements because every society
in the world has the same needs. These elements are for example ceremonies, cuisines etc,
they are abstract and vague because they have to be found in every culture.

Conflict approach: the major theories on culture from a conflict approach were formulated
by Gramsci, Adorno and Borudieu: according to them culture is used by people in power to
legitimize their rule and power.
Gramsci, cultural hegemony theory: there is one dominant form of culture, those in
power control how people think and what the values are in order to get the perfect
legitimation. However, these values have to be diluted and some concessions have to be
granted in order to form and rule through consent.
Adorno, mass culture industry theory: culture is used to cultivate needs that are not
aimed at fulfilling real needs but rather to make profit. The market sells the “needed”
products that mass culture cultivated by controlling the consumer and supporting capitalist
economy. Mass culture diminishes critical consciousness and destroys high culture.
Bourdieu, cultural capital theory: there is a distinction between high and popular culture.
Doing things that belong to high culture define one’s social status. Educational credentials
setting means deciding which content must be taught, so selecting which content matters.
Owning cultural capital means knowing the content that is believed to be worth being
taught and known. Cultural capital is used to reproduce social status and keep the
distinction between higher and lower class.

Globalization and culture

What are the effects of globalization on culture? There are different effects of the growing
contact between people from different cultures.

Unification: when in contact, one culture radically changes the other, there is one
dominant culture that erases the other.
Hybridisation: one culture gets elements from other different cultures while keeping its
core elements. The problem is that the only people that can be now be brought together by
globalization are those who can afford it (problem of illiteracy and poverty)
Glocalisation: one culture shares its values to another culture by changing and adapting
the message to the local culture because messages cannot be sent and understood in an
universal way (ex: McDonald’s and menus around countries).
BLOCK 4: STRUCTURE

Groups

For sociologists, a collection of individuals is not always defined as a group. There are
distinctions between an aggregate, a social category and a group

Aggregate: collection of individuals that happen to be there at the same time, they don’t
really share anything but the place they happen to be at that time.
Social category: collection of individuals that share certain characteristics, they might not
even know each member of the social category. They have a certain likelihood to act in a
certain way.
Group: collection of individuals that meet four specific requirements: common goals and
interests, interaction within the members, rights and obligations originating from membership
and shared common identity (you cannot belong to a group without being aware of it).

Classification of groups (Cooley)

● Primary groups: small social groups whose members have tight bonds, there is
sincere concern for the other members’ welfare. This kind of group provides a sense
of comfort to the members because they feel like they “belong together” and they
see the others as irreplaceable.
● Secondary groups: large and impersonal social groups whose members pursue a
specific interest or activity, they are bonded by circumstances. There is little
knowledge and emotional ties because the main orientation is goal orientation,
which encourages individuals to craft their behaviors. Members of secondary groups
see themselves for what they can offer, which means they are easily replaceable.
Sociology studies revealed that primary groups predominate in small and underdeveloped
realities, secondary groups predominate in industrialized and big realities.

Simmel classification of groups based on group size

● Dyad: social group with two members, most intense and meaningful social
interactions. Dyads are unstable because both members have to actively work to
sustain it. It’s a one-to-one relationship so it’s really exclusive.
● Triad: social group with three members, which means three relationships. A triad is
more stable because in case of a conflict the third can serve as mediator, however,
the triad can evolve in a dyad if two form a coalition against the third.
● Larger groups: social groups with more than three members. The more members,
the more stability but also the less personal interactions because of the principle
of indirect knowledge and interdependence that characterize larger groups.

Group conformity: Group conformity is very likely because of the power of group pressure
to shape human behaviors, bigger groups exert more group pressure. Many experiments
have been conducted to prove this concept
Asch’s research: according to the results of his studies, many people are willing to
compromise their judgment to avoid the discomfort of being different.
Milgram's research: he came to the conclusion that ordinary people tend to follow with no
hesitation authority figures’ orders, but also orders from other individuals.
Zimbardo’s research: he found out that normal people will do terrible things to other
people if the situation demands it.

Reference group: social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations or
decisions. Judgments and behaviors are shaped by the reference group.
Reference group theory (Merton): the individual compares themselves to the members of
their group, but also to other groups. There are two forms of reference groups taking
(comparison): normative reference group taking (inspecting a certain group and deciding
whether to conform or deviate) and comparative reference group taking (using a certain
group as yardstick for self evaluation which might result in either relative gratification or
relative deprivation).

Social diversity: social diversity affects group dynamics, Blau identified four ways in which
the composition of the group affects intergroup association
1. Heterogeneous groups turn outwards, the more diverse a group is, the more the
members will interact with members of other groups.
2. Large groups turn inwards, members from bigger groups are less likely to interact
with members of other groups.
3. Social parity promotes contact, a non-pyramidal scheme encourages every
member to interact.
4. Physical boundaries foster social boundaries, having exclusive spaces
discourages external interactions.

Organisations

Formal organizations are large, secondary groups that are organized to achieve their
goals efficiently. Social relationships are less personal and the atmosphere is formal, the
aim is to accomplish complex jobs. These large organizations develop cultures of their own.
There are three types of formal organizations:
1. Utilitarian organizations: members are rewarded with material rewards.
2. Normative organizations: members pursue a common moral goal.
3. Coercive organizations: members are such not because of their own will, they are
total institutions that supervise and standardize the members.
Bureaucracy is the rational and most efficient organization to solve complex tasks.
Weber’s idea of bureaucracy revolves around five principles:
1. Specialization: individuals are assigned highly specialized duties.
2. Hierarchy: there is a vertical hierarchy of offices.
3. Rules and regulations: operations are guided and predictable.
4. Technical competence: officials must have technical competence to perform their
duties.
5. Impersonality and formality: rules precede the person and formal communication is
required

The major problems of bureaucracy are the four followings:

1. Dehumanisation and alienation: if the rules come before the person, the individual
feels alienated.
2. Bureaucratic inefficiency and ritualism: bureaucracy can be slow and
unresponsive, also sometimes it transforms in rules over goals.
3. Inertia: bureaucracy might shift its goals not to improve its efficiency but to preserve
itself.
4. Abuse of power: the hierarchical structure concentrates power and endangers
democracy.

Mcdonaldization of society

McDonaldization of society is a process by which the principles of the fast food industry
come to be applied to social life. This involves four basic organizational principles of
efficiency, timeliness, planning and predictability, all controlled through automation. This
theory originates from Weber’s theory of bureaucratisation and rationalization of society, who
feared that these processes would have erased human’s creativity. According to Ritzer,
McDonaldization of society is irrational since it’s not good for humans, but it shows that
people come to control us.

Society and structure

At the structural side of society is the status structure, a system of interlinked positions
taken in by people: it’s a patterned arrangement of status and roles in a social entity. These
positions can be ranked hierarchically in a social stratification, some give more freedom of
choice and grant a certain social status.
There are two types of status: ascribed status and acquired status. If status can be
acquired, it can be also lost, which leads to the development of status anxiety: those who
suffer from it usually show status symbols in order to make their status more visible. There
are many hierarchies of status (education, employment, gender, ethnicity etc.), status set is
the definition to refer to all the positions occupied by one individual. When an actor has a
high status in one system and a low one in another, they will experience status
inconsistency. When people do not know how to refer to that actor because of their status
inconsistency, they will experience status conflict.
The principle of the marginal man is caused by social mobility: one might reach a higher
status but be rejected by the members of the new group because of the promotion.
If status is a static concept, role is a dynamic one: role entails the behavioral pattern
expected from someone occupying a certain status position, learnt through socialization.
The concept of set is also applicable to roles, so when two roles place conflicting demands
upon an actor, this causes role conflict. Roles can cause conflicting demands even within
the role, this is defined as role strain. Role segregation means that people know how to
act properly according to a certain context.

From communities to networks

Putnam highlighted how there has been a significant decline in communities and social
bonding in general, which means loss of social capital (connections among individuals that
create social bonds). Societies depend on social capital because it means having members
that trust and care for each other.
Nowadays, the concept of networks is dominant, network means having people in contact
without a group’s sense of belonging: it’s a field of connections and relations. Networks can
be solid, but for most of the cases, they are formed mostly by weak ties that might one day
serve as significant resources.

BLOCK 5: SOCIALIZATION AND INSTITUTIONALIZATION

Institutionalization

Institution: collection of role expectation (structure) given shape by the norms (culture) of
society, leading to behavioral patterns that satisfy certain needs. (structure+culture).
These institutions (can be also seen as organizations) are customs, so they become social
expectations. Needs lead to the creation of institutions (ex: procreation need has shaped
family). These needs govern our behaviors, but the organization of them has been a choice,
so institutions are a social construction that are taken for granted.
Institutionalization is the process with which institutions start being taken for granted and
they even become desirable.

Berger and Luckmann deconstructed Institutionalization in three phases:

1. Externalization: people do a thing for the first time in many ways unconsciously,
without knowing if it’s okay to do so. At some point the most adapted solution is
recognised and becomes praxis consciously.
2. Objectification: the new generation views the “best way” as a man made thing and
still questions it, there is a need for legitimation.
3. Internalization: new generations take the institution for granted, they internalize the
practice and don’t question why we do that way. Institution becomes desired, if
people attack it new generations will fight to preserve it.

Social constructionism

Reality is understood through subjective definitions, which are shared through interactions
and therefore seem objective appraisals. Ex: we say a table is a table and we’re convinced
of it because it’s “common sense”, but we can’t prove that’s actually objective.
Thomas theorem: if we define situations as real, they become real in their consequences.
It’s how reality is perceived vs how reality is, objective conditions vs subjective
interpretation, what it is vs what we think it is. According to Thomas, it is more important
what we think rather than the objective reality when it comes to consequences.
The subjective accounts of reality might not be linked to the actual reality: we cannot be sure
of what reality is, this leads to solipsism (we can’t prove nothing). It is clear that social
constructionism can be taken too far.
Social constructionism is useful in the sense that it helps to deconstruct and question
norms and institutions, which means that institutions can be changed and questioned.

Socialisation

Socialization is the process with which people are socialized (fit) as members of society. It is
important that people from the same society believe in the same norms and institutions, this
is possible thanks to socialization.
Is it nature or nurture? Are social behaviors learnt or determined by biology? According to
behaviorists, behaviors are learnt, which means that anything can be taught. Good
behaviors are reinforced with rewards and bad behaviors discouraged with sanctions.
Contemporary view on this topic: there are some biological differences that might affect
some parts of an individual’s behaviors. However, to develop biological capabilities it is
needed to socialize: individuals only develop through socialization and interactions.
Sociology is mostly on the nurture side, socialization fits in the nurture vision because it’s the
process by which individuals internalize society, it’s essential for continuity. There are two
stages of socialization: primary (family) and secondary (everything else).

How does socialization work?

Freud: there are some unconscious drives that drive the individual's actions (Eros: sexual
drives, Thanatos: death), which means the desire to belong and to be loved (Eros) and the
desire to take what is wanted and desired violently (Thanatos).
Freud also developed the model of the self (Id, Ego, Superego), which explains the
Id-Superego conflict, solved through repression (repressing some Id expressions) and
sublimation (allowing expressions of the Id according in socially accepted ways, ex:
violence through sports). The Oedipus complex is the first occasion in which society plays
a role in a child’s development: the child needs to learn to stay in his place. The child needs
to overcome the complex in order to start his Id-Superego balance development.

Cooley: his theories focus on the individual, they’re focused on the microlevel society. In
the mind the self can be founded, in the mind self perception can be found. The self must be
inherently social because of the “looking glass self” principle (how does my partner see
me? Is it positively valued?). This results in some feelings about the self based on how the
other person perceives it. This theory, however, doesn’t take into account interactions:
following this theory, society is in people’s minds.

Mead: he was a social behaviorist, he looks both at the inner self and their actual
behaviors: he links society to the individual (people acting together).
Attitudes: internal part of the act, the beginning of an act.
Gesture: the attitude becomes externally visible.
Interaction: exchange of mutually understood gestures that contain symbols. There is
some time between attitude and gesture, which allows the other person to understand what
to do (delayed response).
This process works for every interaction (microsociology), also within the self there is an
internal conversation to make the choice. Distinction between I and Me: I wants to do things,
Me is aware of the sociological repercussions. The Me must be developed through phases.
● Imitation phase: the child imitates what the parent does.
● Play phase: the child takes one’s role, one role at a time.
● Game phase: the child takes multiple roles at a time.
● Final phase: the child develops the internalized generalized other, an impersonal
other that represents anyone in society. The individual is now fully socialized. Who
doesn’t get to the final phase cannot understand the consequences of their actions
This perspective goes from a bottom-up, micro cultural viewpoint (sociology of everyday life).

Symbolic interactionism

The approach of symbolic interactionism is a micro-cultural approach. Reality is social and

society is developed by interaction. Symbolic interactionists largely believe physical
reality exists by the definitions of the individual. These definitions, in part, refer to something
real, but mostly the social understanding of reality.

Blumer: he studied Mead’s theories and developed his own theory according to which
meaning is developed through interactions. Postulate means action driven by a meaning
which is created by interactions. Meaning is also adapted to the immediate context, and
subjective meaning is more important than objective meaning.

Goffman: dramaturgical analysis, he explains social interactions using theater metaphors.

We want to show some actions and elements to the front stage (audience) but some we
want to keep them in the backstages. Life is a play and everyone plays a role to make the
best impression on the audience. Everyone wears a costume to play their role and act,
everyone shows what they want to show. The stage is where the play is played and people
with power take more stage. Embarrassment is caused when something in the show goes
wrong and someone slips up, but thanks to the principle of Tact, the failure tends to be
forgiven in order to prevent embarrassment in the whole performance.

Garfinkel: ethnomethodology: social constructionism in the terms of form, social

constructionism organizes the methods (how we do social life is taken for granted).
Breaching: the art of stopping to play the game and doing something unexpected to reveal
social mechanisms. The way to do it is by applying theoretical knowledge when practical
knowledge is expected. It means breaking social rules that regulate interactions.

Conversation analysis: Taking this one step further, some sociologists argue that the
guiding feature of everyday interaction is language. To understand society and the everyday
life through which it is made, we need to look at language and the rules through which we
speak. Conversation analysis looks at what people say and how they say it, it also analyzes
the turn-taking to understand which are the power relationships in society.
BLOCK 6: STRATIFICATION

Stratification is a system in which a society ranks categories of people in a vertical hierarchy.

People are ranked as belonging to a category, not as individuals. It is a system of inequality.
Stratification varies from society to society, however, there are some universal characteristics
that apply to every society:

1. It is something societal, the system is unconsciously decided by society and so is

the place where people belong.
2. Reproduction and mobility, people can sometimes change their social position, it
depends on the type of stratification system (open/closed). In a closed stratification
system one is born in that position and they will never be able to change it, in an
open system there are no barriers on social mobility.
3. Variability, every stratification system is different.
4. Legitimation, positions come with norms and rules (cultural element) and people
must believe they deserve their position (legitimation). This is possible thanks to
ideology and cultural messages.
5. Identity, people are aware of their position and they make it part of their identity.

Kurtnet’s curve explains the stratification curve through societies (block 2).
Intersectionality means bringing together all the status positions of an individual and seeing
how they work into each other since there are many systems of stratification (class, gender,
race, age, nation etc.)

Social class stratification

There are four main systems of social class stratification:

1. Slavery: people as private property, legally regulated system (status, rights,

freedom, cost etc.), some slaves had better conditions depending on the stratification
system, it is a closed system. Nowadays slavery is formally abolished but many
people still live in slavery conditions (modern slavery), the informal owner has
complete control over them and the system is not legally regulated. Modern slavery
is the condition of those who have to do forced labor, those there are debt bonded,
prostitutes and those in servile marriages. The concept of slave is now of a person
whose owner has total control over, rather than a person who is owned. Modern
slaves have no way out of the system.
2. Estate system: system of medieval Europe and originated from feudalism. The
pyramid is peasant, vassal, lord, king and the hierarchy functions as property (land)
from the one above you for service for them in return. It is a closed system based
on mutual obligations.
3. Caste system: the status is ascribed so the system is closed. The caste an
individual is born in is tied to occupation, so they’re expected to perform that caste’s
occupations only (there are also subcastes). This is not a formal system anymore but
it’s still present since people have internalized it, different casts are separated
(segregation, endogamous marriage etc:) and there is a strong cultural belief to
legitimize the system. Every type of system where category is automatically linked to
occupation can be defined as a caste system.
 4. Class system: the status is not ascribed but rather acquired, which means it’s an
open system and the boundaries are blurred. Prestige, power and wealth determine
an individual’s status. What characterizes this system is that universal legal rights
are guaranteed to everyone regardless of their position. The legitimation for this
system is the concept of “individual responsibility”, the mantra is “if you work hard
enough you will get there”.

One might observe that in stratification systems there are many people in the bottom and as
few in the elites, how can this system persist? There are four elements that play a key role in
preserving and reproducing the system just as it is.

1. Ideology: the dominant ideology supports and legitimizes the system (meritocracy).
2. Disempowerment: the poor are kept poor because they don’t have the resources to
access to quality education or to the tools to climb the social pyramid.
3. Habitualization: those in their status will act according to their status and will want
the same as their parents. Acting out your class.
4. Coercion: violence to preserve order, it must be occasional and limited.

Classical theories on why we have stratification

Functionalism (David and Moore): according to their theory some jobs imply more
responsibility, so they need to be paid more. It doesn’t only take time to get to those
positions, it also takes time to maintain them, so inequality is needed to motivate people to
get those important jobs. It’s important that the most qualified people get the most important
jobs, so the requirement is a completely open society and real meritocracy.
The critiques to this theory are that there is no criteria to decide what is more important for
society and that meritocracy is not actually true (their view is utopian). Also, functionalists
cannot explain differences between societies and they ignore the conflict.

Marxism and neo-marxism

Marx: what determines an individual’s class is means of production ownership or not.

Marx was way too unidimensional when it comes to classes, binarism of classes.

Dahrendorf: he started from the fact that there was never a revolution, how was that
possible? The definition of class had changed in the 20th century: authority (control) is what
determines positions, not physical ownership.

Wright: profit only comes from exploitation, but some workers are worth more than others
(they have special skills). Those people can get to higher positions because they are highly
hireable and requested (scarcity rent), they are given authority, more job freedom, part of
ownership etc. as a reward because the wages cannot be too high or the profit would be
scarce. This creates a multitude of different positions and fragmentation of classes, people
from proletarians that get to those high positions don’t want to lose their privileges so they
side with capitalists.
Weber: according to him, there are three ways to get to a particular position. The first is
class group belonging (common life chances and common economics), the second is
status (being considered socially important, sharing a lifestyle) and the third is power and
party (opportunity to make people do things). One can score high in some aspects and low
in others.

Bourdieu: he starts from the concept of habitus, embodying the structural position one
belongs to. There is a struggle for dominance, so the fight is over symbols, those who
have the powers can decide which are the important symbols in their society. Deciding the
symbols means defining what is important to know and learn, and this can guarantee
success for the next generation elites, social reproduction. Social reproduction is the
product of cultural reproduction.
Capital can be used as a currency to build up to get prestigious positions, but there are
many forms of capital. Cultural capital (knowing the right things), social capital (knowing
the right people), symbolic capital (getting the right people to value as high prestige) and
economical capital (wealth).

Global stratification

Is there a link between different societies? Is there a global stratification system in which
some countries are ranked higher than others?

Theory of the five phases (Rostow): according to this theory every country should go
through the same economical transition to get rich and powerful. This transition is divided
into five (actually four) steps.
1. Traditional stage: agrarian society with limited scientific knowledge.
2. /3. Take off stage: there is an economic stimulus that shapes a common goal that
leads to a new organization. When at least 10% of the GDP is invested the take off
starts and the industrial sector becomes more important than the agrarian sector.
3. (4). Drive to maturity: products start to get produced for local consumption rather
than export. The industry switches from heavy to light, social infrastructures are built.
4. (5). High mass consumption: an economic security and stability is reached,
luxuries become widespread within the masses, a welfare state is developed and
so is the tertiary sector.

Neoliberal theory: since we live in a globalized world, the economy is now also globalized,
which means it needs to be let run free because the best countries will win and the fittest
economics will survive. Financial aid programs should be funded in order to help weak
countries develop and get into the global competition.

Dependency theory (Frank): exploitation and underdevelopment of some countries are

the key for enrichment and development of other countries.

World system theory (Wallerstein): in a capitalist world there are different classes of
countries (core countries and peripheral counties). There is an international division of labor
based on the exploitation of some countries and trade relationships are what determines the
position of a certain country in the global hierarchy. There is little to no mobility in this
system.
BLOCK 7: CONTROL AND DEVIANCE

Deviance is a concept that absorbs everything that falls outside the norms of society.
Deviating means violating cultural norms, it’s a broad concept that can be applied to every
aspect of social life. When a person is seen as deviant, their deviance will be seen as
something that characterizes them and society will give them a label according to their type
of deviance (ex: deviant in legal norms=criminal, deviant in religious norms=heretic etc.).
Deviance and delinquency is normal and to some extent good in society, what is considered
deviant changes from society to society and from time to time.
Social control is the process that tries to minimize deviance in society and that tries to
make sure that people will follow social rules.

To understand what morality means in sociology, Durkheim categorized consequences in

analytical and synthetical consequences:
● Analytical consequences: there is no social intervention in the consequence of a
certain act and it is always the same regardless of the social context. (Hitting a tree
because you were drunk driving).
● Synthetic consequences: the consequence is caused by social intervention, if a
moral rule is broken and society finds out about it, that will cause a sanction.
(Getting your driver license taken away if caught drunk driving).

Social control

Informal social control: individuals telling each other what to do, ex: significant others
telling us how to behave within social norms.
Formal social control: system of social control, institutionalized form of social control
(planned and programmed) that became bureaucratic (tribunals, organized police etc.) after
the Industrial Revolution.

Foucault defines everything that is related to social control as a matter of definition. What
we define might become real: individuals have discourses (systems of explanations) and
they tell each other what is normal and what is abnormal. If an individual is targeted as
abnormal, they become powerless. If a person is labeled, they’re not accountable because
the deviance that affects them has to be fought, not the person themselves.
The previous form of social control used to be physical (punishment of the body), which
meant inflicting physical suffering to the person who broke the law. The current form of social
control is towards the self, which means surveillance (the person’s life is completely
regulated in space and time). Surveillance is the way to make people conform, one might
think of the Panopticon model to make sense of this concept.

Social bond/social control theory (Hirshi): according to this theory people are inherently
deviant and conformism is the result of something operating to prevent this deviance to
show. If the social bond is not working, the individual will always take the deviant route.
Social bond is a concept based on four key elements:

1. Attachment: presence of a significant other whose judgment matters to the actor.

2. Commitment: being caught in a deviant act would result in losing something the
actor has worked hard for (rational element).
 3. Involvement: conformity activities keep the actor busy leaving them no time to
commit deviant actions (ex: drug abuse).
4. Belief: the actor is so well socialized that they actually believe in the norms of their
society.

Theories on deviance

Classical school (Beccaria): according to this theory people who have committed deviant
actions have chosen that because they think that can give them the best outcome. Crime is
a rational choice to pursue the best outcome considering the gain/punishment ratio. The
solution is giving people the impression they will be always caught through Deterrence
(scaring people). Punishment has to be legally standardized, calibrated, proportional
and it shouldn’t be indefinite (there must be space for a second chance). Punishment
should also be prompt (immediate), public (it should serve as an example) and calibrated
in the present, which means punishing for the action, not for prevention.
The criticism of this theory is that it assumes that everything is done rationally, plus it doesn’t
consider the case in which the punishment doesn’t serve as rehabilitation and the issues of
structural power (social determinism).

Positivist criminology (Lombroso): crime is not a rational choice but something more
prone to commit if belonging to a certain category, positivist criminology tried to establish a
criminal “type”. Lombroso formulated the phrenology theory, according to which certain
biological traits (biological determinism) mixed with social behavior result in crime. Those
who have not adapted biologically commit crime (biological atavism). In this vision criminal
people are seen as different and helpless. This theory is not strong enough because there
are some people who fit in the criminal type but behave perfectly, however Mussolini abused
this theory to legitimize his fascist ideology.
In the 70s the theory got revisited, studies revealed that among criminal people the majority
is strong muscular boys, nowadays the human genome project is being carried out
(there are some genes connected to more aggressive behaviors). However, these studies
don’t really look at circumstances and cultural biases. Also, in some contexts an act is legal,
in others it’s heavily sanctioned and even within society some categories would be labeled
as deviant and others wouldn’t for committing the same action.

Functionalist theory (Durkheim): deviance is normal and it has the function to define what
is right and what is wrong: it increases collective consciousness, people who conform form
a stronger and more cohesive group. Durkheim defines two types of needs: biological and
cultural. Biological needs are naturally restricted (humans have physical limits that restrict
them from eating too much food), but cultural needs must be restricted by society (ex:
wealth and greed), if this doesn’t happen, the actor will fall into Anomy (lack of regulations).
Anomie is a deviance and according to Durkheim the industrial society has so much
deviance and crime because most people are in a state of anomy.

Strain theories (Merton and Cohen)

Merton: the context of this theory is the mid 20th century in the United States, the peak of
the idea of the American Dream. According to this view society imposes cultural goals (what
society should aim for) that can be reached using institutionalized means (how to get there).
According to Merton, an anomie is a discrepancy between goals and means (not having
the institutionalized means to reach the cultural goal). He elaborated four categories of
deviance based on the essence of the anomy.

● Innovator: reaching the cultural goal using illegitimate means (ex: passing by
cheating during an exam).
● Ritualism: giving up the cultural goal but using legitimate means (ex: attending
university without a career plan)
● Retreatism: giving up the goal and using illegitimate means (ex: drug abuse).
● Rebellion: changing goals and changing means.

This theory explains why the disadvantaged are more prone to commit crimes, but it cannot
explain non-instrumental crimes and white collar crimes, plus it assumes that there are
universal goals. Not to mention that it is not easy to be deviant because it is not easy to
use illegitimate means to reach legitimate goals (ex: getting rich by robbing a bank).

Cohen: most of the time deviance and crime is done in groups, so he developed the
delinquent subculture theory with a focus on lower class boys (gangs). Delinquency starts
with a lower class boy having a problem, then he sees there are groups of people that will
have an easier time getting high results. The boy will notice a mismatch between his class
(lower class) and school class (middle class): the home culture is different from school
culture. What can a boy do in case of a problem? He can either change the situation
(working even harder to reach school culture, with a possible alienation from his family) or
change goals (changing his frame of reference and stopping valuing the problem as
important as conform people do). Changing goals works when in a group because the boy
has to find other people devaluing the problem with him and create their own deviant
culture (gangs). So this anomie theory states that deviance originates from frustration.

Differential association theory (Sutherland and Cressey): this theory is a social learning
theory: people learn about deviance (both why and how) in small interactions only. There
are social definitions and antisocial definitions (friends can either tell to conform or deviate).
How is it possible to come in contact with positive or negative influences? The answer is in
the ecological view, the spaces where a person hangs out will determine their network.

Labeling theory (Becker): this theory is set into symbolic interactionism, which means
that according to this theory interactions shape visions. Applying definitions creates deviants
by labeling them, which incites more deviance. There are two types of deviance:

● Primary deviance: this is the first time someone commits a deviant action, it might
remain without consequences or the person committing it might be labeled and start
thinking they are that label (internalizing deviancy as part of themselves).
● Secondary deviance: the person sees themselves as deviant because they have
internalized that label so they keep reproducing the deviant action.

Stigma and status shape actions and identity: a deviant identity leads to a criminal career.
Degradation ceremony is the act of society itself putting a label on an individual. Once a
person has received a label, other members of society will engage in Retrospective
labeling (they look at previous acts of that person with their new label).
Some kind of deviance started to fall into the medical sphere and this is called
medicalisation of deviance (ex: alcoholics becoming patients of rehab instead of just
deviant people). The label affects the response (should a heroin addict go to prison or
rehab?). The criticism to this theory is that it assumes that all deviance is the outcome of a
label, also consequences are drawn a bit too fast because not everyone who gets a label
responds in the same way.

BLOCK 8: POWER AND RELIGION

Power and social movements

Politics is the system that deals with power, according to Weber power is the ability to
achieve desired ends despite resistance from others (one with power can force other
people to do something against their will). There is formal and informal power: formal
power is institutionalized in politics and government (body of authority), informal power is
any power that is not institutionalized but people still follow it.
Power is any type of thing that can be used to overthrow resistance (even violence), but if
anything that is power can be used then society would be totally unstable. Authority is the
power that people follow because they want to, it’s legitimized power.

Types of authority

● Traditional authority: authority is given because it has always been like that (ex:
kings).
● Charismatic authority: the source of authority lies within the individual, not in the
position they’re covering: there is a cult of personality (ex: heroes of history).
● Rational-legal authority: the source of authority is a particular position in
bureaucracy (ex: political leaders, professors etc.)

How does power work in society?

Pluralist model: there are different positions of power, so power is distributed and
fragmented. There are different interest groups, different parties and different lobby groups
and they all have a say in the policy making process. The result is an alway middle
direction government and policies, sometimes there might be strange movements of the
pendulum swing that cause unexpected different heading directions, but then everything
goes back to normal. The pluralist model fits in the functionalist view and obscures how
much conflict there actually is in society, plus some groups don’t actually get represented.

Power elite theory (Mills): there is one elite dominating society and it is formed by
political actors, corporate actors and military actors: they know each other and cooperate
together. There is inter-linkage and circulation (ex: from top of military to top of politics)
because there are common interests bonding them. This is a caste, there is social mobility
only within the elites and the positions are hereditary. Mills also said that elites are largely
unaware of this circulation process, they actually think that since they have rational legal
authority they are doing the good for society (they are actually fulfilling their own interests).
Conflict model: this model has been developed by Marx, Gramsci and Poulantzas, so it’s
clear it has a Marxist and neo-Marxist vision.

Marx: there is no political equality because the state favors the economy, everything that
can be seen as parliament, legislation etc. is just legitimation.
Gramsci: he doesn’t recognize the view of state being dominated by capitalists only, so he
elaborated the theory of state. First of all he defined the political society (police, army,
legislation, parliament etc.) and the civil society (families, communities etc.) that has to be
considered in the ruling of the state. Rule means force plus consent, so one must rule
through people’s minds to seduce them to do what one wants them to do. The state rules in
the interests of capitalists but it can’t show it, so it has to give some concessions to
proletarians in order to get consent and maintain the status quo (ex: welfare state). So rule is
through ideological control (hegemony).
Poulantzas: according to him, capitalists don’t rule society and the state is not under
control of capitalists. The only thing that capitalists do is compete against each other so they
will not bond together to get political power. The state is independent but only interested in
order, so it will automatically favor the status quo (capitalist society). The state is not ruled
by capitalists but it ends up favoring capitalists, it has to keep everyone together so it will
rule through force (repressive apparatus) and consent (ideological apparatus).
Nationalism is the ideological apparatus of the state: when people believe in nationalism
then class difference becomes irrelevant in national identity because it is more important to
have a nation state (belief that everyone is equal because they belong together). If people
believe that they belong together then they will not revolt against the status quo. Also,
bourgeoises put some proletarians in the middle creating more classes and more confusion
on who is the enemy.

Social movements

Social movements are non institutionalized practices and discourses that aim to invoke
social change in sub parts of society, they don’t aim to a complete revolution but to small
changes in small groups in society. Social movements are a result of the decrease in trust
in politics in solving injustices, people organize and start doing their own way.
Social movements become more important when the political system starts to change, it’s
now formal politics vs subpolitics, top-down vs bottom-up, it’s politics of everyday life.
New social movements pervade people’s social identity (ex: activists) and make them
believe to be good and better than people who don’t believe in their cause. Movements used
to be materialistic (labor rights) to post materialistic movements (human rights).

Stages of social movements

1. Emergence: in this phase members recognise a common injustice they want to fight,
they identify a common goal and decide they are going to do something.
2. Coalescence: in this phase alliances are formed to get recognition and strategies to
be noticed and get people’s attention are performed.
3. Bureaucratisation: in this phase the social movements get bureaucratised (from
charisma to rule) to prevent the decline of the SM in case the charismatic figure the
movement rose from decided to leave.
4. Decline: at some point every social movement will die for various reasons.
Religion (sociology of religion)

Religion doesn’t want to be studied specifically and sometimes sociologists struggle to leave
their beliefs outside of the research results, this is also why sociologists have always
found resistance from society when studying religion.
According to Durkheim religion is the most important institution in society, so to analyze it he
started drawing the difference between profane and sacred objects. Profane objects are
just used instrumentally, sacred objects have deep meaning attached to the object itself: it
is not used for its designed use but it becomes symbolic.
Religion is a social institution involving beliefs and practices based upon a conception of
the sacred. Everything that has to do with the sacred objects is religious, everything that
involves using the sacred object is a ritual. Religion gives its followers morality: it tells them
what to do and what is right and what is wrong.

Functionalist view on religion (Durkheim): Durkheim started his studies looking at

totemism (resembling an animal and making it part of your identity): tribes started identifying
in totems and the totem became the clan. Religion in totemism is meant to celebrate the
clan itself, so it’s a celebration of the social thing itself. Religion serves to create social
cohesion, it controls socially and gives meaning and purpose (gives stability).

Social constructionist view on religion (Berger): religion is a social construction, it was

crafted and it gets shared (symbolic interactionism) to give meaning to actions. People
believe it so it becomes true (Thomas theorem), religion is a social construct but it has
effects on people, whether it’s real or not: people use it in their everyday lives to give
meaning to their actions.

Conflict view on religion (Marx): religion is the opium of the masses, proletarians turn to
religion to alleviate the frustrations caused by their exploitation. Revolution doesn’t happen
because religion makes oppression bearable by giving illusory happiness, thus it must be
abolished.

Organization and nature of religions

Religions can assume many forms and they can be either dogmatic (no other belief is
accepted and the dogmas must be believed and not questioned) or pluralistic (the religion
doesn’t claim to have the ultimate truth). Also, religions can be either socially accepted
(seen as conform) or socially rejected (seen as deviant).

● Church: well established form of religion (conform), bureaucratic and dogmatic.

Membership is given by birth, the son of a member of a specific church is
automatically a member of that religion. The church must avoid being seen as
deviant so its rules must be as abstract as possible in order not to clash with
society’s rules.
● Denomination: these religions are pluralistic and socially accepted, they don’t
make the claim for the ultimate truth.
● Sect: these religions are rejected by society but they also reject society. They are
dogmatic (members cannot believe in anything but the sect’s beliefs) but less
bureaucratic than churches, they revolve around people (they originate from a
 charismatic person). Sects are younger organizations than churches, so members
tend to be converted rather than born into the sect. All churches started as a sect,
so sects are just young churches.
● Cult: cults revolve around an individual leader and specify in one dimension (if the
leader has an idea about a specific topic, then that’s where the focus will lie). They
are marginal (rejected by society) and not so structured and stable.

Secularisation: decline of need for supernatural explanation, religious organizations react

by redirecting to profane issues (missionaries using their organization for mundane
purposes). Religion is only lived in the private sphere now.

Why secularization? According to Durkheim progress in society leads to different positions

and collective consciousness erodes (which means, religion erodes): the cause of
secularization is social differentiation. According to Weber and Berger progress leads to
making things in the most efficient and rational way, so rituals are rejected.

Desecularization in a post-modern world? In post-modern society the belief of different

truths coexisting is widely spread, and not everything can be explained with science, so
maybe religion is actually needed. If the supply doesn’t meet the demand anymore it needs
to be adjusted: sects are turned into churches that will eventually die and the cycle will
repeat all over again.

Fundamentalism: conservative religious doctrine that opposes intellectualism in favor of

restoring traditional spirituality. It is an extreme reaction to secularization, sacred texts are
taken as literal. There is a trend that shows that marginalized people in society are the
ones that turn to fundamentalism, and those using fundamentalism for political scopes are
just targeting the marginalized.

BLOCK 9: FROM THEORY TO METHOD

Sociology does not just describe, it gives explanations and has theories that can be tested.
Epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge, sociology of knowledge studies the
relationship between social context and knowledge and interpretation of the world. Social
facts (social positions) determine how an individual does and how they think. But what about
scientific knowledge? Is it also determined by the people the scientist is surrounded with?
Is scientific truth actually objective?

Paradigm (Kuhn): a paradigm is a set of beliefs which determines the questions that can
be asked, the tools that can be used and the results that can be obtained. Scientific
socialization means getting socialized with the dominant paradigm well. Normal science is
the science conducted within the internalized dominant paradigm.
At some point there will be recurrent anomalies within the normal science so scientists will
start questioning the paradigm and another paradigm will substitute it (paradigm shift). At
this point another paradigm has to be socialized. At the end of the day paradigms are just
different ways to look at the same thing, so what can be defined as objective?
Popper: according to Popper science can be objective and there are objective theories,
however, they cannot be proven. Since theories cannot be proven, they can be believed to
be true until they are proven not to be (until they get debunked). A scientist shouldn’t strive
to prove their theories, they should rather attack them as much as they can. It takes just one
rejection to debunk a theory.

Sociological perspectives

Structuralism: macro level, structure. Social facts determine individuals’ actions (from
above). Structure determines individuals: determinism. (Durkheim)
Formal sociology: micro level, structure. The position people take determines their
actions within interactions (from above). Structure determines individuals when it comes to
interactions. (Simmel)
Symbolic interactionism: micro level, culture. People in their daily culture deal with
different perspectives in daily interactions and this shapes the meaning they give to things.
(Mead, Blumer)
Sociology of social actions: macro level, culture. Ideas being shared by a group on the
macro level have effects on the individuals. (Weber)

Structure: processes are unconscious, it’s very abstract, individuals cannot tell social
facts are actively influencing them. The position an individual takes in society affects them,
it has specific consequences whether people are aware of it or not.
Culture: processes are conscious, individuals can tell culture is actively having effects on
them. What meaning/response does an individual give when exposed to a certain symbol?
Macro: collective perspective, the analyzed group is seen as a whole.
Micro: analysis of interactions within people, one level of analysis because it does not
come up with collective perspective.

Every topic and research theme can be watched from every point. Generalisation means
aiming that the result will be applicable to the more people possible (it has to be really
abstract to be generalized).

From Ontology to Methodology

Before we start our research we must ask ourselves some theoretical, ontological,
epistemological and methodological questions that will help us to choose the best
approach/method to use. What kind of knowledge are we aiming for? Where do you see the
essence of reality? What knowledge can be produced? Which methods should be used?

Theoretical answers

Generalization: this research focus aims to get results that will be applicable to everyone,
but since humans are different the statement must be the most abstract possible, losing in
depth.
In depth comprehension: this research focus wants to fully understand a specific case,
so the focus will be on a specific case only, losing in generalization (the results will only be
applicable to that specific case.
Ontological answers

Nominalism: the essence of reality is in people’s minds, in their interpretations. There is no

such thing as reality if everyone gives a different meaning.
Realism: the essence of reality is in reality, it can be studied and it can be objective.

Epistemological answers

Subjectivism: (anti-positivism), this type of research will try to come up with an

understanding of the meaning that people give to symbols, it tries to understand their
interpretations. The researcher will interact with subjects.
Objectivism: (positivism), this type of research will try to come up with systematic
observations based on empirical evidence. The researcher will observe subjects.

Methodological answers

Idiographic: for humanist research, provides in depth comprehension. Subjects can be

questioned and their answers can be used as data and this can be considered scientific. It
allows us to come up with a causal statement (meaning-action), data should be turned into
numbers, interpreted and then the researcher should present their data to the respondents
and see if those results make sense to them (to see if it has causal adequacy). This is a
qualitative method.
Nomothetic: for positivist research, knowledge by observation (empirical evidence),
knowledge is produced using natural science methods (causal law, generalization), the
research aims to be objective (value free, the researcher shouldn’t interfere) and it should
self-correct. This is a quantitative method. However, in the social sciences there are many
challenges to positivism, like the Hawthorne effect (people knowing they were subjects of
research feel important and this modies the outcomes) or the difficulty in leaving personal
values outside of the research.

The research cycle

Theory —deduction—> Hypothesis —conceptual model—> Empiry —empirical

analysis—> Empirical generalization —induction—> Theory…
Qualitative method starts from empiry, quantitative method starts from theory. Both methods
are needed and you can actually start from every step.

Mertonian norms for good science (CUDOs norms)

Communalism: science and scientific results must belong to everyone, no private

ownership of scientific knowledge.
Universalism: the researcher has to make sure that what they found is valid and not
influenced by their background and values.
Disinterestedness: as a researcher, the results shouldn’t be your concern (whether the
result is A or B, the researcher should be happy with their result). The problem rises when
the research is funded by private industries that “need” a certain result.
Organized skepticism: conclusions should be always questioned and other explanations
should be always considered.