The Scientific Method

The basic scientific method includes the steps scientists use and follow when trying to solve a problem or prove or
disprove a theory. The methods are used by scientists all over the world. This is done so scientists can work together
to solve some of the same problems.
There are usually five steps which are a part of the scientific method. The steps can occur in any order, but the first
step is usually observation. An observation is the use of one or more of the five senses, which include seeing,
hearing, feeling, smelling, and tasting. The five senses are used to learn about or identify an event or object the
scientist wants to study. For example, while observing a spider a scientist may observe the pattern or size of the
spider's web.
The second step of the scientific method is the question being researched, the hypothesis. It is the question that is
turned into a statement about an event or object the scientist would like to research. A good hypothesis includes
three things: The explanation for the observations, it is able to be tested by other scientists, and it will usually
predict new outcomes or conclusions. The scientist observing the spider building the web may have a question
about the strength of the web. An example of the hypothesis might be: The larger the spider, the stronger the web.
This hypothesis includes the explanation for the observation, it can be tested, and new conclusions may be reached.
The third step of the scientific method is the experiment. An experiment is a test which will either challenge or
support the hypothesis. The hypothesis will then be true or false. Using the spider hypothesis, a scientist may
experiment by measuring spider webs in relation to a spider's size. Often, even when a hypothesis is disproved
much can still be learned during the experiment. For example, while measuring the strength of spider webs the
scientist may discover something new about them.
The final step in the scientific method is the conclusion. The conclusion will either clearly support the hypothesis
or it will not. If the results support the hypothesis a conclusion can be written. If it does not support the hypothesis,
the scientist may choose to change the hypothesis or write a new one based on what was learned during the
experiment. In the example, if the scientist proves that larger spiders build stronger webs, then that is the
conclusion. If it was not proven, the scientist may change the hypothesis to: The size of a spider does has no bearing
on the strength of its web.
The scientific method is used for simple experiments students may do in the classroom or very complex or difficult
experiments being done all over the world. The spider experiment may be done by any scientist in the world.
In summary, the scientific method includes the steps scientists use to solve a problem or to prove or disprove a
theory. There are four basic steps involved with the scientific method. The usual steps include observation,
hypothesis, experiment, and conclusion. The steps may not always be completed in the same order. Following the
four steps, the results of the experiment will either support the hypothesis or will not support the hypothesis.
Scientists are always free to change or write a new hypothesis and start the four steps all over again. The scientific
method is used for simple experiments or for more difficult experiments.

1
Photosynthesis
All living things need food and energy to survive. The food-making and energy process for plants to survive is called
photosynthesis. Plants make food and produce oxygen through photosynthesis. The process is complex but with
the sun, water, nutrients from the soil, oxygen, and chlorophyll, a plant makes its own food in order to survive.
Chlorophyll is a green chemical inside a plant that allows plants to use the Sun's energy to make food. Without
chlorophyll a green plant would not be able to survive.
The following are the steps in photosynthesis:
1. The sunlight is absorbed through a plant by its leaves, or other green parts.
2. The water and nutrients from the soil are absorbed through the roots of the plant.
3. The chlorophyll inside the plant's leaves traps the energy from the sunlight.
4. Carbon dioxide in the air enters through the leaves of the plants. (Carbon dioxide is carbon and oxygen
combined.)
5. Inside the chlorophyll there are chloroplasts which contain water and the carbon dioxide from the air.
6. The chloroplasts are like tiny manufacturing plants. The water and carbon dioxide from the air combine to make
sugar and water. Basically, it is the food for the plant to survive and grow.
7. Sugar is then made and released into the veins of the leaf and it spreads throughout the rest of the plant.
8. The oxygen the plant has made is then released into the air.

The entire process is called photosynthesis, and without it people and other animals would not be able to live and
grow. This is the reason it is important for the survival of trees and plants. They give off oxygen which help people
and other animals to breathe.
The plants also give people and animals food to eat. The food could be the different kinds of fruit or the many
varieties of vegetables from apples and oranges to green beans and peas.
When people and animals eat this food from the plants it also gives them the energy to live and grow. Without
plants, animals and people would not be able to survive.
During the fall in certain parts of the world photosynthesis no longer takes place. When this happens the leaves
begin to turn different colors. The leaves may turn yellow, orange or maybe even red, or a combination of those
colors. Surprisingly, these colors are the original colors of the leaves.
In the spring and summer there is too much green color from the chlorophyll for the leaves to be seen as their
original colors. As the temperature drops, though, the leaves of trees, other than evergreens, stop making the
chlorophyll. The chlorophyll begins to vanish and the leaves begin to change colors.
In summary, photosynthesis is the food-making and energy process for plants to survive. A plant's leaves contain
chlorophyll which is a green chemical inside a plant that allows plants to use the Sun's energy to make food.
Chloroplast inside the chlorophyll contain water and the carbon dioxide from the air to make the food for the plant
to survive. Without photosynthesis, the plants would not be able to live and grow.

2
The Solar System
The solar system is the Sun and the objects that travel around it. The Earth is part of the solar system because it
also travels around the sun.
The Sun is a star similar to the other stars in the sky but it is much closer to the Earth. The Sun is mostly a big ball
of gases composed mainly of hydrogen and helium.
There are seven other planets that travel around the sun, too. These planets, in order, include Mercury, Venus,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Earth is located between Venus and Mars. The path the planets use
when traveling around the sun is oval-shaped and is called its orbit. Each of the planets in the solar system take a
different amount of time to orbit or travel around the Sun.
The planet Earth takes 365 days or one year to orbit the Sun. The other planets take more or less time to orbit the
Sun. It takes Mercury less than two months or 88 days to travel around the Sun. It is the shortest time compared to
the other planets. The planet taking the longest time to go around the Sun is Neptune. It takes Neptune almost 165
years to travel around the Sun.
The planets of the solar system are also a variety of sizes and are made up of different substances. The largest
planet in the solar system is Jupiter. Over 1,000 Earths could fill the size of Jupiter. The smallest planet is Mercury,
which is also the closest planet to the Sun. Earth and Venus are similar in size to each other.
The four inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are made of rock containing many different minerals. The
four outer planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are mostly made up of different gases. Jupiter is mainly
helium, hydrogen, and water. The four outer planets also have rings that encircle them with Saturn having the most
rings.
Other objects in space include the moons of six planets. A moon is a celestial object (object in space) that orbits
another body in space. There are approximately 173 moons throughout the solar system. Earth has a single moon,
Mercury and Venus have none, and the planet with the most moons is Jupiter with 63. Not far behind Jupiter is
Saturn with 62 moons.
The asteroid belt is another object in the solar system. The asteroid belt is approximately located between the
orbits of the planets Mars and Jupiter. The asteroid belt contains irregularly shaped bodies called asteroids which
are believed to be left over from the beginning of the solar system 4.6 billion years ago. The objects are rocky and
irregular in shape, and some may be hundreds of miles across, but most of the asteroids are very small.
In summary, the solar system is the Sun and the objects that travel around it including the eight planets: Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Each of the planets follow an oval-shaped path around
the Sun which is called the planet's orbit. Many of the planets also have moons which are celestial objects that orbit
another body in space. Finally, there is also an asteroid belt located between Mars and Jupiter containing irregularly
shaped objects called asteroids.

3
Storms, Tornadoes, and Hurricanes
There are different types of storms which can occur anywhere in the world are thunderstorms, tornadoes, and
hurricanes. Each of these thunderstorms can become strong enough to cause severe damage, property loss, or
worse.
The first type is the thunderstorm, which is the most common kind of storm. Thunderstorms can produce lightning,
thunder, rain, sleet, hail, or even snow. Thunderstorms form in clouds called thunderheads or cumulonimbus clouds
where the storms cause lightning. The lightning in turn heats the air and causes a noise called thunder. Most
thunderstorms have heavy rain and high winds. Thunderstorms can occur anywhere in the world.
A second type of storm which is spun off of violent thunderstorms is called a tornado. A tornado is a powerful
spinning wind that moves across the ground in a narrow path. These form when the Earth's surface is very warm
and the warm air rises and gets very strong. This can lead to a tornado. The air rushes in from all sides at very high
speeds, and the air curves into a spin. As the tornado gets stronger, a funnel will form and in most cases it will
eventually touch the ground. In the center of a tornado the wind speeds can reach about 300 miles per hour. The
speed inside the funnel, though, is not the same speed at which the tornado moves across the ground. The tornado
moves at different speeds and may change directions. Everything in the path of a tornado can be destroyed. Most
tornadoes in the United States take place in the Midwest and in the South during the early spring or summer. When
a tornado forms over water it is called a waterspout.
The final type of storm is a hurricane. Hurricanes are very large swirling storms with very low pressure at their
center that form over warm tropical oceans near the equator. Hurricanes create a large number of thunderstorms
while they are moving across the water and when heading towards landfall. Some hurricanes may also produce
tornadoes as they move closer to land. In addition, they cause high waves and widespread flooding in coastal areas.
The weather in the eye of a hurricane is usually calm. The eye of a hurricane can be anywhere 2 to 200 miles in
diameter. As a hurricane arrives on land they begin to lose some of their strength but are still very dangerous and
can cause serious damage to property and may cause the loss of life. The wind flow of hurricanes above the equator
is clockwise, but the wind flow for hurricanes below the equator are counter-clockwise. Hurricanes may also be
called or referred to as tropical storms, cyclones, or typhoons.

4
Atoms and Molecules
The tiny particles that make up elements are called atoms. An atom is the smallest unit of an element that retains
or keeps the properties of that element. For example, the atoms that make up oxygen can never be changed.
The inside of an atom contains three different kinds of particles as well. They are called protons, neutrons, and
electrons. Surprisingly, atoms are not solid, they are mostly empty space. There is a tiny, very dense body in the
center of an atom called the nucleus. Inside the nucleus are the protons and neutrons. The electrons are in the
space outside the nucleus.
A proton carries one unit of positive electric charge. An electron carries one unit of a negative electric charge.
Neutrons have no electric charges. The number of protons in an atom determines what the element is. An oxygen
atom, for example, has eight protons.
The Periodic Table of Elements shows the number of protons for each element. The element or substance called
sodium has eleven protons. Sodium is a substance when combined with another substance makes salt. As in all
kinds of matter, the different elements can be a solid, liquid, or gas.
The different kinds of atoms are then joined together to make a molecule. A molecule is a particle that contains
more than one atom joined together. Basically, atoms come together in different ways to make molecules, and
molecules come together in different ways to make different kinds of matter.
Water is an example of a molecule made up of different atoms. The atoms for water include hydrogen and oxygen.
It takes two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen to make one molecule of water. This would be an extremely
tiny drop of water a person could not see without a special microscope. Some elements are made up of single atoms
and do not attach to any other kinds atoms. Neon is an example of an atom that does not attach to another atom.
However, there are certain atoms that attach to themselves to make different substances. For example, oxygen is
usually made up of two-atom molecules. But, a three-atom molecule of oxygen will create ozone. Oxygen and ozone
is very different from each other but both use oxygen atoms to be formed.
Most everyday substances people use are made up of a combination of different molecules. Table salt is made up
of an element called sodium joined with an element called chloride. Sodium chloride is the scientific name for salt.
The different atoms making up sodium and chloride are joined together to make a new substance and molecule
called salt.
Sometimes the use of atoms and molecules can be very confusing but it sometimes can be thought of as a recipe.
In summary, the particles (or ingredients) that make up an atom are protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atoms
(another ingredient) are particles joined together in many different ways and methods to form molecules. Finally,
the molecules (more ingredients) are joined together to make everything on Earth and in the universe.

5
The Science Process Skills
The Science Process Skills are the skills or tools scientists use to investigate the world around them. The skills are
also used to construct science concepts, discover new ideas, or to prove or disprove theories. The following are
some basic science process skills every scientist needs to know. The process skills are not used in any specific order.
The best scientists use all of the tools available to them.
Observation is using the five senses (seeing, hearing, feeling, smelling, and tasting) to identify or learn about an
object or event. An example may include watching a goldfish to see if it swims in a certain pattern, or testing certain
food items to identify the flavor.
Inferring means to form an idea from facts or the observations that are made. Continuing to use the goldfish as an
example, a scientist may infer that a goldfish is ready to eat when it begins to swim in a specific pattern.
Classifying is placing things together that share the same properties into a group. While tasting different food items
a scientist could group the salty, sweet, and sour into three separate groups.
A scientist would use measuring to find size, distance, area, volume, weight, temperature, mass, or weight of an
object or event. While studying the goldfish the temperature of the water is taken to discover if it has any effect on
the swimming patterns of the goldfish.
Communication is very important for scientists. They use effective communication to share information with others
who may want to repeat an experiment or observation. Sharing the information about the taste of food could help
change a recipe.
Prediction is stating the possible results of an event, idea, or experiment. The scientist may predict what a goldfish
would do if it had to swim in cold water. While watching the fish the scientist may write down the information to
discover if the prediction came true.
Interpreting data means gathering all of the information about an event, object, or experiment and use it to answer
questions or solve problems. Gathering all of the information about the different tastes of food may solve why
some people do not eat certain foods.
Using variables means to identify things in an experiment that either can be changed or controlled. In the example,
the scientist might identify the size of the fish bowl, source of water, or time of day as a variable that can be changed
or controlled.
Hypothesizing is one of the most used tools for a scientist. It is making a statement that can be tested to answer a
question. After the different goldfish observations, a hypothesis could be: Goldfish will swim in different patterns
depending on the temperature of the water. The hypothesis could then be tested by other scientists and proved or
disproved.
The science process skills are important tools for scientists. Some of the other process skills include experimenting,
using numbers, making models, and recording conclusions and results. The science process skills are the basic tools
scientists use to investigate the objects and events in the world and throughout the universe.

6
Earthquakes and Volcanoes
The Earth's crust is constantly moving throughout the world. It moves in some places more often than in other
places. The Earth's crust moves when blocks of the earth abruptly slip past one another. This results in an
Earthquake. Earthquakes are related to cracks in the crust called faults.
Faults may have formed from an earlier earthquake or while an earthquake is occurring. During an earthquake the
crust is in motion on either side or both sides of the fault.
The earthquake vibrations travel through the crust and the farther people are away from the earthquake the harder
it is to feel the vibrations. The location below where the earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the area
directly above it on the surface of the earth it is called the epicenter.
A seismograph is a device that records the motion at locations all around the crust. The size of an earthquake is
called its magnitude. There is one magnitude for each earthquake that takes place. The lower the magnitude of an
earthquake the less damage is done to a town or city. Large earthquakes can destroy entire towns and cities.
Earthquakes in the United States are more likely to occur along the West Coast, but they can also occur in the
Midwest and along the East Coast.
An underwater earthquake can cause a tsunami. A tsunami is a large ocean wave which can reach the coastlines
and cause major damage and flooding. Earthquakes may also be the cause of some volcanoes to become active and
erupt.
A volcano is a rupture on the crust of the Earth that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma
chamber below the surface. The hot molten rock deep below Earth's surface is called magma and it rises upward.
If the magma reaches the surface of the Earth it may flow out as lava, or it is hurled out when the volcano erupts.
Magma is liquid rock inside the volcano; lava is liquid rock on the outside of the volcano.
Scientists have classified volcanoes into three main categories: active, dormant, and extinct. With an active volcano
there is the possibility the volcano will erupt, and most likely recently erupted. A dormant volcano is a volcano is
one that has not erupted in a very long time but there is possibility that it may erupt sometime in the future. The
third type, the extinct volcano, is one that erupted thousands of years ago and there is no possibility of another
eruption.
The Earth is home to approximately 1500 volcanoes which are considered active, and about 100 of those are under
the oceans. Many active volcanoes in the United States are found in Hawaii, California, Alaska, Oregon, and
Washington. Erupting volcanos have been known to wipe out entire forests, trigger tsunamis, flash floods,
earthquakes, mudflows, avalanches, mudslides, and rock falls. However, volcanos that erupt can also create new
islands once the hot lava cools off, especially those near the coast or below the ocean's surface.
In summary, an earthquake caused by a fault in the earth's crust, and a volcano, caused by a rupture on the crust
of the Earth, are related to each other and both can cause major damage and destruction. An earthquake can also
cause a tsunami, which is a giant ocean wave. There are three types of volcanos: active, dormant, and extinct.
Earthquakes and volcanos are both considered natural disasters.

7
Magnetism
Magnets are easy to use, safe, and fun. Two magnets snap together and can stick like glue. Certain objects push or
pull on things because they are magnetic. Magnetism is another property of some kinds of matter.
A magnet has a north and south pole. The north pole of a magnet will attract the south pole of a magnet. The north
pole of a magnet will repel the north pole of a magnet, and the south pole will also repel the south pole. In short,
like poles repel, and unlike poles attract.
Two different kinds of permanent magnets are called bar magnets and horse show magnets.
The area surrounding a magnet is called its magnetic field. The magnetic field of a magnet is an invisible field which
is created by its magnetism. To ancient people, magnetism probably seemed like magic. The force for magnets to
attract or repel each other or to attract other objects is caused by moving electrons.
The Earth also contains magnetic materials and behaves like a gigantic magnet. The north pole of a magnet will
point approximately to the Earth's North Pole and south pole of a magnet to the Earth's South Pole. A compass has
a magnetic tip on the needle which points towards the North Pole. Compasses are used to help people prevent
getting lost such as hikers or captains on a ship, especially many years ago when there was no GPS or maps to help
guide them.
A magnet may also be used to convert an unmagnatized piece of magnetic material, such as an iron nail, into a
magnet. This is done by rubbing it with the magnet. This is called magnetization. Magnets made this way are called
temporary magnets because they eventually lose their magnetism.
Another method in creating a temporary magnet is by using electricity. This can be done by wrapping an iron nail
with a coil of wire. By passing electricity through the coil of wire the iron nail will become a temporary magnet or
an electromagnet. The strength of the electromagnet depends on the size of the electric current and the number
of times the coil is wrapped around the nail. If the electricity stops flowing through the coil the nail will no longer
be magnetic.
There are many uses for permanent magnets and temporary magnets like an electromagnet. Electric appliances
with electric motors use magnets to turn electricity into motion. Other examples include electric toothbrushes,
fans, lawnmowers, and anything else containing a motor.
Magnets are used to hold doors closed, such as in refrigerators, kitchen cabinets and others. Magnets are also used
to read and write data on a computer's hard drive or on old-fashioned cassette tapes. There are more magnets in
headphones and stereo speakers which help to turn stored music back into the sounds you can hear.
In summary, magnetism is another property of some kinds of matter. There are two poles to a magnet, the south
pole and the north pole. Like poles repel and unlike poles repel. There are two different kinds of magnets,
temporary and permanent. A temporary magnet can be made by using electricity. All magnets contain an invisible
electromagnetic field which surrounds the magnet. There are many uses for magnets, from holding doors closed to
helping music sound better with the magnets inside of speakers.

8
Atmosphere and Air Temperature
The Earth's atmosphere is the area between the Earth's surface and the edge of space. It acts as a thin blanket
between the sun and the Earth. The heat from the sun has an effect on the temperature of the air. The heat from
the sun is transmitted through the atmosphere and the Earth's surface becomes heated. The sun warms the Earth
throughout the year but at different temperatures due to several variables.
The air temperature of an area, whether cold or hot depends upon the angle at which the Earth is tilted, and will
affect the amount of heat an area of the Earth receives. Air temperature is the measure of how hot or cold the air
is and can be measured by using a thermometer.
The hottest area of the Earth is near the equator. The equator is an imaginary line forming a great circle around the
Earth's surface separating the Earth into the Northern and Southern hemispheres. The equator is the hottest area
because the sun's path is directly above the Earth in that location.
Unlike the equator, the north and south poles are the coldest places on the Earth because the sun is at a low angle
in that area. Even though the sun is closer to Earth's surface in that area, the sun's rays are much weaker. There is
not a direct path like at the equator.
Another variable affecting the temperature of the air is called insolation. The angle of insolation is the angle at
which sunlight strikes the Earth's surface. Isolation is short for incoming solar radiation, which is the amount of the
Sun's energy that reaches Earth at a given place and time.
Sunlight warms the Earth in summer and winter. The amount of heat depends on the angle of insolation. The greater
the angle, the warmer it gets. Since the angle is always less at the poles, it is colder in those areas. Because of the
tilt of the Earth, if it is freezing in one part of the world, it is hot in another part.
The time of day also has an effect on the temperature of the air. In the morning the sun is close to the horizon, and
at mid-day the sun is higher up in the sky. After mid-day the sun is again lower in the sky. These changes, due to
the tilt of the Earth, is the reason it is warmer during the mid-day and cooler in the mornings and evenings.
The next variable affecting the temperature of the air in an area is the texture of the Earth's surface in that area.
The texture of the Earth is how smooth or rough the surface is. Rough textures cause light to bounce around at
many angles and more of the sun's heat is absorbed the surface. This cause the areas to become hotter.
Finally, dark colors get hotter than light colors in the same light. Dark soils and rocks can also get very hot. On the
other hand, plants help keep an area cooler in the sunlight.
In summary, the Earth's atmosphere is like a very thin blanket in which the sun's rays pass through at different
angles. The angles are called angles of insolation and is the amount of energy reaching Earth at a given place and
time. The hottest area of the Earth is at the equator. There are many variables affecting how hot or cold the air is,
which is also called the air temperature. Other variables include the texture of the Earth and the colors of objects
that are absorbing the sun's rays.

9
Water Vapor and Humidity
When an object is cool and warm air touches the cool object, the air cools and droplets of water forms on the
outside of the object. This is the result of the hot and cold air coming into contact with each other. This water in
the air is called water vapor. Water vapor is in the form of a gas.
Characteristics of water vapor include it being colorless, odorless, invisible, and has no taste. Humidity is the
amount of water vapor in the air. When the in the air turns into a gas it is called evaporation.
Water vapor gets into the air day through the process of evaporation. Ocean water, and other bodies of water, is
turned into water vapor using the energy from the sun. The molecules of the water is absorbed by the Sun's energy
near the surface of the water which then evaporates into the air.
The changing of a gas into a liquid is called condensation. An example of condensation is the water which covers a
mirror following a hot shower.
Another large source of water vapor in the air is when the plants absorb water through their roots and stems into
their leaves. The leaves then give off water. The process of plants releasing water into the air is called transpiration.
All of the water in the air, whether it is from the world's ocean and other bodies of water, the water on a mirror
following a hot shower, or the water a plant releases into the air; it is all called humidity because it is the amount
of water vapor in the air.
When the air is filled with this water, the amount of water in the air can be measured. Another measurement used
is called relative humidity. Relative humidity is a comparison between how much water is already in the air
compared with how much water the air is able to hold at a certain temperature.
When the air can no longer hold the water vapor several things can happen. It may rain or snow depending on the
temperature. The air could be become foggy or misty, or dew may appear on the grass in the mornings. Another
problem with too much water vapor in the air, especially in the summer, is it becomes very uncomfortable and
people began to sweat very easily.
In summary, the water in the air is called water vapor. Water vapor in the air forms when cold air and warm air
come in contact with each other. Examples include moisture on the outside of a cold glass, or a mirror after a hot
shower, which is also called condensation. When this water is turned into a gas and is released into the air it is
called evaporation. Plants also release water into the air during a process called transpiration. Finally, all of the
water vapor in the air is called humidity. A comparison between how much water is already in the air compared
with how much water the air is able to hold at a certain temperature is called relative humidity. When this happens
there could be rain, snow, fog, or dew.

10
Clouds and Precipitation
There are several types of clouds appearing in the sky throughout the year. The different types of clouds may result
in weather that can bring rain or snow, or may simply prevent the sun from shining brightly in an area. Tiny water
droplets or ice crystals is what makes up a cloud.
There are three basic cloud forms:
1. stratus clouds: these clouds form in a blanket-like layer
2. cumulus clouds: these are puffy clouds that appear to raise up from a flat bottom
3. cirrus clouds: these clouds form at very high altitudes out of ice crystals and have a wispy, feather-like shape
The term nimbus is added to the name of the cloud if the cloud brings rain or snow to an area. The height of a cloud
allows the cloud to be grouped into a family.
The families of the clouds are as follows:
Low clouds, middle clouds, high clouds, clouds that develop upwards, clouds of vertical development
Thunderstorms come from cumulonimbus clouds and are developed upward.
Another type of cloud many people do not think of as a cloud, is fog. Fog is a cloud that forms at ground level.
Another example of fog can sometimes occur after a hot shower, the water vapor is in the air and a person may
have trouble seeing through it.
Any form of water particles that falls from the atmosphere, or one of the clouds, and reaches the ground is called
precipitation. This occurs when the water droplets or ice crystals in the cloud join together and become heavy
enough to fall. This is the way precipitation occurs. It will depend on the temperature in the cloud and in the air
whether the precipitation is going to be snow or rain.
Larger raindrops have a better chance of developing in tall clouds where the drops have a better chance of colliding
into each other and forming a bigger drop before they hit the Earth' surface.
Large cumulus clouds often develop heavy precipitation. Stratus clouds develop long lasting precipitation, but with
smaller drops of rain or snow flakes. Vertical developing clouds hold the most amount of water. They are very
turbulent or violent often causing heavy downpours of rain or even large amounts of snow in a short period of time.
Sometimes when this happens it may be called a 'cloudburst'. Vertical clouds can also develop ice pellets which will
cause hail and sleet as precipitation.
In summary, there are three basic cloud forms; stratus, cumulus, and cirrus. Each of the cloud forms have a different
appearance in the sky. When the term nimbus is added to the name of the cloud, it means the cloud will bring rain
or snow to the area. It will snow or rain when the water droplets or ice crystals in the sky are too heavy and fall to
the ground as precipitation. The different types of cloud formations, along with the temperature of the air, results
in rain, snow, sleet, or hail. Sometimes, though, the clouds will partially block the sun and it will be a cloudy, partly
cloudy, or mostly cloudy day. The more clouds there are, there is usually a better chance of precipitation.

11
Air Masses and Fronts
Air masses and fronts have an effect on the weather throughout the world, affecting everyone everywhere. An air
mass is a large region of the atmosphere containing a volume of air defined by its temperature and moisture
content. In an air mass the temperatures and amount of moisture is about the same throughout the region.
There are different air masses throughout the world which mostly control the weather in that region. In the United
States, global winds tend to move air masses from east to west. When different air masses come together and meet
the boundary is called a front. The air masses do not mix together. A front is the narrow area or boundary where
the air masses meet. Along this front is where the weather changes most rapidly.
There are two fronts to be most familiar with and which are heard of most often. A cold front and a warm front. A
cold front occurs at a warm air mass where the weather changes as cold air moves in. A warm front occurs when
warm air moves over a cold air mass. Fog may also be a result of a warm front moving into a cold air mass.
Another type of front also involves a cold front and a warm front. An occluded front occurs when a cold front
overtakes a warm front. When this happens the warm air is separated at the Earth's surface. When an occluded
front occurs it is most likely lead to precipitation such as rain, snow, sleet, or hail, depending on the air temperature
and season of the year. After the cold front passes though, the temperatures will usually begin to get warmer again.
One final type of front is called a stationary front. A stationary front occurs when a cold air mass and a warm air
mass meets. There is usually a drastic temperature change before the cold and warm air masses meet as well as a
change in the direction of the wind. The stationary front may also stay over an area for days or weeks, or sometimes
even longer. It is not moving and the weather it brings changes very little.
On a weather map the different fronts are shown by different symbols and colors. A cold front is represented by a
blue line with triangles pointing toward the direction of movement. A warm front is represented as a red line with
half circles pointing toward the direction of movement. A stationary front is represented as an alternating warm
and cold front symbol. An occluded front is represented as a purple line with teeth and half circles.
In summary, an air mass is a large region of the atmosphere containing a volume of air defined by its temperature
and moisture content. When the air masses come together, the boundary between them is called a front. The four
types of fronts include cold fronts, warm fronts, occluded fronts and stationary fronts. Cold and warm fronts bring
cold and warm air, an occluded front is when a cold front takes over a warm front. Finally, a stationary front occurs
when cold and warm air masses come together stays in one place for a short or long period of time. On weather
maps there are different colors and symbols used to identify each of the fronts. The colors used include blue, red,
and purple, along with lines, triangles, and half circles. The weather throughout the world is the result of air masses,
cold fronts, and warm fronts.

12
Weathering
The different surfaces of the Earth are often changed through a process called weathering. Weathering is the
breaking down of the materials of the Earth's crust into smaller pieces or particles.
There are two types of weathering, physical and chemical. Physical weathering is when the Earth's crust is exposed
to water, air, and temperature changes. This can occur immediately or over a long time period. There are many
examples of physical weathering including streams cutting through rock to form canyons, rocks splitting when water
seeps in and freezes, windblown sand breaking down rock, roots from plants breaking apart the rocks in soil, and
even animals.
Water from streams or rivers dissolves the minerals from the Earth's crust, and the moving water acts as a force
breaking down the pieces of rock into smaller and smaller pieces. A small stream can cut through softer rock,
forming canyons. A canyon is a deep valley with steep sides, often with a stream flowing through it. The flowing
water can also smooth and sculpt the harder rock. The physical weathering takes place over millions of years
resulting in the formation of a canyon.
If the temperature drops low enough, rainwater can freeze and expand, causing cracks in rocks, splitting the rocks
apart. Following a rain, the water enters the cracks of rock, then freezes due to the low temperatures. The ice
expands and takes up more space, causing the physical weathering to take place.
Winds may cause much damage to the Earth along with rain and extreme temperature changes. The wind acts as a
force and blows sand and other bits of rock over the Earth's surface and can also wear away other rocks.
Plants and their roots can also cause rocks to weather and erode. The roots or parts of a plant can make its way
into a crack in a rock and as it grows it can break apart the rock.
Earthworms and groundhogs, and other burrowing animals, can also contribute to physical weathering. The
Earthworms and other burrowing animals loosen the soil and can break apart the rocks in the soil. Moles, rabbits,
gophers, and even ants can also cause physical weathering to occur in soil.
The second type of weathering is called chemical weathering. Chemical weathering occurs when chemicals affect
the Earth's crust, whether found in the air or in the water. One example includes rain mixing with chemicals in the
air causing rust. Rust is formed when the oxygen in the air reacts with iron. This is an example of chemical
weathering and can affect metal objects.
Another example of chemical weathering occurs when the chemicals in the air such as oxygen, carbon dioxide,
sulfur dioxide and others cause acids to eat away at rocks. Salt can also cause chemical weathering as it can damage
many objects and affect surfaces of the Earth.
In summary, there are two types of weathering that affect the Earth's surface and other objects. Physical
weathering is when the Earth's crust is exposed to water, air, and temperature changes. Chemical weathering
occurs when chemicals affect the Earth's crust, whether found in the air or in the water. Physical weathering takes
place over millions of years resulting in the formation of deep valley with steep sides called a canyon. Chemical
weather can cause rust to destroy metal objects. Weather causes many changes take place on the Earth's surface.

13
Light and Sound
Light and sound is found everywhere. Light and sound waves travel from place to place and can be seen and heard.
Light is visible to the human eye and is responsible for the sense of sight. It is a form of energy we can see when it
is reflected off the surface of an object. Sound is a mechanical vibration that can pass through solids, liquids, and
gases and can usually be identified by the sense of hearing.
Light waves travel through the air from place to place and do not carry matter. Light is believed to travel faster than
anything in the universe. It travels at a speed of 186,000 miles per second. Light is unable to travel through solids,
but it can travel through liquids and gases.
There are two properties of light. The first property of light is called reflection. Reflection is when light bounces off
a surface which then allows the object to be visible to the eye. For example, when the moon is seen in the sky, it is
because the light from the sun reflects off the surface of the moon. A light ray comes off a surface at an equal angle
to the angle at which it struck the surface.
The second property of light is called refraction. Refraction is when a ray of light passes from a transparent medium
to another transparent medium such as from air to water, it changes speed and the way it bends.
For example, when a pencil is placed into a glass of water, the pencil will seem like it is broken into two pieces.
Because the light is traveling through the water, there is refraction, and the light bends causing the pencil to look
like it is in two pieces. Another example of refraction, is the use of eyeglasses to improve a person's vision. Using a
glass that is curved at a certain angle the vision of a person is corrected by the way light is refracted in the eye.
All sounds are different, but one thing in common is that sounds are created by something that vibrates. Sound
wave vibrations can travel through solids, liquids, and gases. Sound waves travel through solids much faster than
through liquids or gases, and faster in liquids than gases.
The molecules that make up a solid are closer together allowing the sound to travel faster. Molecules are the
substances that make up solids, liquids, and gases. In a liquid, the molecules are farther apart, so the sound waves
travel slower. In a gas, the molecules are spread farther apart so the sound waves travel much slower. A sound
traveling through a solid can be better heard than traveling through a gas.
For example, a vibrating speaker collides with the molecules in the air passing along the energy and creating sound
waves. This is why music can be heard from the speakers. When there are no molecules in the air, like in space, the
sound could not be heard. The speed of sound travels much slower than the speed of light. It normally travels in air
at about 1200 feet per second.
In summary, light and sound is everywhere. Light is a form of energy we can see when it is reflected off the surface
of an object. Sound is a mechanical vibration that can pass through solids, liquids, and gases. Reflection and
refraction are two properties of light. Sound travels through solids much faster than through liquids and gases.
Molecules, which make up all objects, are closer together in a solid allowing the sound to travel faster. Light travels
much faster than sound.

14
Living and Non-Living Things
The world is made up of many different things. Some of the things are living and others are non-living. A dog, swing
set, car, tree, flowers, and a book are some of the things that make up the world.
There are two different kinds of things in the world. One kind is called living things. Living things eat, breathe, grow,
move, reproduce and have senses. The other kind is called nonliving things. Nonliving things do not eat, breathe,
grow, move and reproduce. They do not have senses.
An example of a living thing in the world is a dog. A dog is an animal, and dogs need food, water, space, and shelter.
The dog is a living thing. A tree or flower is a plant, and trees and flowers need air, nutrients, water, and sunlight.
A flower and tree are also living things. Plants are living things and they need air, nutrients, water, and sunlight.
Other living things are animals, and they need food, water, space, and shelter. A dog eats food, breathes in air, and
grows from a puppy to a dog. A dog reproduces. Reproduce means to make one of its own kind. A dog also has
senses. Senses are seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and feeling.
Other living things include people, cats, rabbits, bugs, lions, and many others. There are many different kinds of
plants, too. Plants can include dandelions, grass, corn, tomatoes and much more.
Non-living things include things that do not need food, eat, reproduce, or breathe. A car does not eat or grow. It
does not move unless a person is driving it. It does not need air to breathe and it has no sense. It is a non-living
thing. A swing set does not use food. A book does not move. The swing set and book do not grow and they do not
need air to breathe. They are non-living things. Nonliving things do not need air, food, nutrients, water, sunlight, or
shelter. Other non-living things in the world include pencils, rocks, footballs, toys, hats, and many others.
One more example of a living thing is a bird. A bird eats seeds or worms. It breathes in air. It comes from an egg
and grows. It moves by flying. It lays eggs and reproduces. It smells and sees because it has senses. A bird is a living
thing.
One more example of a non-living things is a ball. A ball does not eat anything. It does not need to breathe. It never
grows. It never moves unless a person throws or rolls it. The ball does not reproduce. It cannot hear or feel and it
has no senses. A ball is a non-living thing.
In summary, everything in the world is a living thing or a non-living thing. Living things can be plants which need air,
water, nutrients, and sunlight. Living things can be animals which need food, water, space, and shelter. There are
living things and nonliving things everywhere. Living things eat, breathe, grow, move, reproduce and have senses.
Reproduce means to make one of its own kind. The senses are seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and feeling.
Nonliving things do not eat, breathe, grow, move and reproduce. They do not have senses. A dog and tree are living
things. A book and a car are nonliving things.

15
Weather Prediction
Weather forecasters or meteorologists use several tools to help predict the weather. A meteorologist is a scientist
who studies the atmosphere and predicts what the weather will be today, tomorrow, or in the future. Weather
forecasters are also meteorologists. A weather forecast is a prediction by a meteorologist and is often given on
television using the tools to predict the weather for today, tomorrow, or next week. A meteorologist will use
computer models, observations, and a knowledge of trends and patterns to predict the weather. A computer model
is a computer process or program that helps predict the weather.
Some of the tools used by a weather forecaster include a thermometer, barometer, rain gauge, and anemometer.
A thermometer measures the air temperature. A barometer measures air pressure. A rain gauge measure the
amount of rain that falls over a specific timer period. An anemometer measures air speed. All are examples of
weather instruments. Sometimes people use wind vanes to determine the direction the wind is blowing. A wind
vane shows the direction of the wind, whether it is blowing towards the north, south, east, or west, or in between.
Several other instruments a meteorologist or weather forecaster uses are weather balloons, weather satellites,
weather buoys, and Doppler radar.
A weather balloon is the size of a large beach ball when it is sent into the air but grows to the size of a bus as the
air pressure increases. Eventually the weather balloon bursts and a parachute allows a lightweight cardboard box
filled with scientific instruments to drop to the ground. The scientific instruments in the box have measured wind
speed, wind direction, air pressure, air temperature, and other data.
A weather satellite orbits the Earth or can hover over the same spot. Weather satellites carry instruments that scan
the Earth to form images. The images take less than a minute to be sent to Earth. The weather satellites usually
have some sort of small telescope or antenna for the purpose of monitoring weather systems around the world.
Satellites operate for three to seven years, but some last much longer. The data from satellites is sent to weather
stations and then relayed to weather forecast centers all over the world.
Weather buoys measure air temperature above the ocean surface, wind speed (steady and gusting), wind direction
and other data. Weather buoys work similarly as a weather balloon, except they are located in oceans, as well as
lakes. In addition, because they are in oceans and lakes, they also measure water temperature, wave height, and
other data.
Doppler radar gives weather forecaster more information to share with people interested in learning about the
amount of rain to expect, how much rain, the speed and direction of wind and much more. Doppler radar can also
provide early detection of severe thunderstorms that may cause dangerous winds, large hail, heavy rain, and
possibly tornadoes.
In summary, weather forecasters and meteorologists use many instruments to predict the weather all over the
world. The instruments they use may be as simple as a thermometer to measure the how cold or warm the air is,
to other instruments that send messages all over the world, like Doppler radar or a weather satellite.

16
Optical Illusions in the Sky
When looking up into the sky there are many things people see that be explained through science. Some of the
sights in the sky that can be explained by science include the blue color of the sky, rainbows, auroras, and a blue
moon.
The atmosphere of the Earth is like a very thin blanket in which the sun's rays pass through at different angles. The
sun shines white and black light to our planet through the atmosphere. The white light has all the different colors
in it. In the upper atmosphere, there are dust particles and oxygen molecules. The white light, which includes all
the colors of a rainbow, shines through the upper levels of the atmosphere. The blue light then scatters across the
entire planet. That is why the sky is blue. It does not reflect off the ocean water like some people believe. The sky
is blue because of how the sun's rays pass through the atmosphere of the Earth.
Rainbows are beautiful rays of color. Even though the sunlight looks white or yellow, it is really made up of different
colors...red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. The sun makes rainbows when white sunlight passes
through rain drops. The raindrops then act like tiny prisms. They bend the different colors in white light, so the light
spreads out into a band of colors that can be reflected back as a rainbow in the sky.
Three things must take place before someone can see a rainbow. It must be raining. Next, the sun must be shining.
Finally, the observer must be standing between the sun and the rain. The lower the sun is in the sky, the higher the
arc of a rainbow will be. One of the ways to remember the colors of the rainbow is by using the first letters in a
name: ROY G. BIV, which is red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
Auroras are the result of interactions between the Sun and Earth's outer atmosphere. They occur in response to
energetic particles from a solar storm, which cause the gases of the thin upper atmosphere to glow. A solar storm
is a type of large explosion in the sun's atmosphere. The auroras take place at heights between 50 to 100 miles
above the Earth. The aurora can last anywhere between a few minutes to several hours. The various colors are
caused by some of the gases in the atmosphere. One example of an aurora on Earth is the Northern Lights, also
called the Aurora Borealis.
A blue moon is usually referred to as a second full moon in the same month. It happens every 2.7 years and never
in the month of February because there are not enough days. The moon is not necessarily blue. Blue moons can
occur though, but they can occur at any time of the year. If there is a volcanic eruption or even a forest fire, the
smoke in the sky can make the moon look blue.
In summary there are several optical illusions in the sky that can be explained by science. The blue color of the sky,
rainbows, auroras, and blue moons all occur due to the interaction between the sun, the Earth's atmosphere, and
other variables such as rain, smoke, or particles in the air. The Northern Lights is an aurora which is caused by a
solar storm in the Sun's atmosphere. All of these optical illusions give off beautiful colors and can be seen for miles.
All of it, though, can also be explained by science.

17
The Three Types of Rocks
All rocks are not the same, even though many of them look alike. There are three main types or classes of rock:
sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous. The differences between each of the rocks have to do with how they are
formed. This is what determines the type of rock it is.
The first type of rock is sedimentary. A sedimentary rock is formed from particles of sand, shells, pebbles, and other
pieces of material. All of these particles together make up sediment. Sediment is the result of material broken down
by weathering or erosion.
Slowly, the sediment accumulates in layers and over a long period of time it will harden into rock. Sedimentary
rock, usually, is fairly soft and may break apart very easily or crumble into pieces. If sedimentary rock is broken
apart inside is sand, pebbles, or stones in the rock. Sedimentary rock is usually the only type of rock that also
contains fossils. Fossils are the remains of once living animals or plants usually from long ago.
Examples of sedimentary rock types include limestone, shale, and sandstone.
The second type of rock is metamorphic. A metamorphic rock is formed under the surface of the earth from the
change that takes place because of intense heat or pressure. In nature, it takes millions of years for a metamorphic
rock to be formed. The rocks that result from this very long process often has ribbon-like layers and many shiny
crystals. The crystals are formed by minerals which grow slowly over time on the surface of the rock.
Examples of metamorphic rock types include gneiss, marble, slate, and quartzite.
The third type of rock is igneous. Igneous rocks form when magma cools and hardens. Magma is the molten rock
deep within the earth. The same material inside a volcano. Sometimes this magma, though, cools inside the earth.
At other times it will erupt onto the surface from a volcano. When magma leaves the volcano it is called lava.
When this lava cools very quickly, no crystals form and the rock will look shiny and glasslike. Sometime there are
gas bubbles trapped inside the rock during the cooling process of the magma. If this occurred there will be tiny
holes and spaces left in the rock.
Examples of igneous rock types include basalt, obsidian, pumice, and granite.
In summary, even though many rocks may look alike, there are three types of rocks with different characteristics.
The three types of rocks are sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous. Sedimentary are form from sediments that
may include particles of sand, pebbles, or other stones. Fossils may also be found in sedimentary rock. Metamorphic
rock takes millions of years to form and is formed by intense heat and pressure. They often are ribbon-like and
contain shiny crystals. The last type is igneous rock, which forms when magma cools and hardens deep inside the
earth. Magma is the same material inside of a volcano. All three rock types can be found in many places. Some
examples of each include limestone, marble, and granite. Rocks are definitely not all the same.

18
The Human Heart
The human heart is an amazing organ of the human body. The heart is an organ which pumps life-giving blood
throughout the body. It works together with blood and blood vessels to supply all of the needs of the cells.
The circulatory system of the body makes up the heart, blood and blood vessels. Blood vessels are tubes which
carry the blood. Blood carries oxygen and food to the cells of the body. The blood then returns to the heart.
The heart is located in the middle of the chest and slightly to the left. It is divided into two halves and has two
hollow spaces or chambers. The blood enters the atria, which is the upper chamber and is then pumped to the
ventricles, two lower chambers. Blood from the ventricles goes to the lungs and to every cell in the body. A valve
in each ventricle stops the blood from flowing backwards.
An artery is a blood vessel which carries blood away from the heart. A main artery may be as thick as a thumb.
Blood is made up of red cells, white cells and platelets floating in a fluid called plasma. Plasma is a liquid and can
easily pass through small blood vessels into cells and makes up over one-half of the blood. The plasma carries
nutrients (food) from the stomach to be used as fuel for energy. Plasma also helps keep the body warm.
The blood then returns to the heart through blood vessels called veins. The veins on the skin, may look blue,
especially on the hands and arms. The walls of a vein are much thinner than those of an artery. Two large veins
bring the blood back to the heart. One comes from the brain and the chest. The other comes from the stomach and
lower body.
Blood doesn't flow at the same speed through all of the body. As it gets farther away from the heart, it slows down.
It goes slowly when the red blood cells carrying the food and oxygen squeeze through into the cells.
The heart beats or pumps every second of the day or night. It beats or pumps 100,000 times a day, every day of a
person's life. Every time a heart beats or pumps out a stream of blood, this beat, called a pulse, can be felt on the
inside of the wrist. The pulse rate in an adult is between sixty and one hundred beats per minute. Children's pulse
rates range from ninety to one hundred twenty beats per minute.
In summary, the circulatory system which includes the heart, blood vessels and blood, work together to supply the
cells with all the food and oxygen a body needs to maintain life. Blood is made up of red cells, white cells and
platelets floating in a fluid called plasma. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, and veins carry the blood back
to the heart. The heart beats thousands of times a day, every day. It beats much faster in children. The human heart
is an amazing organ which is part of a system of many veins, arteries, and vessels which moves blood throughout
the body keeping humans alive.

19
Bones
Bones support the human body. They are the structure on which the skin hangs. Without bones the body would
collapse. A person could not walk or run. Bones provide both support and protection for parts of the body.
In the front of the body the bony rib cage covers the chest. Underneath are the heart and lungs. The ribs are bones
which protect the heart, lungs and stomach in case of injury.
The skull protects the brain. The bones in the back (or spine) protect the nerves of the spinal column.
The bones store minerals needed by other parts of the body. When the minerals are needed, they will be released
into the blood. They also form new red and white blood cells each day. New bone is still made until a person reaches
the age of thirty-five. When a person gets much older, the bones start to weaken. The minerals begin to disappear
from the bones.
Besides storing minerals and forming blood cells, the bones work with muscles and joints. They allow movement in
the body. The place where two bones come together is called a joint. The knee joint is the biggest and strongest
joint in the body. Ligaments link bones together at the joints. They are very strong and can stretch. Muscles are
attached to bones by tendons. The muscles and tendons together allow the bones move.
The whole bone structure of the body is called the skeleton. The skull protects the brain, eyes, face, jaw and ears.
Vertebrae make up the column of bones running down the back. Between each vertebra is a small cushion called
a disk. The vertebrae are hollow. Nerves run down through the hollow parts to the whole body.
Knees, hands, feet and legs all have different kinds of bones. Some of these bones can move freely. Some are bound
tightly together. Arm bones are connected at the top to the collarbone and shoulder bone. They are connected at
the bottom to the hand. Leg bones are attached to the spine at the top by the group of bones called the pelvis. The
upper part of the leg is the thigh bone. It forms part of the knee. The lower part of the leg is made up of two bones.
They are attached to the foot at the bottom.
Bones are actually living cells. The bones grow and change over time. A person is born with three hundred bones.
Some of these bones can join together. By the time a person becomes an adult, he will have only about two hundred
and six bones.
In summary, bones are a necessary part of the body. They provide protection and support for the vital organs, like
the heart, brain and lungs. The bones are strong and can handle heavy weights. They allow a person to walk. They
work with muscles to help the body move and stretch. The 206 bones of the body include the ribs, skull, spine,
vertebrae, thigh bone, and many more.

20
Ants
Ants are common insects. There are more than 12,000 kinds in the world. They are born, and live and work in a
colony with many other ants.
An ant goes through four stages of development: egg, larva, pupa/cocoon and adult. An ant egg is about the size
of a period at the end of a sentence. An egg is kidney-shaped and soft. It has a sticky surface. It can clump together
with other eggs. This allows a group of eggs to be carried away quickly if danger occurs. Some eggs don't survive
because they are eaten by other ants.
The ant egg cells divide for 7-14 days and a larva appears. The larva will shed its skin about 3 times. It eats
constantly. It will get bigger each time it sheds. The larva sucks up the liquids from the food brought to it. Sometimes
adult ants eat food and spit it up for the larva. The larva will also get hairier. It will have hooked-like hairs. These
hairs allow groups of them to be picked up and carried like the eggs. A larva doesn't have any feet. It can bend a
little towards food. Some types can also move along.
About 25 days later a larva changes into a pupa. It may look like a small white maggot or worm. Some types of ants
don't have a pupa state. They will make a cocoon at the larva stage and become an adult. A larva makes its cocoon
against a solid object like a wall or the ground. A new adult ant is light in color, but will get darker as it gets older.
The total process from egg to adult may take a few weeks or months. It depends on the type of ant and where it
lives.
Like other insects, ants have jointed legs, three body parts, and two antennae. The three body parts are covered by
an exoskeleton. An exoskeleton is a skeleton located on the outside of their body. An ant's head contains its brain.
It also holds two compound eyes, and pharynx (the start of the digestive system). The antennae are attached to the
head, too. The mandibles (jaws) on his head can bite and chew food.
The thorax is the chest area. It is divided into 3 sections. There are 2 legs on each section. Muscles on the thorax
make the legs move.
The abdomen is the third section of an ant's body. It is located at the rear of the insect. It contains the reproductive
organs, the digestive tract and heart. Some ants have a stinger at the tip of the abdomen and can even eject poison
from it. Ants do not have lungs. They breathe through holes all over their bodies. They 'hear' through their feet by
feeling the vibrations from the ground.
Three kinds of ants live in a colony. Queens are ants who lay the eggs for the whole colony. They are bigger than
other ants. They were fed more as larvae. They have wings. If a queen should die, the whole colony falls apart.
There is no one to produce new ants. Female worker ants do not have wings. They gather food, clean and take care
of the young ants. Males exist only to mate with the queen. They do no work and after a few weeks they die.
In summary, ants can sometimes be annoying insects. The four stages of development are egg, larva, pupa/cocoon
and adult. The parts of an ant's body include an exoskeleton, mandibles, thorax, and abdomen. The three kind of
ants live in a colony. The queen is the largest ant, has wings, and mate with the males. There are also female workers
that gather food and take care of the young ants.

21
Lizards
Lizards are members of the reptile family. Other members are snakes, turtles, crocodiles and alligators. Lizards have
several things in common with other reptiles. All reptiles are cold-blooded. They cannot control their own body
temperature. It is controlled by their surroundings. Lizards must work to maintain their temperature. Another
characteristic which lizards have in common with all reptiles is that their skin is made of scales.
Lizards shed their skin frequently because the skin doesn't grow with them. They have lungs and breathe like
humans. They breathe through nostrils above their mouths. They have a special organ on the roof of their mouth.
It is a Jacobson's organ. Lizards smell with this. They pick up the smells with their tongues. The smells travel to the
Jacobson's organ. Lizards can sense prey this way. Their eyes and ears are located on either side of their heads.
Lizards have a simple body shape. They have a head, a pair of legs, a long body, another pair of legs and a tail. Their
tails can help them balance, swim, or grab tree branches. Some lizards use their tails as a weapon. They can also
wiggle away from a predator which grabs their tail. Certain muscles will cause it to fall off, but the tail still moves.
The predator watches the tail, and the lizards can escape. Then lizards can grow a new tail. Lizards range in size
from one and one-half inches long to seven and one-half feet. The Komodo dragon is the biggest lizard. The Komodo
dragons live in Indonesia. The smallest lizards live in the British Virgin Islands.
Lizards can be found on every continent except Antarctica. Many live in tropical rain forests. Food is plentiful for
them there. The hot damp climate allows them to maintain their body temperatures. They can be found also in
deserts and other hot, dry areas. Many of the desert lizards are nocturnal. They come out in the cooler evening.
Very hot weather is not good for them. Lizards that live in cold climates hibernate through the winter. Their bodies
can't tolerate the cold temperatures. Also, food is not as readily available in the winter.
Some lizards are carnivores and some are herbivores. Large carnivores like the Komodo dragon will eat anything
they can find. They need a lot of food so will hunt bigger prey, like deer and cattle. Gila monsters are also rather
large lizards. They usually look for baby birds and mice. They bite their prey. Poison flows from their mouths into
the wound. Gila monsters are the only venomous lizards in the United States. Smaller carnivores eat insects, other
lizards and small animals. Herbivores eat leaves, fruit, flowers and other plants. They can more easily obtain food.
They don't have to hunt or wait in hiding like the carnivores.
Lizards are prey to birds, snakes, bears, raccoons, and coyotes. They try to avoid the predators by hiding
underground or behind rocks during the day. At night they stay in a nice warm burrow under the ground.
In summary, lizards are members of the reptile family. Like reptiles, they are cold-blooded. Their temperature is
controlled by their environment. They have to work at keeping their bodies at a comfortable temperature. Also,
like reptiles, their skin is composed of scales.

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The Rain Forest
A rain forest is a thick jungle which gets an unusually large amount of rain. Rain forests cover about 6% of the
earth's surface. They hold about one-half of the world's plant and animal types. The four layers of a rain forest are
the emergent layer, canopy layer, understory layer and forest floor.
The emergent layer is made up of very tall trees up to 200 feet high. They are usually evergreens. There is good
sunlight there. The canopy layer forms a roof over the 2 remaining layers. Animals like snakes, toucans, and tree
frogs live in this layer. Not much sun reaches the next layer, the understory layer. Plants then have to grow larger
leaves to try to reach the sun. Jaguars, leopards and many insects live here. The final layer, the forest floor, has
almost no plants. Many leaves decay quickly there due to the darkness. Giant anteaters live in this layer.
Rainforests are found in five major areas of the world. Central America is famous for its brightly colored birds. The
Amazon jungle in South America is the world's largest rainforest. It has the greatest variety of plants and animals
of any other place on earth. Central Africa contains the world's second largest rainforest. The rainforests of Asia
stretch from India in the west to the islands of Java and Borneo in the Pacific Ocean in the east. Australia's
rainforests are very dense and lush.
Fifty million tribal peoples live in the rainforests of the world. Much of their living space is being destroyed by
logging, mining, and slash and burn farmers. These people are losing their food and shelter. Three of the larger
tribes are the Pygmies, the Huli, and the Yanomani. Pygmies live in Central Africa. The Huli live in Papua New Guinea
in the Pacific Ocean. The Yanomani live in South America.
The plants that live in the rainforests provide shelter and food for the animals. They also participate in gas
exchanges, and provide much of the world's oxygen supply. Plants compete for sunlight on the ground so some
plants live on the branches of other plants. Aerial plants can get food from the air itself using air roots.
Some interesting animals live in the rainforest. Spider monkeys are very large, almost two feet tall. They like to
hang upside down from a tree with four limbs and a tail. They look like a spider and travel at a very high speed
through the trees. These monkeys have only four fingers and no thumb. Spider monkeys eat fruits and seeds from
high up in the canopy. Unfortunately, hunters are killing many of these monkeys so they may become extinct.
Toucans are colorful birds with short and thick necks. The bright colors on their bill help attract a mate. Their bills
are sharp and can tear off pieces of big fruit. They eat lizards and small birds and live in holes in trees. Toucans live
in the canopy layer in South and Central America. They are important because they help to scatter the seed from
the fruit they eat.
A poison-arrow frog is found in Central and South America too. Its poison is very powerful and can cause paralysis
or death. One of these frogs has enough poison to kill one hundred people. Native hunters put the poison on the
tips of their arrows.
In summary, rain forests cover about one-sixth of the earth. They receive abundant rainfall each year and the foliage
is thick. The rain forests contain many of the plant and animal species of the world. They have four layers. Each
layer has its own characteristics, plants, and animals.

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Deserts
Deserts are areas of land where there is almost no rainfall. The land can be rocky or sandy. Most deserts lie in hot
zones although some are cold. Also, very hot deserts can be very cold at night. Very little grows in desert lands,
although some plants can survive from water beneath the surface.
The animals which live in the desert have learned how to survive. Reptiles, insects, birds and some mammals live
in deserts. Camels are mammals which can go for long periods of time without water. Very few people live in
deserts. It is difficult to adjust to the hot, dry climate.
Only a fifth of the world's deserts are sand. Sand is made up of very small particles of stone. These particles have
worn off rock in time by the wind. The rest of the desert area is stone of some kind, mountains, or various types of
dry soil. Stony deserts are called reg. Rocky deserts are called hamada.
Not very many people live in desert areas. Some live at oases. These are spots in the desert that have a supply of
water. The water comes from deep wells under the sand. Small towns can grow up around these oases. The
residents keep farm animals and grow dates and olives. Nomads are farmers who wander from place to place in
the desert. They use camels to travel from one oasis to another. The camels carry all of their possessions.
Animals which live in the desert usually go out at night when it is cooler. During the day they stay in the shade. The
smaller ones dig burrows to stay in during the hot part of the day. The kangaroo rat does this as well. Reptiles in
the desert can stand more heat than mammals. Their skin is waterproof and it helps them keep their body moisture.
Desert animals can go without water for a long time. Some, like the kangaroo rat, get water from plants. Desert
birds travel to oases to find water. They can also get water from seeds or insects. Some animals can go for long
periods of time without food. The scorpion is on one of these.
Few plants grow in the dry conditions of a desert. Some get their water from deep in the ground with long roots.
Some can store water in leaves or stems. Cactus plants store a large amount of water. Some plants don't grow at
all when it is dry. When rain appears, they shoot up from the ground. When the land dries up again, the seeds lie
dormant. They may sprout after the next rain or it can be many years before this happens.
Many desert areas are getting bigger. People try to use the land for grazing. They can graze it too often and make
the land bare. They chop down the trees and hen rain doesn't come droughts occur. The wind blows the soil away.
There is nothing to hold the soil in place. Mining can add to the creation of desert land. Governments in many
countries are trying to save the land. They plant trees and they provide food for animals so they won't have to
graze. They are teaching farmers new ways of farming to help preserve the soil.
In summary, deserts are regions with little or no rainfall. They can be sandy or rocky. Most deserts lie in hot climate
areas, though some can be in cold zones. Nights in hot deserts are may be cold as well. Not many plants can survive
in the dryness of the desert. The ones which do often get their water from deep in the ground.

24
Dolphins
Dolphins are mammals although they live in the sea. They are members of a group of mammals called cetaceans
or whales. Whales are divided into 2 groups. One group lacks teeth. Most large whales belong to this first group.
Dolphins belong to the second group which has teeth.
Dolphins live mainly in warm, tropical seas in the open ocean, bays, and coral reefs. They join together in herds or
groups. Sometimes as many as one million live together but they usually live in smaller herds. River dolphins can
be seen in groups of only three or four.
Dolphins range in size from five feet to thirteen feet. They have black and white backs to help them blend into
colorless deep seas. Their bellies are light-colored and help them avoid being seen by the sharks below. The light
color blends with the sky-bright seas as the sharks look up at them.
The dolphin has a torpedo shape, long and thin. It can move quickly through the water as the flippers help it steer.
The dolphin doesn't have bones. The fins keep the dolphin going in a straight line. Both the fin and flippers sense
objects that may be in the way.
Strong muscles along the side of a dolphin move the tail up and down. Their skin is smooth and has no scales. A
thick layer of blubber is under their skin. This layer keeps them warm. A dolphin's eyes move independently. One
is located on each side of the head. They can see all around and straight ahead. They do not have a sense of smell.
Dolphins communicate with their voices and have good hearing. With these abilities they can catch food and speak
with other dolphins. To find prey they make a clicking sound. The sound of this clicking bounces off anything in its
path. The dolphins hear the echo of the clicking and know where prey is located. This method of finding prey is
called echolocation.
Dolphins can also communicate with their friends by sounds. Certain sounds send different messages. Dolphins will
go to help another dolphin if they hear a cry for aid. Each dolphin has its own specific sound. It can be identified by
other dolphins. Being able to communicate well with others is a sign of great intelligence.
Dolphins swim between three and seven miles an hour. They can go as fast as twenty-two miles per hour. They
usually dive from ten to one-hundred fifty feet to find food. A dive could last up to fifteen minutes.
The most common type of dolphin near the shore is the bottlenose dolphin. Their backs are grey and their
underbellies white or pink. They grow to about eight feet. They weigh about two hundred pounds.
In summary, dolphins are mammals although they live in the sea. They are one of two groups of whales. Many
larger whales belong to the group which has no teeth. Dolphins belong to the second group of whales and have
teeth.

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Biomes
Biomes are large ecosystems divided into six areas across the Earth.
The taiga biome is located in the mid- to high latitudes. Its climate is very cold in the winter, cool in the summer,
and averages about 20 inches of precipitation a year. The taiga's soil is acidic, very poor in minerals, and the
surface is covered with dead needles from pines and spruce. The spruce, fir and other evergreens makes up the
plant life. Animals include rodents, snowshoes, hares, lynx, sables, ermine, caribou, bears, wolves, and birds.
The deciduous forest is located in the mid-latitudes with mostly a mild climate for the summer and winter. The
precipitation is usually around 30 - 50 inches per year. In the deciduous forest, the surface is clay overlaid with
top soil and allows for plant growth such as oak, beeches, hickory, and maple trees. Living within the forest are
animals such as wolves, deer, bears, and a large variety of small mammals, along with birds, amphibians, reptiles,
and insects.
The tropical rain forest is located near the equator. The climate is hot year round, yet it averages between 80 -
180 inches of precipitation a year. In the tropical rain forest, the nutrients in the soil is very poor. The tropical rain
forest has the greatest diversity in plant life than any other biomes which includes vines, orchids, ferns, and a
wide variety of trees. There are more species of insects, reptiles and amphibians than any other place. There are
also monkeys, other small and large mammals, including elephants and all sorts of colorful birds.
The desert biome is located in the mid-latitude. Its climate is known for its very hot days and cool nights. The
precipitation averages around 10 inches a year. The plant life consist of cacti, yuccas, bunch grasses, shrubs and a
few trees. Rodents, snakes, lizards, and tortoises, make up most of the animal life, but there are also insects and
some birds. The soil is poor with animal decay products but often rich in minerals. Camels, gazelles, antelopes,
small foxes, snakes, lizards, and gerbils all have their home in the Sahara in Africa.
The tundra is located in the high northern latitudes. The climate is very cold, harsh, and the winters are long.
There are short and cool summers with an average precipitation of 4 - 10 inches a year. The soil is nutrient-poor
with a permafrost layer a few inches underneath. In the tundra, plant life consists of grasses, wildflowers, mosses,
and small shrubs. The animal life consists of musk oxen, migrating caribou, arctic foxes, weasels, snowshoe hares,
owls, hawks, various rodents, and an occasional polar bear.
The final biome is the grassland which is located in the mid-latitudes, within the interiors of the continents. The
climate is cool during the winter, and hot during the summer with an average precipitation of 10 - 30 inches a
year. The soil is a rich top soil that supports plant life such as grasses, small shrubs, and trees near sources of
water. In the America Grassland the animal life consists of prairie dogs, foxes, small mammals, snakes, insects,
various birds. The Grasslands in Africa includes elephants, lions, zebras, and giraffes.
In summary the six biomes include taiga, deciduous forest, tropical rain forest, desert, tundra, and grassland. The
biomes each have different climates, animals, plants, and other characteristics.

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Armored Animals
Animals in nature have to find ways to protect themselves. Some use shells. Some use horns or spines. Some use
thick skin. All of these can save an animal from a predator.
Armadillos get their name from the Spanish word armado. It means 'armored one'. The armadillo looks like it is
wearing a coat of armor. Bony plates cover the animal's body. They are attached to soft skin underneath. These
plates protect the armadillo from enemies and also insect bites. There are no plates on its underside. The
armadillo can roll its armored body into a very tight ball with no gaps. This will protect it from enemies.
Every part of the armadillo's body has a purpose. Its eyes have thick lids to protect from insect bites. The
armadillo has a strong sense of smell and can smell insects up to 8 inches below the ground. Its feet are strong
claws. It uses the claws to dig a burrow and to find food and spends the day in the burrow. At night it comes out
to look for insects. The armadillo's long nose pushes straight into an ant hill to find food. It can eat as many as
four hundred thousand ants in one meal.
Porcupines move slowly. They need to have protection on their bodies. A porcupine is covered with thousands of
tiny spikes. These are called quills. These stand on end when there is danger. If a porcupine stabs another animal
with its quills, the quill snaps off. It stays in the other animal's body. Sometimes the quill can be very painful or
harmful. If a big animal attacks a porcupine, it may get a quill stuck in its throat and starve.
A porcupine has bad eyesight, but very good hearing. Its feet are broad and heavy. Sharp claws help it to climb
trees. The porcupine's deadliest enemy is a fisher. It is like a weasel. It flips the porcupine onto its back and
attacks its belly and it kills it and eats it.
Its horn, large size and thick skin protect a rhinoceros. The horn is attached to a big bump on its nose. It is made
of a substance like a fingernail. Rhinos are the only animal with a horn on their nose. Rhinoceros means 'nose
horn'. Some species of rhino can have a horn as long as five feet.
A rhino has very few predators. The babies are sometimes killed by lions and hyenas. Man is its greatest enemy.
People kill rhinos to get their horns and sell them to others to make medicine or knives with handles of horn.
Some species of rhinos are almost extinct.
Crocodiles are protected from most predators by their strong jaws and teeth. It is a cold-blooded reptile. It has to
come out of the water to get warm before it attacks its prey. The crocodile drags the victim under the water with
its strong jaws. It drowns its prey and it leaves it there to rot. Then the crocodile comes back later to eat it.
In summary, many animals like the armadillo, porcupine, rhinoceros, and crocodile must have special protection
on their bodies. They can have shells, tough skin, horns, or strong jaws and teeth. These can drive away possible
predators. They can even kill or injure them.

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Butterflies
Butterflies belong to a huge order of insects called Lepidoptera. Lepidoptera means 'scaly wings'. Their wings are
covered by thousands of tiny scales. They live in all kinds of climates and temperatures. Some of the most
beautifully colored ones live in tropical rainforests. There the climate is hot and humid and there are many
flowering plants for food.
Butterflies help the environment in two ways. They are pollinators of flowers. That means they carry pollen from
flower to flower so that they can reproduce. They also provide meals for frogs, bats, birds and lizards.
Butterflies go through four stages of life. In each stage they look different and each has a purpose. The length of
time from egg to adult can range from a few weeks to a few years. The length depends on the type of butterfly.
The female deposits the egg. The egg hatches and becomes a caterpillar. The butterfly caterpillar eats constantly
and grinds its food with huge jaws. The caterpillar sheds its skin several times as it grows. The caterpillar then
attaches itself to a branch by spinning a line of silk. Within twenty-four hours the caterpillar sheds its skin for the
last time.
A pupa or chrysalis forms. Inside the butterfly chrysalis the adult parts of a butterfly are being formed. The
chrysalis is usually green to blend in with plant life. The pupa or chrysalis case cracks open and an adult butterfly
comes out. The butterfly dumps waste from its body and pumps blood into its wings. After about an hour it can
fly.
Butterflies have three main body parts. The head contains the eyes, proboscis and the antennae. Their eyes don't
see as we do, even though they can see in all directions. They can only see colors and motion. A proboscis is like a
long tongue. Butterflies can use it to drink nectar from a flower. They can also use it to suck sap from leaves and
stems. Butterflies use their antennae to smell.
The middle section of the butterfly is the thorax. Three pairs of jointed legs and two pairs of wings are attached to
this part of the body. A butterfly's scales can be seen best on its wings. A brown powder will rub off the wing if
touched. These will be scales. The colors and patterns on a butterfly's wings protect them from predators.
Camouflage is the most common pattern.
The third section of a butterfly's body is the abdomen. It is soft and contains ten sections. It also holds a simple
heart, reproductive organs, breathing spores and the digestive and excretory systems.
Males and females often look alike. Male butterflies search for mates with the correct color and pattern on their
wings when they are ready to mate. After mating, a female flies off to look for a suitable plant for her eggs. The
color and shape of the leaves help her make her decision. Some butterflies lay clusters of eggs and some just one.
In summary, butterflies are insects and belong to the order Lepidoptera. This word means 'scaly wings'. They are
covered by thousand s of tiny scales. Butterflies live in all climates and temperatures. However, the most colorful
live in hot tropical climates. Many flower producing plants are available for food in those regions.

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Trees
A tree is a wooden stick trying hard to reach the sky. It wants to reach the sunlight which it needs for life. The
stick is called a trunk. Raising itself tall also keeps the leaves farther away from insects and animals. There are two
main types of trees: conifers and broad-leaved.
Broad-leaved trees are usually rounded. Conifers grow into a triangular shape. To be called a tree the plant must
be over twenty feet tall. It can have only one trunk. Anything else is a shrub. A tree below twenty feet is called a
sapling. Redwoods are the tallest trees in the world. They can grow to more than three hundred-sixty feet in
height.
All the parts of a tree work together to make it grow. Leaves make food by using sunlight and gases in the air. The
roots take water and minerals from the soil. The leaves need water, and the roots need food. The trunk carries
water and sap up and down the tree. Sap is the name for the tree's food. The water and sap channels are just
under the outer layer of bark. The bark protects them. As a tree grows, the bark cracks open on the outside. New
bark grows on the inside.
The leaves of broad-leaved trees are thin, flat, and often wide. In northern climates, broad-leaved trees are
usually deciduous. They lose their leaves in the fall. The veins in a leaf carry food and water around the leaf. A
leaf's shape can identify the type of tree. Young leaves are especially tasty to deer and other animals. Some trees
have thorns to keep the eaters away.
Conifers are trees which produce cones. Some conifers have hard, spiky needles. Leaf-eating animals cannot eat
these spikes or needles. Others have bad-tasting leathery leaves or scales. Each needle of a conifer stays on the
tree for three to four years. They save their energy by not having to make new needles each year.
Twigs stick out from trees and are the growing ends of the tree. Each twig has some buds. These contain new
shoots. The shoots open and become new twigs. Sticky scales protect the buds from insects.
Some trees have beautiful blossoms. These attract bees or other insects. They then carry pollen from male
flowers to female flowers. Female flowers make seeds from the pollen. These may grow into trees. On conifers
the cones serve as blossoms. Male cones produce pollen. This is blown to the female cones. Seeds begin to grow.
The cone scales harden and protect the seeds. Seeds fall from cones to grow into new trees. They have light wing-
type propellers on them to blow them away from the parent tree. They could not get sunlight under the tree.
Some trees use their fruit as a means of spreading seeds. They may rely on the animals who eat the fruit and then
leave the seeds in their droppings. These may contain seeds which will grow into new trees. Other trees have a
tasty seed or nut. Many of these are eaten by animals. The ones which are not may grow into trees.
In summary, a stick with leaves or needles on it is called a tree. The tree has to continually stretch to the sky to
find the life-giving sun it needs to grow. Its height also keeps animals and insects away from the leaves. Conifers
and broad-leaved are the two main types of trees.

29
The Moon
The moon is Earth's satellite. A satellite orbits or goes around a larger object. The Moon's orbit is not a perfect
circle. Sometimes it is farther away from Earth than at other times. Gravity pulls the Earth and the Moon close
together. Gravity is a force which pulls objects together. The Moon's gravity is one-sixth that of Earth. A person or
object is pulled down to the surface of the Moon with only one-sixth the force.
The Moon is much smaller than the Earth. Its diameter is only about one quarter that of the Earth. Its diameter is
2,160 miles. A diameter is the distance from one side of a circle to the other. The distance from the Earth to the
Moon is about 238, 855 miles. The average temperature on the Moon is -4 degrees Fahrenheit.
The Moon seems to change shape throughout the month. That happens because people only see the part of the
Moon which the Sun lights up. The Earth travels around the Sun. The Moon travels around the Earth. When the
Moon is between the Earth and the Sun, the Moon looks dark to Earth. The Sun is shining on its other side. The
Moon spins on its axis once every 27 days. An axis is an imaginary line through the Moon from pole to pole.
The surface of the Moon is made up of rock and dust. The surface rock has been smashed into pieces by many
meteorites. A meteorite is a rock which hits the Moon from space. Heating and cooling during the day and night
also break up the rock. The surface never changes because new rock is never made as it is on Earth.
Craters on the Moon were formed by the crash of meteorites against it. The largest craters are called basins. They
range in size from a few inches to hundreds of miles across. Mountains thousands of feet high stand around the
rim of these basins. Rilles are deep canyons made by flowing lava. Dark areas called maria (seas) were formed
when giant craters were flooded by liquid rock leaking out from under the top layer of the Moon. There is no
wind or rain on the Moon to move the dust around.
In ancient times astronomers recorded the movement and shape of the Moon. They wondered why it seemed to
move across the sky. The ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus was one of the first to think that the Moon was a
sphere or globe. The telescope was invented in the 1600's. People could see much more of the Moon's surface
using the telescope. Scientists have sent probes to the Moon to study it. Astronauts have landed on the moon
several times.
A spacecraft being launched from the Earth needs a powerful rocket to lift it. It has to overcome Earth's gravity or
it could be pulled back down to Earth. The spacecraft must protect the occupants from radiation from the Sun
and space. It must keep them warm and provide air to breathe. It must land safely on the Moon and protect the
astronauts from the tremendous heat while re-entering Earth's atmosphere.
In summary, the Moon is a satellite which travels around the Earth. Its orbit is not a perfect circle. Sometimes the
Moon is farther away from the Earth than at others. Gravity keeps the Moon and Earth together.

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Whales
Whales are the largest and most powerful creatures on earth. They live in all of the oceans of the world. They are
not fish. Whales are mammals. They are warm-blooded. They breathe air. They give birth to live young. Baby
whales drink their mother's milk.
Whales are called Cetaceans. Other Cetaceans include dolphins and porpoises. Whales are social creatures. They
travel in groups called pods or schools. They breathe through their nostrils, called blowholes. They must surface
above the water to breathe. The blowhole is on top of the whale's head. When whales breathe out, this vapor
looks like a fountain. The blowhole is closed when the whale dives below the ocean. Some whales can stay under
the water for up to an hour.
Sperm whales are the largest of the toothed whales. They have a huge square snout. These snouts contain almost
a ton of oil. Early whale hunters went after the sperm whales. They live off the coast of North America and
sometimes move to the polar seas.
A whale's flippers balance and steer the creature. The two parts of its tail are called flukes. They move up and
down and push the whale through the water. The mother whale is called a cow. Her baby is born under water.
She pushes it up to the surface for its first breath. The baby calf can swim immediately.
Whales with teeth are called toothed whales. Those having no teeth are called baleen whales. The baleen whale
has blades of whalebone hanging down from the roof of its mouth. The whale swims with its mouth open and
traps sea creatures. It closes its mouth and the blades act like a filter. Its tongue scrapes food off the filter to eat
it. Baleen whales have two blowholes.
There are more toothed whales than baleen and they are larger. Toothed whales have piercing teeth and big
throats. They can swallow whole fish. Killer whales eat seals, birds and even other whales.
Many whales migrate to find other feeding grounds. They travel from season to season. The feeding grounds are
in the colder waters. The whales then move to warmer waters to mate and have their young. They move in
groups of three or more.
Whales make many different sounds. The humpback whale sings. It may emit high-pitched screams or low throbs
for up to fifteen minutes. Their songs have been recorded. They seem to be able to sing six different songs. Gray
whales talk in grunts, cracking sounds, and whistles. Beluga whales are called canaries because of their singing.
Whales are very intelligent. The U.S. Navy has trained small whales for secret work. Whales can be trained for
rewards of fish and attention.
In summary, whales are the largest creatures on earth. They are not fish. They are mammals who live in all of the
oceans of the world. They are warm-blooded. They give birth to live young who drink their mother's milk. They
must come to the surface to breathe.

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Comets, Meteors and Asteroids
Comets, meteors and asteroids come from space. Comets appear as shining lights and cannot be seen without a
telescope. Meteors look like thin streaks of light in the night sky. They can be seen by the naked eye. Asteroids
are chunks of rock that circle the Sun. They measure about 3 miles across.
A comet in the outer parts of the Solar System is too small to be seen from Earth. It looks like a large, dirty
snowball. It has an icy core, covered by a layer of black dust. The nucleus is mainly water and gases, frozen and
mixed together with bits of rock and metal.
The ice melts when the comet gets closer to the Sun. It changes into a gas. Dust particles spread out around the
nucleus in a cloud called a coma. The Sun causes them to glow. The coma of an average comet is sixty thousand
miles across, but very thin. Radiation and the solar wind drive the gases of the coma away. They form a straight
tail. The tail can grow to ninety million miles long.
The orbits of most comets are oval-shaped. Short-period comets take less than two hundred years to travel
around the sun. Halley's Comet returns every 76 years. The comet with the shortest period is Encke's comet. It
orbits the Sun every 3.3 years. Most comets get brighter when they get closer to the Sun. Bright comets are
visible in the sky only once or twice in a century, but for a long period of time.
Meteors flash in the sky every night. They are sometimes called falling or shooting stars. Meteors begin as
meteoroids pushing through the Earth's atmosphere. Friction made by rubbing against air particles makes them
look red hot. Then they are called meteors. They last for only a few seconds. Meteors come much closer to the
Earth than comets.
Earth might pass through an old comet orbit and bump into particles from its nucleus. This event is called a
meteor shower. Perhaps more than a dozen meteors might be visible in an hour. If many more meteors are
together, this event is called a meteor storm.
Asteroids are the largest of the space rocks. Most of them go around the Sun between the orbits of Mars and
Jupiter. The region they are located is called the Asteroid Zone. There are more than three thousand known
asteroids. Most are only a few miles across. Ceres is the largest. It is six hundred miles across.
Sometimes asteroids spin out of their zone to follow different orbits. More than twenty-five asteroids share the
same orbit as Jupiter. They are called Trojan asteroids. Apollo asteroids come across Earth's orbit and approach
the Sun like a comet.
In summary, comets, meteors, and asteroids are three types of space travelers which can be seen by humans.
Comets are shiny patches in the sky from time to time. Asteroids are chunks of rock which circle the Sun. Both can
be viewed only by using a telescope. Meteors are thin streaks of light every night. These can be seen without a
telescope.

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Penguins
There are seventeen kinds of penguins in the world. They are all alike in some ways and all cannot fly. All have
dark backs and white fronts and live in the Southern Hemisphere near the sea.
They differ in several ways. They can be as small as 16 inches or as tall as 4 feet. They differ in the exact location
they inhabit. Some live in the frigid climate of Antarctica. Others can live along the coast of forested land.
Galapagos penguins live three thousand miles north of Antarctica in a tropical climate at the equator. All
penguins live at or south of the equator.
Some penguins are known for yellow or orange feathers on their heads. Some have a single or double black band
across their upper chest. Brush-tailed penguins have tails that are longer than any other. The emperor and the
king are called the giant penguins. The little blue and the yellow-eyed are isolated types of penguins not related
to any other. Sometimes penguins are named by what they look like. Sometimes they are named based on where
they live.
Penguins have torpedo-shaped bodies, long and slim. They can move quickly and gracefully through the sea. Their
short wings and flippers move up and down swiftly. They steer with their tails and feet. Penguins have solid
bones. This helps them dive. They can leap out of the water. They can travel twenty-five miles an hour for short
distances. Some types of penguins may live in one area in summer and travel a good distance for the winter. The
biggest penguins are the fastest swimmers and best divers. Emperors can dive as much as fifteen hundred feet
below the surface of the ocean for prey, though food is much closer to them.
Penguins feed on fish, squid and krill. They have no teeth. Their tongues and roofs of their mouths are covered
with stiff spines which keep slippery prey inside. A penguin comes up from below to strike a school of fish. In a
few minutes a penguin can catch and eat a hundred small fish or krill.
Wherever penguins swim, the water is cold. Their coat of small, scale-like feathers protects them from the cold.
Penguins can groom themselves by taking oil from a gland at the base of their tails. With their beaks they spread
this oil all over their feathers. This is their way of waterproofing their bodies. A layer of stored fat under their skin
also keeps them warm. It gives them extra energy when needed too. In warmer climates penguins may have bare
skin on their faces to stay cooler.
Penguins could live all year in the sea but they must come ashore to mate and raise their babies. Most nests are
made by the male. Both parents help raise the babies. In warm climates penguins must protect the eggs from the
heat. Nests can be placed in crevices and caves along the shore. Penguins in colder climates build nests on top of
soil or rocks out of pebbles. They are above ground to avoid being flooded by melting ice.
In spring more than a million king penguins raise their young on South Georgia Island in the southern part of the
Atlantic Ocean. The male and female take turns holding a single egg on top of their feet. They keep it warm by
holding it up to a special warm area of their belly skin called the brood patch. The other parent goes off to hunt
for food.
In summary, all seventeen types of penguins in the world are alike in some ways. They are all flightless birds. They
have dark backs and white fronts and live near the sea in the Southern Hemisphere.

33
The Water Cycle
The water cycle is the continuous movement of water between the surface of the Earth and the air. The water
cycle involves several steps involving evaporation, transpiration, condensation, and precipitation. It is a
continuous cycle where water evaporates into the air and becomes part of a cloud, falls down to earth as
precipitation, and then evaporates again. This repeats again and again in a cycle that lasts forever.
Evaporation is when the sun heats up the waters in oceans, lakes, and other bodies of water. The water then
changes into a gas. The water or moisture, now a gas, then evaporates into the air. This continuously takes place
all over the world.
Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water in the form of water vapor. Transpiration is similar to
evaporation by getting the water vapor from plants back up into the air. It is also a part of the Earth's water cycle.
It takes place continuously as plants grow using the water that passes through the roots of the plants and is then
released into the air.
Condensation occurs when the water vapor in the air becomes cold and changes back into a liquid. During the
water cycle, clouds are formed due to condensation. It is also condensation when water droplets from the air
form on the outside of a cold drink. Condensation also occurs following a hot shower. The water from the shower
changes to a water vapor and the droplets cover the mirror and other objects in the room.
Precipitation is rain, snow, sleet, or hail that falls to the ground. Precipitation occurs during the water cycle when
the air can no longer hold water that had been evaporated. The clouds get heavy and the evaporated water falls
back to the earth as precipitation.
Rain forms in clouds when the clouds are large enough to have water droplets. The water droplets collide and
form raindrops. Snow is formed when water vapor changes directly to a solid at a temperature of less than 32°F.
Sleet is basically rain drops that freeze into ice pellets before reaching the ground. Hail is cooled water that
freezes on contact with ice crystals in clouds normally occurring in the summer months, and usually during
thunderstorms.
When precipitation ends up on the land it soaks into Earth and becomes ground water. The ground water is then
used by plants and animals for drinking. Groundwater may be stored in aquifers. Aquifers are underground layers
of rock that are saturated with water. This can be brought to the surface through natural springs or by pumping.
If precipitation runs over the soil and collects in the oceans, lakes or rivers it is called runoff. Runoff is the flow of
water that occurs when excess storm water, meltwater, or other sources flows over the earth's surface. Once this
precipitation ends up in or on the Earth's surface, the water cycle begins all over again.
In summary the Earth's water cycle continuously occurs throughout the world. The four processes include
evaporation, transpiration, condensation, and precipitation. Precipitation is water that falls to the Earth through
rain, snow, sleet, or hail. As the water reached the Earth's surface it may become ground water stored in aquifers,
or if the Earth can no longer hold the water it becomes runoff. The water then flows back into the Earth's
different bodies of water.

34
Atoms and Electricity
Atoms are the basis for everything in the universe. All matter is composed of atoms. Solids are made of densely
packed atoms while gases have atoms that are spread out. Protons, electrons, and neutrons are the basic parts of
atoms. The parts of the atom include positive and negative charges and are responsible for the electrical charges
known as electricity.
Electrons are the smallest of the three particles that make up atoms. They are located in an area that surrounds
the nucleus of an atom. Electrons have negative charges. Protons, electrons, and neutrons are all related to
electric charges.
Protons have positive charges. Protons are large and are found in the nucleus. Along with neutrons, they are
grouped together in the center of the atom.
Neutrons are neutral and do not have a charge. They are large and are found in the nucleus grouped together
with the protons.
Atoms start out with the same number of electrons and protons. Under certain conditions, electrons can be
removed from an atom or added to an atom. Removing electrons would leave the atom with more positive than
negative charges.
Electricity is the transfer of electrons from one atom to another. Electrons have a negative charge, they
sometimes are attracted to atoms that have a positive charge. Electrons orbit in an area that surrounds the
nucleus of an atom. Electrons then sometimes jump to the shells of nearby atoms as they orbit. This jumping or
movement of electrons creates electric current. Current is what flows through electrical wires and powers
electronics items, from light bulbs to televisions.
Electrical charges are created in power plants that goes through power lines to bring electricity into homes or
businesses.
Static electricity is the imbalance of positive and negative charges in an object. Static electricity is created when
electrons move from one place to another. Electrons can move more easily in some objects than in others. The
rubbing of certain materials against one another can transfer negative charges, or electrons.
An example of static electricity is when a balloon is charged by rubbing it on the hair. It picks up extra electrons
and has a negative charge. Holding it near a neutral object will make the charges in that object move. This is an
example of static electricity. Another example involves clothing is in a dryer. The fabrics rub together and there is
an exchange of electrons from the surfaces of the clothing. They are then attracted to each other and cling
together. The crackling sound heard comes from the electrons being pulled away from each other when the
clothes are separated.
In summary, without atoms and the interaction between electrons, protons, and neutrons, it would not be
possible to have electricity. The main parts of an atom included protons with positive charges, electrons with
negative charges, and neutrons with no charge. Electrical current is produced in power plants and is then
transferred to homes and businesses through power lines. Finally, a common form of electricity is static electricity
which often occurs when electrons rub off and on various objects and interact with each other.

35
Weathering and Erosion
Weathering is the force that break down the Earth's crust into smaller particles. Erosion is the picking up and
carrying away of the smaller materials or particles caused by weathering. Joined together, they are responsible
for the many changes the Earth's crust encounters over many, many thousands and millions of years.
Some examples of weathering include streams cutting through rock to form canyons, rocks splitting when water
seeps in and freezes, and windblown sand raking down rock. It is physical weathering when the Earth's crust is
exposed to water, air, and temperature changes. This can occur immediately or over a long time period. An
example may be roots from plants breaking apart rocks in the soil.
Another example may be the rapids of a water fall breaking apart the solid rock as it makes its way down a path.
Water dissolves the minerals from the Earth's crust, and the moving water acts as a force breaking down the
pieces of rock into smaller and smaller pieces.
Physical weathering can also be caused by the wind. Heavy winds may cause much damage to the Earth along
with rain and extreme temperature changes. If the temperature drops low enough, rainwater can freeze and
expand, causing cracks in rocks, possibly splitting the rocks apart.
Chemical weathering occurs when chemicals affect the Earth's crust, whether found in the air or in the water. An
example may be rain mixed with chemicals causing rust. Rust is formed when the oxygen in the air reacts with
iron. This is an example of chemical weathering and can affect objects made with out of metal.
Chemical weathering also occurs when chemicals in the air such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and
others cause acids to eat away at rocks. Salt can be a cause of chemical weathering, it is made up of a chemical
called sodium chloride.
Physical and chemical weathering can be caused by living organisms, too, such as by burrowing animals or the
roots from plants. Physical and chemical weathering is also responsible for the formation of sand. Sand is typically
made mostly of varying amounts of material weathered rocks from the land and transported to the beach by the
wind or in rivers. The chemical weathering usually takes place in hot and humid climates.
Erosion takes place following the weathering of rocks and other particles of the Earth's surface. This force carries
the rocks from the places where they were weathered. Most erosion is caused by water, wind, or ice. The ice is
usually in the form of a glacier. A glacier can erode the land. On some mountaintops, they move downhill and
across the land picking up everything in their path. Water is the major cause of erosion. Moving water carries
away soil and slowly washes away rock fragments. Streams and rivers wear away their banks, creating larger and
larger valleys.
In summary, weathering and erosion are closely connected and are related to each other but they are not the
same. Weathering is the process where rocks are worn away or broken down into smaller pieces by wind, water,
plants and other forces. Erosion, on the other hand, occurs when these broken rocks and sediments are picked up
& moved to another place by ice, water or wind. Weathering and erosion can change the shape of coastlines,
form canyons, create valleys, and change the Earth's surface over time.

36
The Weather
Weather describes the condition of the atmosphere. The condition of the atmosphere may be hot or cold, wet or
dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy. The layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth is called the Earth's
atmosphere. The atmosphere is made up of different gases and acts as a shield protecting life and it also helps
maintain a safe temperature on Earth.
The temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness in the air, sometimes called air temperature. A
thermometer is the instrument used to measure the temperature of the air or any other substance. The
temperature based on the motion of the energy in the air. If the gas molecules in the air move faster, the air
temperature will increase.
Humidity is the measurement of water vapor, or the invisible water in the air. Air pressure is the weight of the
atmosphere pressing down on the Earth. Air pressure is also called atmospheric pressure. A barometer is used to
measure atmospheric or air pressure. It is used by scientists, called meteorologists, who study the weather to
forecast changes in the weather.
The change in air pressure has an effect on weather. Air moves from higher pressure to lower pressure, so if
there's high and a low nearby, it can be windy as air rushes between the two. High pressure situations are
generally associated with fair, sunny weather. Low pressure areas are generally cloudy/rainy areas; strong areas
of low pressure bring the stormiest weather.
In higher altitude places, the air pressure decreases because the air is less dense here. However, in lower altitude
places, the air pressure increases because the air is denser at lower sea levels.
Wind is caused by air flowing from high pressure areas to low pressure areas. The differences in the pressure is
caused by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface by the sun. Some areas of the Earth receive more heat from
the sun than other areas. This also results in various wind speeds. A difference between high and low pressure
will cause wind, but the greater the difference the stronger the wind.
The rotation of the Earth also has an effect on the direction of the wind. If the Earth did not rotate, the wind
would blow in a straight direction. Since the Earth rotates, the wind is deflected from the straight path.
Local winds are created as a result of mountains, vegetation, bodies of water, and other similar natural bodies.
This is why local winds may change often, from mild breezes to strong winds in just hours. Local winds cover short
distances.
There are several variables that affect the type of weather on the Earth, one is location. Coastal areas may have
different weather patterns than mountainous areas. Weather also depends on a place's distance from the
equator.
In summary, the Earth's weather can be warm, cold, windy, dry, rainy, snowy, and different combinations of each.
Temperature affects air pressure, wind has an effect on temperatures, and there are other variables affecting the
type of weather occurring throughout the world.

37
The Ocean Floor
The ocean floor is made up of various landscapes including mountains, valleys, and plains. These underwater
surfaces of the ocean floor are located from the shallowest part of the ocean to its deepest part.
The continental shelf is the underwater edge of the continent. It extends from the shore to a depth of about 600
feet and has a gentle slope. About 50 miles from the shore is a steep slope called the continental slope. The
continental slope leads from the continental shelf toward the sea floor and is also deeper than the shelf.
About 12 or 13 miles away from the shore into the ocean is the continental rise. The continental rise is a buildup
of sediment and sand on the ocean floor at the bottom of the continental slope. It is mostly sand and mud that
stretches from the slope down to the deep-sea floor.
One of the flattest places on Earth is at the end of the continental rise. The abyssal plain are large, flat lands that
cover almost half of the ocean floor. These were formed when most of the hills and valleys at the bottom of the
ocean were buried under a layer of sand and mud long ago.
There may also be a huge underwater mountain called a sea mount. The peak rises hundreds of miles above the
ocean floor. Seamounts are also volcanoes and was formed in the same way as a volcano on land. Hot molten
rock rose from inside the Earth's surface and cooled to a solid. Sometimes a sea mount may appear as an island.
The Hawaiian Islands are an example of a chain of islands formed by sea mounts.
There are also trenches located on the ocean floor. An ocean trench is a V-shaped valley that is long and narrow
and are the deepest points on Earth. They may extend 5-6 miles below sea level. Mount Everest would fit inside
the largest trench and would still be over a mile below the surface of the Earth. The largest deep sea trench is
about 7 miles deep. Trenches are so deep, sunlight will never reach the areas.
In the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, there is a huge mountain range rising above the ocean floor. This is known as
the mid-Atlantic ridge. The mid-Atlantic ridge is part of a chain of mountains called mid-ocean ridges. These
ridges wind its way through all of the world's major oceans.
The mid-Atlantic ridge extends the entire length of the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain ranges were also formed by
volcanoes and the molten rock that cooled and hardened.
The ocean floor is also home to many sunken ships and other objects. A well-known cruise ship, the Titanic lies on
the Atlantic floor almost 2.5 miles below the surface.
Finally, the ocean floor is home to hot springs called sea-floor vents. The vents are formed when seawater trickles
down into newly formed ocean crust. Eventually, the water becomes saturated with minerals and it boils out of a
vent in the crust.
In summary, the ocean floor is a vast area made up of various landforms called the continental shelf, slope, and
rise. There is also the abyssal plain which is the flattest place on Earth. Other land forms include sea mounts,
ocean ridges, and ocean trenches. The ocean floor is also home to manmade objects like a sunken cruise ship
called the Titanic.

38
The Moon
The moon is Earth's satellite. A satellite orbits or goes around a larger object. The Moon's orbit is not a perfect
circle. Sometimes it is farther away from Earth than at other times. Gravity pulls the Earth and the Moon close
together. Gravity is a force which pulls objects together. The Moon's gravity is one-sixth that of Earth. A person or
object is pulled down to the surface of the Moon with only one-sixth the force.
The Moon is much smaller than the Earth. Its diameter is only about one quarter that of the Earth. Its diameter is
2,160 miles. A diameter is the distance from one side of a circle to the other. The distance from the Earth to the
Moon is about 238, 855 miles. The average temperature on the Moon is -4 degrees Fahrenheit.
The Moon seems to change shape throughout the month. That happens because people only see the part of the
Moon which the Sun lights up. The Earth travels around the Sun. The Moon travels around the Earth. When the
Moon is between the Earth and the Sun, the Moon looks dark to Earth. The Sun is shining on its other side. The
Moon spins on its axis once every 27 days. An axis is an imaginary line through the Moon from pole to pole.
The surface of the Moon is made up of rock and dust. The surface rock has been smashed into pieces by many
meteorites. A meteorite is a rock which hits the Moon from space. Heating and cooling during the day and night
also break up the rock. The surface never changes because new rock is never made as it is on Earth.
Craters on the Moon were formed by the crash of meteorites against it. The largest craters are called basins. They
range in size from a few inches to hundreds of miles across. Mountains thousands of feet high stand around the
rim of these basins. Rilles are deep canyons made by flowing lava. Dark areas called maria (seas) were formed
when giant craters were flooded by liquid rock leaking out from under the top layer of the Moon. There is no
wind or rain on the Moon to move the dust around.
In ancient times astronomers recorded the movement and shape of the Moon. They wondered why it seemed to
move across the sky. The ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus was one of the first to think that the Moon was a
sphere or globe. The telescope was invented in the 1600's. People could see much more of the Moon's surface
using the telescope. Scientists have sent probes to the Moon to study it. Astronauts have landed on the moon
several times.
A spacecraft being launched from the Earth needs a powerful rocket to lift it. It has to overcome Earth's gravity or
it could be pulled back down to Earth. The spacecraft must protect the occupants from radiation from the Sun
and space. It must keep them warm and provide air to breathe. It must land safely on the Moon and protect the
astronauts from the tremendous heat while re-entering Earth's atmosphere.
In summary, the Moon is a satellite which travels around the Earth. Its orbit is not a perfect circle. Sometimes the
Moon is farther away from the Earth than at others. Gravity keeps the Moon and Earth together.

39
Reptiles and Mammals
There are several types of animals that can be found all over the world. Two of the largest kinds of animals are
reptiles and mammals. Both types of animals live together in different habitats even though there are several
differences between them.
Reptiles include turtles, lizards, snakes, crocodiles, and alligators. Snakes are also reptiles even though a few of
them do not lay eggs. Some of the dinosaurs were also reptiles like the T-Rex or Tyrannosaurus Rex. Reptiles can
usually be found on land, but some of them spend a lot of time in the water, too.
People are mammals. Other mammals include dogs, bears, apes, rabbits, dolphins, whales, and about 4,000 other
species. Rodents, which includes beavers, mice, and other small animals, are the largest group of mammals. The
bat is the only mammal that can fly. Some mammals only eat meat or plants, others eat both.
There are some characteristics reptiles and mammals share. First, they both have lived on the Earth for millions of
years. Next, both reptiles and mammals breathe in oxygen to survive. Third, both types of animals are
vertebrates.
Vertebrates are animals with a skeleton inside their bodies, including a backbone. Fish are another example of a
type of animal classified as a vertebrate.
Fourth, all reptiles and mammals have the same organs which include the brain, heart, stomach, lungs, and a few
others. The final characteristic the animals share is having four limbs, either all legs or two arms and two legs.
Though there are several characteristics reptiles and mammals share, there are many more differences. Most
reptiles lay eggs in order to produce their young. Mammals, on the other hand, give birth to living offspring.
When the newborn of a reptile is born, it can live on its own. However, when a newborn of a mammal is born it
must be cared for by the parent. In addition, newborn reptiles look like the parent, but newborn mammals do not
resemble the parent.
Another big difference is the outside covering of their bodies. Reptiles are covered in scales for protection, and
mammals are covered in hair or fur. Finally, reptiles are cold-blooded animals. Cold-blooded means they cannot
control their body temperature, but must use the sun for heat. A reptile's body temperature is usually the same
as the air temperature. Mammals are warm-blooded. Warm-blooded means they can control their body
temperature and produce heat. No matter what the temperature is, a mammal's body temperature will stay the
same.
There are also a few interesting facts about mammals and reptiles. Reptiles shed their skin as they grow, and
many of the m have claws on their feet. The largest mammal is the blue whale, which can be 100 feet long and
weigh 300,000 pounds. Some reptiles and mammals hibernate during the winter months.
In summary, reptiles and mammals can live together throughout the world even though there are many
differences between them. On the other hand, they have some interesting differences between them. Two of the
biggest differences include the covering on their bodies, and reptiles are cold-blooded, and mammals are war-
blooded.

40
Life in the Ocean
The oceans of the world are filled with thousands and thousands of different living things. Scientists believe there
may be a million different species living in the oceans, some of which have yet to be discovered. And just like on
land, there are many different plants and animals.
Many of the ocean plants either float on the surface of the water, or grow in shallow water. Plants in the ocean
need sunlight to grow just like those on land. The deepest parts of the ocean may not contain plant life because
the energy from the Sun cannot reach deep into the ocean.
An ocean plant called seaweed is a type of algae called phytoplankton. Phytoplankton are very tiny, but it is the
plant that gives off more oxygen than any other plant on Earth. Seaweed is a type of algae that floats on the
surface of the water and has been used by people for food, and material for housing, ropes, and baskets.
Kelp is an ocean plant that can reach sizes up to 250 feet. It the largest ocean plant in the world and is usually
brown. Kelp grows and lives on the surface of the water, but some kelp can also be very colorful. Kelp is another
kind of seaweed. It grows very quickly and also needs the energy from the Sun to survive.
A final type of plant is called seagrass. Seagrass also grows in shallow water living on the floor of the ocean. In
addition, they have roots and flowers. There are many other plants in the ocean that are similar to algae and
seaweed.
The ocean is the largest habitat for animals in the world. There is animal life throughout the ocean. The oceans
are so large, there may be animals that have yet to be discovered. The animals of the ocean live in the deep open
sea, or they live on the land and in the water.
Coral is an animal of the ocean, even though many people believe it is a plant. Coral relies on algae in the ocean
to keep it alive. The coral also helps the algae to survive. The algae attached to the coral gives coral its beautiful
colors. Coral has tentacles to capture small fish.
Finally, there are many different types of fish living in the world's oceans. Some of the fish include: tuna, sharks,
eels, stingrays, angelfish, clownfish, salmon, sardines, cod, and many others.
In addition to fish species, there are mammals that live in the ocean including: dolphins, whales, seals, sea lions,
sea otters, manatee and several others.
Many other animals living in the ocean include the octopus, lobster, crabs, jelly fish, squid, clams, sea dollars, and
many more. Some animals live on land and in the ocean, relying on the ocean for their food. These animals
include sea turtles, saltwater crocodile, marine iguana, and several others, including the polar bear. Furthermore,
there are many seabirds that rely on the ocean for survival including penguins, pelicans, tern, albatross, puffins,
gulls, and a few others.
In summary, the ocean is filled with a variety of plant and animal life, from tiny plankton to the largest mammal in
the world, the whale. Some people think coral is a plant, but it is actually an animal which relies on the algae to
keep it alive. The ocean is a giant habitat where many of the living organisms rely on each other to stay alive.

41
The Layers of the Earth
The Earth is more than a giant ball made up of dirt, rocks, and minerals. The Earth may look like a giant ball from
when looking at it from the moon, and the surface may be water, dirt, and other minerals, but deep inside the
Earth there are four main layers. These four layers of the Earth include the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner
core.
The first layer most people are quite familiar with because they walk on it every day, or maybe even dig holes into
it. It is called the Earth's crust. The Earth's crust is the outer layer of the Earth and is about 5 to 25 miles thick
depending on its location. It is the thinnest layer, only about 3-5 miles thick under the oceans which is called the
oceanic crust. Under the continents it is about 25 miles thick, which is called the continental crust. The
temperatures of the Earth's crust can be anywhere between air temperature and 1600° F, which is hot enough
to melt the rocks inside the Earth.
The thin layer of the crust is also broken into pieces called plates. The plates float on top of soft mantle below the
crust. The movement of these plates can cause earthquakes to occur.
Two other areas of the Earth's layers are a part of the next layer, the mantle, and a part of the crust. They are
called the lithosphere and the asthenosphere. The asthenosphere and lithosphere are mostly made up of rock
types called granite and basalt.
The second main layer of the Earth is called the mantle. The mantle of the Earth is the largest layer and is about
1800 miles thick. It is made up of extremely hot, dense rock and it flows like asphalt. The temperature at the top
of the mantle is about 1600° F and at the bottom it is about 4000° F. Basically, the mantle is made up of melted
rock which allows the plates of the Earth's crust to float on top of it. When the melted rock escapes to the Earth's
surface, a volcano may erupt in that area of the Earth. There are certain areas of the world where this is more
likely to happen.
The final two layers of the Earth include the outer core and the inner core. The outer core is basically made up of
melted metals, nickel and iron. Because these metals are melted, they move just like a liquid. The outer core is
located about 1800 miles below the Earth's surface and is about 1400 miles thick. The outer core has
temperatures between 4000° F and 9000° F.
The inner core is about 800 miles thick and the temperatures may be as high as 9000° F. There is so much
pressure at this layer, the metals are squeezed tightly together and they are forced to vibrate as solids. The
weight of the other layers of the Earth is basically pressing down onto the inner core of the Earth.
In summary, the four main layers of the Earth include the crust, mantle, inner core, and outer core. Two
additional areas located between the crust and mantle are the lithosphere and the asthenosphere. Earthquakes
are caused by the movement of the pieces of the Earth's crust called plates, and when a volcano erupts the
melted rock comes from the mantle of the Earth. Finally, the inner and outer core are the hottest and deepest of
the layers and are under the most pressure.

42
Solids, Liquids, and Gases
Matter is basically a substance that takes up space. All matter is a solid, liquid, or gas, and they are called the
states of matter.
Everywhere a person looks, there are examples of solids: desks, chairs, windows, rocks, tissues, and much more.
Examples of liquids: water, milk, juice, chocolate syrup, soda, and others. Examples of gases are harder to see,
because they are invisible: the oxygen in the air, propane gas used for a grill, helium inside a balloon, and more.
Everything, all matter, can be identified as a solid, liquid, or gas.
Besides what they look like, there are many differences between solids, liquids, and gases. These differences are
called characteristics. The characteristics of each state of matter are different. These characteristics determine if
a substance is a solid, liquid, or gas.
A solid has a definite shape. It can be hard or soft, smooth or rough. Solids can come in all sizes. A solid can be
large like the Statue of Liberty, or small like a marble. It can be very tiny like a bread crumb, or as big as a
mountain, and everything in between. If small enough, solids can be held in a person's hand, and they are difficult
to compress or push, or change shape.
The molecules of a solid are compact and close together, and nearly impossible to move through.
A liquid takes the shape of the container it is held in, and will fill the bottom of a container. Liquids usually have a
smooth surface, but does not have a specific size. A person may be able to hold a small amount of liquid in their
hand, but a liquid cannot be held like a solid. Liquids are less difficult to compress or push. It is much easier to
move through a liquid than a solid.
The molecules of a liquid are spread out more than a solid, but less than a gas.
Finally, a gas has no shape, but can fill a container or any size or shape. It will fill an entire container as the
molecules move. A gas cannot be felt in the hands like a solid or liquid. It has no surface or no particular size. It
cannot be held in a person's hands, and it is easy to push or compress. A gas is the easiest to move through versus
a liquid or solid.
The molecules in a gas are more spread out and move all the time. They are full of energy.
Water is the best example of a substance that can be a solid, liquid, or gas. Water by itself is a liquid. When water
freezes it becomes a solid. If a container of water is heated it turns into a gas called water vapor.
There are many other substances that can be more than one type of matter, too. Ice cream is a solid until it melts,
then it's a liquid. A moth ball is a solid, but it releases a gas that a person can smell across the room.
In summary, the different states of matter are called solids, liquids, and gases. The states of matter have different
characteristics and examples of each can be found throughout the universe.

43
Birds
What has two wings, two legs, a beak or bill, and feathers? Of course, the answer is a bird. But, there are nearly
10,000 different kinds of birds, and they come in all sizes. The smallest is the hummingbird and the largest is the
ostrich.
Birds can be grouped by the places they live, by what they eat, or by the shape of their feet, beaks, or wings. Birds
can be found nearly everywhere in the world. There are land birds, water birds, arctic birds, and tropical birds.
Some birds eat only insects, others just fruit and seeds. There are also birds whose diet consists of meat and fish.
There are several characteristics birds have in common, though, regardless of where they live or what they eat.
All birds have feathers, which help them in many different ways. They help them with flight, may be used to carry
water to the young, or they may be used for warmth.
All birds have two legs and two wings; however, there are a few birds that cannot fly including the penguin and
ostrich. Wings, of course, give most birds the ability to fly. Some bird species will spread out their wings and
expose them to the Sun to help reduce feather damage.
Most of a bird's body is made of feathers and hollow bones. They do not weigh very much, which help them fly
using their wings. In addition, they also have very strong muscles which allow them to fly for long periods of time.
Finally, birds fly differently depending on their wing type. Some birds can soar through the sky, others must
always flap their wings, some wings are helpful for diving as they propel themselves while diving under water. A
few birds can fly staying in one place, hovering like a helicopter.
All birds have a beak or a bill, which does not include teeth. Most birds raise their head and use their beaks to
allow water to run down their throat. Other uses for a bird's beak depends on the bird. The beak is adapted for
different uses such as for eating grains, skimming the surface of water, scavenging, eating fruits, or feeding from
the nectar of flowers.
All birds also lay hard-shelled eggs. They produce offspring by laying their eggs which are then fertilized by a male
bird. Most birds lay their eggs in nests where they are taken care of by the parents. Some birds, such as hens, lay
eggs even if they are not fertilized. The eggs, though, will not produce any offspring. Instead of laying the egg in a
nest, male emperor penguins keep their eggs between their body and feet.
Finally, all birds are warm-blooded, and have backbones, just like mammals. Being warm-blooded means the birds
can control their body temperature.
In summary, birds can be grouped by the places they live, by what they eat, or by the shape of their feet, beaks,
or wings. Birds can be found nearly everywhere in the world.
There are many interesting facts about the different birds found all over the world. The birds that do not fly
include the ostrich, emu, and penguin. Many birds migrate or fly south to escape cold winters. Birds use their
feathers to help them fly; protect themselves from different types of weather; to swim, dive, and float; for
feeling; keeping clean; and much more.

44
The Digestive System
When a person begins to eat food, the body's digestive system begins to work. The digestive system is the system
of the body that is responsible for breaking down the food a person eats. The process of food being broken down
is called digestion. Digestion allows the body to receive the nutrients and the energy from the food that is eaten.
During digestion, all of the food a person eats is eventually turned into the building blocks and fuel a person
needs.
The system actually begins to work when a person sees or smells the food. Saliva, or spit, begins to form in the
mouth. When the food is eaten, the saliva will begin to break down the chemicals in the food making it mushy
and easy to swallow.
With the help of a person's tongue the mushy food then moves to the back of the mouth into the opening of the
esophagus. The esophagus is about a 10-inch pipe that moves the food from the back of the throat to the
stomach. There is also a small flap blocking the windpipe to make sure the food goes down the correct tube. The
special flap is called the epiglottis. If a person begins to cough or choke, it is sometimes caused by food or drink
going down the windpipe instead of the esophagus. There are muscles in the esophagus that help push the food
into the stomach.
The stomach, another part of the digestive system, is the next stop for the food. It has three responsibilities: First,
it stores the food, then breaks it down into a liquid mixture, and finally, it slowly empties the mixture into the
small intestine. Inside the stomach, there are gastric juices which help break down the food, as well as kill any
bacteria that may be in the food.
The next stop on the journey is the small intestine. The small intestine is located beneath the stomach, and if
stretched out would be about 22 feet long. Its job is to break down the food some more, so that the body can
absorb all of the vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, and the fats found in food.
Helping the small intestine do its job is the pancreas, liver, and gall bladder. The pancreas makes juices that help
the body digest the fats and proteins from the food. The liver has a juice in it called bile that helps to absorb fats
into a person's bloodstream. The gall bladder stores the bile from the liver until the body needs it again. The liver
also filters out anything that may be harmful to the body, as well as stores vitamins and sugars for the body.
Finally, the large intestine is another part of the digestive system. The large intestine is thicker than the small
intestine but not as long. Its role is to receive all of the waste products that a person's body does not need. The
waste goes through the colon, which is a part of the large intestine. This is the last chance the body has to absorb
any nutrients or minerals before the waste leaves the body.
Once the waste leaves the colon becomes a solid again and pushed out through the rectum. This step ends the
journey of the food through the body and the digestive system. Drinking lots of water helps with the digestion of
food in the body.
In summary the digestive system consists of saliva in the mouth, the esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
pancreas, liver, gall bladder, large intestine, colon, and rectum. The digestive system breaks down the food of the
body so the nutrients and vitamins can help a person receive energy and nourishment.

45
Respiratory System
The respiratory system of the human body is responsible for the distribution of the air inhaled and exhaled
throughout a person's life. The respiratory system includes the nose, throat, voice box, wind pipe, and lungs.
Each time a person inhales, or breathes in air, several kinds of gases enter the body. The most important is
oxygen because it keeps a person alive, and the cells of the body need it for energy and growth. The air enters
through the nose and mouth and the lungs fill up and then empty out. When the air is inhaled there are tiny hairs
in the nose called cilia that filter the air. The air is also warmed and moistened as it travels through the nose. Cilia
also protects other parts of the respiratory passages, filtering out dust and other particles.
The inhaled air travels through the windpipe, which is called the trachea. The human body contains two lungs.
The lungs are pink, mushy, and like a sponge. The lungs are protected by the rib cage and keeps them protected
and safe. The lung on the left side of the body is smaller than the right lung, which allows room for a person's
heart. Beneath the lungs is a muscle called the diaphragm. It works with the lungs to allow a person to inhale and
exhale. When a person breathes in the diaphragm shrinks and levels out as the lungs fill up with air.
The end of the trachea is located between the two lungs. At the bottom of the trachea are a couple of large tubes
called bronchi. The bronchi lead into the lungs. One tube sends air into the left lung, and the other tube sends air
into the right lung.
Once the air travels through the bronchi, it will branch off into smaller tubes called bronchioles. The bronchioles
are about the thickness of a hair, and there are about 30,000 in each lung. From the bronchioles the air then
continues its journey to tiny air sacs located throughout the lungs. The tiny air sacs are called alveoli.
The 600 million alveoli are covered with very tiny blood vessels called capillaries. It is in this area of the lungs
between the alveoli and capillaries the exchange of air takes place. Alveoli allow the air to pass into the blood
cells of the body, first traveling through the heart carried by red blood cells. The oxygen enters the blood through
the tiny capillaries. The heart then takes the blood filled with oxygen and sends it out to all the cells of the body.
When a person exhales or breathes out everything will happen in reverse. The diaphragm relaxes and the lungs
become smaller. The cells in the body have received the oxygen it needs, but carbon dioxide must leave the body.
This time, wastes enter the alveoli through the capillaries, back through the bronchioles and bronchi, and then
the trachea and out through the nose and mouth. The air is warm because it heats up as it travels through the
body.
Finally, the lungs are also important for talking. The larynx is located above the trachea, which is often called the
voice box. Vocal cords across the larynx open and close, and then vibrate, to create the sounds as air flows
between them. The amount of air exhaled determines the loudness of a sound.
In summary, there are many parts of the respiratory system working together to distribute oxygen throughout the
body, as well as the lungs being necessary for a person's ability to talk. It is important to keep the lungs healthy
and strong.

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The Cell
The basic units of structure for all living organisms are cells. All living things are made up of cells. Every person,
animal and plant, as well as tiny organisms that can only be seen under a microscope are made up of cells. Living
organisms may be made up of billions and billions of cells or a single cell.
The introduction of the term cell is credited to a physicist named Robert Hooke. The invention of the microscope
helped Hooke describe the cells of the bark of a tree and other plant cells. The term cell was introduced by Hooke
in 1665, because they reminded him of the tiny rooms or cells used by monks.
Cells are the basic units of life because cells make up all living things. Cells come from other cells, meaning they
can reproduce to create new cells of the same kind.
All animal cells are surrounded by a structure called cell membrane. The cell membrane is like a boundary
between the inside and outside of cells. Cell membranes have different functions depending on the type of cell
the membrane surrounds. Some membrane control what enters or leaves the cell.
The cytoplasm of a cell is inside the cell membrane and is a liquid area that contains different fluids that help
keep the cell working. The fluids contain enzymes, fats, sugars and acids. The waste products of a cell are also
dissolved within the cytoplasm before exiting the cell.
The nucleus of a cell is usually found in its center. The nucleus could be considered the brain of the cell. The
molecules of DNA are found in the nucleus of a cell which determines the characteristics of the organism, such as
what it will look like.
DNA molecules contain the instructions for life. For a plant, it may be its size, for people it may be eye or hair
color and much more. Nearly all cells have a nucleus. It also controls the eating, movement, and reproduction of
the cell.
A plant cell is a little different than an animal cell. A cell wall is only found in plant cells but not animal cells. The
cell wall of a plant is found on the outside of its cell membrane. The cell wall provides all plants protection and
support, and it also helps plants keep their shape. Cell walls also have tiny holes to allow the movement of
nutrients and waste. Bacteria, fungi, and some protozoa also have cell walls.
Chloroplasts are also only found only in plant cells. Chloroplasts produce the food for the plant cells. In addition,
the process of photosynthesis depends on the chloroplasts. The chloroplasts help the plant turn light energy from
the Sun into food for the plant. There are green chlorophyll molecules in every chloroplast. Oxygen is also
released through plants by the chloroplasts.
Vacuoles are a part of both plant and animal cells. Inside a fluid, vacuoles store the food and nutrients the cell
needs to survive. They also store waste products of the cell to prevent contamination to the rest of the cell. The
waste will then be sent out of the cell. The vacuoles in plant cells are larger than in animal cells because they hold
large amounts of water and food.
Mitochondria also provides plant and animal cells with energy through a process known as cellular respiration.
The mitochondria take in nutrients, breaks them down, and turns them into energy using molecules.
In summary, cells of plants and animals have many parts and functions which are the basic units and parts of the
organism.

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The Circulatory System
The circulatory system is one of several systems of the human body that work together to keep a person healthy.
The body takes oxygen into the lungs when a person breathes. This oxygen is then transported throughout the
body into all of the cells of the body by the circulatory system.
The main function of the circulatory system is to carry blood throughout our bodies. The circulatory system
circulates or transports blood to and from the heart, and carries oxygen and nutrients to every cell in the body.
The circulatory system is connected throughout the body by vessels that transport the blood, oxygen, and
nutrients.
There are two main parts of the circulatory system, the heart and blood vessels. The heart contains a total of four
chambers, which are enclosed by walls that are thick and muscular. The heart is located between the lungs. It lies
just to the left side of the middle of the chest cavity.
Two of the chambers are called the left and right ventricles, located in the bottom part of the heart, pump blood
out of the heart. The aorta is the largest artery of the heart and it carries blood away from the heart. Blood with
oxygen is pumped into the aorta, which travels up along a ventricle and down into the front of the spinal column
into the abdomen. The upper part of the heart contains two other chambers, the left and right atria, receive
blood into the heart.
The left and right atria are the chambers of the heart that receive blood into the heart. The atria are located in
the upper part of the heart. The ventricles are located in the bottom part of the heart and pump blood out of the
heart. Heart valves separate the four chambers of the heart. The chambers of the heart collect and pump blood,
as well as control the blood's direction. The valves open correctly for the blood to empty from the chambers, and
close properly so blood does not flow the wrong way. The valves assure that the rest of the body get the right
amount of blood.
The heart is actually a muscle; the beating is the moving or pumping of blood into the rest of the body and beats
about 60 to 100 times per minute depending on age and health. It beats faster if necessary when the body is need
of oxygen, or slower while a person sleeps who would need less oxygen.
The blood vessels include arteries, veins, and capillaries which are the paths that carry the blood throughout the
body. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood to the heart, and the capillaries connect the
arteries and veins. The nutrients that come from food is digested in the body is also transported to all of the cells
of the body through the blood vessels of the circulatory system.
The arteries carry blood away from the heart. The arteries are the thickest of the blood vessels. The blood is
enriched with oxygen as it is sent through a large artery called the aorta, to the rest of the body. The veins of the
circulatory system carry blood back to the heart. Veins are thin and not as flexible as arteries, but are larger in
diameter. The capillaries are tiny blood vessels that carry blood between the arteries and the veins. The
capillaries deliver nutrients and oxygen to the cells in the body. Carbon dioxide and other waste products are also
removed by the capillaries. Capillaries are extremely small, only about one cell thick. If the capillaries were laid
end to end they would stretch to about 3000 miles.
In summary, the circulatory system is made up of the heart and thousands of miles of blood vessels called
arteries, veins, and capillaries which carry blood, oxygen, and nutrients throughout the different parts of the
body.

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Excretory System
The excretory system of the body controls the fluids of the body, including removing excess and unnecessary
fluids from the body. The organs include the kidneys, lungs, liver, and the skin. Each of the organs have a
responsibility in the system, but the kidneys are the main organs of the excretory system. The kidneys control the
fluids of the body. Other parts of the excretory system include the ureters, bladder, and urethra.
In addition, the urinary system is a part of the excretory system. The urinary system controls the balance of water
and chemicals in the body for it to function properly. The system works with the lungs, kidneys, and the
intestines. The urinary system produces, stores, and eliminates urine (pee), which is the fluid released by the
kidneys.
The body has two bean-shaped organs called kidneys located below the ribcage in the middle of the back. The
kidneys are responsible for removing wastes from the blood, as well as different types of salts, and excess water.
The excess substances are then sent to other parts of the excretory system such as the ureter and urinary
bladder, then to the urethra in the form of urine.
Ureters are thin tubes connected to the bladder which is filled with the urine. The urethra is the tube that is
connected to the urinary bladder. The bladder, located in the pelvis, is balloon-shaped, hollow, and can stretch
like a balloon, stores up to about 16 ounces of urine. Once the bladder is full, a person normally must urinate to
eliminate the waste from the body through the urethra. The urethra is the tube that allows urine to pass outside
of the body once the urinary bladder is full.
The kidneys also help control the water the body needs for survival. The kidney is important to make sure the
body remains hydrated. For example, if a person was stuck in the desert without water, the kidneys will absorb
more of the water in your body so there will be less urine. This way the body will not lose as much water.
When a person breathes out the lungs will release water and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a waste product
that must be eliminated from the body. The lungs thin out the carbon dioxide from the blood so it can enter the
lung tissue and leave the body when a person breathes.
The liver's responsibility is to break down the chemicals, poisons, or other toxins that enter the body. For
example, urea is a waste product that is produced when the liver breaks down toxic substances. It is released
from the body usually through urine, but is also released when a person sweats or perspires. The liver also
produces bile to break down fats into useful fats or waste.
Finally, the skin is the largest organ of the body and is also a part of the excretory system and provides protection
for the body. The skin is responsible for the elimination of sweat from the body, which contains waste such as
urea, salts, and water. Sweat also help cools down the body. Everybody sweats.
In summary, the excretory system is responsible for controlling the fluids of the body, and along with the urinary
system, controls the balance of water and chemicals in the body for it to function properly. Though the kidneys
are the main organs of the system, other organs include the lungs, liver, and skin. The addition the ureters,
bladder, and urethra also play an important role in the excretory system as the path for urine to be released from
the body.

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Hibernation and Migration
Hibernation and migration are adaptations for animals to survive winter months when food is not available.
Hibernation is when animals rest or remain asleep during the entire winter. Migration is the movement of
animals from one place to another. The main reason an animal hibernates or migrates is due to the lack of food,
which occurs during the winter months due to the cold weather.
There are different kinds of hibernation. Some animals sleep so deeply, they are impossible to wake up, like the
woodchuck, skunk, and bat. Some of them are light sleepers like raccoons, skunks, and opossums that wake up
during the winter to eat. Many bears take long rests and also lightly sleep during the winter months.
In the fall, animals get ready to hibernate by preparing for the winter. They eat extra food and begin storing it as
body fat. They use this fat for energy while hibernating. Some animals store food like nuts and acorns to eat later
in the winter. During hibernation an animal's body temperature drops, heartbeat slows down, and it uses very
little energy. In fact, the woodchuck's heart rate drops to only 4 or 5 beats per minute. If temperatures turn warm
during the winter, the animals end up using more energy, wake up early, and then have no food to eat.
The places animals hibernate in the winter include dens, burrows, hollow logs, or in openings between rocks. A
den is prepared by lining it with leaves and mud to keep out the cold. Polar bears dig tunnels in the snow. Snakes,
turtles, and frogs hibernate underground, because they are cold-blooded and need to protect themselves from
the cold. Frogs and turtles get oxygen from air trapped inside the mud. In the spring when the sun warms the
mud, they know that winter has passed and they end their hibernation. Goldfish living in outdoor ponds hibernate
by floating at the bottom of the pond below the winter ice. Some fish, like carp, spend the winter partly buried in
lake mud. Other animals, like the little brown bat, first have to migrate to a new place before they hibernate.
They live in trees in warm months, but in cold weather they migrate to caves where it is warmer.
Animals also migrate to other areas during the winter months. Many birds fly long distances to escape the cold
winter, like the Arctic tern from the North Pole that flies South to Antarctica. Some birds in the far south of South
America, Australia and Africa, migrate to the North, and others from east to west to coastal climates. The
monarch butterfly travels south during the winter where there are flowers. A few animals must avoid the extreme
heat so they migrate to cooler areas. Animals may also migrate to find a good habitat to raise their young.
Animals flying during the day use the sun as a compass, others make adjustments to their path of travel so it is
not affected by the sun's movements. At night time, some birds may use the stars to help with migration. Birds
and other animals such as sea turtles can find north and south because they are able to detect the Earth's
magnetism. Storms, bad weather, pollution, tall buildings, and the birds becoming tired may also affect the birds
during migration.
Like hibernating animals, migrators prepare ahead of time. Some birds double their weight, eat a lot to fuel their
regular feather shedding and growth, and feathers must be in tiptop shape for the long trip.
In summary, there are many animals that hibernate or migrate during the winter months. The differences in an
animal's behavior vary widely, but all of the animals have the same reason, to find food and survive the winter
months.

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Animal Adaptations
Adaptations are the special features that help an animal live and survive in certain places or habitats. There are
three kinds of animal adaptations: Behavioral, Physical, and Life Cycle.
A behavioral adaptation is something an organism does, a behavior it performs to help it survive. A common
animal adaptation is migration, when animals travel to a different place so it can find food and survive. Migration
usually takes place in the winter.
Sounds animals make for different reasons are behavioral adaptations. Bird calls are an example. It is a behavior
the bird does to communicate to other birds. A lion humming is a behavior a lion does when it is content. They
grunt when they move from one area to another. Female lions roar to protect the young, and male lions roar to
display strength. Roaring is also a method of communication.
The movements animals make are behavioral adaptations. Bats are nocturnal animals, so flying is very tiring for
them during the day. It is easier for them to fly at night when it is cooler. Raccoons like to come out only at night,
too, and are not seen very often. There are less predators at night.
The interactions between animals can also be behavioral adaptations. The honey bee dance is a behavioral
adaptation that attracts a honey bee to its mate. Honey bees also learn from other bees how to pollinate flowers
and collect honey. The dance helps communicate information about food to other bees. A monkey removing
parasites from another monkey's head is an example of an interaction.
A physical adaptation is a physical part of an organism that helps it survive. The fur on a bear is an example,
because it is part of the bear's body structure and helps keep it warm during cold weather.
The beak of a bird and the blue jay's color are both part of their bodies, helping them to survive. The ostrich has
many thick feathers helping the ostrich look bigger to scare away predators. The ostrich also has a large mouth it
uses to fight predators like cheetahs.
Prairie dogs have many adaptations like sharp claws to help it dig their burrows. They have sharp hearing so they
can hear if a predator is coming. Prairie Dogs have whiskers that they use for balance so when they walk they
won't fall over. The thick, dense coats of a sloth help keep them dry during the rainy season. They also have very
sharp teeth to help defend themselves. Many fish have color patterns that help them blend in with their
environment. This may allow the fish to avoid being seen by a predator.
A life cycle adaptation is a process an animal goes through to help it survive. Before becoming a frog, the tadpole
first hatched from an egg, which was laid by an adult frog. Atlantic salmon spend their early phase in rivers before
traveling or migrating to sea to grow and mature. To complete their life cycle they must return to their river of
origin to release new eggs. Butterflies go through four stages of life. They start out as eggs, change into a
caterpillar, then a pupa, and finally an adult butterfly. All are examples of life cycle adaptations.
In summary, whether it is a physical, behavioral, or life cycle adaptation, the environment an animal lives usually
has an effect on the adaptation. All of the adaptations help an animal survive, scare off predators, or
communicating with others.

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Fossils
Fossils are the remains of plants and animals that lived a long time ago that scientists about a plant or animals'
life. Many fossils are the remains of plants and animals that are extinct. Extinct means they are no longer living
and none are left on Earth. Fossils have been found on every continent in mountains, under water, in valleys, ice,
and many more places. Paleontology is the study of fossils and about life from long ago. Paleontologists estimate
that only a small percentage of dinosaurs and other animals or plants that ever lived have been or will be found as
fossils.
One type of fossil is the remains of the dead organism or the imprint left by the remains. A second type of fossil is
something that was made by the animal while it was living but has turned into stone.
The bones and teeth are hard mineral parts of an animal that become fossils after an animal dies. The animal's
body is buried in mud or other sediment and the teeth and bones do not rot like the rest of the animal's body.
After a long time, the chemicals in the buried animals' bodies undergo many changes. As a bone slowly decays,
water filled with minerals seeps into the bone and replaces the chemicals in the bone with other minerals that are
as hard as a rock. Fossilization is the name of this process.
Fossils come in many colors and are made of many different types of minerals, depending on where fossilization
took place. Most fossils are dug up from sedimentary rock layers. Sedimentary rock is rock that has formed from
sediment, like sand, mud, and small pieces of rocks. Small pieces of an animal's remains become squeezed
between the layers of this sediment. Over long periods of time, they are buried under more and more layers of
sediment that piles up on top of it.
Fossils are usually heavier than the original item since they are formed entirely of minerals. Most fossils are made
of ordinary rock material. Fossils do have the same shape that the original item had, but their color, thickness,
and surface may be different.
Trace fossils may be something that was made by an animal while it was living, but has turned into a stone. There
are many types of trace fossils. Dinosaur tracks are an example. By studying fossil footprints, a paleontologist can
study the speed, stride, number of feet an animal walked on, and the bone structure of the foot. They can also
learn about the behavior of a dinosaur, whether they lived in herds, and how the tail was carried. The waste from
an animal is an example of a trace fossil, which can lead to learning about the foods an animal had eaten.
Dinosaurs laid eggs of a wide variety of shapes and sizes, and can be from 3 inches to 21 inches. Sometimes they
have preserved parts of the beginnings of a dinosaur, which can help to match an egg with a type of dinosaur.
The best way for a fossil to be formed, which does not happen often, is inside ice. The animal must be continually
frozen from the time of death until discovery. The wooly mammoth and rhinoceros are examples of fossils found
in ice.
Finally, mummification occurs when the soft tissues of animals' skin and organs are preserved for thousands of
years and are completely dried. Mummified bodies of animals, including humans, have been discovered in arid or
dry parts of the world.
In summary, fossils are formed in many different ways, but the most common method of preservation is minerals
filling the empty spaces of plants or animals, and after a long period of time, become hard as rock, but the shape
of the original plant or animal is preserved.

52
Population Study
A population consists of all the individuals of a species that live together in one place at one time. This definition
allows scientists to use a similar term when speaking of different populations whether they are the human
population, bacterial population or animal population.
Every population tends to grow because pairs of individuals have multiple offspring over a period of their lifetime.
Predicting how the size of a population will grow is the job of demographers. Demographers study three key
features of populations in order to predict population growth: size, density, and dispersion.
One of the most important features is the population size. The number of the individuals in a population, or
population size, can affect the population's ability to survive. Smaller populations are at risk to become extinct
due to floods, fires, or natural disasters.
Population density is the number of people that live in a given area. If the individuals of a population are few and
spaced far apart, it is difficult for them to get together to reproduce lowering the reproduction rate.
A final important feature is the pattern of dispersion. Dispersion is the way the individuals of the population are
arranged in a particular space. There are three main patterns of dispersion that are possible.
If they are randomly spaced the location of the individual is self-determined. If they are evenly spaced, they are
located at regular intervals. If they are in a clumped distribution, they are located in clusters. Each of these
patterns reflect the interactions between the population and its environment.
When demographers try to predict how a population will grow they make a model of the population. A
population model is a theory that attempts to model key characteristics of a real population. By making changes
and observing the outcome of the model, demographers can better predict the outcome in a real population.
There are three basic models.
A Stage I population model describes the rate of growth as defined by the difference between the birth rate and
the death rate. A Stage II population model is an exponential growth curve in which the population growth stays
the same, but the population size increases steadily.
There are also density-dependent factors to measure growth rates. As a population grows the resources to
sustain that population, such as food and water, decreases as a result. When this happens, the growth rate of the
population decreases. They are density-dependent because the rate at which the resources become depleted
depends upon the density of the population that uses them. This becomes the Stage III model of measuring
population growth.
There are density-independent factors that are used to measure the growth rate of populations. When the
growth rate is limited not by density-dependent factors, but by environmental factors such as weather or climate
they are known as density-independent factors. For example, mosquito populations tend to grow in the summer,
yet they decrease in the winter.
In summary, the growth rate of populations is complex and needs continued research and study to predict. Using
various features demographers may better predict the future growth populations.

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Theory of Evolution
In 1859, Charles Darwin published convincing evidence that species evolve. He further explained how this process
occurs. From that evidence and explanation, we have what scientists and others call today, the Theory of
Evolution.
Like all scientific theories, the theory of evolution has developed through decades of scientific observations and
experimentation. Today almost all scientists accept that evolution is the basis for the diversity of life on earth.
After years of research and study, Darwin suggested that by surviving long enough to reproduce, populations
have the opportunity to pass on favorable characteristics to offspring. Over time, these characteristics will
increase in a population and the nature of that population will gradually change. Darwin called this process by
which populations change in response to their environment natural selection.
Darwin suggested that organisms differ from place to place because their habitats present different challenges to
survival and reproduction. As a result, each species has evolved in response to their specific environment. This
changing process in response to a particular environment is called adaption. Darwin concluded that the species in
a particular place evolved from a species that previously lived there or that migrated from a nearby area.
Darwin's evidence was based on the idea that in any population, individuals that are best suited to survive and do
well in their environment will produce the most offspring. By doing so, the traits of that offspring will be passed
on and become more common as each new generation arrives. Traits are the genetic characteristics that may be
physical, such as hair color; or behavioral, such as birds building nests.
Scientist now know that genes are responsible for inherited traits. Therefore, certain forms of a trait become
more common because more of the species carry the gene that is passed on. In other words, natural selection
causes the frequency of genes in a population to increase or decrease over time.
Fossils offer the most direct evidence that evolution takes place. A fossil is the preserved or mineralized remains
or imprint of an organism that lived past life-forms. Change over time, or evolution can be seen in the fossils. For
example, fossil links have been found between fish and amphibians, between retiles and birds, and between
reptiles and mammals. All of which add valuable evidence to the history of vertebrates.
Today, Darwin's theory of evolution is almost universally accepted by scientists as the best available explanation
for the biological diversity on earth. Based on this supporting evidence, most scientist agree on the following
three major points: 1) Earth is about 4.5 billion years old, 2) Organisms have inhabited earth for most of its
history, and 3) All organisms living today evolved from earlier, simpler life-forms.
In summary, at age 22, Charles Darwin set off on a journey by the urging of his college professor on the naval
voyage of the HMS Beagle that forever changed his life and the way people think of themselves. It was on this
journey that evidence was collected to support what is universally accepted today as Darwin's Theory of
Evolution.

54
Hormones
Hormones are substances that are secreted (or released) by cells that act to regulate the activity of other cells in
the body. As a result, many activities in the human body are regulated by hormones. For example, reacting to
fear, developing male or female characteristics, and growing taller are all regulated by hormones. Hormones are
important to keep your body functioning.
There are four major functions identified with hormones. Hormones regulate growth, development, behavior,
and reproduction. Hormones coordinate the production, use and storage of energy. Hormones are involved in
maintaining nutrition, metabolism, excretion, and water and salt balance. And finally, hormones react to stimuli
from outside the body.
Hormones act as chemical messengers that carry instructions to other cells to change their activity. The heart
beats faster as hormones carry instructions to the cells of the heart telling it to increase the heartbeat. It was
once believed that hormones had to travel through the bloodstream, but scientists know today that that is not
true. Some hormones act directly on adjacent cells without traveling through the blood.
The message that a hormone carries is determined by both the hormone itself and the cell it is carrying the
message to. A hormone can instruct a cell to produce an enzyme or a specific protein. Simply put, hormones can
instruct a muscle cell to relax and a nerve cell to fire.
Each hormone is specific to the cell it is traveling to. Each hormone acts like a key that opens a lock on or inside
the cell. A hormone can only act on cells with the right lock.
Endocrine glands are important organs in the human body that hormones are secreted from. All of the endocrine
glands together make up the endocrine system. The endocrine system coordinates the body's entire source of
hormones.
There are several other organs that contain cells that secrete hormones. These organs include the brain, stomach,
small intestine, kidney, liver, and heart.
The endocrine system and the nervous system interact to coordinate the overall activity of the body., and
hormones play an important role.
The chemical messengers for the nervous system are known as neurotransmitters while the chemical messengers
for the endocrine system are known as hormones. There are some nerve cells that are able to secrete hormones.
For example, epinephrine is both a neurotransmitter and a hormone.
Hormones are normally a slower-acting and longer-lived messenger whereas the neurotransmitters are usually
fast-acting and short-lived. The effect of a hormone can last for days, weeks, or even years.
After a hormone is released from the cell in which it is made, they bind and act on target cells. A target cell is a
specific cell a hormone binds to and carries the message. If the hormone was not specific, all the cells in the body
would react to a hormone resulting in uncoordinated activities.
Finally, there are two main hormone classifications. They are either amino-acid-based hormones or they are
steroid-based hormones. Amino-acid-based hormones are water soluble and made up of amino acids. Steroid-
based hormones are lipid hormones made from cholesterol and are fat soluble.
Since the human body makes more than 40 hormones, it is important that the release of them is regulated
regardless of which hormone is being produced.

55
Human Evolution
Millions of years of evolution can change the structure of a species considerably. Fossils indicate that over millions
of years the process of natural selection gave rise to modern humans. Charles Darwin proposed that humans,
gorillas, and chimpanzees all evolved from a common ancestor. Although the fossil record of human origin is
incomplete, many fossil finds suggest that Darwin's hypothesis is correct.
Fossil evidence indicates that a small insect-eating mammal resembling a shrew lived about 80 million years ago.
This ancient mammal was the ancestor of the first primates, the mammalian group that includes prosimians,
monkeys, apes, and humans. Evidence reveals that these first primates evolved about 50 to 60 million years ago.
According to fossil record, the group of modern primates that most closely resembles early primates is the
prosimians. A prosimian is a member of a group that is mostly night-active primates that live in trees. These
prosimians were common about 38 million years ago in North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa.
About 36 million years ago a revolution occurred in the way primates lived. Primates became diurnal. Unlike the
prosimians, diurnal primates became active during the day and slept at night. This allowed them more
opportunities to feed and better detect predators. These day-active primates are called monkeys.
Feeding mainly on fruits and leaves rather than insects, monkeys were among the first primates to have an
opposable thumb that stands out at an angle from the other fingers and can be bent in at an angle in order to grip
things. This greatly increased the level of skill in the hand.
Fossil evidence indicates that humans evolved from the same evolutionary group that gave rise to apes. Apes,
which share a common ancestor with monkeys, first appeared about 30 million years ago. Apes have larger, more
developed brains than monkeys and have no tails.
The members of the group that led to the evolution of humans are called hominids. Hominids are primates that
can walk upright on two legs. They were fully bipedal, meaning they could walk fully upright on two legs. The
second hominid characteristic was they had a much larger brain volume than that of the apes.
Scientists have found many fossil evidence of the species homo erectus. The first fossil of homo erectus was
called Java man whose bones are thought to be 500,000 years old. Homo erectus was the direct ancestor of
modern day human species, homo sapiens. The name homo sapiens is from the Latin homo, meaning 'man,' and
sapiens, meaning 'wise.' These early humans are thought to have evolved first in Africa, and then migrated to
Europe and Asia.
Early modern humans lived by hunting and had complex patterns of social organization and the use of
sophisticated language. Humans have what no other animal is thought to have ever had-cultural evolution.
Through culture we have found ways to change our environment to suit our needs, rather than changing
ourselves in response to the environment. This allows humans to stand far above all other life forms and reign
superior in the evolution process. It also brings exciting potential and enormous responsibility.

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Water and Solutions
Water is vital to all forms of life. The human body is made up of nearly 70 percent water. Almost two-thirds of the
molecules in your body are water molecules. Not only are the body's cells filled with water but water is the
medium in which most cellular events take place. Nutrients are moved in and out of cells by water. Water plays a
life-sustaining role in the life of the body as well as in plant life. Without water life does not exist.
There are many properties of water that make it an important substance for life. For example, water stores heat
efficiently because it heats more slowly and retains heat longer than many other substances. Heat is released
through water evaporation. The human body cools itself down by sweating as the heat is released through the
sweat. This allows the human body, and many organisms, to maintain a regulated internal temperature while the
external temperature changes drastically.
Not only does water store heat, but it bonds to itself and other substances. The hydrogen bonds between water
molecules cause the cohesion of liquid water. Cohesion is an attraction of substances of the same kind. When
water and other liquids form drops, it is because of cohesion. Just like people hold hands to join together,
molecules at the surface of water are linked together by hydrogen bonds. This attraction of water molecules
causes a condition known as surface tension. Surface tension prevents the surface of water from breaking.
Just as cohesion is the attraction of substances of the same kind, adhesion is the attraction of substances of
different kinds. Because of adhesion, water molecules are powered through a process called capillary action. This
action allows water to move upward through the stem of a plant. As the water is attracted to the inside of a plant
stem, the stem sucks the water up more strongly than gravity can pull it down, thus bringing life to the plant.
Not only does water store heat and bond itself to various substances, but water also dissolves other substances as
well. For example, if salt is added to water the salt is dissolved leaving a saltwater solution. A solution is a mixture
in which one or more substances are evenly distributed in another substance. There are many important
substances in bodies that must be dissolved in order to be transported throughout the body. For example, sugar
is vital to the human body. If it were not dissolved, it could not be carried throughout the body to other cells.
Water dissolves the sugar.
The polarity of water enables many substances to dissolve in water. Polarity is when the ionic compounds are
dissolved in water and the ions are then surrounded by polar water molecules. Ions are attracted to the ends of
the water molecules with the opposite charge and become distributed resulting in a solution of an even mixture.
On the other hand, nonpolar molecules do not dissolve well in water. When a nonpolar substance like oil is
placed in the water, the water molecules are more attracted to themselves and not to that of the nonpolar
molecules. That is why the separation of water and oil takes place. As the polar molecules of water attract to each
other, it forces the nonpolar molecules together causing a clear separation. This inability for nonpolar molecules
to dissolve in water is important to organisms and life itself.
Because of the many properties at work, water remains a life-sustaining agent by which not only humans remain
alive, but all life forms as well.

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The Brain
The brain is the main part of the body's nervous system constantly sending signals to the body. The brain has
several different parts working together to help a person live their life each day. The five main parts of the brain
include the cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem, pituitary gland, and hypothalamus.
The largest part of the brain is the cerebrum, making up about 85% of the brain's weight. The cerebrum allows a
person to think and control voluntary muscles, which a person is able to control. A person can kick a ball, walk
down, the street, or jump in the air because they control the muscles and movements.
The cerebrum is active when a person is thinking during a test, making decisions, or playing a video game.
Memory is a part of the cerebrum, including short-term memory, recalling a morning event, or long-term, a
memory from several years ago.
The cerebrum has two halves, one on each side of the head. The right half helps a person think about abstract
things like art, music, colors, shapes, and other parts of the imagination. The left half is more analytical, which
helps a person speak, make logical decisions, do math problems, and reason. Scientists are unsure about which
half of the brain controls the left or right side of the body.
The cerebellum controls a person's balance, movement, and coordination. This includes how a person stands,
moves, and balances. The cerebellum is located in the back of the brain under the cerebrum, but it is only about
one-eighth the size of the cerebrum, though it is a vital part of the brain. Without the cerebellum a person would
not have very little ability to move.
The brain stem, also small, is responsible for all of the functions of the body for a person to remain alive,
including breathing, food digestion, and blood circulation. Located below the cerebrum, in front of the
cerebellum, it connects the rest of the brain to a person's spinal cord. The brain stem controls involuntary
muscles, working on their own without the help or thought. The muscles are located in the heart, stomach or
other parts of the body. It tells the heart to pump blood to the body, and stomach muscles to break food down.
The brain stem is also the pipeline sending and receiving millions of messages back and forth between the brain
and the body.
The pituitary gland controls the growth of a person's body by producing and releasing hormones into the body.
The gland is only the size of a pea, but without it properly functioning, a person's body would not go through its
changes as they get older. The gland also controls sugars and water in the body, as well as keeping the
metabolism of the body going, which is related to the body's use of energy.
The final part of the brain is the hypothalamus, which basically controls the temperature of the body. When the
body is too hot, this part of the brain tells the body to sweat; too cold, and it tells the body to shiver.
The five parts of the brain connect with the body's nervous system, made up of thousands of nerves that
communicate information to and from the brain. The more messages sent to the brain, the stronger the
connections become. This is how good, and bad, habits or skills are learned. The brain also is the control center
for feelings. On each side of the brain there are a groups of cells called amygdala, which is responsible for
emotions.
In conclusion, the brain is the control center of the body, and it must be treated well by eating healthy, being
safe, and avoiding alcohol, drugs, and tobacco, but it's also important to challenge your mind.

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Plant Adaptations
Plants have adaptations to help them live and grow in different areas. They can even grow in water. They develop
many different adaptations for their survival.
One example is plants growing in the desert areas of the world. Desert plants take in a lot of water quickly when it
rains. Since it does not rain very often, the plants have to store the water in their stems, which have a thick, waxy
coating which helps seal in the water.
The spines on some desert plants also help with their survival by keeping away animals who want to eat them.
The spines also act like leaves holding in the water during the hot weather. Cactus plants need to store a lot of
water. Some desert plants have leaves with hair to shade them from the sun. These hairs help stop water loss,
too. Other plants in the desert turn away from the sun during the day and receive less heat. Some desert plants
overcome the problem of the lack of water by growing long roots that go deep into the ground for water. The
plants who choose to fight to live have special stems and roots to absorb and store water deep under the ground.
Hot sun and heavy rains make the best areas for plants and animals to grow. Over half of all plant types live in the
tropical rainforests. Tropical rainforests are the places where plants grow the best. The trees grow very close
together. They need the sun to make food. In a thick forest where there are a lot of trees, plants cannot reach the
sun easily. They may not live. In order to reach the sun, plants have to grow or climb on others. Only 2 percent of
sunlight reaches the forest floor. The ground is very damp.
Water carries food from the soil up to the plant so that the plant may live. If the ground is dry, the plant won't get
enough water to carry the food. Plants absorb their nutrients from the soil. The nutrients are taken up through
the stems of many plants to feed the plant. Because rainforests get large amounts of rain, too much water can
also be damaging to plants. An adaptation called a drip-tip on leaves allows the water run-off to save the plant
from getting too much moisture.
In grasslands, also called prairies, plants must adapt to the dry climate where the summers are hot and the
winters are cold. Because it is very dry, the roots go way below the ground to reach the water. If they need
protection from animals, the plants may have thorns or spikes. Strong steady winds blow over the grasslands and
remove the water from the ground or air so trees usually cannot grow there. Though, savannas, many located in
Africa, are places in grasslands that do have some trees.
In a tundra, it is very dry and cold. The blanket of snow covering the tundra in winter helps plants keep warm and
protects them from damaging winds. Roots of tundra plants grow just under the surface of the ground where
they can be close to the melting snow. It also keeps plants from freezing. Collecting this water is very important
for these plants because the high winds can dry them out easily.
Finally, thousands of plant types grow in water all over the world. Ocean seagrass has stems that enable them to
cope with the tugging of currents and waves. Roots grow down to anchor the plant to the seabed, while other
blades grow straight up and bend easily. Ocean plants also have to be able to handle the dissolved salt in the
water. They have the ability to break down the salt into different parts. This can cause beds of oceanic plants to
control the amount of salt in the water surrounding them.
Plants are found all over the world because they have developed adaptations to survive the different climates.

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Ecosystems
What is needed to survive? How do livings things interact? Is there food, water, comfortable temperature, or
shelter? All of the answers to these questions are found in the ecosystem. An ecosystem is all living things and
non-living things and how they interact with each other. Ecology is the study of how all these things interact with
each other in order to survive.
An ecosystem may be very small like a backyard or a pond. Or it can be large like a prairie, a desert, or a rain
forest. There are freshwater ecosystems that cover less space than saltwater ecosystems. Regardless of where
they are located or how small or large they may be; all ecosystems are made up of the same parts. These parts
are either living or non-living parts and are equally important to the ecosystem.
The non-living parts of the ecosystem are called abiotic factors. All living things need non-living things in order to
survive. Some of these abiotic factors include water, minerals, sunlight, air, climate, and soil.
All living things need water to survive. Living organisms are made up of between 50 and 95 percent water. The
processes that keep living things alive like photosynthesis and respiration can only take place in the presence of
water. Living things also need minerals such as calcium, iron, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Some living things need
sunlight to make food. Animals need oxygen to produce energy for their bodies. The environment must also have
the right temperature for organisms to survive. Without these non-living things, life would cease to exist. Abiotic
factors are essential to the ecosystem.
Just like abiotic factors make it possible for organisms in an ecosystem to survive; biotic factors are equally
important for survival in the ecosystem. Biotic factors or living parts of the ecosystem include animals, plants,
fungi, protists, and bacteria.
Plants and algae are called producers. They produce oxygen and food that animals need. Animals are called
consumers. They consume or eat the plants and other animals. Animals also give off carbon dioxide that plants
need to make food. Thus the ecosystem is a continuous cycle of living and non-living things interacting with each
other to survive.
What do fungi and bacteria contribute to the ecosystem? They are very important because they are called
decomposers. They decompose, or break down, dead plants and animals and turn them into useful things like
minerals that enrich the soil. Plants need this to grow. Each of these kinds of organisms helps the other to survive
in the ecosystem.
Each kind of organism whether it is an animal, plant, fungus, or bacteria is a member of a different species. All the
organisms of a species living in the same area make up a population. And all populations living in a certain areas
make up a community.
Scientists study the interactions of different populations in an ecosystem's community. This helps them to
determine how an ecosystem stays healthy and continues to grow. It further describes how living and non-living
organisms work together to provide survival for each other. Whether large or small, whether abiotic or biotic, the
ecosystem depends on the interaction of each in order to remain healthy.

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Food Chains and Webs
Food chains and food webs describe the feeding relationships in an ecosystem. Every population needs energy to
survive. That energy comes from the sun. Everything in the food chain or food web relies on the sun for that
energy and obtains it throughout the chain. A person can feel the sun warning the skin. A field mouse and a hawk
can feel it, too. Neither of them can directly use the sun's energy; however, they must have it in order to breathe,
keep their hearts beating, and to stay alive.
The energy of the sun is stored in food, and the energy in food is passed from one organism to another in a food
chain. A food chain is a path that energy takes from producers to consumers to decomposers.
One of the first organisms in the food chain is the plant. During photosynthesis the plant captures the sun's
energy. It then stores that energy in foods or sugars that the plant makes for itself. Next, a grasshopper may eat
the plant and energy is released for the grasshopper to use or to be stored in the tissue of the grasshopper. Some
of the energy is lost as heat. After that a lizard may eat the grasshopper releasing energy to the lizard that was
being stored in the grasshopper. The food chain becomes the avenue by which energy is passed from one
organism to another in the ecosystem.
When animals die they become food for the organisms like crickets, worms, ants, and other bugs. They also
become a food source for microscopic organisms like bacteria. The food chain becomes the path of energy as it
moves from one organism to another.
Because an organism eats more than one kind of food, and animals are eaten by more than one kind of organism,
there becomes a relationship between all of the species in a community. This relationship is called a food web. It
reveals how populations must compete for the food so that they are able to receive the needed energy. A food
web is a map of overlapping food chains.
Food webs begin with producers; the living organisms that use the sun's energy to make their own food, and
include, grass, trees, and plants. Organisms that cannot make their own food are called consumers, which get
energy from the producers. As they store energy from the sun, they are eaten and the stored energy is released
into the organism that eats it. Consumers are grouped by the kind of food they eat.
There are herbivores and there are carnivores in the food web. Herbivores are those organisms that only eat the
producers. The herbivores will not eat animals, but only plants, algae, grass and flowers. The carnivores are
animals that will eat other animals. There are carnivores on land and in the sea. The most frightening carnivore is
the great white shark. When an animal eats both meat and plants they are called omnivores. Humans and bears
are omnivores.
Living things that hunt other living things are called predators. And the hunted are called the prey. The
relationship between predator and prey is a key part of both the food chain and the food web. There are also
those meat eaters that do not hunt for meat like the predator, but eat it as it scavenges for it. They are called
scavengers. They feed on the remains of dead animals they find.
Every food chain and food web ends with decomposers. Decomposers are worms, insects, bacteria, and fungi.
These organisms break down dead matter into substances that can be used by the producers. The decomposed
matter returns to the soil for the process to begin all over again. The food chain continues. In doing so, all
organisms are receiving the energy needed to survive, and the ecosystem is able to sustain itself.

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Fresh Water
Only a small portion of the earth's water supply is fresh water. With the rate that the human race uses water,
how come it never runs out? Fresh water never runs out because it is constantly being renewed by the water
cycle. In a water cycle water is always on the move as it changes from a liquid to a gas and back to a liquid.
When water evaporates it leaves behind the materials it contained. The water vapor is not salt water. And when
the water falls back to earth it seeps into the ground and becomes groundwater. Groundwater then seeps into
spaces within the earth until it is blocked by a rock that is tightly packed and has few spaces. Then the water
starts to back up and fill spaces in the soil and rocks above. The top of these water filled spaces are called water
tables. If the water table reaches above the surface a pond, lake or stream is formed.
Ponds and lakes are still bodies of water. They get formed when water fills up low lying places. Streams flow
downhill and as they flow they join up with other streams and eventually run into the ocean or other large bodies
of water.
An underground layer of rock or soil that gets filled with water is called an aquifer. Water can move through an
aquifer through very long distances.
Some ground water seeps out of the ground into a spring. Springs occur when the water table meets the surface.
They feed water into lakes or streams long after it stops raining.
Most supplies of fresh water for large towns or cities come from reservoirs. They become storage areas for fresh
water supplies. Reservoirs are commonly human made, but there are natural made ones too and pipelines are
used to transport water from a reservoir.
Fresh water can become polluted in many ways. Aside from the unfortunate dumping of trash into the fresh
water, it becomes polluted as the rain or snow picks up pollutants in the air as the precipitation falls to earth.
There are chemicals in the air that makes the rain turn into acid. Acid rain harms both living things and property.
Water also gets polluted when there is runoff water. This is water that runs off the land and becomes in contact
with the trash on the ground therefore polluting the fresh water supply.
Groundwater is a potential hazard to keeping water fresh. As groundwater soaks down through the sol it can pick
up chemicals such as pesticides that contaminate the fresh water. There are also water supplies that get polluted
by industries. For example, water that is used to produce paper is slowly filled with fibers and chemicals.
And water is polluted in the household as you flush toilets, wash dishes, brush teeth, or take a bath. Water
becomes polluted with waste and is pumped to a plant to recycle. This helps recycle our fresh water supply
because it is so small and in great demand. The fresh water cycle is complex and vital to life. Aquifers, reservoirs,
and pollution all are key factors in supplying fresh water to earth.
Because only a small portion of the earth's water supply is fresh water, it is important to not only keep it fresh,
but also to keep the water cycle running.

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Symbiosis
In nature, organisms interact with each other in a variety of ways. Some are predators, some are prey, and some
just compete for food against each other. Some of these relationships last a long time while others do not. In
nature a relationship between two organisms that last a long time is called symbiosis. There are different kinds of
symbiosis. There are times when both organisms in the relationship benefit from each other. There are times
when only one will benefit while harming the other. Then there are times when only one benefits, but no harm is
done to the other.
When a relationship between two kinds of organisms benefits both organisms, it is called mutualism. For
example, in The Mojave Desert there is a plant that exists called the Yucca tree. When this tree's creamy flowers
are in bloom there appears to be shadows that jump around on the flowers. However, a more careful look reveals
that these shadows are actually moths. They are called yucca moths. The yucca moths cannot survive without the
yucca tree. The yucca trees would also quickly become extinct if it were not for the yucca moth. The yucca moth
visits the yucca flower at night and picks up pollen and rolls it up into a ball. The moth then flutters over to
another flower and implants that pollen into that flower's ovary. The moth is able to pollinate the flower which in
turn sprouts new seeds that become new yucca plants. The yucca tree and the yucca moth depend on each other
for survival and they both benefit and share a relationship of mutualism.
When two organisms form a relationship where one organism lives on or in another organism and may harm the
other in the process it is called parasitism. The organism that lives on or in the other is called a parasite. The
organisms they feed on both are called hosts. The parasites benefits from the relationship. The hosts are harmed
by the relationship. For example, fleas are parasites of dogs. The fleas feed off the blood of the dog and give
nothing back to the dog in return. The host is harmed while the parasite benefits. Another example of parasitism
is mistletoe. It is an evergreen that grows in the branches of a tree such as a poplar, fir, or apple. The mistletoe
feeds off the tree while offering nothing to benefit the tree. The relationship between these two organisms is
called parasitism.
The relationship between two organisms where one benefits from the other while causing no harm in the process
is called commensalism. An example of this would be when a tropical fish lives unharmed among the poisonous
tentacles of a sea creature. The sea creature provides safety for the fish and the fish neither harms nor helps the
creature. The fish becomes protected from other predators by the poison, yet provides nothing to the sea
creature. Another example is when orchids attach itself to the trunk of a tree on the rain forest floor. The orchid
only attaches itself to benefit from the position of the tree in order to get sunlight. It causes no harm to the tree.
This relationship is called commensalism.
There are different kinds of symbiosis. Each defines the relationship between organisms in nature. While some
organisms are predators, other becomes the prey. Still other organisms can live together without any harm being
caused. Whether these relationships are mutualism, parasitism, or commensalism, it is clear that organisms
interact with one another in a variety of different ways. The nature of these relationships and how they interact
differently together is called symbiosis.

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Animal Classification
Animals can be classified using various characteristics. Whether an animal has skin, hair, or feathers depends on
the kinds of cells it has. The building blocks of all living things are cells. Scientists are able to study the cells of
animals and best group them or classify them. There are several factors that are studied in this classification of
animals.
Cells that are alike and perform the same job or function come together and make up tissue. Tissues of different
kinds come together and make up an organ, like a brain or heart for example. Finally, a group of organs that work
together to perform a certain job is called an organ system. For example, the digestive system of a bat is made up
of the mouth, stomach, and intestines. All parts work together to digest food, but each is a different organ.
When cells, tissues, organs, and systems are carefully compared, animals are able to be classified into groups that
are closely related. Although they may look very different at first glance, they are classified as closely related by
the make-up of the cells, tissues, organs, and systems. A good example would be comparing the wing of a bat to
that of an eagle's wing in comparison to the leg of a cat.
At first glance the bat and eagle might be grouped together because they both have wings and fly. However,
when closely comparing the make-up of the bone structure, it is discovered that the bat's bone structure closely
resembles the leg of a cat where there are five sets of finger bones extending from a longer bone whereas eagles
have a single fused bone inside each wing. As a result, scientists would classify bats and cats together because
they have a more similar cell, tissue, organ and system make-up than bats and eagles have.
Another group classification depends on whether animals have backbones. Animals that do have a backbone are
called vertebrates. The members of the other group that do not have backbones are called invertebrates. And
within each of these, whether they are vertebrates or invertebrates, there are even smaller groups divided in
order to better classify animals. These classifications range from the simple to the complex.
One of the simplest kinds of animals is a sponge. A sponge's body is like a hollow tube with lots of holes in it with
no bone structure. An earthworm is segmented and has eyes, jaws and gills like many other animals yet has no
bone structure. Each are classified as invertebrates, and yet there are many further classifications of both sponges
and earthworms. The same is true for vertebrates. Fish have a bone structure, yet there are various classifications
of fish. Birds have a bone structure and there are many classifications of birds. Both are classified as vertebrates,
and yet a fish is much different than a bird and grouped separately.
The scientific study of cells is an endless study needed to classify animals. All animals have cells, tissue, organs,
and systems and yet they are classified into different groups. Some are vertebrates while others are invertebrates
and still are grouped into smaller categories. The different traits and characteristics of animals are studied and
used to classify them into groups. This remains a very complex and necessary scientific study in the classification
of animals.

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Electric Current
Electric current is a flow of electric charge carried by moving electrons in a wire. The electric current is created by
electrons or charges continuously moving through a path called an electric circuit. It flows from a power source
like a battery or power station.
A closed circuit has a complete path for current to flow allowing the electric charges or electrons to flow through
the wires of the circuit. An open circuit will not allow the electric charges or electrons to flow through the wires
of the circuit. A switch can be used to open and close a circuit.
In a series circuit, the same current flows through each of the components. In a series circuit, each bulb will
receive the same electrical charge, but if one goes out, all will go out. An example of a series circuit may be a
string of Christmas lights. If any one of the bulbs is missing or burned out, no current will flow and none of the
lights will go on.
Batteries are also a source of electric current usually used with a series circuit. The electric current from the
battery flows in one direction to the component such as a radio, flashlight, or a toy.
Parallel circuits will have different amounts of current flowing through them. The same voltage is applied to
parallel circuits, but different amounts of current will flow through the wires. Voltage is a kind of electrical force
that makes electricity move through a wire and it is measured it in volts. The higher the voltage, the more current
will tend to flow. A 12-volt car battery will normally produce more electric current than a 1.5-volt flashlight
battery.
A parallel circuit example is the wiring of a house. There is a single power source supplying all the lights and
appliances with the same voltage. However, if one of the lights burns out, the current will still flow through the
rest of the house.
There are power plants that produce electricity for homes and businesses. Most power plants use coal to
generate electricity, but some use wind, water, or natural gas. The power grid is the system connecting all of the
power plants across the country. All the poles and wires along the highway and roads are a part of the power grid.
A transformer can help in decreasing or increasing the voltage as the electricity travels to homes and businesses
through transmissions lines. A meter is used to measure the amount of electricity used.
The electricity goes through wires to the service panel in a basement or garage, where breakers or fuses protect
the wires inside a house from being overloaded. The electricity then travels through wires inside the walls to
outlets and switches all over the house.
Conductors are made of materials that electricity can flow through easily. A material that is a good conductor
gives very little resistance to the flow of electricity. The electricity can flow through a conductor very easily.
Examples of conductors include water, trees, aluminum, copper, people, and animals.
Insulators prevent or block the flow of electricity. Insulators do not allow the flow of electricity and blocks the
electricity from moving along its path. Examples of insulators are glass, rubber, porcelain, and plastic. Wires that
carry electricity are covered with an insulator.
There are many steps involved when electric current flows from its source to its use.

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Force and Motion
There are many things that move in different directions. Some things move up and down, right to left, in circles,
or in many other directions. There are objects that move slowly, quickly, or in between. Some objects move on
their own, and there are other objects that need help to move. No matter how something moves, whether it is an
object, person, or animal, this movement is called motion.
Motion is movement from one place to another. For example, when two people sit on a see-saw they cause it to
move up and down. One person will be in the air; the other person will be on ground level, and then they will
switch places or positions. Position is the place where a person or object is located. If the position changes, it is
movement or motion.
The different kinds of motion include back and forth, up and down, in a circle, zig-zag, or straight ahead. Singing
on a swing is a back and forth motion and an up and down motion. Riding on a merry-go-round is going round and
round in a circle. If a person is trying to avoid being tagged in a game, it might be a zig-zag motion or a straight-
ahead motion.
In addition to different movements in motion, there is also something called speed. Speed is how fast a person or
object moves. Speed can be very fast. For example, a train's speed moving on its tracks may be fast and straight
ahead. Speed can also be very slow, like how a turtle moves from place to place. In addition, the speed of an
object can be both slow and fast, like a car. Cars sometimes move slowly, but on a highway they move much
faster. A car can also change direction, have different movements, and change its position very easily.
Many things that move, though, cannot move on their own. The push or pull to get an object to move is called
force. A force is needed to get something to move. Even a person uses force to move from place to place. A
person uses their muscles to help them move.
When a child moves a wagon, it is an example of pulling. When a person opens a door it can be an example of
pulling or pushing. When a person wakes up in the morning, they may use their legs to push their body out of the
bed. Opening a drawer is another example of pulling, and while eating something the teeth and tongue push and
pull on the food. While cleaning dishes or washing a car a person usually pushes a cloth and applies force to
remove the dirt.
While pushing and pulling is usually easy to do, there is something that sometimes makes it more difficult.
Friction is a force that acts on another force to slow it down or cause it to stop. For example, when riding a bike, a
person pedals, the wheels move, and the tires move across the road or sidewalk. The tires rubbing along the
concrete will eventually cause the bike to slow down and stop moving due to friction.
In summary, many objects everywhere can move, and the movement is called motion. It is the movement from
one position to another and it can be fast or slow. This is called speed. The motion can also be back and forth, up
and down, around in a circle, straight, or zig-zag. Pushing and pulling will cause an object to move. It is also
possible to change the speed of motion by using a force. One example of a force is called friction. Friction is a
rubbing between two things that act as a force on the moving object and slows it down.

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Physical Changes
Physical changes involve the change in states of matter. The states of matter, sometimes called its phase, include
solids, liquids, or gases. During a physical change no new substance is created. The matter may take on a different
form or state. The size, shape, and color of matter may also change. During a physical change, though, the
molecules of a substance will stay the same.
Crushing a can, breaking a glass and chopping wood are all changes in the shape and size of an object. Stepping
on a can and crushing it has forced a physical change. However, only the shape of the can has changed. It wasn't a
change in the state of matter because the energy in the can did not change, meaning it was not melted or turned
into a gas. The molecules that make up the can are still the same molecules. Breaking the glass and chopping the
wood have forced a physical change as well.
When an ice cube is melted a physical change takes place because the temperature changed. The air temperature
was warm enough to change the ice cube from a solid to liquid. Due to the changing temperature of the water,
the boiling water was changed to a water vapor, or a liquid to a gas. Freezing the water is also a physical change
because the liquid, water, was changed to a solid, ice. The change in temperature caused the physical change. In
all three examples, the change in temperature caused a physical change. The water molecules are still water
molecules.
A candle is made of wax and the heat from a lit flame will cause a temperature change, which allows the wax to
melt, or change the phase from solid to liquid. The candle's size is also smaller, and the shape will change, too.
Glass is formed by the hardening of a substance, changing a liquid to a solid, another phase change. The shape
and color will also be physical changes caused by the temperature change. When a person paints their house or
fence, the paint being brushed onto the objects is a physical change because the color of the fence has changed.
In each of these examples, an object's size, shape, or color was changed. All are examples of physical changes.
Evaporation happens when atoms or molecules escape from a liquid and turn into a vapor. This is a physical
change because the molecules of the matter change from a liquid to a gas. Evaporation can happen with any type
of liquid. When temperatures are higher a liquid may evaporate faster. Evaporation is a physical change.
When two or more substances are joined together without the molecules changing it is called a mixture. When
different colors of candies are joined together it is an example of a mixture. None of the molecules of the candy
change, so this is also a physical change. Water and sand is also a mixture for the same reason. Other similar
mixtures include salads, trail mix, and cereal with bananas.
Solutions are groups of molecules that are mixed together and evenly distributed in a substance. A pitcher of the
fruit drink is an example because powder added to the water is spread out evenly throughout the water. Using
syrup to make chocolate milk is also a solution. The molecules of the liquid and the drink mix are joined together
to create the fruit drink or chocolate milk. A solution is also an example of a physical change.
In summary, there are many different kinds of physical changes which can include size, temperature, shape, color,
and others. Two common types of physical changes are mixtures, when two types of molecules are joined
together; and solutions, when the molecules are spread out evenly between two substances.

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Motion
Motion is the movement in which an object changes it position. A person may know an object moved and motion
has taken place by looking at the other objects nearby. For example, while on a boat it may not feel like it is
moving, but as the boat drifts along the shore, the view changes.
A frame of reference can be created after a reference point is chosen relative to the position of an object. For
example, a person on a train car can seem to be moving, but it is actually the train car moving and the person is
still. The person's position does not change. The frame of reference is the person on the train, which shows that
the train is moving.
Velocity includes how fast an object is in motion or its speed plus its direction. Speed can be determined using
different measurements over a period of time to determine how fast an object is moving. For example, the speed
of a car may be measured at 50 miles per hour. The car will travel a distance of 50 miles in one hour, which is the
unit of time. Speed can be measured per hour, per minute, per second, and others. The velocity of a storm tells
meteorologists the direction of a hurricane which will help residents to prepare for the hurricane to remain safe.
The velocity is the speed and direction of a moving object.
Acceleration is the force applied to an object changing its speed, direction, or both. Acceleration may increase or
decrease the speed or velocity of an object. For example, when a person is driving a car they may use acceleration
to cause it to move faster. When a person is walking and decides to start running, the person will accelerate by
using leg muscles to help them run faster.
Deceleration is also a force applied to an object changing its speed, direction, or both. Deceleration is a type of
acceleration that will decrease the speed or velocity of an object. An example of deceleration is a person driving a
car decides to slow down by pressing on the brake. It can also include a runner slowing down to rest while
running a marathon.
Friction is a force that will also affect the motion of an object. Friction is the force that opposes the sliding motion
between two touching surfaces. In other words, friction can affect the speed of an object's movement, usually by
decreasing the speed.
Examples may include a person moving a piece of furniture on a carpeted floor. The carpet makes it more difficult
to move it and the couch does not slide quickly across the floor; its speed decreased. A sled on snow may not
slide so quickly sometimes because friction between the rudders and snow may decrease its speed. Friction will
affect how quickly a person can rub their hands together. The more friction there is the more difficult it will be for
the person to rub their hands together.
There are many other variables affecting motion as well, including the weight of the object, the amount of force,
temperature, size, and several other variables. Even gravity may affect the motion of an object. People who have
landed on the moon move very easily because there is little or no gravity. While on Earth gravity affect their
movement or motion.
In summary, motion is the movement in which an object changes its position. Using a frame of reference, it is
possible to prove something moved. Acceleration and deceleration will affect the speed and velocity of an object
in motion, and friction usually decreases the speed of an object's motion.

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Extinction
There are no more dinosaurs living on Earth. One time, there used to be dinosaurs that wandered the Earth.
About 65 million years ago, though, most scientists believe that all of the dinosaurs disappeared, as well as most
of the species that existed at that time. A species is a certain group of living organisms, like dinosaurs, humans,
birds, and many others. They believe the loss of the organisms occurred due to a large asteroid colliding with
Earth, which caused the extinction of many of the organisms.
Extinction means there is no longer a plant or animal species of a certain kind living anywhere in the world. The
species that becomes extinct has died out. The dinosaurs were one of those species, along with others that died
out 65 million years ago.
Extinction, though, usually occurs over a long period of time, but when it does happen at a faster rate, it is called
mass extinction.
There are also species that have become extinct when they lose the ability to adapt to changes in the
environment. For example, if the climate changes over a period of time, a certain animal or plant may not be able
to survive. Certain species also may not be able to survive if faced with new predators that may end up wiping out
the entire species. Finally, extinction could occur to a plant or animal if they no longer have access to the food
they need to live and survive. These types of extinction most often take place over a much longer period of time
compared to mass extinction, which can take place very quickly. Either way, the species that become extinct do
not return.
Humans can be the cause of extinction as well. There are several ways humans can cause the extinction of a
certain plant or animal species. Humans may overhunt wiping out an entire animal species, which almost
happened many years ago when the buffalo nearly became extinct. Humans were hunting them down for food,
fur, and for other reasons. The buffalo were dying faster than they could be replaced through reproduction.
Humans may also be responsible for habitat destruction, which occurs when a plant or animal's environment is
destroyed by development or construction, such as destroying parts of a rainforest. Another example is the
moving of non-native species, into an area where they are not usually found. An example of this type of
extinction occurred to the dodo bird. The dodo bird died out because it became food for non-native species such
as pigs and cats, which were moved by humans into the dodo's habitat.
Today, blue whales are facing extinction due to humans overhunting them. The destruction of habitats, changes
in climates, and other factors may also threaten many plants and insects throughout the world.
The types of animals and plants at a risk of becoming extinct are called endangered species. When a species is
endangered, they may soon die out and no longer exist. Some endangered species today include the giant panda,
mountain gorilla, black rhino, tiger and many others.
There will always be animals and plants that become extinct, but doing simple things like recycling, saving energy,
planting a garden or sponsoring an endangered animal can help prevent extinction of some species in the world.
In summary, extinction can take place quickly like in a mass extinction, or may occur over a long period of time.
There are many reasons different species become extinct.

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Flight
Air has weight and it is made out of molecules that are constantly moving, which creates air pressure. The
movement of air allows kites and balloons to move up and down. The air is made up of a mixture of gases such as
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. Everything that flies needs the power from air to pull and push, whether it's
an airplane, kite, balloon, or bird. Because of the weight of air, it is possible for airplanes, kites, and balloons take
flight.
Hot air is lighter than cool air, and this is how a hot air balloon can fly. When hot air expands and spreads out, like
in the hot air balloon, it becomes lighter than the cool air and begins to rise. When the hot air becomes cool, it is
let out of the balloon and the balloon begins to fall or come back down.
When a hot air balloon needs to rise, propane gas is used to heat up the air inside the balloon. Once the air is
warmer than the outside air, the balloon will begin its ascent, rising into the air. When the balloon needs to start
its descent, or come back down, the pilot of the balloon releases some of the hot air from the balloon. The cooler
the air becomes inside the balloon, the faster the descent to the ground.
Finally, if the balloon needs to change directions horizontally, the pilot will guide the balloon to different
altitudes, where the wind blows in different directions. The balloon will then simply move with the wind in the
same direction.
If a kite is released into the air and it falls to the ground, gravity can be blamed. When it begins to fly, though, it is
the wind lifting it into the air. It is called lift when the wind pushes against an object and carries it upwards.
There are four forces that affect the flight of airplanes: Thrust, Lift, Drag, and Weight. Thrust is produced by the
engines of a plane, leading to lift, which is the force normally moving the airplane upward. Lift is produced by the
forward motion of the plane through the air. Drag is a force created by the resistance of the air to the forward
motion of the plane. Finally, weight is the pull of the Earth's gravity on the plane. Without the four forces, the
plane would not be able to stay in the air.
When a kite flies, the wind is getting it into the air. For an airplane, though, thrust helps get it into the air, causing
the plane to lift, or take-off. As the plane flies, thrust continues against the resistance produced by the force
called drag. At the same time, due to gravity, weight is trying to force the plane to be pulled down. However, the
force of lift, because of the motion produced by the thrust of the engines, is greater than weight, so the plane
moves upward.
Every part of an airplane can produce lift, but most of it comes from the wings of the plane. There are many
different kinds of airplanes, and some of them have more powerful engines than others. There are also planes
with propellers, and some that do not have propellers. All of the planes, however, fly because of the same four
forces: Thrust, Lift, Drag, and Weight.
A brief history of flight includes the first kite flown by the Chinese nearly 2,500 years ago during religious
ceremonies. They were also built for fun and to test weather conditions. At about the same time, other humans
were trying to fly like birds, making wings out of feathers, and of course they failed. The first hot air balloon flight
took place in 1783 and rose 6,000 feet into the air and traveled about 1 mile. Finally, the first airplane invented by
the Wright brothers lifted off the ground in 1903. There have been many advances and innovations for humans to
fly through the air since the first kite 2,500 years ago.

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Habitats
A habitat is the environment where living organisms exist, including plants and animals. A habitat can be large or
small. It can be an entire continent, or the space under a rock. Habitats contain many different kinds of organisms
living together, as well as the non-living things that exist in the habitat. A person's bed is not a living thing, but it is
part of their habitat.
There are a wide range of habitats throughout the world. A grassland is full of tall growing grass containing very
few trees. Grasslands are found on every continent except the Antarctica. Sometimes grasslands are also referred
to as prairies, which need less rainfall than a savanna, which is another kind of grassland. Animals found on
grasslands may include aardvarks, antelopes, ants, brown bears, squirrels, rabbits, lions, turkeys, hippos, and
many others.
A desert is extremely dry, receives lots of sunshine, gets less than 6 inches of rain a year, and has very few plants.
Deserts can be hot or cold, sometimes reaching below freezing during the nighttime. Animals found in the desert
include lizards, camels, rhinoceros, tarantulas, kangaroos, and several more.
A rainforest receives rain all year long, and a seasonal forest, has a rainy season and a dry season. Both, though,
receive more than 8 feet of rain a year. There are more animals living in these tropical forests than all of the other
habitats put together. Many animals live there, including anacondas, baboons, bats, geckos, monkeys, tigers,
toucans, tortoises, ladybugs, elephants, centipedes, and crocodiles.
A temperate forest either has trees that lose their leaves in the winter or remain green all year long, and are
located in many areas of the U.S. and are located on most continents. Climates can range from cold to hot. Some
of the animals living there include chipmunks, deer, elk, fox, squirrels, and wolves.
A coniferous forest is where the tallest trees in the world grow and can also survive the extreme cold. Many
animals may make their home there, too, including eagles, elk, owls, raccoons, tigers, weasels, wasps, worms, and
giant pandas.
On mountains, the plant and animal life changes because the climate is much cooler, and there is less oxygen. A
few of those animals include badgers, beavers, buzzards, fox, iguana, red pandas, wombats, wrens, and gorillas.
In polar regions it is the coldest place in the world, and the land is partly frozen. There are two polar regions, the
Arctic of the North, and the Antarctic in the South. Animals living in polar regions may include caribou, owls,
walrus, whales, and coyotes.
Two other habitats include freshwater, such as lakes, rivers, wetlands, and swamps, and saltwater oceans, which
also consist of the coastline and the coral reef habitats. Freshwater habitats are found nearly everywhere and
include many reptiles, fish, and birds. The ocean is the largest animal habitat on Earth; some parts still remain
unexplored. Animals in the ocean include lobsters, orcas, seals, and many more; some also live on the coast like
sea lions and seals. Coral reefs are usually located in the tropics where it is warm and there is lots of sunshine.
The reefs need the sunshine to survive in the shallow water. Reef animals include crabs, eels, clams, angelfish and
others.
As you can see, there are habitats all over the world, and some animals live in more than one habitat. Remember,
a habitat can be located under a rock as a home for a worm; or it can be the huge ocean, a home for a whale.

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The Human Ear
What did the person say? Please speak louder? Without ears on the side of the head people would not be able to
hear their name, the sound of a phone ringing, or music. The human ear, though, is not just for hearing; it also
helps with balance. There are three main parts of the ear, with each of them having a shared responsibility: outer
ear, middle ear, and inner ear.
The outer ear is the part that can be seen in the mirror, scratched, or cleaned behind. The ear is also called the
pinna. The ear is made of cartilage covered by skin, which has a part called the ear lobe, the place where some
people attach earrings. The outer ear contains the ear canal, which is similar to a canal for water, but this canal is
a pathway for all the sounds in the environment to enter. The lining of the canal is the place earwax is produced.
The earwax helps keep the eardrum from drying out as well as trapping any dirt before it gets to the eardrum. If
this happens it can cause an infection. The outer ear catches the sound waves and funnels them to the eardrum,
where the middle ear is located.
The middle ear is basically air-filled space located inside the eardrum. For proper hearing, the pressure placed on
both sides of the eardrum must be equal. If the pressure is not equal, a person's ears may pop, like what happens
on an airplane or at the swimming pool.
The Eustachian tube connects the middle ear to the back of the nose and helps keep the pressure equal. There
are three bones inside the eardrum called ossicles (it rhymes with popsicles). The bones are very tiny and include
the hammer (malleus), anvil (incus), and stirrup (stapes). The names of each of these bones match what they look
like, and the stirrup is the smallest bone of the entire human body. Once sound waves enter the eardrum, these
bones pass along the vibrations to the cochlea.
The cochlea are tiny organs located inside the third part of the ear, the inner ear. The cochlea is shaped like a
shell and takes the vibrations from the middle ear and changes them into nerve impulses traveling to the brain
along the auditory nerve. The brain interprets the sound and sends the information to you.
Also located inside the inner ear are semicircular canals. These are tubes that help a person balance their body.
They are filled with a fluid and lined with tiny hairs. As a person moves around, the fluid moves, and the tiny hairs
sends impulses to the brain helping them maintain their balance. When a person spins in a circle too quickly, the
fluid is still moving when they stop, but the brain thinks the person is still moving, causing them to lose balance.
Everything that makes a sound creates sound waves, and the change in the air pressure caused by the sound
waves is what ultimately allows a person to hear and interpret sounds every day. If someone was simply moving
their lips, there are no sound waves, no pressure, so there would be nothing to hear. This is why in space, the
sounds between astronauts cannot be heard because there is no air. They must use special equipment to hear
each other. Air must be present for a sound to be made and then heard by another person.
Finally, it is important to take care of the ears just like the rest of the body. Sticking anything into the ear, playing
the volume too loud while listening to music or playing a video game can be harmful to the ears. It can cause
damage to the eardrum now and in the future.
In summary, the human ear is an important organ of the body containing three main parts; the outer ear, the
middle ear, and the inner ear. They all work together to give people the ability to hear.

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The Human Eye
The reason people can see words on paper, the sunrise in the morning, or the bright light of the moon at night, it
is because of the human eyes. A person can view some of the parts of the human eye by looking into a mirror.
The eye is situated inside a hollow area of the skull called the eye socket. The eyelid protects the front part of the
eye keeping it clean and moist by blinking. This is the opening and shutting of the eye throughout the day.
Blinking is both voluntary, meaning it can be controlled, and involuntary, meaning it sometimes happens
automatically. When the eyelid blinks automatically, it is a reflex. This reflex occurs when the eyes need to adjust
to bright light, or when they are needed to shut quickly for protection. The eyelids keep dirt and other substances
from entering a person's eyes.
The white part of the eye is the sclera. The sclera is the outer covering of the eyeball, which is made of a very
tough material. It also contains blood vessels that deliver blood to the sclera. The cornea is a transparent dome
that is located in front of the colored part of your eye. It helps with the focusing of the eye when light enters. It is
a very difficult part to see because it is made of a clear tissue. Think of the cornea as a window the person's eye
sees through.
Located behind the cornea is the iris, which is the colorful part of the eye. A person does not have blue or brown
eyes, but blue or brown irises. There are muscles attached to the iris that change its shape, which controls the
amount of light going through the pupil. The pupil is the black circle in the middle of the iris and lets the light
enter the eye. The pupils adjust to the light by opening wider when more light is needed, and shrinks when there
is plenty of light available. The anterior chamber is the space between the iris and cornea, which is filled with a
transparent fluid keeping the eye healthy.
When light enters the eye it next hits the lens, which is located behind the iris and it is transparent. Like all lenses,
they are usually used to focus light, and this is what the lens of the eye does. It focuses light rays on the back of
the eyeball to the retina. This part is home to millions of cells that are sensitive to light. The retina takes the light
and changes it to signals which are sent to the brain. The brain in turn is able to tell a person what they are
seeing. The image received in the eye is actually upside down when the optic nerve, like a high speed telephone
line, sends the signal to the brain, When the brain receives it, though, the image seen is flipped right-side up. This
happens so fast; a person won't even realize what is happening between the eyes and brain.
There is also a muscle located in the eye called the ciliary muscle. This muscle changes the shape of the lens when
things are needed to be seen up close, far away, or out of the corners of the eyes. The lens becomes thicker when
a person needs to see something up close, like reading, but becomes thinner when seeing something far away,
like when riding a bike. The largest eye part is the vitreous body, which takes up about 2/3 of the volume of the
eye, as well as giving the eye its shape.
The retina also uses special cells called rods (about 120 million of them) and cones (7 million) located in each eye
to help it process light. The rods see in black, white and gray and passes along the shape of what is seen. It also
can tell the difference between colors, and helps a person's vision when there is very little light. Cones are more
helpful in bright light.
In summary, there are many parts of the eyes that work together to help you see and enjoy the different sights
and colors surrounding you throughout the day.

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Recycling
Recycling is taking used materials and waste and then turning it into new, useful products. Recycling waste into
new products reduces the amount of materials that would have been needed if the product had to be made all
over again.
For example, most paper is made from trees, but if old paper is recycled, less trees would be needed. Recycling
uses less energy, and helps with pollution control.
There are three important steps for recycling to be successful:
First, the items to be recycled must be collected. Many communities require residents to recycle and collect the
materials using large bins or cans. The recyclables are picked up regularly, just like the other trash and waste
products.
Second, the recyclables must be sorted into the different materials. The most common materials include paper,
plastic, glass, and aluminum, which must be separated from each other.
Third, the recycled items must be processed at a recycling plant. Since there are different materials that need to
be recycled, each has its own method of turning the old into the renewed.
Paper, including newspapers, magazines, cardboard, books, and envelopes can all be recycled into reusable
products. At a paper recycling plant, the old paper is chopped into tiny pieces. Next, water is added, and the
material is turned into pulp. The pulp is then cleaned to remove the old ink. Finally, chemicals are added and the
old paper is bleached white. It is now ready to be turned into new paper and other paper products.
Plastic is also a common recyclable product, including water, soda, and other drink bottles; plastic bags, wrappers,
and many more items. To recycle old plastic, it is first divided by type, and then ground into flakes or chips. The
flakes and chips are cleaned thoroughly, melted down and formed into pellets. The pellets are then used in a
variety of ways by many different manufacturers.
Glass recycling also includes soda and other drink bottles, as well as jars, broken pieces of glass, and many other
glass products. Before the glass is recycled, though, the different plastic lids must first be separated from the
bottles. All of the glass is then cleaned thoroughly, and then crushed into tiny pieces. Next, it is melted and sent
to manufacturers who add other substances depending on their use. The glass is then heated again and made into
liquid glass.
Finally, aluminum is another material recycled quite often, which also includes soda and juice cans, tomato cans,
and all other products made from aluminum. At a metal recycling plant, a giant magnet is used to separate the
steel cans from the aluminum cans. A magnet will not attract aluminum so it is easy to separate the steel from the
aluminum cans. The cans are then washed, crushed, and condensed. A hot furnace is used to remove the labeling,
melted, made into bars, and finally flattened into sheets.
Two more things must take place for recycling to be successful. First, people must choose to recycle the things
they use, and second, when buying things, it is helpful that people purchase items made using recycled materials
like paper, plastic, glass, or aluminum.
In summary, three steps for recycling include collecting, sorting, and processing. Each material also has several
more steps that must occur in order for each it to be reused gain as a useful product.

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Plant Growth
Plants are everywhere. There are different kinds of plants located throughout the world, on every continent.
There may be plants growing inside a home, being cared for each day with water, sunlight, and nutrients added
that are added to the soil. Plants may produce fruits, vegetables, and flowers. All of the plants must grow to live
and survive.
There are several things nearly every plant needs to grow from a small seed to a healthy plant. Plants, like
humans, are living organisms, so they need some of the same things humans need.
The Sun is needed for plants to grow. Plants use the energy from the Sun to make its own food. This takes place
inside the leaves of the plant. The process is called photosynthesis. It is a big word but it is the process used for
plants to survive. However, if a plant gets too much Sun it may die, and if it does not get enough Sun, the plant
may stop growing.
Many of the nutrients plants need are found in soil. The nutrients found in soil include nitrogen, phosphorous,
and potassium. Nitrogen is used for making the leaves green. Phosphorous leads to large flowers and a strong
and healthy root system, and the potassium helps a plant to fight off diseases. This means plants must have
healthy soil to grow properly. In addition, the soil will also give support to the plants and help prevent the plants
from falling over.
From the air, plants receive carbon dioxide (CO2) to help with the process called photosynthesis, which is how
plants use the sun's energy to make its own food allowing it to grow. During photosynthesis, plants also release
oxygen (O2) into the air. The oxygen that is released is breathed in by animals, including people.
Of course, water is also necessary for plants to grow healthy and strong. The water a plant receives helps bring
the nutrients to the plants through its roots, stem, and then into the leaves.
The other needs for plants includes the right temperature for a plant to grow strong. Most plants grow well in
warm daytime temperatures, and cooler nighttime temperatures. If the temperatures are too hot, the plants will
dry up and burn, and if it's too cold, they will freeze.
Finally, they need room and time to grow into strong and healthy full-size plants. Without room to grow, plants
can become too small and not reach their full potential. And if there is overcrowding, plants may suffer from a
disease or not receive enough air.
All plants start out as a small seed. With the proper care, the seeds then grow into a wide variety of plants found
in different places throughout the world. Some plants are huge, some are small, and there are many other sizes in
between.
In summary, plants grow like other living organisms, with the biggest difference being they can make their own
food using the Sun for energy using a process called photosynthesis. They also need to be planted in the right soil
with the proper nutrients. And just like people, plants need air and water to survive.
Plants also need the right temperature, as well as time and space to grow. A plant cannot grow overnight. They
need to be cared for, almost like people.

75
Ocean Currents
Ocean waters are constantly being pushed around the earth by currents. A current is a stream of water that flows
through the ocean like a river. Some of the currents are on the surface of the ocean while others are deeper
beneath the surface. Each is equally important.
Surface currents are driven by the wind. As the wind begins to steadily blow across the surface of the ocean, the
top layer of the ocean begins to move in a circular motion causing a current to build. This momentum may move
the water hundreds of miles across the ocean each day.
The rotation of the earth also affects surface currents. Each day as the earth rotates it pulls large bodies of water
along with it. This causes currents to build and to bend to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in
the Southern Hemisphere. As a result, the currents begin to flow in huge circles. This builds a force that can move
of up to 137 miles every day. A surface current can carry more water than the Amazon River.
The Gulf Stream is a surface current that begins near the equator and flows north past the United States. As it
moves it brings warm waters to the east coast.
There are also deep water currents that flow far beneath the surface of the ocean. The water in these deep
currents moves much slower than the surface water currents. They are set into motion by either differences in
the water temperature or by the saltiness of the water. Unlike the surface currents, deep water currents only
move a few miles a day.
The water on the surface loses its heat to the atmosphere. It also becomes saltier as water evaporates leaving the
salt. The salt does not evaporate. Instead the salt falls to the lower water causing the colder saltier to be denser.
The less dense water flows upward and replaces the water at the surface. As a result, the deep water currents
move much slower than the surface currents because it is denser. It may take up to 500 years for the deep water
to resurface.
Dense water forms mainly in Antarctica and in North Atlantic Ocean. From there the water sinks and slowly
spreads outward to the equator.
As the surface current moves, waves are formed. The waves carry energy from place to place. As the wind blows
this process picks up force and waves are continually passing energy across the ocean.
When a wave approaches the shore it slows down and at the same time it begins to get higher. The tall wave
reaches a point where it has to collapse against the shore. The force of this collapsing can be powerful.
Currents are formed both on the surface and deep beneath the ocean. The surface currents move faster and are
more easily formed by the wind whereas the deep currents take much longer to form and more much slower due
the denseness. However, each current is equally important serves a valuable purpose to the many oceans
throughout the world.

76
Alternative Energy Sources
A number of different energy sources are used every day. Where does this energy come from? Burning of fossil
fuel is a main energy source. Sources other than this fossil fuel are known as alternative energy sources and there
are several of them being used every day.
The water used by whitewater rafters has a tremendous amount of energy. That water energy can be harnessed
to perform work by using waterwheels. Running or falling water turns the wheel. The turning wheel spins an axle
which can be attached to machinery to do various work. In a mill the waterwheel turns and a big stone grinds
grain. In a sawmill waterwheels turn the axle and a blade cuts wood. Finally, in a hydroelectric plant the running
or falling water spins a generator to create electricity.
Not only does water spin a wheel, but wind can do so as well. Windmills work in the same manner as a
waterwheel. For many years, windmills were usually used mainly for milling grain, pumping water, or both. Today,
though, all of that has changed. Windmills are used as wind turbines that can generate electricity. As the wind
propels the blades, energy is created and stored to be used to perform work. As long as there is movement,
energy can be produced, and the wind is an excellent alternative energy source. In many parts of the Midwest
where there is an abundance of wind, energy is produced for homes and businesses.
The internal heat of the earth is another energy source. The interior of the earth is very hot as is evidenced by hot
water or steam coming out of the ground in certain places on the Earth. The earth's internal heat is called
geothermal energy. Geothermal energy can be used to heat homes and produce electricity. There are homes in
Boise, Idaho that have been heated solely by hot springs since the 1890's. Also at the Geysers in California, steam
drives turbines that generate electricity. This steam comes from underground water that is heated by geothermal
energy.
Every day the sun provides energy. Solar energy is often thought to just be sunlight. Sunlight is full of energy. It is
the sunlight that gives water the energy to evaporate and rise into the atmosphere. People are finding new ways
to harness the power of sunlight. One major way is to trap or concentrate sunlight with the use of solar panels.
This trapped sunlight can be used to heat homes and water. Also solar cells are devices that convert sunlight into
electric energy.
As the use of alternative energy sources increases, the consumption of the earth's fossil fuels will also decrease.
One watt of energy that is used by solar cells is one less watt used by power plants burning oil or coal. If society
hopes to see the next generation have the resources needed to heat homes and drive cars, alternative energy
sources are needed today.
Fossil fuel is the most common source of energy today, but it is not considered clean energy. There are various
other sources of alternative energy that must be incorporated if the next generations are expected to have
energy. Water, wind, the internal heat of the earth, and the sun are all being harnessed to create energy.
Geothermal energy and solar energy are more common. Homes are being heated and cooled, cars are being
driven, and electricity is used all from these various alternative sources of energy. All are examples of clean
energy, which is better for the environment because it does not cause pollution.

77
Hurricane Hunters
People who have ever lived near the coast or an ocean may have experienced a hurricane. Hurricanes are very
large storms that swirl with a very low pressure at their center. The lower the air pressure, the faster the winds
blow in toward the center of the storm building force. When the winds reach a point of 75 miles per hour it is
classified as a hurricane. They can easily grow to more than 400 miles in diameter.
When hurricanes form, the only way to find out information about them, that can be used to predict the
behavioral patterns of additional hurricanes, is to go into the eye of the storm and measure its behavior.
However, it is dangerous and only a few are able to do the work. Those that go into the storms are called
hurricane hunters.
Winds blow up to 125 miles an hour, rain comes down in flood-like manner causing the streets to look like rivers,
huge waves pound against the shores, and warnings are given to stay indoors. That is the perfect conditions for
the hurricane hunters to go to work. They get into a specially equipped airplane and fly directly into the storm.
These planes can withstand winds up to 300 miles per hour. As the planes enter the storm it passes through
bands of howling winds, blinding rain and thunderstorms. The ride gets very bumpy. Often they cannot read the
instruments because the plane is shaking so much. The rain gets so loud that they cannot hear each other talk and
the plane is struck by lightning.
Most hurricane hunters are meteorologists too. This allows them to measure from within the storm the air
pressure, temperature and wind speeds. From that information they are able to predict the path of the hurricane.
These same measurements can be taken from outside of the storm, but the most helpful information comes from
within the storm itself.
Hurricanes winds swirl around in the eye of the storm. The eye is a calm area in the center of the storm. As the
airplane flies through the eye, a crew member will drop a device called a dropsonde from the plane. This is a
small tube with an attached parachute. The tube contains measuring instruments and a radio transmitter. As the
dropsonde falls towards the sea, it transmits weather data back up to the airplane. Crew members send this
information to the National Hurricane Center in Miami, Florida. There the scientists use the information to
determine the strength of the hurricane and predict the direction it is traveling. From this information they are
able to warn others to evacuate homes near coastal areas and move to safer areas inland.
Hurricane hunters brave some of the roughest weather that exists. To get all the information needed to study
storms and track them for information it is often necessary to travel through each hurricane several times before
they gather enough information. Some flights last more than 11 hours, but hurricane hunters know their hard
work will save lives.
The job of a hurricane hunter is dangerous and vital to measure the eye of the storm. By doing so they are able to
gather the measurements needed to track and predict not only the current storm they are flying into, but also are
able to predict the behavior patterns of future hurricanes. When winds are blowing, rain is falling, and waves are
crashing, most people head inside to safety, but the hurricane hunter does just the opposite; they enter a special
plane and fly directly into the center of the storm.

78
How the Sun Warms the Earth
If a people preferred to live in warm weather all year long, where would they go? Or if they liked cold weather,
where would they go? Making that decision depends on the angle at which the sun hits the earth. The sun warms
the earth's surface which in turn transmits heat to the air above it. The angle that the sun hits the earth
determines the amount of heat produced.
The sun's path is high overhead and at its hottest at midday. It shines down upon the areas around the equator at
this time. At the same time the areas around the North and South Poles are coldest because they are further
away at midday and the angles of the sun is different than the angle that hits around the equator. The lower the
sun's angle the weaker the sun heats the earth.
The angle at which sunlight strikes the earth's surface is called the angle of insolation. Insolation is short for
incoming solar radiation. It means the amount of the sun's energy that reaches earth at a given place and time.
The amount of warming depends on the angle of insolation. The angle of insolation is always smaller near the
North and South Poles which results in colder temperatures. On the other hand, the angle of insolation near the
equator is greater and creates warmer temperatures. That means while it is freezing cold in one area of the earth
it is hot in another.
What affects insolation? In the morning the sun is close to the horizon and at midday it is at its highest in the sky.
After midday the sun lowers and the angle creates less heat. Measuring the angle of insolation is difficult because
light rays are not easy to see. Therefore, the way to measure the angle is by measuring the shadows created by
light rays. The shorter the shadow is, the more direct the angle of the light ray. As a result, the hotter the
temperature is. The longer the shadow is, the more angle there is and the colder the temperature.
Why do some things get hotter than others? For example, dark colors get hotter than light colors in the same
temperature. That is why dark asphalt roads get so hot in sunlight. Dark soils and rocks also get very hot. White
sand and light colored rocks do not get as hot. The dark colors absorb the heat from the sun while light color
reflects the heat.
The texture of a surface also determines its temperature. Texture is how smooth or rough a surface is. Rough
textures cause light to bounce around at many angles. Each time a little more energy is absorbed by the surface.
Therefore, rough surfaces tend to get hotter than smooth surfaces. The angles create heat.
If a person wants to live in a hotter climate, he or she would need to move closer to the equator because the
sun's angle is at its highest closer to the equator and creates the most heat. On the other hand, if people want to
live in a colder climate they need to move closer to the North or South Poles because while the sun is at its
highest the Poles are further away and the angle of the sun is at its greatest. Angles create heat. The lower the
angle is, the hotter the temperature will be. The higher the angle is, the colder the temperature will be. It is the
angle of insolation that must be measured to determine the hotter or colder areas to live.

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Climates
Weather changes from day to day. However, the weather tends to follow a pattern throughout the year. For
example, Fairbanks, Alaska has long, cold winter and very short summers. Miami, Florida has very long, not
summers and very mild winters. When you make descriptions such as these it is describing the climate of an area.
Climate is the average weather pattern of a specific region.
Climates are described in a variety of ways. One way is by using temperature-precipitation graphs. Other ways are
by using such factors as wind speed, distance from the coast, mountain ranges, and ocean currents. Still another
way is by studying the plants that grow in an area, such as grasslands, rain forests, or forests. Each kind of plant
needs its own conditions to grow such as sunlight, rain, temperature, and soil. When all of these factors are taken
into account, climate zones are forecasted and established for specific regions.
There are several things that affect the climate over periods of time. Latitude is a measure of how far north or
south a place is from the equator and places its location. Places further away from the equator are colder and
temperature affects the climate. Bodies of water affect the climate. Most of the globe is covered with water, yet
there are places on land that are 1,000 miles from the nearest water. Because the sun warms the land faster than
it does the water those areas furthest from water have a higher temperature climate because the air temperature
is higher over land. Trade winds affect the climate. These are not the day-to-day winds, but those winds that blow
continually. They are westerly or easterly winds. These winds bring warm or cool air into areas cause the climate
to change. These winds also move water across the surface of the ocean. As ocean water moves, warm or cool air
moves with it. Altitude is the measure of how high above sea level a place is. The higher a place is above sea level
the cooler its climate is. Mountain ranges affect climate too. The higher mountains protect areas from polar
winds causing the climates to remain warmer. And rain patterns are affected by the mountains. Rain clouds may
form and drop moisture on that side of the mountain. One side of a mountain may get plenty of rain while the
other side may get very little. As air passes over a mountain it cools causing the other side to get that cool air. The
air reaching the other side may also be dry changing the climate. For many reasons, the climate on one side of a
mountain may differ from that on the other side.
Weather changes from day to day and from place to place. Because of those changes the climates change as well.
Some climates remain warm while others remain cool. Some receive rain while others remain dry. Global
conditions such as wind, temperature, latitude, altitude, mountain ranges, bodies of water, ocean currents, and
wind patterns all play a vital role in the climate of that area. While Fairbanks, Alaska is very cold, Miami, Florida
will be very warm. This weather pattern is established over a long period of time and once averaged out becomes
the climate in that area.

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The Five Senses
The five senses of the body include sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. Human beings and most other animals
use the five senses to help them live and experience the world around them. The senses also help people to learn,
protect themselves, and to enjoy the differences between foods, sounds, and other experiences a person has in
life. The senses also work together to give you a clear picture of the activities around you.
The first sense is sight, which depends on the eyes. People use their eyes to see the people, objects, and other
items around them. Of course, the sense of sight is also helpful for reading, traveling, driving, and moving from
place to place each day. Inside the eye there are special lenses that take in light to help people see things. If it is
too dark, a person will have trouble seeing. The eyes can also adjust to the amount of light available. Many
people, though, young and old, may also need glasses to help them see clearly. Some people may be able to see
things up close, but not far away, which means they are nearsighted. If a person can see far away but not up
close, they are farsighted. If a person is blind, there are special books written in braille which helps them feel the
raised letters. Some blind people also have special dogs to help guide them from place to place in their home and
when they go places.
The second sense, hearing, depends on the ears. There are actually three parts of the ear, the outer ear, middle
ear, and the inner ear. The outer ear is the part other people can see. The outer ear catches the sound waves as
they travel to the person and then sends them into the ear. The outer ear acts like a funnel collecting the
different sounds a person experiences. The middle ear contains the eardrum and several bones which transfers
sound from the outer ear to the inner ear. The inner ear consists of tubes and passages that takes the sound
vibrations and sends it to your brain for understanding.
The third sense, smell, depends on your nose. Inside the nose there is a substance that takes the fumes of an
odor and then sends it to the brain. If a person gets a cold the sense of smell may not be as strong. The nose also
helps clean the air a person breathes by filtering it. Inside the nose there are tiny hairs, called cilia, which act as
cleaners to help keep substances in the air from entering a person's body through the nose. In addition, the nose
affects the way a person speaks. If a person holds their nose while speaking, their voice will sound different. Smell
also helps with the sense of taste. As a person tastes the food in their mouth, the aroma of the food enters a
person's nose.
The next sense, feeling, or touch, can be experienced throughout the entire body through a person's skin. Some
parts of the body are more sensitive to touch than other parts. The skin has parts in it that collect information and
sends it the brain. Most of a person's feeling is done by the hands. In addition, when a person has a stomach ache
or feel other kinds of pain, the sense of touch is working from inside the body.
The final sense, taste, comes from the taste buds on a person's tongue. As stated earlier, the sense of smell also
affects the sense of taste. The tongue tastes four different flavors: salty, sweet, sour, and bitter. Many foods a
person eats may be a combination of the four main flavors. The tongue can also feel whether something in a
person's mouth is hot, cold, creamy, crunchy, or dry.
In summary, the five senses are sight, hearing, smell, feeling, and taste. The five senses work together to help you
live, protect yourself, learn, and enjoy the world around you.

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Dinosaurs
Dinosaurs are large reptiles that roamed the earth thousands of years ago. They mysteriously died out so no one
knows for sure exactly how many kinds there were or what they looked like. Skeletons which have been found
show us different kinds of teeth so scientists believe that some were meat eaters and some ate plants.
Paleontologists are scientists who study old fossils and bones. They have dug up pieces of dinosaur bones,
cleaned them and brought them to museums to try to piece together a whole dinosaur. Since dinosaur skin was
sometimes pressed into mud, which then hardened, scientists can tell what dinosaur skin looked like.
A dinosaur skeleton put together from bones which have been dug up gives much information about what
dinosaurs ate, what they looked like and how they defended themselves. The type of teeth or beak they had tells
us what they might have eaten. Horns show us how a particular dinosaur defended itself.
Fossilized skeletons may also give us the entire picture of what a certain dinosaur looked like. After a dinosaur
died, the skeleton remained and was quickly pressed into the rock by some force, such as water or other rock,
and then hardened. This is how a fossil is created. Fossils are flat, not three-dimensional, like bones.
To date, over 300 types of dinosaurs have been named. Dinosaurs are divided into two main groups according to
their hip bones. Some had hips arranged like a bird and some like a lizard. Scientists have named many dinosaurs.
Some of the lizard-like dinosaurs are Tyrannosaurus Rex, often known as the T-Rex, who was a meat eater, and
Diplodocus, who was a plant eater. All bird-hipped dinosaurs were plant eaters. Iguanodon, Triceratops and
Stegosaurus are three of the most famous of this type.
Tyrannosaurus was one of the largest dinosaurs. Compsognathus was the size of a turkey. The largest of all was a
group called Sauropods. The huge Sauropod, Barosaurus, might have been able to reach the top of a five-story
building.
Sauropods were the biggest plant eaters. A Sauropod called Apatosaurus ate huge amounts of green plants every
day. He didn't chew them but swallowed them along with stones that ground up the food in its stomach.
Hadrosaurus had a beak like a duck and ripped up vegetation. He had more than 40 rows of teeth. Some plant
eaters may have formed herds to defend themselves against the predatory meat eaters who had larger, sharper
teeth.
The largest meat-eating dinosaur was the Giganotosaurus. Scientists think he may have weighed eight tons.
Suchomimus ate fish and had a head like a crocodile. Baryonyx lived near water and also ate fish. His curved claw
could spear fish. Tyrannosaurus was huge, but slow, and may have used his big head to butt against prey.
In summary, dinosaurs are reptiles which lived on earth thousands of years ago. Some ate plants and some meat.
Although they died out, scientists have learned much about them from bones and fossils.

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Heredity
Everyone gets certain traits or characteristics from his parents. Heredity is the passing on of these specific
characteristics from one generation to the next. These traits are passed on by genes in our DNA.
DNA is a material found in chromosomes. Chromosomes are located in the nucleus of every cell in the human
body. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell. Each child receives one-half of its chromosomes (23)
from each parent, for a total of 46. Therefore, each child inherits one-half of its DNA from his father and one-half
from his mother.
Pieces of information inside a DNA molecule are called genes. A gene gives instructions about making a certain
protein to determine a trait for the person, like color of eyes or hair. A person has a hair color gene, but inside the
gene is a specific pattern which makes the hair black, brown or blonde, for example. This is called an allele.
Each child inherits two genes for each trait, like hair color or eye color. Some genes are more dominant than
others. That means they win out over the other gene which is called recessive. Brown-eyed genes win out over
blue-eyed genes, unless a person inherits two blue-eyes genes, one from each parent. Sometimes genes have
codominance, meaning that neither gene is dominant over the other. An example of this is blood type. If one
parent has type A and the other has type B, the child will have type AB blood. A trait may not show up in an
individual but can still pass on to the next generation.
A mutation Is a change which occurs in a DNA sequence in a chromosome. This change may be due to the effects
of smoking, alcohol or other environmental effects or mistakes within the cell itself. The results may be damaging
to the body. A mutation can be passed down to a child. Because of certain mutations, diseases can run in families.
The passing down of genetic material from one generation to another can be seen by looking at children and their
parents. Many traits can be similar, such as size and shape of nose, hair color, eye color, height or shape of an ear.
Sometimes it is easy to spot family traits, and sometimes children don't have many characteristics of their parents
at all.
Gregor Mendel is called the father of genetics. His research involved using pea plants of different types. He used
smooth, yellow peas and wrinkly green peas. By transferring pollen to and from the flowers of the plants with a
small paintbrush, he found out that certain characteristics of the pea plants were dominant and others recessive.
From these experiments, Mendel was able to describe the way genetic traits are passed down from parents to
children.
In summary, every person inherits certain characteristics from his parents. Heredity is the passing on of these
traits. Genes in our DNA are responsible for controlling what traits each person inherits. A child receives two
genes for each trait, one from his father and one from his mother. The dominant trait will win out unless the two
genes are the same.

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Insects
There are more types of insects than all other types of animals put together. Scientists know about a million types
or species, but there may be many more. Insects belong to a group of animals known as arthropods. They are also
invertebrates because they have no bones inside their bodies. They have a hard outer shell for protection. It is
called an exoskeleton.
All insects have three body parts: a head, thorax and abdomen. On the head are the antennae, mouth and
compound eyes. A compound eye holds many tiny 'eyes.' The thorax is the part of the insect just behind the
head. Most insects have wings. The insect's wings and legs are attached to the thorax. Insects have 3 pairs of
jointed legs. The abdomen holds the insect's heart, digestive system and reproductive parts. Most insects have
two pairs of wings, but some have none. A fly has only one pair.
Insects live all over the world. They live in many kinds of areas. Some live in warm, damp areas. Some live in trees,
underground, or in fresh water. Stag beetles live in trees. Slow-moving or still water is a good place to locate
insects. Whirligig beetles live on the surface of the water. They feed on mosquito larvae or dead insects. Wingless
moths can survive in the cold of Antarctica. Grasshoppers live in fields where they can find plenty of food.
An adult insect may live a very short life. During that time, it must find a mate and produce offspring. Male insects
use different ways to attract females. Deathwatch beetles tap their head against wood to attract a mate.
Sometimes insects use different ways of flying or scents to be noticed. When a praying mantis mates, she
sometimes eats the male. He helps to nourish the eggs which the female will lay. Stag beetles use their huge jaws
to fight off other males who want the female.
Insects lay their eggs in different places. Usually it is a place which can provide food and be safe for the offspring.
Inside a hive the queen lays her eggs inside waxy cells. Spider-hunting wasps lay their eggs in underground
burrows. Leaf miner flies lay their eggs inside or underneath leaves.
An insect's diet depends on where it lives. Some feed on plants. Others eat blood or each other. There are two
main methods of feeding: sucking, or biting and chewing. It depends on the type of mouth and jaws the insect
has. Butterflies and moths suck up liquid nectar with a long, hollow tube. Tiger beetles have powerful jaws to bite
and chew their food.
Insects have different ways of moving to find food and escape from predators. Some don't move much at all.
Some move a lot. Many have special adaptations to help them move, such as long legs or wings. Insect wings
come in a variety of shapes and types. They are made strong by many hollow tubes called veins. Water striders
can walk over water. Pads on their legs are coated with wax which repels water and keeps them from sinking.
Houseflies have hairy, sticky pads on their feet to keep them from falling from ceilings.
In summary, scientists know only about a million different kinds of insects, but there may be many more. Insects
make up a larger number of types than all other animals together. Insects belong to the species known as
arthropods. They are invertebrates and have no internal skeleton. Their bodies are covered and protected by a
hard shell called an exoskeleton.

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Sharks
Sharks are powerful fish. There are 400 types of sharks in the world. Most sharks live in the ocean, although some
sharks live in lakes and rivers and are called freshwater sharks. Sharks differ from other fish because they do not
have a skeleton made of bones. Instead they have a skeleton made of cartilage a lighter elastic material. This
cartilage helps them bend and twist in the water. Many people fear sharks, but they do not often attack humans.
A shark has to spend most of its time hunting for prey. It has to be very fast. Some kinds can swim at speeds up to
40 miles per hour. A shark can come upon a seal or other prey on the surface from below and grab it. To help it
detect prey, a shark has an amazing sense of smell (10,000 times better than humans). It also can hear a sound
one mile away, feel vibrations made by a prey from 330 feet away and can see very well, even in the deep dark
bottom of the ocean.
A shark does not chew its food. It bites off big pieces and swallows them whole. It has many rows of teeth. It is
always losing some and replacing them A shark may use up more than 10,000 teeth in its life. Different sharks
have different kinds of teeth. Each kind is right for the food that a shark eats. Long, spiky teeth are good for
catching. Flat teeth are good for grinding. Serrated teeth (like the edge of a knife) are good for ripping. A shark
usually eats alone because if a big group of sharks attacks a single prey, one shark might bite another in the
confusion.
A shark has to keep moving all the time or it will drown. It moves even when asleep. Its powerful tail helps it
move forward, and its fins keep them on course. As it swims through the water, the water flows through its
mouth and over its gills. The gills collect oxygen for the shark to breathe. Then the water flows out through gill
slits on either side of its head.
Most shark babies grow inside their mothers and are born after about 10-12 months. Babies are called pups.
Lemon sharks may have as many as 17 pups at a time. Some sharks, like the cloudy cat shark, lay eggs in cases on
the ocean floor. Inside the egg case, a shark embryo feeds on the yolk of the egg. It cracks out of the egg and
swims away from its mother fully grown.
Whale sharks are the world's largest living fish. The great white shark is the world's largest predatory fish. The
pygmy shark is one of the tiniest sharks. It is under 9 inches long. The shortfin mako is the fastest shark in the
world. The three deadliest or most dangerous to humans are the white, tiger and bull sharks.
Sharks are disappearing from the world's oceans. Scientists are trying to find ways to prevent that from
happening. In order to learn more about sharks and their habits, scientists safely catch them in a plastic sling,
measure them, take a blood sample for DNA and attach a tag to the base of a fin. This tag can send out a sound
which can be picked up by an underwater microphone. Records of sightings are kept in logbooks around the
world.
In summary, there are about 400 kinds of sharks in the world. They are the world's most powerful fish. However,
unlike fish, sharks don't have a skeleton made of bone, but of cartilage. The cartilage allows them to bend and
twist as they swim. Most sharks live in the ocean, although a few kinds live in freshwater.

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The Four Seasons
Parts of the earth about half-way from the Poles and the Equator, either South or North, usually experience four
seasons. A season is a period of the year which has different temperatures, weather patterns and changes in
nature from the other periods. Seasons occur because while the Earth rotates around the sun each year, it is
tilted on its axis. One half, called a hemisphere, leans toward the Sun, and one half leans away. Regions near the
equator or the Poles don't have changes in season.
The Northern Hemisphere leans toward the sun for one half of the year, resulting in more sunlight and warmer
weather. For the other half of the year, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the sun, resulting in less
intense sunlight and cooler weather. While the Northern Hemisphere is enjoying warm weather, the Southern
Hemisphere is tilted away from the sun and experiencing cooler weather.
The four seasons are called Fall (sometimes called Autumn), Winter, Spring and Summer. The months of
September, October and November are usually considered Fall months. December, January and February are
considered Winter months. Spring includes March, April and May. Finally, June, July and August are summer
months.
In the Fall, the weather is cool, crops are harvested, apples ripen and are picked. Leaves turn red, yellow and
brown and then drop to the ground. School begins. Piles of raked leaves can be found in many places throughout
regions with Fall season. Halloween is celebrated this time of the year, and pumpkins can be seen in some parts
of the country. Animals begin to store up food for the winter. Some get ready to hibernate during the long, cold
months of the winter.
The Winter months bring frost, very cold temperatures, snow and freezing rain. People like to ski, go
snowmobiling, ice skate, go for sleigh or sled rides or build snowmen. Others like to sit inside in front of a warm
fire. Usually, driving can be dangerous due to icy roads. Plants either are dead or not blooming again until spring.
Some animals have trouble finding food. Many people celebrate Christmas by bringing an evergreen tree into
their houses to decorate. The new year begins during the winter on January 1st.
Spring brings warmer temperatures and new growth on trees and plants. Beautiful flowers bloom. Sap runs in the
maple trees, and maple farmers collect the sap to boil into maple syrup. Farmers plant seeds so that crops can be
harvested in the Fall. People like to go for hikes in the warmer weather or play sports. Usually the Spring brings
rain and wind also. The rain helps the new plants grow. Children have Easter egg hunts and fly kites.
Temperatures in Summer can be very hot. Thunderstorms occur frequently. Crops grow tall. People like to go
fishing, swimming and camping. Independence Day is celebrated on July 4th with parades and fireworks. Children
are out of school for a vacation. Many families travel.
In summary, the four seasons are created because the Earth is tilted on its axis as it rotates around the sun.
During one half of the year, the Northern Hemisphere, the part of the earth north of the Equator, is tilted toward
the sun and experiences warmer temperatures. During the other half of the year, the Northern Hemisphere is
tilted away from the sun and temperatures are much colder.

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Natural Resources
Natural resources are the things that exist freely in nature human beings use for survival. These things include the
water, land, forests, animals, rocks, fossil fuels, and minerals inside the Earth. Human beings did not create
natural resources. They have always been a part of the Earth before humans appeared.
Most of the natural resources are connected to each other in some way. For example, water is a natural resource,
and there was a limited supply, then other resources such as animal and plants would be affected. Natural
resources are consumed directly or indirectly. For example, when animals eat plants they are consuming a natural
resource directly. However, the many trees of rain forest act as climate control, flood control, and storm
protection. The trees of a forest can also be used as raw materials for making houses, furniture, paper, or other
items.
Natural resources can be a solid, liquid, or gas. They can also be organic, coming from living things, or inorganic,
coming from a non-living source. They can also be made out of metal or be non-metallic. All natural resources are
also either renewable or non-renewable.
Renewable resources are always available and can be easily replaced or recovered. The examples of renewable
resources include water, plants, animals, the sun, wind, and a few others. Most renewable resources may be
replaced in a short period of time. For example, animals are renewable because they can reproduce young
offspring replacing adult animals in a short period of time. If it takes too many years to replace a resource it is not
considered to be renewable.
Organic renewable resources come from living things such as animals and trees. Inorganic renewable resources
come from non-living things such as the water, sun, and wind.
Non-renewable resources cannot be easily replaced once they are destroyed. Examples of these resources
include fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, oil, and natural gas. Non-renewable resources may take thousands or
millions of years to be replaced. Minerals, though form naturally, are also non-renewable because the rock cycle
used in replacing the minerals will take thousands of years. There are also some animals that can be non-
renewable if they are in danger of becoming extinct.
Non-renewable resources can also come from organic or inorganic sources.
Finally, there are metallic and non-metallic resources which are inorganic. Metallic minerals are those containing
metal, are hard, shiny, and can be melted to form other products. Examples include copper, tin, and iron. Non-
metallic minerals are softer and do not shine, which can include clay and coal.
Natural resources in the world are used for food and drink such as water, farm products, medicines, packaging,
and much more. They are used for transportation including cars, trains, boats, airplanes, and others; as well as
the fuel used to power them. Another large use of the Earth's natural resources is for housing, buildings, roads,
and other construction. This use also includes the energy for the heating and cooling of homes and businesses.
In summary, natural resources are things existing freely in nature, and include renewable and non-renewable
things. Some of the resources are organic, meaning they come from living things, such as animals and plants.
Other resources are inorganic, coming from non-living things, such as wind, rocks, and fossil fuels. Natural
resources can also contain metal or be non-metallic such as coal and clay. The uses for the Earth's natural
resources are many, from the food a person eats to the energy used to remain comfortable in a home.

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Vertebrates
The most advanced living organism on the Earth are vertebrates. Vertebrates are distinguished from non-
vertebrates because the structure of the body includes spinal cords, vertebrae, and notochords. Vertebrates have
a series of nerves running along their backs, which is protected by the backbones, the spinal column, and
cartilage named the notochord.
There are about 65,000 species of vertebrae, but it only makes up about 4% of the animal species on the Earth.
The rest of the animals are non-vertebrates or invertebrates. Vertebrates are usually much larger than
invertebrates, take up much more space, are more advanced, but also have limitations on the environments
where they can live.
Examples of vertebrates are humans, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and other mammals like dogs, cats,
elephants, tigers, bears, and many more.
The smallest vertebrate in the world is a tiny frog which grows to just 0.3 inches long, and the largest is the blue
whale, which can grow to 400,000 pounds and reach lengths of 100 feet or longer.
Fish are the animals that live in the water, and have gills allowing them to breathe under water. Fish either live in
fresh water or salt water. Examples of vertebrates in this category include trout, the great white shark, swordfish,
and many more.
Birds are animals with wings and feathers, plus they lay eggs. Nearly all birds can fly, but there are a few that
cannot fly, like the penguin and ostrich. Some examples of birds include the bald eagle, robin, flamingo, and many
others.
The vertebrate most familiar to humans is the human, which is also a mammal. Mammals are warm-blooded,
take care of their young with milk, and have fur or hair on their bodies. Besides humans and many others,
mammals also include bears, lions, horses, cats, and dogs.
Cold-blooded vertebrates are amphibians, which begin life living in the water with fish-like gills, but later develop
lungs and can live on dry land. Some of the amphibians include frogs, toads, and salamanders.
Finally, reptiles are also vertebrates, which are cold-blooded and they lay eggs, too. Their skins are covered with
scales that are hard and dry. Reptiles include snakes, alligators, crocodiles, lizards, and several others.
When an animal is cold-blooded it cannot control its body temperature, and the body's temperature is
determined by the air surrounding it. Warm-blooded animals can control their internal body temperature, by
sweating, or panting to cool off. In addition, they also have fur or hair to keep them warm.
In summary, vertebrates are the most intelligent species on Earth compared to invertebrates, and are usually
much larger. Vertebrates have spinal columns and backbones which contain and protect nerves that then spread
throughout the body. There are very few vertebrae compared to invertebrates and make up only about 4% of the
animal species on Earth. Vertebrates can be cold-blooded like fish, amphibians, and reptiles, or warm-blooded
like birds and mammals. Humans are also vertebrates and are mammals.

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Invertebrates
Invertebrates, or non-vertebrates, do not have backbones, which are also called vertebrae or spinal bones.
Invertebrates make up most of the animal species on Earth, approximate 96%. The other 4% are vertebrates
which include mammals, fish, reptiles, birds, and amphibians. Invertebrates include everything else.
The main categories of invertebrates include ocean animals, worms, insects, spiders, centipedes, and scorpions.
The largest invertebrate is called a colossal squid, which can be over 1000 pounds and over 40 feet long. The
longest can be 180 feet long, called a ribbon worm. The smallest invertebrate can only be seen under a
microscope. The tiny vertebrate is the rotifer or wheel animal, which is only about 0.1 to 0.5 mm in length.
The ocean animals include marine invertebrates such as sponges, corals, starfish, jellyfish, and others. Another
ocean animal are mollusks. They have a soft body covered by the mantle or an outer layer. Most mollusks live
inside a shell. Examples include squid, snails, octopuses, oysters, and several more.
Crustaceans can also be found in water, and are a type of arthropod, meaning they have jointed legs. They also
have bones on the outside of their bodies like a shell, called an exoskeleton. When a crustacean outgrows the
shell, it will shed it and grow a new one. Examples of crustaceans are crabs, lobster, barnacles, and shrimp.
Lobsters, crabs, and shrimp have ten legs, and the two front legs have pincers they use to fight off enemies.
Worms are invertebrates classified as those that do not have legs. They live in soil, in water, or inside other
animals as parasites. A parasite feeds off the animal it lives. There are many examples of worms including the
leech, earthworm, and tapeworm.
The next invertebrate is the insect. Insects are the largest group of arthropods and there are over one million
species of insects. There are more insects in the world than any other type of animal. Most insects are small and
range in size from invisible to the eye to as large as over seven inches. A distinguishing feature of an insect is their
bodies are made up of three sections, head, thorax, and abdomen. The types of insects include butterflies, bees,
moths, flies, grasshoppers, termites, and many others.
Spiders, centipedes, and scorpions are in the final category of invertebrates. Spiders and scorpions are arachnids
because they have eight legs. There are some scorpion mothers that protect their young by carrying them on
their back. Centipedes and millipedes are called myriapods because they have many, many legs, as many as 750
legs. Centipedes are carnivores and will eat worms and insects, but millipedes are herbivores and eats plants and
rotting material. Other species in this category include spiders called tarantulas and black widows.
Other interesting facts about invertebrates include some that do not have heads, and millions living in people's
homes called dust mites. Since invertebrates are numerous they can be found all over the world.
In summary, invertebrates make up about 96% of all living animals species on the Earth. There are a wide variety
of invertebrates which crawl, fly, and walk. The invertebrate includes the millions of insect species, worms,
crustaceans, mollusks and other marine invertebrates, as well as spiders, centipedes, and scorpions. Invertebrates
can be found in every corner of the world.

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Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein was a German scientist who came up with many discoveries and theories. His most important
contribution to the world of science is the Theory of Relativity. The formula he developed explains how energy
(E) is related to mass (m). This theory changed the world of science.
Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany in March, 1879, but lived most of his childhood in the city of Munich.
He had speech problems as a child, and his parents didn't think he was very intelligent. He didn't talk until he was
four years old. He didn't read until he was nine. He said he didn't like school but loved reading and learning on his
own. Even when he was an adult, he was very disorganized and forgot appointments. Albert was married twice.
He had two sons and a daughter.
His father owned an electronics shop so Albert learned all about science and electronics from him. He first
became interested in science when his father gave him a compass. Because he really loved math, he wanted to
study that in school. He finished his education in Switzerland. Later he moved back to Bern, Germany and started
his first job as a clerk in the patent office.
Albert moved to the United States in 1933 to avoid the Nazis in Germany. Albert was Jewish and the Nazis were
persecuting and even killing Jewish people. He became a United States citizen in 1940. His Theory of Relativity
changed how scientists observed the world and led to many modern inventions, including nuclear energy and the
nuclear bomb.
Albert Einstein laid much of the foundation for modern physics. In 1905 Einstein came up with the concept that
light is made up of particles called photons. Most scientists then didn't agree, but later experiments in 1919
proved him right. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921. Nobel Prizes are given every year for
accomplishments for academic, cultural or scientific advances.
Together with another scientist, Satyendra Bose, Einstein discovered another state of matter in addition to solid,
liquid and gas. Today this discovery is used in lasers and superconductors.
Albert Einstein did not work directly on inventing the atomic bomb, but his name is closely associated with the
bomb. This is because his scientific work and discoveries were important in the bomb's development.
He received a love of music from his mother and said that if he were not a physicist, he would be a musician. He
played the violin and piano and said that he got the most joy out of life in doing that. He saw his life in terms of
music and lived his daydreams in music.
Einstein's brain has been preserved by scientists so they can find out why he was such a genius by examining it. It
is said to be different from the brains of most other people.
Albert Einstein died in the United States in 1955.
In summary, Albert Einstein is considered the greatest scientist of all time. He was born in Germany but became a
United States citizen. He specialized in physics and won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921. His most famous
discovery was the Theory of Relativity which led to many inventions, like nuclear energy and the nuclear bomb.

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Bears
Bears all over the world are considered to be a symbol of power. Bears are found in North America and Asia. No
bears are found in Africa, Australia or Antarctica. Bears are closely related to the dog family. The biggest bear is a
polar bear which can weigh up to a ton. The sun bear is the smallest bear and is the size of a dog.
Bears can run up to forty miles per hour. They have jaws strong enough to cut through a tree trunk. They are very
smart and know how to snap a hunter's trap and get the meat without getting caught themselves. Bears have
short tails, and short legs. Their fur is very thick to keep them warm. They have an amazing sense of smell.
There are eight different kinds of bears. Black bears are the most common bears in North America. Their fur may
not always be black but can be reddish brown, light brown or even white. The bears which live in America are
black or brown in color.
The brown bear is the most common bear. It lives in forests and valleys in Europe, Asia and western North
America, mostly in Canada or Alaska. Brown bears are two to three times as big as black bears. They can also be
colors other than black, such as red, blond and reddish brown. The most famous brown bear is the grizzly.
Grizzled means streaked with gray. A grizzly bear has gray-tipped fur.
Polar bears live near the North Pole. They have white fur to help them hide in the snow, long necks and small
heads. Because their front paws are partly webbed, like a duck's, they can swim hundreds of miles in freezing
water. A layer of fat beneath their skin keeps them warm.
Giant pandas which have round white heads and black eye patches live in the mountains of China. Asiatic black
bears are called moon bears because they have a white crescent marking on their chests. Sun bears have a white
or yellow patch on their necks. They live in southeastern Asian forests.
Bears can be omnivores. Some, however, eat only plants and berries. What they eat depends on where they live.
Polar bears eat seals and walruses. Brown bears in North America eat many kinds of animals and fish. In Japan,
fruit, berries, nuts and insects make up the diet of the brown bears. Giant pandas eat only the bamboo plant.
Sloth bears love termites, but will eat berries and honey too.
Bears must eat a lot during the summer because in the fall most bears go into caves or dens to hibernate until
spring. Hibernation is like sleep, but bears' hearts slow down during this time of hibernation. Their temperatures
also drop. Bears use less energy and can do without food during the winter when there isn't usually enough to
eat. Bears which live where there is food all year long don't hibernate.
All bears go into a den to have their babies. Cubs are blind at birth and weigh less than one pound. They stay in
the den for a few months and drink their mother's milk. After they come out of the den, they stay close to their
mothers for two to three years. Grown male bears fight for the chance to mate. Only the strongest then will be
able to mate and produce cubs. Female bears raise the cubs alone. One danger to the cubs is that the males may
even eat the cubs.
In summary, bears are found only in North America and Asia. Polar bears are the largest bears and sun bears are
the smallest. They are related to the dog family. Some bears are omnivores, while others eat only fruits and
berries. Most bears in cold climates hibernate during the winter.

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Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He was involved in the struggle of the
early colonies to become a country separate from Great Britain. He was also an inventor and diplomat. A
diplomat spends time in other countries making friends for his own country.
Benjamin Franklin was born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1706. He was the 15th child of 17 children. Ben's father
made candles. Ben stopped going to school when he was 10 but spent the rest of his life reading and learning on
his own. At the age of 12, he became an apprentice to his brother who was a printer. His brother printed the
Courant, the first newspaper in America to print just American news. An apprentice works with an expert who
teaches the apprentice what he needs to know to be able to go out on his own someday in that occupation. He
wrote letters about current topics to his brother's paper when he was a teenager and signed them Mrs. Silence
Dogood. His brother printed them and never knew they were written by Ben. When he found out, he was angry.
Ben broke his apprenticeship to his brother when he was 17 and ran away to Philadelphia to become a printer. He
lived the rest of his life there. His newspaper, the Pennsylvania Gazette, which he bought in 1729, was one of the
most successful newspapers in the colonies. He was the first to use maps and publish editorial cartoons in a
newspaper. He married Deborah Read and had his first son in 1831. Later he had two more children. In 1748,
Benjamin Franklin sold the newspaper and retired from printing. In 1773 he started publishing Poor Richard's
Almanack. It contained weather reports, recipes, predictions and funny sayings. He did this for 25 years.
Although Thomas Jefferson was the main writer of the Declaration of Independence, Benjamin Franklin was one
of the five men involved in drafting the document. He was Pennsylvania's representative to the Second
Continental Congress which met in Philadelphia in 1775. This body declared war on Great Britain and made
George Washington the commanding general of the army.
He is the only American who signed all four major documents involved in the founding of the United States. These
are the Declaration of Independence, a Treaty of Alliance with France, the Treaty of Paris, and the Constitution of
the United States. He was an ambassador to France from the colonies and convinced the French to aid them in
their quest for freedom from Great Britain.
Benjamin Franklin was an inventor too. He is most famous for his experiments with electricity, proving that
lightning is really electricity. With that knowledge, he invented lightning rods for buildings to protect them from
being struck by lightning. He also invented bifocal lenses for glasses, swim fins and the Franklin stove.
Ben started the first public library in the United States and the first fire station in Pennsylvania. He founded a city
hospital and a school which later became the University of Pennsylvania. He was active in helping with projects
to clean, pave and light the streets of Philadelphia. Benjamin Franklin died in 1790 at the age of 84.
In summary, Benjamin Franklin was one of the most famous of the early founders of the United States. He was a
man with many talents and interests. He spent many years in publishing, was very successful as an inventor, cared
about his home city of Philadelphia and began many projects to help its people. He also participated in the
founding of a new nation separate from Great Britain by helping to write the Declaration of Independence and
Constitution of the United States.

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Black Holes
A black hole is a point is space where the gravitational pull is so strong that not even light can escape. It pulls
nearby material and objects into it. Nothing can ever get out. A black hole isn't really a hole which is thought of as
being empty. A black hole contains the most matter stuffed into the very small space. Because of so much matter
in such a small space, the gravity is very strong.
One theory about the formation of a black hole is that this happens because of gravitational collapse. When a
very heavy star, perhaps 10 times heavier than the sun, gets old, it is low on fuel and cannot keep its temperature
high. This condition lowers the pressure pushing out from inside the star to less than its own gravitational force
and it implodes. This is called a supernova. The material left over collapses in onto itself and forms a black hole.
This type of black hole is called a stellar-mass black hole.
Over time the black hole can become bigger and bigger by pulling in light and material around itself.
The second type of black hole is the supermassive black hole. This type of black hole is much bigger so scientists
don't really know how one is formed. The stars which form these supermassive black holes may be millions of
times bigger than the Sun. Scientists do know that there is a supermassive black hole in the middle of the Milky
Way, Earth's galaxy. They believe that every galaxy has one. Black holes slowly evaporate and return their energy
to the universe.
Black holes 'gobble' everything in sight with their strong gravitational pull caused by all of the material inside it.
Scientists can guess there is a black hole by seeing all kinds of matter moving in a certain direction and increasing
in its speed. In December, 2011, astronomers discovered that the black hole in the middle of the Earth's galaxy
was beginning to inhale a nearby cloud of dust and gas. They believed that the black hole would finish eating the
cloud up in several years. When that does happen, the supermassive black hole will emit high energy x-ray
radiation.
Black holes are made up of 3 main parts. The very outer layer of a black hole is called the Outer Event Horizon.
Within the Outer Event Horizon, the gravity is not as strong. The middle layer of a black hole is the Inner Event
Horizon. The gravity in this layer is too strong for any object to get back out. The center of a black hole is called
the Singularity. This word means a squashed star. If you squash a star into the size of an atom, its gravity
becomes more powerful as it gets smaller. The gravity in the Singularity is very strong.
The idea of the black hole was first suggested by two different scientists in the 18th century: John Michell and
Pierre-Simon Laplace. In 1967, a physicist named John Archibald Wheeler came up with the term 'black hole'.
Scientists really want to learn more about black holes and other strange and massive objects in the Universe. A
space telescope called XMM-Newton was launched to orbit the Earth in 1999. It observes high-energy x-rays. The
matter near black holes gives off x-rays just before it gets swallowed. Scientists observe these x-rays to try and
understand more about black holes.
In summary, a black hole is a point in space formed possibly by an old star which has imploded and carried down
into itself the leftover matter. This matter has shrunk in size but retained its mass and therefore has strong
gravity. It pulls in light and matter around it and its gravity becomes stronger.

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Constellations
Constellations are groups of stars which people have imagined form certain pictures in the sky. They have helped
people from ancient times to tell time and find their way at night. The stars in constellations look like they are
near each other in space and the same distance from Earth, but they are not. One star in a constellation can be
much closer to the Earth than another.
The ancient Babylonians, Chinese and Egyptians first recorded stars and their movements. The ancient
Babylonians grouped stars into constellations and even made a calendar. An astronomer studies the sky and
everything in it. The most famous Greek astronomer was Ptolemy. His book, the Almagest, written in 150 A.D.,
included the known constellations.
Ptolemy wrote about 48 constellations, but more would be found later in history. Sailors used the constellations
to help them find their way at night. When the telescope was discovered in the 1600's, astronomers discovered
more stars and named more constellations. In 1687 Johannes Hevelius invented seven new constellations.
Some stars came to be listed in more than one constellation, so astronomers decided to organize the
constellations. In 1930, the IAU (International Astronomical Union) made an official list of 88 constellations. The
night sky was divided into 88 sections, one for each constellation.
Each constellation has a name. The names for many of these come from Greek myths or stories. The stories tell
how the stars came to be where they are. Ursa Major, known as the Great Bear, appears in the Northern
Hemisphere. The Big Dipper is a star pattern in this constellation. It looks like a long-handled ladle. The myth tells
that the Greek goddess Hera was jealous of a woman named Callisto and turned her into a bear. The god Zeus,
her boyfriend, carried her off to the sky before she could be killed by a hunter. The constellation looks like a bear.
Ursa Minor is called the Little Bear. A star pattern within Ursa Minor is called the Little Dipper. At the end of the
handle is Polaris, the North Star. It sits right above the North Pole, so it seems not to move. It has guided people
for thousands of years. The Big Dipper and Little Dipper are called asterisms. Each is a part of a constellation but
not an official constellation.
When different people of the world view the constellations, they may see different objects. Where European
astronomers saw the constellation Leo as a lion, the ancient Chinese thought they saw a horse. Sometimes
different cultures saw almost the same thing. The Iroquois tribe in America looked at Ursa Major and saw a bear
too, but they didn't give the bear a long tail like the Greeks. They thought the stars were hunters chasing the bear.
Other peoples in the world thought that stars were gods. The Maori tribe of New Zealand thought that the god
Maui used the constellation Scorpius as a fishhook. He is said to have pulled up one of the islands of New Zealand
from the ocean using that hook.
In summary, constellations are groups of stars which seem to form a pattern or picture in the night sky. For
thousands of years, people have used these constellations to guide them in their travels. Some have incorporated
them into their religions. The constellations have been named mainly from stories in Greek mythology. 88
constellations were officially named in 1930. They are varying distances from Earth.

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Air Pollution
When the air is dirty it has become polluted. Air pollution is made up of gases, dust, odors, particles, smoke,
fumes, and other substances which can be harmful to humans, animals, plants, and all living organisms. The air is
contaminated and unclean.
Air pollution affects the Earth's atmosphere. The atmosphere of the Earth is like a blanket of air which protects all
life. Without the atmosphere, life would not exist. The atmosphere protects living organisms from the heat of the
Sun during the day, and at night it prevents the warm air from escaping. Basically, the atmosphere helps keep the
living things on Earth from burning up or freezing.
The pollution in the air, though, may affect this 'blanket' and becomes harmful to life on Earth. The substances in
the air causing the dirty air are called pollutants. Some examples of pollutants may include gases called carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxide, hydrocarbons, and others. There may also be sand, dust particles, and other
substances that evaporate and become pollutants.
A primary pollutant is one that is directly released into the air causing pollution. An example is carbon monoxide,
which comes from cars and trucks on the road. A second primary pollutant is sulfur dioxide, which comes from
the burning of coal.
A secondary pollutant is a substance or substances mix together in the air due to a chemical reaction. When
these substances mix together, the air pollution is much more dangerous and harmful to organisms. An example
is photochemical smog.
It is difficult to avoid the pollution in the air since it is the place where people get the oxygen to breathe and live.
Pollution can travel with the wind from one place to another and spread over a large number of miles.
Pollution can be caused by humans or it can also occur naturally. For example, natural pollution may come from
volcanoes, forest fires, wind storms, pollen in the air, and other sources in nature.
The three main causes of pollution by humans includes the release of smoke and fumes from manufacturing
plants and various industries. Power plants release carbon monoxide and furnaces that burn waste are two
examples of manmade pollution. Gasoline refineries also release dangerous chemicals in the air called
hydrocarbons. The second cause is the burning of fossil fuels such as from cars, trucks, trains, airplanes. This type
of pollution occurs often because people rely on transportation every day. Another main cause of pollution is
from household and farming chemicals. On farms crop dusting may pollute the air, homes may be sprayed with
chemical to kill bugs or to help the grass grow.
There are several effects of air pollution including acid rain, which is when rain is mixed with the pollution in the
air. This acid rain can cause harm to trees, animals, fish, and other living organisms. It can cause problems with
breathing and irritation to the eyes, nose, or throat. Sometimes people can also get headaches or have allergic
reactions. Long-term effects can include lung cancer, heart disease and other health problems.
In summary, air pollution is basically dirty air caused by chemical pollutants. There are primary and secondary
pollutants and both can cause short-term or long-term problems for living things.

95
Algae
Algae are simple plants and can be very tiny, which can only be seen under a microscope, or they can be large
seaweeds, such as the giant kelp. The giant kelp can grow to over 100 feet in length. The main kinds of algae are
green, brown, and red algae.
Algae can be grown in just about any kind of water. Most tiny algae grow through the process of photosynthesis,
which is how plants make their own food. There are algae which can also grow in the dark using sugar, starch, or
both.
In addition, algae can grow in soil, or even in the snow. There has also been some found growing in clouds in the
sky. Algae reproduce very quickly and use the sunlight, or sugar, plus water, carbon dioxide and a few other
nutrients to grow. Algae can reproduce extremely quickly, and grows faster than any other plant. There are
thousands and thousands of species of algae.
Algae can be found everywhere on the Earth and play a vital role in the ecosystems throughout the world. They
also provide the foundation for the ocean and other food chains, supporting all the fish in the oceans and inland
in lakes and other bodies of water. Algae produces about 70% of the air needed for people and animals to
breathe. Algae can help remove large amounts of carbon dioxide from the air.
Green algae use photosynthesis to make its own food. They are also known as the ancestors to land plants. They
may be very small, even a single cell; or they can be large. The green algae are found in freshwater, the ocean,
tree trunks, and damp walls.
Red algae were one of the very first living organisms on the Earth and have been found in rocks that are almost 2
billion years old. They are mostly marine organisms and include different types of seaweed. They can be single-
celled too. The red color comes from pigments in the plant. Some of the red algae can also form coral reefs.
Brown algae is unlike the others and can range from very tiny, microscopic plants to multicellular organisms that
can grow up to 164 feet in length. The chlorophyll for these plants have additional pigments which gives the algae
its brown color.
The uses of algae are numerous. Red algae can be eaten, and seaweeds are a source for food additives, as well as
agar, which is a type of gel used in the cultivation of microorganisms in science labs. Algae is also used in the
production of biofuels due to the speed of their growth. The conditions for the algae to grow are simple, and they
have low nutritional requirements. This makes for a low cost and efficient method of accumulating biomass for
fuel.
In summary, even though algae are often simple and tiny plants, they can grow in just about any body of water
and in light or dark locations. Algae can also grow in many different places. Most importantly, algae produce
about 70% of the air needed for people and animals to breathe. Finally, the three types of algae are green, red,
and brown algae and all have several uses from food additives to the production of biofuels.

96
Bacteria
Bacteria are the second smallest living things on Earth with only viruses being smaller. They are very small
organisms which usually consist of only a single cell. They do not have chlorophyll that is found in plants which
allow for the production of food. If one million of the tiny bacteria were laid end-to-end, they would only measure
about two inches. The word bacteria is plural, and bacterium describes a single organism.
An amateur scientist named Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first person to see bacteria and other tiny
organisms under a microscope. Though tiny, they are found everywhere. Bacteria is found in the air, soil, and
water, as well as inside and outside of the human body. They reproduce quickly if the conditions are right.
Millions of the tiny organisms can form in a space as small as a drop of water.
Bacteria are usually placed in three categories depending on their shapes. The can be described a spherical (like a
football), rod-like, or shaped like a spiral or corkscrew. There are also some bacteria shaped like a comma used in
writing, but much smaller. There is helpful bacteria and harmful bacteria. Some can improve human life, but
others can cause diseases. In addition, there are many more that simply have no effect on humans.
The helpful bacteria assist with the digestion of foods in several kinds of animals including cows, deer, sheep and
others. The bacteria help break down some of the foods the animals eat. In humans, a bacteria called E. coli also
occur in the digestive system breaking down many kinds of foods. It is responsible for producing vitamin K and
certain b vitamins.
Other bacteria are decomposers in the food chain, which attack dead animals and break them down. They are
then used as nutrients by plants. Bacteria is also part of the production of many foods eaten by people. Bacteria
causes milk to become sour which helps in the production of buttermilk, cottage cheese, and yogurt. Bacteria is
involved in the production of sauerkraut and vinegar too.
Unfortunately, bacteria are best known by the disease it causes. It can directly attack the tissues in a plant or
animal. Sometimes fruits or vegetables become discolored due the attack by bacteria. Bacteria can also cause
harm organisms by releasing chemicals that are poisonous to plants and animals. One type is responsible for a
disease known as tetanus, which can paralyze the muscles of a person. The condition when this occurs is called
lockjaw. Finally, the worst type of food poisoning is caused by a bacterium releasing a toxin. This type of food
poisoning is called botulism.
There are also harmful bacteria living on the skin, but are not dangerous unless they enter the bloodstream
through a cut in the skin. If E. coli, though helpful with digestion, enters the bloodstream it can cause cramping,
diarrhea and maybe even death.
Methods to destroy bacteria include freezing and drying during food preservation or through pasteurization,
which is the process of heating food to a specific temperature for a period of time. This is how bacteria are killed
during the processing of milk.
In summary, bacteria are everywhere and can be harmful or helpful to humans and other organisms.

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Mars
The fourth planet from the Sun in the Earth's solar system is Mars, which is sometimes called the Red Planet. This
is because the rocks, soil and the sky give off a red or pink hue. Mars is about 142 million miles from the Sun,
about 45 million miles from the Earth, and is a little more than 50% the size of Earth. It also receives half as much
as the sunlight of Earth.
Mars' atmosphere is very thin compared to Earth. If someone on Earth weighed 100 pounds they would only
weigh about 40 pounds on Mars. It takes about 690 days for Mars to orbit around the Sun and a little more than
24 hours to rotate one time on its axis.
Before the exploration of Mars, many scientists had believed Mars could have been another planet which would
have supported life. Astronomers thought they had seen lines crisscrossing its surface, which were thought to
have been canals built by intelligent people. In addition, the different colors emitted by the planet led scientists to
believe the seasons were changing on Mars, which meant there could have been plants growing to support life. In
1965, Mariner 4, a NASA spacecraft, sent back some pictures showing Mars as a planet containing many craters
and no evidence of water, which meant life could not exist on the planet. The pictures were the first close-up
photos of another planet.
The atmosphere of Mars is mostly carbon dioxide and small amounts of five other gases, including about 0.13% of
oxygen. The air on Mars contains only about 1/1,000 as much water as Earth's air. The small amount though, can
still condense and form clouds it its atmosphere. There is evidence that there was the possibility of water at one
time during Mars early existence. Mars has features that look like shorelines, gorges, islands, and riverbeds, most
likely having been formed by rivers a very long time ago. Mars also has the largest volcano in the solar system.
The temperature on Mars is much cooler than Earth. The average temperature of Mars is about 81°F below zero,
but has reached as high as 68°F above zero and as low as negative 220°F.
There are no rings surrounding Mars, but it does have two moons named Phobos and Deimos. Both moons were
discovered in 1877 by the same person, an American astronomer, Asaph Hall. Some scientists believe that both
the moons of Mars at one time were asteroids but were caught in the gravitational pull of Mars, and then
remained there. The moons have craters just like the Earth's moon which is evidence the moons had not been
asteroids.
Much more information is known today about Mars than many years ago. There have been 45 missions since
1965 to discover as much as possible about the Red Planet, including there may have been huge floods on the
planet over 3.5 billion years ago. In the future, NASA will one-day send astronauts on a mission to the Red Planet
to discover much more about the fourth planet from the Sun.
In summary, much more is known about Mars than many years ago, but scientists hope to send astronauts to visit
the unexplored planet. Mars is further from the Sun than Earth and is called the Red Planet. There is very little
oxygen on the planet and currently there are no living organisms, but at one time in the past, astronauts thought
they had seen evidence of life.

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Coral Reefs
A coral reef is one of the most beautiful structures found in the ocean of the world. A coral reef is formed in the
sea by living things. Corals are a variety of colors due to natural pigments. They can be white, red, pink, green,
blue, orange and purple. Reef-building corals are types of animals that act like plants. They stay in one place and
like plants, receive some of their energy from the sun. A type of microscopic algae lives inside the coral and
provides them with food and help allow the coral reefs to grow faster.
The majority of coral reefs can be found in clear, tropical oceans, and form in shallow water or in water about 150
feet below the surface because of their need of light to survive. There are three types of coral reefs: fringing
reefs, barrier reefs, and atolls.
Fringing reefs are along the coastal shorelines of continents and islands. They can be found in Hawaii and the
Caribbean. Barrier reefs are offshore, and are also found in the Caribbean, but are also located in the Indo-Pacific.
Atolls are also found in the Indo-Pacific and are a series of shallow coral islands which surround a lagoon. The
largest coral reef in the world is in Australia, which is called the Great Barrier Reef. It is over 1200 miles.
The habitat of a coral reef includes water that is between 68 and 82°F and located usually along the eastern
shores of land. Ocean waves bring in food, nutrients, and oxygen to the reef, which is essential for the coral reef's
survival. The waves also prevent sediment from settling on the reef. In addition, the calcium from the water is
needed, which is usually available in shallow warm waters.
The plants of the coral reefs grow through the process of photosynthesis converting the sunlight into energy. Just
like on dry land, the animals of the coral reefs eat the plants to get their energy, as in a food chain. Algae,
seagrasses and zooxanthellae are the main types of plants in the coral reef. The plants provide the animals food
and oxygen. The seagrasses, too, provide shelter for immature reef animals like conch and lobster.
Coral reefs make up one percent of the ocean floor but is home to 25% of life in the ocean. Animals either begin
their life and reside in coral reefs, or the reef serves as a type of rest stop for animals as they travel through the
seas. The corals themselves, made up of tiny organisms called polyps, are the most plentiful animal on the reef.
They are attached to the hard reefs and live there forever. Other animals that live on the coral reef are sponges,
sea urchins, octopus, snails, worms, sharks, lobster, and many more. The animals live together and work as a
team to survive.
Coral reefs are helpful to the planet as well. They remove and recycle carbon dioxide from the air which can
contribute to global warming. Reefs also protect the land from the impact of strong waves during harsh weather.
Unfortunately, pollution, irresponsible fishing, and sewage, among others, is responsible for the destruction of
many coral reefs by humans.
In summary, coral reefs are beautiful structures of living plants and animals located throughout the seas of the
world. The are found on shorelines, off-shore, and can form islands called atolls.

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The Ice Age
The Earth is about 4.6 billion years old and there have actually been about 11 different Ice Ages. An Ice Age is a
cold period in which glaciers, slowly moving sheets or masses of ice, covered much of the Earth's surface. The last
ice age on Earth was called 'The Great Ice Age' occurring about 11,000 years ago. Over 1/3 of the Earth's surface
was covered in ice, and the air had less carbon dioxide in it.
Two explanations are usually given as to why the ice ages occurred. One, the temperatures were so cold that it
never rained, only snowed. Two, the tilt of the Earth changed and it was away from the Sun.
The land looks much different during an ice age. It is frozen and bare land which is called a tundra. Very few
plants exist on a tundra since the ground is too frozen to sustain life. There are evergreen trees that grow but
there is no grass or flowers, only shrubs, bushes, and moss grass. In some parts of the world there are still tundra
in parts of North America, Europe, and Asia.
Following the end of the last Ice Age there were glaciers left behind and the sheets of ice covered rivers and
valleys. The melting and the refreezing of the ice continued to occur for millions of years. Then, about 10,000
years ago the Earth began to get warmer and the remaining glaciers melted leaving lakes and valleys with a
mixture of rocks and soil. However, in the higher elevations there was still ice and glaciers, including some today
that were left over from the last Ice Age.
A scientist named Louis Aggasiz studied the clues of the ice age in the 1800s. He explained to other scientists that
boulders they saw were left by glaciers and carrying them many miles from one area to another. The other
scientists did not believe him. However, Aggasiz proved his theory because boulders the glaciers left behind were
made of granite. There were no other granite boulders in the area so they had to have been brought there by the
glaciers. Other things also proved his theory. There was polished bedrock, large sand and gravel piles, big valleys,
and rough mountain tops, which were all formed by the movement of the glaciers during the ice age.
Even though ice ages took place, there were still animals living on the Earth including the wooly mammoth, wooly
rhinos, cave bears, horses, wolves, bison and reindeer. A few of them are now extinct such as the woolly
mammoth, cave bear, and woolly rhino. Scientists know they existed though because there were people who
painted pictures of the animals on the sides of the caves where they lived.
There have been skeletons of the animals found as well. In addition, cuts of bones have been found in these
skeletons which were made by the knives of the hunters. Some of the knives the hunters used were found next to
the skeletons too.
People also lived during the Ice Age 35,000 years ago. The role of the men included hunting for food, and the
women and children prepared the food, made clothing from the hides of animals, and built the shelters where
everyone lived.
When the hunters killed an animal, every part of the animal was useful. Its meat and organs were used for food.
The skins were used for their clothing, blankets, and shelter. Even an animal's stomach was used for carrying
water. Finally, the bones were used for needles, weapons, and different tools.
In summary, and ice age is when much of the Earth's surface is covered by glaciers, but there may still be living
organisms that survive in the cold climates such as those on a tundra.

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Marie Curie
Most people have heard of Albert Einstein, but a person who became a friend of his may be less well-known, but
she is also a famous scientist. Her name is Marie Curie, who is most known for her work in radiation. She was
born in Warsaw, Poland on November 7, 1867 where she grew up with her parents and four other children in the
family. Marie was also the youngest child. Because both her parents were teachers, Marie learned how to read
and write at a very young age. She was intelligent, had an outstanding memory, and worked very hard in school
As Marie grew older there were tough times for her and the family, but she was able to attend a university after
graduating from high school, even though it was not something women did during those times. However, she
attended a famous university in Paris, France called the Sorbonne where women were permitted to attend. After
just three years at the school she earned a degree in Physics. She loved to learn and had always known she
wanted to be a scientist.
In 1894, she married Pierre Curie, also a scientist, and a year later they had their first child, a daughter named
Irene. Marriage and motherhood did not stop Marie from her work and research as a scientist. She became
interested in x-rays which had been recently discovered. Marie decided to do some experiments with the element
uranium, which is given off by the rays.
Her husband, Pierre, joined Marie in her experiments. One day she was examining a material called pitchblende
and had expected just a few rays to be given off. Instead, there were many extra rays and Marie realized there
must have been an undiscovered element in pitchblende. She and her husband spent many more hours in the lab
doing investigations with the new element. They ended up discovering there were two new elements which they
discovered, adding them to the periodic table.
Maria named one of the elements polonium after her home country, Poland, and the other she named it radium
because it gave off so many strong rays. Marie and Pierre Curie came up with the new term 'radioactivity' too, as
well to describe elements that emit strong rays.
In 1903, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to both scientists for their work in radiation, and Marie was also
the first woman in history to be awarded the Nobel Prize. She did not stop there though, because in 1911, Marie
won another Nobel Prize, this time in chemistry, for discovering the two elements, polonium and radium. Not
only was she the first woman, but also the first person ever to be awarded two Nobel Prizes. This made her very
famous and scientists all over the world wanted to study radioactivity with Marie. Later, doctors found that
radiology could help cure cancer.
During World War I, Marie came up with an idea to make x-ray machines more portable and easier to move from
place to place. This helped because not every hospital had their own x-ray machine. In addition, she also trained
many people on how to use an x-ray machine. These portable machines helped over a million soldiers during the
war.
Unfortunately, Marie Curie died in 1934 due to overexposure to radiation from the experiments and from the
work she did with x-ray machines. Currently, there are many safety precautions that are used preventing
scientists from being overexposed to radiation.
In summary, Marie Curie is a famous physicist known for her work with radiation, and also as the first woman to
receive a Nobel Prize and to win two Nobel Prizes in her lifetime.

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Galaxies
Scientists say there as many stars in the sky as there are grains of sand on a beach because there are numerous
galaxies in the universe. A galaxy is a group of stars, planets, and other objects in space. Each star spins around a
center of high gravity in the same way planets may spin around the Sun in a solar system. Galaxies are huge. They
can contain trillions of stars, that is a number with twelve zeroes (1,000,000,000,000).
Before the 1900s, scientists and astronomers, people who study space, used to believe that all the stars of the
universe were part of one giant group. In 1917, however, Thomas Wright suggested there were many different
groups of stars and later on other astronomers proved his theory. The idea of different galaxies was born.
Even though galaxies are huge and expansive, there is also a lot of empty space between the different galaxies.
Believe it or not, scientists estimate that there are over 100 billion galaxies (100,000,000,000) in the universe, and
if most of them contain a trillion stars, it is easy to see now why there may be more stars than grains of sand on a
beach. They believe there may be clusters of galaxies separated by space as well.
Galaxies are classified based on their shapes. There are four main shapes of galaxies in the universe. A spiral
galaxy appears to have long arms that spiral around the its center. The older stars are towards the center, and the
newer developing stars are part of the 'arms' of the galaxy. This is where the Earth's solar system is located it its
galaxy.
The second type of galaxy is called barred spiral. It is similar to the spiral but there is a long bar shape in the
middle with spirals coming off the ends. The third type is the elliptical which is a large mass of stars all clumped
together in the shape of an elliptical disk. It could be compared somewhat to an oval shape squeezed together on
the ends.
The final type is an irregular galaxy. These types do not fit into a particular pattern or shape and are usually
formed when two other types of galaxies collide with one another. The collision causes the galaxies to lose their
elliptical or bar shape and instead, they become irregular. All of this movement and colliding, of course, takes
place over millions or billions of years.
Astronomers know the most about the Milky Way Galaxy since it is the galaxy containing the Earth and its Solar
System along with the seven other planets, and of course Pluto. The Milky Way is part of a cluster group of about
3,000 other galaxies. It is a spiral-shaped galaxy made up of more than 300 billion (300,000,000,000) stars. The
Sun is one star that is located in the Milky Way galaxy. The word galaxy actually comes from a Greek word which
means milky.
Andromeda is the name of the closest galaxy to the Earth and the Milky Way galaxy. It is located 2.6 million light
years away from the Earth, which means it would take a beam of light about that long to reach the Andromeda.
One end of most galaxies to its other end is about 100,000 light years across.
In summary, the Earth belongs to the Milky Way galaxy which is also like most galaxies, containing a lot of empty
space. There are four different types of galaxies, each with their own characteristics. Finally, like many science
fiction movies state, most stars are in galaxies far, far away, and it would take millions and millions of years to
travel to the billions of galaxies in the universe.

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The Ozone Layer
Often in the news, there is information given about the ozone layer of the Earth and how it needs to be protected
and carefully monitored. What exactly is the ozone layer, though? The ozone layer is high up in the Earth's
atmosphere, called the stratosphere.
Ozone itself, is a gas made up of three types of oxygen molecules. The ozone is formed when sunlight hits certain
oxygen molecules and breaks them up into its smaller parts of individual atoms. These individual atoms then join
with another type of oxygen molecule to make ozone.
The ozone layer is where there is a high concentration of ozone molecules located high above in the Earth's
atmosphere that form when the Sun hits the oxygen molecules.
The ozone layer provides protection for the Earth. It protects the Earth from the direct rays of the Sun. Instead of
those direct rays reaching the Earth's surface, the molecules in the ozone layer soak up or absorb certain
dangerous ultraviolet rays that are the causes of sunburns and skin cancers.
The ozone, and as a result, the ozone layer, can be damaged in a number of ways. First, it must be understood
that certain molecules react differently when they come in contact with other molecules. For example, a molecule
of sugar mixed with a molecule of water simply makes water taste sweet. This is not dangerous and drinking too
much of it may cause cavities, but it is not considered harmful.
However, there are certain molecules when mixed with ozone molecules, problems begin to occur. There is a
chemical reaction that takes place causing the ozone to break apart. When this happens the ozone can no longer
soak up or absorb the ultraviolet light from the rays of the Sun.
The molecules destroying the ozone are produced on Earth. These are called chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs. They
consist of a group of chemicals made up of chlorine, fluorine, carbon, and hydrogen. They were originally used to
help keep things cold and were found in air conditioners, refrigerators, and other similar products, as well as in
spray cans and fire extinguishers. Many people and scientists assumed they were safe and were great for keeping
things cold.
Unfortunately, though, it was discovered the CFCs were harmful to the environment. The chemicals from the CFCs
eventually find their way into the Earth's atmosphere, and of course, end up in the ozone layer as well. Once
there, they begin to destroy and break apart the ozone molecules, which in turn the layer becomes thinner and
weaker. The ozone can no longer soak up or absorb the ultraviolet light from the sun's rays.
Fortunately, CFCs were banned in the year 2000 after much debate and study by experts and leaders around the
world. CFCs are no longer used and have been completely eliminated by most countries. The CFCs that were
originally released into the air take a long time to disappear so it will take some time for the ozone layer to be
built back up again too. In the meantime, it is important for people to take precautions and use sunscreen and
wear sunglasses when spending time in the sunlight.
In summary, the ozone layer is a protective covering which helps keep some of the Sun's dangerous ultraviolet
rays from reaching the Earth's surface. Years ago CFCs, a chemical, was responsible for destroying some of the
ozone, but it is now banned throughout the world.

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Erosion
There are several forces which can cause changes in the Earth's surface including volcanoes, earthquakes,
tornadoes, floods, and forest fires. One of the slowest types of forces which causes changes in the surface of the
Earth is erosion.
Erosion is the wearing away of the land by different forces. These forces, which may also occur during the natural
disasters mentioned earlier, include water, wind, and ice. Mountain peaks, valleys, coastlines and other
interesting features of the Earth have been formed by erosion.
There are three main types of erosion, but the main cause of erosion on Earth is water. Some erosion can take
place rapidly and move soil, rocks, and other natural debris overnight, as during a thunderstorm or flash flood.
The two other types of erosion, wind and ice, may take thousands of years.
It seems like water may not be so powerful, however it is one of the most powerful forces on Earth. Water causes
erosion several different ways. Rainfall may cause erosion when the drops hit the surface of the Earth almost
immediately in some places, which is called splash erosion, or when the rain accumulates and begins to flow and
move like a small stream.
Rivers are another cause of water erosion especially over an extended period of time. The movement of the river
breaks up particles at the bottom and then carries them downstream. In fact, the Grand Canyon is one famous
example of river erosion formed by the Colorado River during a time period of more than 6 million years.
A third cause of water erosion takes place when ocean waves cause a coastline to erode and break apart. The
energy and force of the waves causes pieces of rock and the ocean's coastline to break off. This type of erosion
can take thousands or millions years as well.
Flooding is another cause of water erosion, but it happens very quickly and it becomes similar to a raging and
powerful river moving soil, rocks, and other objects from one place to another. - Large floods can cause erosion to
happen very quickly acting like powerful rivers.
Wind is the second type of erosion which mostly takes place in dry areas. Wind can pick up and carry away the
particles of soil and dust away. This is called deflation. Another kind of wind erosion is called abrasion, which
occurs when the particles the wind carries breaks off pieces of a surface it hits.
Finally, erosion by ice takes place over long periods of time as well. Glaciers made of ice can be like giant rivers of
ice that move slowly carving out valleys and changing the shapes of mountains.
Besides the three main types of erosions, living organisms like small animals, insects, and even worms can cause
erosion to take place. They help break up the soil during their movements which make it easier for the wind and
water to carry away the particles of the Earth's surface.
In addition, the force of gravity can cause changes to mountains or cliffs when there are giant landslides which
change the features of its surface. Finally, changes in the temperature and the Sun heating up a rock can cause it
to expand and crack. The pieces of the rock break off over time and leads to erosion.
In summary, the three main types of erosion are water, wind, and ice. Water is the most common type of erosion,
and all three can cause changes in the Earth's surface in a short period of time or over millions of years.

104
Cloning
Nearly all living organisms have parents in which they were reproduced and born through various stages of the
life cycle. Whether it is a human being with a mother and a father or a chicken hatching from an egg, most living
organisms have male and female parents. Some living organisms also form from one parent such as when a
single-celled amoeba splits into two to reproduce offspring.
However, there is a process which is much different in producing offspring called cloning. Cloning is the process
when scientists take DNA from an animal cell and then place it or implant it into an egg cell taken from another
animal. Before placing though, the DNA from the cell receiving it is removed.
An example of cloning, which made history in 1997, was when scientists successfully cloned a sheep. The new
sheep's name was Dolly, and she was not born in the usual manner. Instead, she became an exact copy of her
mother, similar to an identical twin. It would be nearly the same as taking the DNA from the son of a mother,
placing the DNA in the egg cell of another woman, but first removing the woman's own DNA, and then allow the
growth of the new cell in the woman. Nine months later there would be an exact copy of the mother's son born
to the woman.
In the case of cloning, a father is not needed. In the first successful cloning of an animal the DNA molecule had all
of the information needed to create a clone, Dolly. The DNA molecules contains the genetic code, which is
basically directions for the new offspring. Normally, a new organism gets half of this code from the father and the
other half from the mother. When these two cells are joined together they divide millions of times and then grow
into the millions of cells which form the body of the animal. Each cell of the body has a copy of the genetic code
and all it would need is an egg cell to grow.
So with cloning one of those cells is used and then the cell is simply placed in to the egg cell of the carrier. In the
sheep example, the carrier was a female sheep. For Dolly, a single cell was used from the udder of her mother.
The DNA in her mother's cell was removed and then transferred to an egg cell of another sheep. About five
months later Dolly was born without a father and a copy or clone of her mother.
Though no humans have ever been fully cloned, human embryos have been cloned. Currently it may not be taking
place, but in the future it may happen, but today it is rare. In the movies about Jurassic Park, cloning took place to
create the dinosaurs, though it was a fictional movie, much of the science behind the process can be real.
Though there are fully developed human clones, other fully developed animals have been cloned besides sheep.
They include the rhesus monkey, pig, cattle, cat, rabbit, deer, horse, a few others, and of course mice. Cloning
also involves many, many failed attempts before it becomes successful. For instance, Dolly the sheep was not
born until after 276 failed attempts. The only true successful cloning takes place when identical twins are born,
but they came from a father and a mother. The cloned animals may also experience health problems.
In summary, cloning is basically creating another organism without the father involved, and the clone is an exact
copy of the mother with the same genetic code. However, if cloning ever became 100% successful, the clones
may look alike, but it would not mean they would behave in the same way.

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Solar Power
Solar power is energy from the Sun. The sun has been producing energy for billions of years, but it is only in the
recent past that this energy is being harnessed or collected and changed into heat and electricity across the
world.
The energy that comes from the rays of the Sun that reach the Earth is called solar radiation. Without humans,
animals, or other living organisms needing to do anything, the energy from the Sun has given power to all living
things through photosynthesis. Photosynthesis takes place when plants use the Sun's energy to make its own
food, and then of course, all other living organisms eat the plants or animals receiving that energy indirectly from
the Sun.
However, collecting solar power to create electricity and heat is not as easy as plants using the Sun's energy to
make its own food. Some people, like an astronomer named John Herschel, used a solar thermal (heat) collector
box to cook food during an expedition to Africa. The collector box is a device used to collect the heat from the Sun
to cook food. This may not have been the first instance of using the Sun's energy to cook food, but it was a
preview of how much energy the Sun has that can be used if collected properly.
Today, the Sun's energy is converted to thermal energy, which can be used to heat water for homes, swimming
pools, greenhouses, and other buildings. It can also be used to heat the fluids to high temperatures to power
turbines that make electricity. It is not as simple as placing an item in sunlight however.
Solar energy is changed into electricity in two ways. Solar cells change sunlight into electricity which are grouped
into panels used in a variety of different ways. Sometimes these panels are called solar panels which collect, use
and distribute the energy from the Sun. This type of collection is also used to power small cells inside batteries or
calculators, but mainly used for power single homes or large power plants.
The second way solar power is used to generate electricity is by focusing the Sun's heat to a fluid that produces
steam that is then used to turn a generator.
Solar power systems are very beneficial. First, they do not cause pollution or carbon dioxide. And they have very
little impact on the environment. Overall as well, solar energy costs less once the equipment is in place. The
energy and heat from the Sun is basically free but it costs money to build the right equipment to collect the
power of the Sun.
A couple problems with solar power includes the inconsistency of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface, because
the amount of sunlight will vary depending on location, time of day, year, and weather conditions. Also, since the
Sun does not deliver much energy to any single place at any one time, a large surface is needed to collect the
Sun's energy for it to be useful.
Even though the amount of energy reaching the surface of the Earth throughout the world is greater than the
total amount of energy used or needed, the current limitations in collecting this energy will need to be overcome.
In summary, solar power is a useful source of heat and electricity for the world, but there are some obstacles to
overcome before it becomes the only source of energy for the world's needs.

106
Spiders
If a person suffers from arachnophobia the following information may not be interesting to them. Arachnophobia
is the fear of spiders. Spiders however are interesting and remarkable little creatures. Spiders can be found
everywhere and in many different sizes. A study once reported that there is probably a spider within three feet of
a person at nearly all times. There are an estimated 40,000 different species of spider living everywhere in the
world except the Antarctica.
Many people often mistake a spider for a type of insect, but it is not an insect. A spider has eight legs and insects
have just six, plus something spiders do not have, antennae. Spiders are in a class of animals called arachnids.
Other arachnids include mites, scorpions, and ticks.
The word spider means spinner in Greek, which may have come from their ability to spin webs. All spiders can
spin silk, which is used for many different purposes, but there are some spiders that do not make webs, such as
the wolf spider and jumping spider. The silk is used for a variety of reasons besides web making. It is used to catch
meals, protect eggs, build shelters, and help them travel. When spinning webs, spiders use a wide range of
patterns.
Spiders are great hunters and they stalk their prey, meaning they watch them carefully and adapt to the prey's
habits to make catching them easier. Some large spiders prey on bigger animals such as birds. Nearly every
species of spider uses venom to paralyze their prey. They inject the venom with their fangs into the prey through
their bites. Since the prey can no longer move, it is then easy to eat. Since spiders do not eat solid foods, the prey
they do catch is liquefied by a digestive enzyme that enters the prey during the bite. The spiders then 'drink' the
prey in the same manner as if drinking from a straw.
Some female spiders use dances and rituals to attract a mate, and at times may eat the male spider if it gets too
close. After mating with a male, it produces an egg sac which can contain nearly a thousand tiny spider eggs. The
different species of spiders care for the eggs using a variety of methods. Many carry the eggs, some hide them,
and others encase them in a web. When the spiderlings, or baby spiders, hatch they will each look like miniature
versions of the adult spider, and some live on their own without the mother's assistance. In some species when
the mother dies, the spiderlings eat the body.
Although spiders are found everywhere, and some people fear spiders, most of them are not dangerous to
humans. There are a few that can kill a human, but it is rare. Only about 6 or 7 people die a year from a spider
bite. A spider that can kill a human is called a tarantula with the largest one named the Goliath Birdeater. Another
deadly spider, which has a leg span of about 12 inches in the Giant Huntsman spider.
Finally, the outside bodies of a spider are made of a tough exterior called an exoskeleton. Spiders have no bones
on the inside of their bodies. Spiders come in many different colors such as black, brown, white, gray, red, yellow,
green, and orange. Most spiders only live for about a year, but the tarantula can live for about 15 years.
In summary, the spider is an arachnid and there are about 40,000 different species of spiders living on nearly
every continent of the world. Spiders are found everywhere and most are not harmful to humans. Many also can
spin elaborate webs from silk, use the silk for protection and also for other reasons. The spider is an interesting
creature unless a person has arachnophobia.

107
The Immune System
The human body often takes care of itself without the person who owns the body knows what is happening. The
body takes care itself through its immune system. The immune system is in charge of keeping the body safe from
invading germs that try to attack it every day. The immune system involves the different organs of the body and
works together with the blood system.
The immune system defends the body against attacks by germs and bacteria. The system includes the skin, white
blood cells, and the lymph system. The immune system works like a fort protecting the body and will increase it
defenses when it is necessary.
The skin is the first defense against germs entering the body and it covers like a guard against harmful bacteria.
Keeping the body clean is quite important since it is the first place the germs attack. Doctors, nurses, and other
health professionals take great care in washing their hands because they know the germs can easily spread
through contact with the skin.
The white blood cells are the watchers of the blood. There are three types of white blood cells called
lymphocytes, neutrophils, and macrophages. Each have their own roles. White blood cells are made constantly
since they live for a few weeks. Other types of white blood cells attack germs and bacteria when they are
detected in the body. A tiny drop of blood contains up to 25,000 white blood cells.
The lymphocytes are most vital because they attack two kinds of infections: viral and bacterial. T cells and B cells
are two types of lymphocytes. T cells find hidden germs or unhealthy cells and destroy them. The B cells produce
antibodies and are used for specific germs. It will attach itself to the germ and then other white blood cells know
it needs to be destroyed.
The lymphocytes are part of the lymph system. Lymph fluid travels to different parts of the body where it will pick
up bacteria and viruses. It carries them to lymph nodes, which are glands that collect and destroy it before it
travels to the rest of the body.
Some germs, though, actually help make the immune system stronger. The body remembers the bad germs that
attack it and then is ready for it if it comes back to cause problems again. It is important for the body to be
exposed to some germs because the immune system can then fight off the germs when they come back. This is
how a vaccine works. A weak virus is actually injected into the body for the immune system to fight against.
Allergies are the result of the immune system attacking too often. The system falsely believes the food product or
other item is a bacteria or virus so it begins to attack it, which causes symptoms such as sneezing, itching, runny
nose, sore throat, hives, and stomach cramps.
Sometimes the immune system attacks healthy cells too. When this happens, the person will have an auto
immune disease. The body believes its own cells are unhealthy. If someone has this disease it can cause a variety
of problems and must be controlled by medication.
Finally, reducing stress and getting enough sleep are two ways in keeping the immune system healthy. The
immune system will begin to break down if the body gets less than five hours sleep, and stress also slows down
the immune system.
In summary, the immune system is important for keeping the body healthy and strong.

108
Pluto
There once was a planet that is no longer considered a planet like Earth, Mars, and the other 6 planets of the
solar system. Pluto was once classified as a planet, but in 2006 the International Astronomical Union (IAU)
demoted Pluto to a 'dwarf planet'. It is still thought of as a planet, but not in the same way as the other eight
planets of the solar system. There are several differences, which makes Pluto no longer one of the solar system's
planets. Pluto is located about 3.5 billion miles on average from the Sun
According to the IAU, Pluto is no longer a regular planet because it has not cleared its neighborhood around its
orbit and it is not a considered a satellite. Pluto, though, still has a special place in the solar system for a variety of
reasons. It holds keys to possible life, its atmosphere has been thoroughly studied, the climate differences caused
by its distance from the Sun has been studied, and several other reasons make Pluto a unique planet to learn
about. For many years Pluto was the most distant large object astronomers knew anything about, which in itself
was significant and important to many astronomers.
Pluto was discovered by astronomer Clyde Tombaugh in 1930 and it takes 248 years to orbit the Sun. At times,
because of the elliptical orbit of Pluto and the other planets, it is closer to the Sun than Neptune. During those
years between 1979 and 1999, scientists were able to learn much more about Pluto and its very large moon,
Charon, as well as its four other moons. Pluto's temperature is about 375 degrees below zero.
Pluto's name came from the Roman god of the underworld. It was suggested by an 11-year-old girl and it also
honors Percival Lowell, whose initials are the first two letters of Pluto. Lowell was an astronomer who first caught
a glimpse of Pluto's existence in 1905, and predicted the planet's existence but died before he ever found it.
Scientists still want to learn much more about Pluto and other far away areas of the solar system, so a robotic
space flight mission was launched in 2007. NASA sent an unmanned mission called New Horizons taking eight
years to arrive on the dwarf planet. It has allowed the study of Pluto and other areas in the region.
The New Horizons mission discovered that Pluto has a diameter of 1,473 miles, less than 1/5 of the Earth's
diameter, and only about 2/3 of the width of the Earth's moon. It also noted surface features that included
mountains as high as 11,000 feet, which are comparable to the Rocky Mountains on Earth. The scientists believe
the mountains are formed on a bedrock of water ice. The mission also sent back many other new observations of
Pluto such as it not having craters, meaning the planet is very young at about 100 million years old. It was also
revealed that Pluto may have regular seasons based on the color of the planet's surface changing over time.
In summary, Pluto is no longer the ninth planet of the solar system, but it is still a planet called the dwarf planet.
It was first noticed in 1905 but was not discovered as a planet until 1930. The planet has significant value to
scientists and astronomers because everything learned about the distant planet will also help answer questions
about how the planet Earth works.

109
Microorganisms
There are tiny organisms everywhere in the world which cannot be seen with the naked eye. They are located in
water, on land, and in the air. They can be found in people's homes, workplaces, and even in places that seem to
be spotlessly clean. These tiny organisms are called microorganisms or microbes. There are five different types:
bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and algae.
They are the smallest and simplest kind of living things, numbering into the billions upon trillions, and can only be
seen using a microscope. They come in all kinds of varieties, shapes and sizes. They can be found alone or in
groups called colonies. There are more microbes on the planet than any other kind of living organism. There are
some called heterotrophic, which depend on other living organisms to survive. Others make their own food, just
like plants, and are called autotrophic. Microorganisms can reproduce sexually, parents are involved, or
asexually, no parent cells are joined.
The microorganisms live in cold, hot, wet, and dry climates living between rocks, in caves, deep below the ocean,
at the North Pole, or in food which can then be dangerous to consume. However, there are microorganisms which
are beneficial to other living organisms as well.
Many of them have symbiotic relationships, meaning they benefit themselves and the larger organisms. Some of
the relationships are beneficial, but others can be damaging to a larger organism. Some of the microorganisms
can cause a disease and are known as pathogens. This is how many people become ill.
An example of a beneficial microorganism is a bacterium in milk which helps convert milk to curd. Microorganisms
are also helpful in other food-making such as brewing, winemaking, and baking. Microorganisms are vital to the
food, nitrogen, and carbon cycles, and they have a key role in virtually all ecosystems. Microorganisms, such as
bacteria, help with breaking down the dead and decaying organisms' remains through decomposition increasing
the soils fertility. They are used for making medicines such as the antibiotics a person takes when they have a flu
or fever. Some bacteria and fungi are used to make the medicines. In addition, some vaccines are dead or
weakened versions of microbes used to help the body produce natural antibodies to prevent diseases like polio,
cholera, typhoid, small pox, hepatitis and others.
Though microbes are extremely valuable to people and other organisms, they can also become harmful and
deadly. They can cause diseases in plants and animals, as well as grow in various food substances. The food can
become poisonous causing a person serious illness or even death. There are microorganisms that can spoil items
in the home like clothing, leather, wood and many others.
Microorganisms can cause many of the infectious diseases as well, such as the pathogenic bacteria causing
plague, tuberculosis and anthrax. Protozoa can cause malaria; fungi can cause ringworm. All of the disease-
causing microbes can enter a person's body through the air, water, food, or contact with others, or by insects.
In summary, there are trillions and trillions of microorganisms found in every corner of the globe, in all types of
climates. They are extremely tiny and can only be seen under a microscope. The microorganisms include bacteria,
viruses, fungi, protozoa, and algae. Some microbes are dangerous to other living organisms, but many are helpful.
Disease causing microbes can enter a person's body in several different ways such as through the air, water, or
food, and can also spread from one person to another through contact.

110
Blood and the Body
The average person has about one to one and a half gallons of a liquid inside its body called blood. Blood is the
most essential and important part of the body's circulatory system. The circulatory system is responsible for the
movement of blood throughout the body through blood vessels. The heart is the pump that makes it all happen.
Blood has several ingredients found inside the body that are mixed together. Bone marrow, located inside the
bones of the body, makes most of these ingredients that come together to produce blood. They include red blood
cells, white blood cells, and platelets. In addition, a fourth ingredient called plasma, which is mostly water, is
another important component of blood. Each of these components have a special function for the body.
Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body. It is the most abundant of the different cells inside the blood.
A chemical called hemoglobin is carried by the red blood cells and gives blood its red color, and carries the
oxygen too all parts of the body. The hemoglobin receives the oxygen each time a person breathes.
White blood cells help the body fight infections and are larger than red blood cells. They are not as abundant as
red blood cells especially when a person is healthy. However, they increase in number when a person gets sick in
order to fight off the illness. There are three kinds of white blood cells.
Granulocytes help heal wounds after an injury, prevent infections, and kills germs before they enter the body.
Lymphocytes include B cells and T cells. B cells help produce antibodies which gets rid of germs when a person
like bacteria or viruses. These cells also help prevent a person from getting the same germ in the future. T cells
also battle germs by producing special chemicals to fight infections. Monocytes surround and destroy bacteria
and viruses which can cause infections.
Platelets are cells that help stop the body from bleeding if it gets cut. When a person's skin is broken blood
vessels are also cut. The platelets send out a chemical signal for the cut to eventually clot and stop bleeding by
sticking together. The blood vessels heal during the process of clotting. Without platelets the bleeding would
never stop.
Plasma is a yellowish liquid that carries hormones, nutrients, and proteins throughout the body. It is mostly made
of water but the nutrients come from the chemicals in digested food. The chemicals give the body energy and
other things the cells of the body need to keep it working and healthy. The hormones carried by the plasma carry
messages throughout the body that gets muscles and bones to grow. The proteins in the body work with the
platelets to help with clotting. Plasma also carries away cell waste.
Finally, even though everybody's blood is red, it is not all the same. There are eight different blood types which
are described using the letters A, B, and O. The letters represent specific proteins found on the red blood cells,
and not everyone has the same proteins. A person's blood type is also either positive or negative, which tells
whether the body has a special protein called 'Rh'.
In summary, blood is important for the body, which contains four major components, red and white blood cells,
platelets, and plasma. The blood inside the body helps keep a person well, which is why it is important to eat
healthy so a person can get the vitamins and minerals it needs.

111
Friction
When it becomes difficult for an object to freely move across a surface, friction may be the preventing force.
Friction is the resistance of motion when an object rubs against and acts in the opposite direction of another
object. When any two objects rub against each other they cause friction. Friction is a force that holds back
another object from freely moving. A simple example are the brakes on an automobile.
Friction causes a second object to lose energy by slowing its motion. The energy does not disappear, but it
changes from moving energy, which is called kinetic energy to heat energy or thermal energy. When a person
rubs their hands together friction is generated and then it turns into heat. This is why cold hands become warm
after rubbing them together. This is also called kinetic friction.
Friction can be found anywhere objects come into contact with each other. The brakes on a car causes friction
between the brake pads and the wheels of the car, allowing the car to come to a stop. A person running on a
sidewalk may stop quickly because of friction caused between the bottom of the shoes and the asphalt or
concrete.
However, other variables can lessen the effects of friction. For instance, if the same person running tried to stop
on a water-covered sidewalk, friction would be less and the runner may not be able to stop as quickly, and in
some cases may fall. This is similar to a car trying to stop on an ice-covered roadway. The friction is still there, but
it is much less and may lead to accidents. Also, during rain, there is still friction between the brakes and the
wheels, yet if the brakes are wet, the wheels would not be as much in contact with the ground. As a result, cars
hydroplane when they go too fast on puddles of water.
There are times when friction needs to be prevented so things will move more easily. Lubricants like grease and
oil can help reduce friction between two objects. Engines and machines use grease and oil to reduce friction and
wear so they can last much longer. Friction can also be reduced by using a ball or wheel on certain objects, which
is called rolling friction. Changing the types of materials that come in contact with each other is another way of
preventing friction. A good example is the use of roller skates on a concrete surface, ice skates on a lake covered
with ice, or wearing rubber shoes on a wet sidewalk.
Besides dry friction as in some of the examples above, there is also static friction when objects are not moving
such as the touching a metal surface and feeling a shock. When friction involves a fluid or air it is called fluid
friction. The air resistance on an airplane, water resistance on a boat, and the slides at water parks are examples
of fluid friction.
Finally, the two main factors that influence the total amount of friction include the roughness of the objects'
surfaces and the force applied between the two objects. The measure of friction, its coefficient, is based on the
roughness of the materials that come in contact with each other. For example, concrete on concrete has a very
high coefficient of friction, and the Teflon surfaces of pots and pans have a low coefficient because it is a surface
where most things do not stick.
In summary, friction is the resistance of motion when an object rubs against and acts in the opposite direction of
another object. There are four types of friction which includes kinetic friction, dry friction, rolling friction, static
friction, and fluid friction. Common examples of friction are brakes on a car, ice skates, and wearing rubber shoes
on a wet surface. Roughness and force of objects are factors of friction, and the coefficient of friction is a measure
of how easily one object moves in relationship to another.

112
Rainbows
Isaac Newton is mostly known for his discoveries related to gravity, yet he also identified the seven colors of a
rainbow. A rainbow is a multicolored circle forming in the sky when the light from the Sun and rain combine in a
special way, and is seen as an arc because it is viewed from ground level. They are created by reflection and
refraction, which is the bending of light through clear surfaces. The beam of the white light separates into the
seven colors as they enter the millions and millions of raindrops in the sky.
The light from the Sun is made up of colors normally that cannot be seen by the naked eye, and when it comes
down to Earth it is white. However, when it hits the raindrops at a certain angle, the white light is split, and the
colors making up the beam of sunlight separate into the form of a rainbow and its seven colors. The colors in all
rainbows are present in the same order: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. One of the best ways
to remember the different colors in the correct order is by using the name ROY G BIV, which includes the first
letter of each color.
Light travels at a certain speed, but the colors of light slow down at different speeds as they enter the raindrop.
Light from the Sun then exits each raindrop, and depending on the angle it entered, only a single color exits the
raindrop. This is taking place with many raindrops simultaneously and the resulting effect are the different stripes
and colors of the rainbow.
Of course, when it is raining and the Sun is shining at the same time, the chances are much better that a rainbow
will appear in the sky. In addition, a rainbow can only be seen if the Sun is behind the person looking at the sky
and the rain is in the front of the person. A rainbow will only become visible at an angle of about 40° from the
horizon.
Occasionally, a second rainbow may be seen above the first rainbow, but the colors are in reverse order. The sky
within the main rainbow is brighter than the sky outside of the arc as well. There have also been rare occasions
when a third or fourth rainbow appears in the sky.
As well as during periods of rain, rainbows can also be seen when mist, spray, fog, or dew is in the air. In fact,
rainbows can be made using a garden hose or a water sprinkler on a sunny day. The sunlight will hit the water
droplets in the same way it hits the raindrops and the arc of a rainbow can be seen. Rainbows are not physical
objects and cannot be touched.
If two people view a rainbow, they will see different versions of it because they are viewing it from different
angles or distances. It may be brighter or seem to fading depending on their location relative to the rainbow.
Finally, there are two other kinds of rainbows: moon bows and fogbows. A moon bow is a rare nighttime rainbow
produced by the light from the moon. The fogbow is produced by a cloud and fog droplets. They are very faint
and the colors are barely visible, but they are much larger and wider than a regular rainbow.
In summary, rainbows are caused by the light from the Sun reflecting and refracting raindrops in the atmosphere.
Rainbows cannot be touched and include seven colors, which can be recalled by using the letters ROY G BIV, red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.

113
The Asteroid Belt
Asteroids can be found throughout the solar system, but the majority of them are found in a region located
between the planet Mars and Jupiter called the asteroid belt. Asteroids are basically chunks of rock and metal
varying in size and shape. The size of each asteroid can be from a pebble to a few feet to hundreds of miles in
diameter, and most are potato-shaped. Though they orbit the Sun between the rocky planets and gas planets, the
asteroids do not rotate like a planet, but tumble and spin.
There are some asteroids which orbit near Earth and others which are sent further out into the solar system.
There are literally millions and millions of asteroids orbiting the Sun at any given moment, and astronomers have
individually identified about 7,000 of them. Each of them are identified by a number and by a name suggested by
the discoverer.
Four of the largest asteroids identified by astronomers are Ceres, Vesta, Pallas, and Hygeia. These four asteroids
take up half the mass of the entire asteroid belt, with the rest being much smaller. Ceres is the largest at about
590 miles in diameter, and is also designated as a dwarf planet. Its name comes from the Roman goddess of the
harvest. Vesta is the next largest and is considered a minor planet at 326 miles in diameter. It is the brightest of
the asteroids named after the Roman goddess of the home. Pallas was discovered after Ceres and is named after
the Greek goddess Pallas Athena. Finally, Hygiea is the largest carbon-type asteroid named after the Greek
goddess of health.
At one time, some astronomers had a theory that if all of the asteroids were combined, it would have made up
another rocky planet adding it to the eight other planets. If joined together today, the mass of the entire asteroid
belt would make up a planet smaller than the size of the Earth's moon.
Often, the asteroid belt is shown as a circle of different sized rocks orbiting the Sun, which is true, but they are far
apart from each other. A person standing on one asteroid would not be able to see the closest asteroid with the
naked eye, but would need a telescope. The large spaces between the asteroids has allowed spacecraft to travel
through the belt without any collisions.
The three main types of asteroids are carbon, stony, and metallic. Carbon asteroids are made up mostly of rocks
rich in an element called carbon and are very dark in color. About 75% of the asteroid belt is of this type. Stony
asteroids are made up of some metal but are mostly rock. Metallic is the opposite of stony, and is made up of
mostly metals with a small amount of stone mixed in with it.
Because of the minerals and metals in the asteroids, including nickel, iron, and titanium, they could ultimately be
mined by humans. Most of the asteroids also contain water, which could help future space explorations if
astronauts were ever sent to set up colonies for humans in space. The water would help keep the inhabitants in
these colonies alive, and the minerals and metals could serve as materials to create the habitats where food can
be grown. The main obstacle though to mining and creating space colonies is the affordable technology allowing
humans to travel to the asteroids.
Astronomers refer to the large asteroid belt as the 'Main Belt' to distinguish it from smaller groups of asteroids
called the Lagrangians and Centaurs, minor planets with unstable orbits, which can be found in other parts of the
solar system.
In closing, the asteroid belt contains millions of individual asteroids made up of metal and rock located between
Mars and Jupiter of the solar system.

114
Periodic Table of Elements
An element is a substance consisting of atoms that can no longer broken down into other substances, which all
have the same number of protons, which translates into its atomic number. Since there are more than 100 of
these elements, chemists and other scientists needed a method of classifying them. This lead to the original
periodic table which was first proposed by Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. Today it is called the
Periodic Table of Elements.
The current Periodic Table is a method for listing about 115 different elements. The elements are listed by the
structure of each element. Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. The Periodic Table indicates
the number of protons and electrons each atom has in its outer shell, located outside the nucleus.
On the Periodic Table of Elements, the atoms are listed from left to right and top to bottom. All of the elements
are listed in the order of their atomic number, which corresponds to the number of protons in each atom's
nucleus.
The elements are lined up in cycles or periods, which is why it is called a 'periodic' table. They are first lined up in
rows based on their atomic numbers, but then some columns are skipped so elements with the same number of
electrons line up on the same column. Elements in the same columns will then have the same properties.
The seven or eight horizontal rows of the Periodic Table are called periods. The first period is the shortest and has
only two elements, hydrogen and helium. The sixth horizontal row or period contains 32 elements. The left most
element in a period, or row, has just one electron in its outer shell, and the right most element has a full shell.
The eighteen vertical columns are different groups and each have different properties. An example of a group is
the gases called noble or inert. They are lined up in the final (18th) column or group of the Periodic Table. Each of
these elements have a full outer shell of electrons, which mean they are very stable. When an element is stable
they usually do not react to other elements. They don't mix well or easily.
A second example are the metals called alkali. They align in the first column, or group, and are all very similar
having only one electron in its outer shell. These elements are very reactive, meaning they easily mix with the
other elements.
The classification of grouping of these elements help chemists and other scientists understand, foresee, and
predict how the different elements will react with each other during experiments or in other situations.
Finally, each element has a name and a one or two-letter abbreviation to make it easier for scientists to use the
table. Some of the single-letter abbreviations are easy to remember, like H for hydrogen, O for oxygen, and C for
carbon. Some may be a bit more difficult because the name of the element comes from a different language. For
example, AU is the abbreviation for gold because gold comes from the Latin word aurum.
In summary, the Periodic Table of Elements is a helpful and useful tool for chemists and scientists. It is used as a
quick method to discover how the different elements will react to each other.

115
Tectonic Plates
The surface of the Earth is constantly moving throughout the world. The movement is extremely slow and cannot
be felt or noticed by people on the Earth. It moves between one to six inches every year. For the land to move a
noticeable and significant amount takes millions of years. The movement of the Earth is due to tectonic plates.
The Earth's surface is made up of several layers, but the part of the land that is moving is called the lithosphere,
which is the made up of the Earth's crust and a part of the upper mantle. This layer of the Earth moves in big
pieces of land called tectonic plates. Some of the plates cover entire continents.
There are minor plates and major plates. Seven major plates include the African, Antarctic, Eurasian, North
American, South American, India-Australian, and Pacific plates. Notice how each of the plates are somewhat
aligned with the seven continents. The eight minor plates include the Arabian, Caribbean, Nazca, and Scotia
plates. The plates can be imagined as pieces of a puzzle that make up the surfaces of the Earth.
The tectonic plates are around 62 miles thick, and there are two main types: oceanic and continental. The oceanic
plates consist of crust below the oceans called sima, which is mostly made up of silicon and magnesium. The
second type, continental, mostly includes the surfaces of the Earth below the continents and is called sial, which
is mostly made up of silicon and aluminum.
Because there are different plates, there are also boundaries between them where most of the evidence of
movement can be found. There are three main types of boundaries: convergent, divergent, and transform.
At the convergent boundary the plates push together, or one plate will move under another in a process called
subduction. At these boundaries the formation of mountains and volcanoes take place over a long period of time.
Earthquakes may also occur along convergent boundaries. An example of a convergent boundary is the deepest
part of the ocean, the Mariana Trench, between the Pacific and Mariana plates. Subduction occurs as the Pacific
plate moves under the Mariana plate. In addition, Mount Everest and the Himalayan Mountains were formed by
the convergent boundary between the Indian and Eurasian plates.
A divergent boundary is the opposite of convergent as the plates get pushed apart. The area on the land where
this occurs is called a rift. Magma from below the Earth's surface pushes up from the mantle and reaches the
Earth's surface.
The tectonic plates slide past each other at a transform boundary. At these locations are faults and where
earthquakes may occur as well. An example of a plate boundary in the United States is the San Andreas Fault
located in California, which is a cause of many earthquakes in California. It is a transform boundary between the
North American and Pacific Plates.
Finally, scientists are able to use GPS to track the movement of the tectonic plate movement throughout the
world, which may be able to help accurately predict the occurrences of earthquakes someday.
In summary, plate tectonics involves the movement of pieces of the Earth's crust along several boundaries
throughout the world. The movements of these plates are responsible for mountain formation, volcanoes,
trenches, earthquakes and other geologic activity.

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Acids and Bases
Every beverage and other kinds of drinks, or foods that are eaten, have a specific taste to them. There are foods
with sour tastes like buttermilk, lemon juice, orange juice, and certain candies. There is also a second taste that is
bitter leading someone to immediately want to spit it out of their mouth. These sour and bitter tastes are caused
by acids and bases.
The sour taste, like in orange juice, is tangy and is caused acids found in drinks or other foods. The word acid itself
comes from a Latin word which means sour: acere. There are natural acids in most of the liquids people drink, like
orange or lemon juice, meaning they are found in nature. Chemically, acids are molecules that split apart in water
releasing hydrogen ions, increasing the number of these ions.
On the other hand, bases have a bitter taste, like baking soda, and have a soap-like texture. It will feel soapy if
rubbed between the fingers. Both acids and bases were defined in 1887 by a chemist named Svante Arrhenius.
Chemically, bases are molecules that split when put in water and release hydroxide ions, but reducing the number
of hydrogen ions.
Determining whether a substance is an acid or base cannot be done by tasting every liquid in nature. Instead,
there is a special type of substance used to discover whether a liquid is acidic or basic in nature. The different
substances are known as indicators.
The indicators will change color depending on whether the substance is an acid or base. The indicators, such as
litmus, turmeric, and China rose are naturally occurring and are dipped into the liquid to determine its sourness
or bitterness.
Litmus is the most commonly used natural indicator. Its natural color is purple, but when an acidic solution
touches it, it will turn red. If it is dipped into a basic solution the litmus will turn blue. Litmus is made from
organisms called lichens, which come from fungus and alga, and are found in the form of a paper strip or a
solution used by chemists and other scientists.
A pH scale is used to indicate the number of hydrogen ions in a specific solution. The more hydrogen ions in a
liquid, the more acidic the solution. If a solution has more hydroxide ions in it, meaning less hydrogen ions, the
liquid would be less acidic and more basic. The pH scale uses a range from 1 to 14, with liquids having a pH value
between 0 and 7 as being acidic, with a score of 0 as being the strongest acid. Bases score between 7 and 14 with
a liquid having a pH score of 14 being the strongest base. A score of 7 indicates a solution is neutral meaning the
hydrogen and hydroxide ions in the solution are equal, such as water.
Acids with a low pH and bases with a high pH are both very reactive and dangerous. They can be corrosive and
burn a person's skin. Acids and bases can be found in nature such as those located in the leaves, thorns, seeds, or
sap of plants. In bodies, the stomach has hydrochloric acid used to digest food and for killing disease-causing
germs. The pancreas of the body is basic is nature and also helps with digestion. Acids and bases work together to
help keep the body healthy. In addition, acids are used in batteries of cars, and bases are used in household
cleaning products and as fertilizers for crops.
In summary, solutions are either acidic or basic and its strength is measured using a pH scale. Acids and bases are
used for producing a number of products in society, but are also found naturally in plants and inside the human
body. Acids and bases can be dangerous depending on their value on a pH scale.

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Asexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is how most animals make their young, which involves a male and a female parent. Each of
the offspring receive characteristics from the father and the mother. The offspring is not an exact copy of
identical to either parent. The new offspring is unique.
However, asexual reproduction is different and requires only one parent and the offspring are identical to the
parent. The parent cell makes more of itself by dividing itself into pieces or splitting parts of itself off and growing
new pieces. Genes of the offspring will be the same as the parent, and except for rare mutations they are clones.
There is no sex during asexual reproduction, and most of the reproduction takes place during a process called
mitosis. Many plants also reproduce asexually.
There are several different types of asexual reproduction. Cell division occurs during a process called binary
fission, when a single cell divides in two. This type of asexual reproduction is used by many different organisms,
including bacteria and amoeba, which are both single-celled organisms. One bacterium becomes two bacteria,
both exactly alike.
A second type of asexual reproduction is called fragmentation. Fragmentation is used by more complex
organisms and occurs when a parent organism breaks into pieces or fragments, and then each piece develops into
a new organism. An example is the starfish, which can develop from a single ray (arm) of the starfish. Starfish are
unique that they can also reproduce sexually. There are also some worms that can reproduce this way as well.
When the worm is cut into two pieces, both crawl away as two separate living worms with a life their own.
Another type of asexual reproduction is similar to binary fission and is called budding. Budding is used by plants
and some animals which cannot split in half like bacteria. The bud remains attached to the parent cell during its
growth and development. Once the bud develops fully, it breaks off, and starts to grow on its own becoming the
same size as its parent. Both are then capable of budding again. Yeasts are examples of an organism that
reproduce by budding.
Fungi producing spores is the final type of asexual reproduction, which also can be sexual. The asexual spores
have the same genetic material as the parent and allows them to make a whole new organism. They are also
produced by mitosis. Different kinds of fungi make different kind of asexual spores, and the shape and color of
the spores help identify the fungus' species.
An advantage of asexual reproduction includes the quickly produced new offspring. For example, some bacteria
can reproduce several times in an hour. In fact, in a perfect environment, a hundred bacteria can divide and
produce millions of bacterial cells in just a few hours. However, most bacteria do not live in an ideal environment.
A second advantage is no mate is needed. A disadvantage is the lack of variation in offspring as they will always
look like the parent.
In summary, asexual reproduction involves only a single parent whereas sexual reproduction takes two parents. In
asexual reproduction, new offspring can be produced in several different ways such as binary fission,
fragmentation, budding, and through the spores of fungi. The offspring during asexual reproduction are identical
to the parent and there is a lack of variation, which is a disadvantage of this type of reproduction.

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Nuclear Energy
There is energy everywhere inside the atoms that make up everything in the universe. The energy that is stored
inside an atom by the forces that hold together the nucleus of an atom is called nuclear energy. The term nuclear
comes from the nucleus which is the center of every atom. Over many years of research and experimenting
scientists have learned how to harness or capture the incredible amounts of energy from these forces. The energy
from the nucleus of an atom can be used to generate electricity.
Albert Einstein discovered a mathematical formula that demonstrated that all matter can be converted into
energy. His formula, E = mc2 may be a simple formula, which he discovered while working on his theory of
relativity, proved that a large amount of energy could come from a very small amount of matter, such as the
single atom.
In a process called nuclear fission the atom is split. In this process the larger atom is split into two or more smaller
atoms and a large amount of energy is then released. When the splitting is controlled and done slowly, such as
what happens in a nuclear power plant, it provides electricity to homes and businesses. If the energy is released
quickly, all at once, a chain reaction takes place and the result is a nuclear explosion.
The nuclear fission occurring at a nuclear power plant produces heat, the heat is then used to create steam from
water, which then powers electrical generators creating the electricity for towns and cities. A non-nuclear power
plant may use coal, wind, oil, or water to power generators. Around twenty percent of the electricity in the
United States is produced by nuclear power plants.
For fuel, a nuclear power plant uses an element called uranium. Rods of uranium are used to make sure the
splitting of the atom takes place in a controlled manner during the chain reaction. If it is not controlled, a nuclear
explosion may occur. Unfortunately, one of the consequences of nuclear energy is radioactive waste. Radioactive
waste is the leftover material not used during the nuclear reaction that generated the electricity. The material
can be dangerous to all life.
An advantage of nuclear power is its ability to be used to power ships and submarines, which can stay under
water and travel at high speeds for a long time. There is no need to refuel like traditionally powered ships or
submarines.
Nuclear fusion is a second type of nuclear energy. Nuclear fusion takes place when two or more atoms are joined
together, not split apart. This is how the stars in the galaxies get their power. Hydrogen atoms deep inside the
star are constantly being converted into helium atoms through fusion. The process results in the light and heat
energy given off by the Sun and the other stars in the sky.
Unlike fission, scientists do not yet know how to control fusion to produce useable nuclear energy. The advantage
to using fusion over fission is that it would produce less radioactive waste. It would also lead to an unlimited
supply of energy and electricity.
In summary, nuclear energy is produced by splitting the atom, first introduced by Albert Einstein during
experiments with his theory of relativity. When the atom is split in a controlled manner, energy is produced, and
in many places throughout the world, this energy is used for electricity. If the atom is split without this control, a
chain reaction can result in a nuclear explosion.

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Stars
The Sun shines on the Earth every day, but there are trillion and trillions of other stars in the sky as well. Some
scientists say there are more stars in the sky than grains of sand on beaches. Stars are made up of extremely hot
gases mostly of hydrogen and helium. They are usually sphere-shaped, and in a process called nuclear fission, the
heat and bright light is caused by burning hydrogen into helium.
Nearly all stars start out as a giant cloud of dust called nebulae. The dust is compressed together by gravity and
continues to become larger and larger as more dust is added as the gravity gets stronger. It has now become a
protostar. As the center becomes hotter nuclear fission begins and the star is born.
In the next stage of a star's lifecycle, it will glow for billions of years burning energy. This is called the main
sequence. During this time the star will continue shrinking and expanding but remain relatively the same size. This
will continue until it runs out of hydrogen.
When there is no more hydrogen and the outside of the star expands to its largest size becoming a red giant.
Finally, in the center of the star iron will be made, which will cause the star to collapse. Depending on the star's
size, it can become a white dwarf star like most average stars. If it is larger there can be a nuclear explosion
created and it becomes a supernova. Following its life as a supernova, the star may become a black hole or
neutron star.
Normal stars in the main sequence stage are classified by their color. The smallest ones are red and do not give
off much light, medium like the Sun are yellow, and the biggest and brightest are blue. The larger the main
sequence star then the hotter and brighter they are.
Dwarfs are red and yellow, but a brown dwarf is one that did not get large enough for nuclear fission to take
place. When it is a white dwarf, it is mostly the remainder from the collapse of a red giant star. Other giant stars
may also be called blue giants, which are stars that expand just like the red giant. Some supergiant stars can get
as big as the entire solar system. The neutron star is the tiniest but it can be extremely dense.
A black hole cannot be seen unless a space telescope with special tools is used. It is a star where gravity pulls so
much, light cannot escape. The gravity is strong because all of the matter has been squeezed into a tiny space.
The stars in the universe are mostly red dwarfs. The smaller stars are the longer they will live, and even though
the red giants are the brightest, they burn out the fastest. Many stars can also be found in pairs called binary
stars, and sometimes appear in groups of up to four.
Stars can be seen twinkling in the sky because of the movement of the Earth's atmosphere. The closest star,
besides the Sun, to the Earth is Proxima Centauri, which is about 4.2 light years away. This means it would take
4.2 years to travel there, but a person would have to travel the speed of light. It takes 8 minutes for the light from
the Sun to reach the Earth. Finally, the Sun is about 4.5 billion years old, about half way through its lifecycle.
In summary, a star's lifecycle includes its birth; main sequence, which lasts until it runs out of hydrogen; and then
red giant. Most stars during the main sequence, become white dwarfs. There can also be a nuclear explosion and
the star becomes a supernova. Later, a star may become a black hole or neutron star.

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Cancer
One of the deadliest diseases of the human body is cancer. Cancer is any type of disease that is caused by out of
control cell growth. The abnormal cells divide and multiply and make tumors. These cells can spread throughout
the body slowly destroying the person's good cells and tissues, which causes the person to become sick with the
disease.
There are several diseases which are called cancer, and some are treatable and curable, though others are much
more dangerous and can result in death. Approximately 40% of all humans will be diagnosed with some type of
cancer during their lifetimes.
When cancer starts, it begins when the genes in a cell that controls cell growth are somehow changed or
dangerously mutated. Many of these mutations must occur in the cells of a person's body before it becomes
cancerous. Often the cell can regulate itself and get rid of the mutation, killing off the bad cell. However, if it
cannot rid itself of the mutation, the cells will grow uncontrollably.
There are more than 200 types of cancer. Most often, a cancer is named after the location in the body where the
cancer first began. For example, if it began in the lungs it would be called lung cancer, which is mostly caused by
smoking. Within each location are different names of cancers as well. For the lungs, the scientific names for two
types include well differentiated squamous cell carcinoma of the lung and small cell carcinoma of the lung.
Other common forms of cancer include breast cancer which is more common in women than in men. This forms
in the tubes and glands that carry and make milk. Colon cancer is a cancer in the large intestine where the colon is
located. Leukemia is a type of cancer that is related to the blood, and begins in the bone marrow where blood is
produced. Lymphoma is a cancer of the white blood cells which affects the immune system. Melanoma is cancer
of the skin often caused by exposure too much exposure to the Sun. Two other common cancers are pancreatic
and prostate cancer. The first forms in the pancreas and the other occurs only in men when they are much older.
Each type of cancer has its own symptoms, but common ones include a sore that does not heal, difficulty in
swallowing or having upset stomachs often, unusual bleeding, thick lumps or growths and others. Cancer can be
treated and cured through surgery; chemotherapy, which is the use of chemicals to kill the cancerous cells, but
some good cells can be killed as well during the treatment; or radiation, which uses high-energy waves to kill the
cancer cells. A combination of the treatments must also be used by an oncologist, a doctor who specializes in
treating cancer.
Several things can help lower the risk of getting cancer including not smoking or using tobacco, eating healthy,
exercising and maintaining a healthy weight, avoiding getting a sunburn, being immunized avoiding risky
behaviors, and seeing a doctor for regular check-ups, which can help if a cancer is detected in its early stages.
In summary, cancer is uncontrollable cell growth and a disease that begins when the genes in a cell change or
become dangerously mutated. About 40% of people will be diagnosed with cancer during their life, but it can also
be cured and treated with early intervention. There are also several ways to lower the risk of getting cancer such
as seeing the doctor regularly, avoiding tobacco, and eating healthy and exercising.

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Puberty
One thing that every human being has in common is that they went through a process in their lives called
puberty. Puberty is basically the period of human development during which physical growth and sexual
maturation occurs in adolescents. The age when this occurs is different for everyone, but usually begins earlier for
females than males. Before any changes occur physically, the brain begins to do the work which will change a
person from a child to an adult. However, simply going through puberty does not necessarily cause a person to
start thinking and being as responsible as a typical adult.
In the brain there are two parts called the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. They begin making a lot more
of hormones including different growth hormones. The hormones then act upon other parts of a young person's
body to prompt the changes in puberty to begin. Boys and girls have the hormones, but the act on different parts
of the body.
The hormones are chemicals made by glands in the body to act on the different parts. An example is a hormone
that acts on the bones. This hormone works by making the leg, foot, and arm bones grow longer. The different
hormones travel through the bloodstream around your body doing different jobs.
For boys, there are hormones that work on their testes, to help make sperm, and adrenal glands (located next to
the kidneys) to make androgens (sex hormones) such as testosterone.
For girls, the hormones work on their ovaries (where the stored eggs they had since birth are located), and also
on their adrenal glands, where female sex hormones are made, estrogen and progesterone. Boys and girls have
both male and female sex hormones; however, boys have more androgens and girls have more estrogens. The
different levels are what makes the differences in a boy and girl's body.
However, a person is not fully sexually mature until two or three years after reaching full adult height, but girls
can have a baby, and boys can father a child even when they are not fully physically mature.
All of this hormonal activity is the basis of puberty and for girls it can take place anywhere between the ages of 8
and 13, though it can be earlier or later. The first change usually takes place around 10 or 11. For boys it is a bit
later, usually between ages 10 and 15, with the first changes usually occurring around aa or 12. Everyone is
different and the changes may take place earlier for some and later for others. This is normal.
Changes that take place for both boys and girls can include getting taller with bigger feet, change in body shape,
mood changes, hair growing on arms, legs, under arms, and in the pubic area, sweating more, oilier skin along
with pimples, and having sexual feelings. There are several other changes and everyone's experience can and
usually is a little different.
The average age for a girl to finish growing is about seventeen, and for a boy it is about nineteen, but it can also
end earlier or later. No two people are exactly the same.
In summary, puberty is the period of human development during which physical growth and sexual maturation
occurs in adolescents. Since each person is different, the age at which puberty begins and ends may be different
as well, which is completely normal. There are also many physical and emotional changes which take place, but it
is a normal process of life which every adult of every age on Earth has experienced at one time in their life as well.

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Sound
Everything a person hears is called sound. Sound is a vibration or wave traveling through solids, liquids, or gases
and can be heard. A sound begins by some type of mechanical movement which can include a person playing an
instrument, a door slamming, or thunder in the sky. The molecules of these objects vibrate and in turn cause the
surrounding molecules to vibrate, thus causing the sound to travel.
Without matter like a solid, liquid o gas, sound could not travel. It needs the vibration of molecules from the
matter in order for there to be a sound that can be heard. Outer space is void of any objects and is a vacuum so
there is no sound and it is very quiet. The solid, liquid, or gas that transports the sound is called a medium.
Next, the speed of sound is how fast the sound wave or the vibration travels through the object, medium, or
matter. Depending on whether it is a solid, liquid, or gas, the sound will travel at different speeds. Sound will
travel faster in water than in air, but much faster in steel.
The amount of moisture in the air will also affect the speed of sound. In dry air, sound will travel 768 miles per
hour, but faster in water. At 768 mph, sound will travel one mile in 5 seconds through dry air, but four times
faster in water, and 13 times faster through steel.
The term sound barrier is often heard when airplanes go faster than the speed of sound. When this happens, the
plane breaks the sound barrier. They also create a sonic boom, which is a loud explosive-sounding noise that is
caused by a number of sound waves that are forced together as the plane moves faster than sound.
Decibels are used to measure the loudness of sound. The more decibels the louder the sound. A whisper may
only measure 15 to 20 decibels, but a jet engine may generate 150 decibels. Pain in the ears may occur if a person
hears a sound measured at about 130 decibels, which can damage the ears or even cause a loss of hearing. This is
why listening to loud music through headphones can be harmful.
Sound also includes a measurement called frequency. Frequency is related to the pitch of sound. For example, a
thin guitar string that is plucked will vibrate faster and create a high sound or pitch. A thicker string will vibrate
slowly and create a low sound or pitch. This is what leads to different musical notes.
Sound also helps humans talk and listen to each other. It is a very complex process and many parts of the body
work together, but the vibration of vocal cords in the throat leads to sound. The mouth, tongue, and lungs also
contribute to the sounds a human makes from their mouth.
Finally, acoustics is the study of sound and how it travels. Someone specializing in acoustics learns how sound
moves, which is important when building auditoriums, theaters, and other types of buildings. In some places, like
in a theater staging plays, it is important for sound to travel throughout the room, in a library however, it is more
important to control the sound and prevent it from traveling. Using different materials on the walls or ceilings will
help regulate the movement of sound waves.
In summary, sound is a vibration or wave traveling through solids, liquids, or gases and can be heard. Sound
travels at different speeds depending on the medium that the sound wave travels through. The loudness of sound
is measured in decibels and the pitch of sound is related to frequency. The study of sound and its movement is
called acoustics.

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Gravity
The force that makes everything fall to Earth is called gravity. It is a mysterious force that has been studied by
scientists since Isaac Newton was the first person to mathematically describe it. His theory is called Newton's Law
of Universal Gravitation. Years later, Albert Einstein's Theory of Relativity made improvements to Newton's
original theory. Of course, it can be said the person who dropped something may have discovered gravity but it
can now be scientifically explained.
It was in 1687 that Newton published the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (which means
'Mathematical principals of Natural Philosophy'). It was his most important work, though related to gravity, he
also described the three laws of motion. The work is considered one of the most important in the history of
science. Not only did it introduce the theory of gravity, it defined the principals or laws of motion in modern
physics. The theory of gravity ultimately was used to explain the movement of the planets and the Sun.
All objects have gravity, though some objects have much more gravity than others. For example, the Sun and the
Earth have much more gravity than other objects. The amount of gravity an object has depends on the size of
mass of the object and how close a person is to the object. The closer the stronger the gravity.
Gravity may not seem important, but without gravity people would fall off of the Earth, and a kicked ball would go
on forever. People could not live without gravity. In addition, it is important in other areas as well. It is the Sun's
gravity keeping the Earth in orbit, allowing it to be the perfect distance from the Sun to support life, never getting
too hot or too cold, receiving enough life to keep organisms alive, including humans.
The weight of a person is actually the amount of force the gravity has on a person and how hard it is pulling their
body toward the Earth's surface. The heavier the person the more gravity pushing on the person. On the moon,
the push of gravity is much less, so a person's weight on Earth would be much different than on the moon. This is
why when man walks on the moon it is much easier to move. If a person weighed 100 pounds on Earth their
weight on planet Mars would be just 38 pounds because there is less gravity. And where there is no gravity, like
on the space station, the astronauts will just move through the air.
Where there is gravity; however, all objects will fall at the same speed. This is called the equivalence principle.
Objects of different masses will fall to Earth at the same speed. For example, if two balls of different masses are
dropped from a tall building, both of them will hit the ground at the same time.
Other things affected by gravity include the ocean tides, which are due to the gravitational pull of the moon on
Earth. Gravity also affects a ride on a roller coaster or a skydiver dropping from an airplane. The force of gravity is
more easily felt.
In summary, Isaac Newton is responsible for introducing the mathematics behind the concept of gravity, which
led other scientists to understand the movement of the Sun and the planets, the different forces of gravity and
the variables involved, as well as the introduction of the three laws of motion in modern day physics. All objects
fall at the same speed, and the pull of gravity depends on the mass of an object and how close a person is to an
object.

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Nutrition
Everyone eats food. Some people eat lots of fruit and vegetables, others may eat more or less meat, and some
people may eat healthy, but others do not. All of it is related to nutrition. Nutrition is the process of how people
get the food that is needed to grow strong and healthy along with obtaining the necessary vitamins and nutrients
to help bodies grow and function.
For children, good nutrition is especially important and it is necessary to eat healthy foods because kids are
constantly growing. Good nutrition will lead to healthy bones and muscles, and without receiving the correct
vitamins and nutrients while growing, a child will not grow as tall and as strong as they could be.
There are many aspects of nutrition including knowing about the different food groups, understanding calories,
and learning about the different vitamins, nutrients, and minerals a body needs, and what to avoid.
There are five main food groups that should be eaten each day. Eating a variety of foods in each group will lead to
receiving most important nutrients to remain strong and healthy. The first food group includes grains such as
breads, cereals, pasta, and rice. The second food group is dairy, which includes milk, cheese, yogurt, and other
dairy products. Apples, oranges, grapes, bananas, and much more are a part of the third food group, fruits. Of
course, vegetables is in its own food group as well. There are many, many vegetables available to eat including
beans, broccoli, peas, carrots, corn, and others. Finally, the fifth and final food group is protein, which can be
found in beef, chicken, eggs, nuts, fish, and pork.
The portion size of each food group is not the same. For example, it is recommended that a person eat slightly
more vegetables and grains than fruit and protein for each meal. There are also other guidelines on how to eat
healthier, some of which includes drinking skim milk instead of whole milk, water instead of sugary drinks, and
eating wheat bread instead of white bread.
Calories are a measure of the amount of energy in food items. Calories are necessary to eat to get the energy
needed to play, work, and move around. The calories get burned off during movement, so eating will replenish
them. But if a person eats more calories than they burn, the excess is stored as fat. There are also some foods
that contain empty calories, meaning they have very little nutritional value such as solid fats and sugars.
There are many healthy foods to eat in order to receive the vitamins and minerals needed. For example, vitamin A
is found in milk and helps keep the immune system healthy; Vitamin C is found in oranges and other vegetables,
which is good for blood vessels, teeth, healing, and the brain. Vitamin D and calcium is great for healthy bones
and can be found in milk. Iron is needed for the blood and is available in red meat, poultry, fish, and leafy
vegetables. These are just a few of the minerals and vitamins that keep a person heathy.
In summary, good nutrition leads to good health. When a person wants to lose weight, it can be done by eating
healthier and exercising regularly. Nearly all foods contain some of the vitamins and minerals needed for the
body, but it is also important to eat the right amount of foods from the five food groups: grains, dairy, fruits,
vegetables, and protein.

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Food Labels
The food a person purchases is usually inside a box or other container which includes a food label printed on the
outside. A food label is used to show the buyer the nutrients, vitamins, and other minerals found in the
ingredients of the food. Food labels are also referred to as nutrition labels.
It is important to know about the ingredients found in food to help people plan a healthy diet. In order to learn
about the ingredients understanding how to read a food label is helpful. There are many things printed on a food
label everyone needs to know including the serving size, calories, nutrients and their daily values in a diet, and of
course the ingredients and number of servings inside the package.
First, the serving size and number of servings per container are most often listed below the nutrition facts title.
This is listed so a person can compare the size of the package to other food products that have similar serving
sizes. It also allows a person to see what they actually eat. For example, if a person eats 2 cups of a product and a
serving size is one cup, the numbers on the food label must be doubled.
The daily nutrition values are also listed as a percent and how much a serving of a product contributes
nutritionally to a 2,000 calorie diet. The higher the percent the more value of the particular vitamin, nutrient, or
mineral in the product.
Next, the food label shows the calories contained in a single serving. There are several nutrients listed that are
either related to what people eat too much, or what people need in their daily diets. The nutrients listed include
total fat, saturated fat, cholesterol and sodium, which often are eaten too much by many people. Other nutrients
that people need more of include fiber, vitamins A and C, calcium, and iron. A person should try to eat 100% of
these nutrients each day. The listing of many nutrients are required by the government to be shown on the labels.
The nutrients that are found in the food are usually needed for good health. A person's body is not able to make
all the nutrients it needs so they are supplied by the foods that are eaten each day. There are basically six groups
of nutrients that work together to keep a body healthy including carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals,
and water.
The main source of energy or calories are carbohydrates. Proteins also supplies energy and amino acids, which
build and repair the cells in the body. Fats, besides also supplying energy, help transport nutrients through the
body, provide storage and insulation for the body. Helping bodies use the energy from food are vitamins. They
also control chemical reactions in the body. Every vitamin that enters the body has a specific job to do. Similar to
vitamins are minerals, which help promote the reactions and form body structures. Finally, water is a part of
every cell and tissue in the human body. It is needed to carry nutrients to cells and remove waste products,
regulate body temperature and much more. A person's body about 55 to 75% water. This is why it is important to
drink fluids regularly.
In summary, nutrition food labels are helpful for many reasons. The most important reason is to help people
recognize the nutrients, vitamins, and other minerals found in the ingredients of the food. Knowing the percent,
value, serving sizes, and other information will help people maintain a healthy diet and prevent them from
overeating or not eating enough of important nutrients the body needs to stay healthy. If people receive the right
amount of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water each day, it will help them live long
healthy lives.

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Mosquitoes
The word mosquito comes from a Spanish and Portuguese word that means 'little fly.' Mosquitoes can be found
all over the world and are usually known for pesky bites causing a person to have an uncomfortable itch.
However, mosquitoes are also known for spreading some of the worst diseases in the world including malaria,
tallow fever, encephalitis, dengue, and most recently the Zika virus. Unfortunately, mosquitoes cause more
deaths than any other animal in the world.
Female mosquitoes are the ones that actually bite a person by using their mouth like an upside-down funnel.
They mainly bite humans and animals when they are not trying to produce eggs. Their mouth contains a narrow
end pointing down piercing the victim as it sips liquid. This liquid is either human or animal blood or nectar inside
plants. It depends on the species of the mosquito. Male mosquitoes mainly feed on the nectar of plants. When a
female mosquito feeds on blood it can up its abdomen up to three times its regular body weight.
Mosquitoes also have a preference for people with O-type blood, high body heat, heavy breathers, and pregnant
women. Pregnant women are especially vulnerable to mosquitoes as related to the Zika virus. These specific
people are most at risk because when humans release carbon dioxide, mosquitoes can sense it up to 100 feet
away. This is also why mosquitoes are usually circling around a person's head.
There are some species that only prefer the blood of certain animals such as snakes, frogs, or other cold-blooded
animals. There are others that only go after birds, and then several that just prefer cows, horses and people.
There are more than 3,500 different species of mosquitoes.
Mosquitoes have the same body structure like most insects. They have two compound eyes each containing
thousands of six-sided lenses pointing is all different directions. Each of the lenses move independently of the
others so mosquitoes cannot focus their eyes like people. Their eyes stay open and help them detect quick
movements, which is why it is difficult to swat a fly.
A mosquito's wings beat around 1,000 times every second and is responsible for the buzzing sound that can be
heard when a fly is nearby. However, a female's wings create a higher-pitched tone which helps it attract possible
mates.
Depending on the species, female mosquitoes lay up to about 200 eggs at a time. The eggs are laid in water or
near water. There are some species though that do not hatch their eggs in water. The most popular places
mosquitoes lay eggs include almost any place water can be found such as marshes, swamps, empty containers,
unclean swimming pools, and tree holes. In warm weather the eggs hatch within about three days.
Male mosquitoes live for about a week and females can live from two weeks to about a month. Mosquitoes also
go through the four lifecycle stages like other flies, which includes egg, larva, pupa, and adult.
Finally, some mosquitoes can fly continuously for as long as four hours, but they are actually one of the slowest
flying insects at 1/2 to 1 mile per hour. Fish, dragonflies and other water insects are the predators of mosquitoes.
In summary, mosquitoes are pests and can be found all over the world, and are responsible for more deaths than
any other animal.

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Animal Camouflage
Animals use camouflage to protect itself from predators in the wild. There are four basic types of camouflage
used by animals. They include concealing coloration, disruptive coloration, disguise and mimicry.
Concealing coloration is used by animals when they hide themselves against a background of the same color. For
example, in snowy areas, an animal such as the polar bear or snowy owl in the Arctic have white coloring to blend
in with their backgrounds. In deserts and grasslands there are animals that have tan and brown colors that they
use to blend into the background.
A green tree frog blends into the background with its bright green color to fade and hide in trees and grasses.
Adult white-tail deer have earth tone colors help keep and hide them from predators.
Disruptive coloration is used by animals with spots, stripes, or patterns to break up their outline so it does not
stick out against the background. Animals that use this type of camouflage include zebras, leopards, tigers, and
even some fish.
A zebra uses it stripes helping it to avoid lions. A leopard has a spotted coat camouflaging them in tall brush and
grass while they hunt. A raccoon butterfly fish uses its patterns of black and yellow to single it out in a large
group.
When animals blend into their surroundings by appearing like another object it is called disguise. Insects that look
like a branch or a leaf hides itself from predators by use a costume. Examples of animals using this kind of
camouflage include walking sticks, katydids, and leaf insects.
The walking stick actually looks like a stick, the katydid can appear as a leaf, and a thorn bug looks like a thorn on
a plant.
The final type of camouflage is called mimicry. Mimicry is when animals or insects appear like other dangerous,
bad tasting, or poisonous animals or insects. Basically, these animals or insects pretend to be another animal or
insect. There are some snakes, butterflies, and moths that use this type of camouflage for protection from
predators. Some examples include the scarlet king snake, hawk moth, and Viceroy butterfly.
The elephant hawk caterpillar has two false eyes and moves its head from side to side like a snake. It does this to
frighten off predators who think it is a snake. The scarlet king snake is non-poisonous, but it has coloration and
patterning that allows it to look like a poisonous snake called a coral snake. Its predators get confused and stays
away from the real scarlet king snake. A monarch butterfly is poisonous so the non-poisonous Viceroy butterfly
mimics it so the predators will avoid eating it.
In summary, animals use camouflage to protect themselves from predators. The four types of camouflage include
concealing coloration, disruptive coloration, disguise, and mimicry. Each type of camouflage helps the animal or
insect protect itself not just from predators, but is also useful when some of the animals go hunting for prey as
well.

128
Thomas Edison
On February 11, 1847, one of the greatest inventors in history was born in Milan, Ohio. His name is Thomas Alva
Edison. Edison died on October 18, 1931 in West Orange, New Jersey, but not before he registered over 1,000
patents. Edison's inventions continue to have an important effect on people's lives today. His very first invention
was the electric vote recorder.
Thomas Edison was also a business entrepreneur starting several companies throughout his life. Many of his
inventions were group efforts between himself and the workers in his invention laboratory where they assisted
him in developing, building, and testing the inventions. The laboratory was located in Menlo Park, New Jersey.
One of the biggest corporations Edison began is still in existence today, named General Electric or GE.
Even though Edison became a famous inventor, growing up as a child he did not do well in school and ended up
being home-schooled by his mother. However, at age 10 he did set up his first lab in his parent's basement. He
entertained himself by taking things apart and putting them back together again to see how they worked. As a
teenager he also earned an income selling vegetables, candy, and newspapers on trains.
While working on the train an incident occurred that set him on the path to becoming an inventor. He saved a
child from a runaway train, and the child's father was so grateful he trained the 15-year-old Edison to be a
telegraph operator, sending and receiving messages using Morse code. During his time as a telegraph operator he
became interested in communications which became the focus of many of his inventions.
Edison is best known for many inventions including two of his most popular, the phonograph and the practical
light bulb. The phonograph was his first major invention and brought fame to Edison. The phonograph was able to
record and playback sound. The first words recorded by Edison were the lyrics to the song Mary Had a Little
Lamb.
Edison did not invent the first electric light, but he created the first light bulb that could be used in homes. He also
invented products related to the light bulb for use in the home, which included safety fuses and on/off switches
for light sockets. He also invented the power grid system for generating electricity and delivering it to homes and
businesses through a network of wires.
Another popular invention of Edison's was the motion picture. He spent many hours on and worked hard in
producing the motion picture camera which helped others move toward the progress of practical movies. In
addition, he contributed to x-ray technology, storage batteries, and invented the first talking doll.
Edison's personal life included a marriage to Mary Stillwell, and when she died he remarried Mina Miller. Edison
had five children in all, and two of them had the nicknames Dot and Dash, named after Morse Code symbols.
In summary, Thomas Edison registered 1,093 patents over his lifetime and those inventions continue to influence
the way people live today, including the phonograph, light bulb and the motion picture camera leading to the
movies many people enjoy today.

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Viruses
A virus is a small infectious agent that duplicates itself inside of another living being. Viruses infect all types of life
forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria. When a virus is not in an infected cell it
exists in the form of independent particles. These viral particles, also known as virions, consist of two or three
parts: 1) the genetic material made from DNA that carry genetic information; 2) a protein coat called the capsid
which surrounds and protects the genetic material; and in some cases 3) an envelope of lipids that surround the
protein coat when they are outside a cell.
Viruses display a variety of shapes and sizes called morphologies. Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and
have a diameter between 20 and 300 nanometers. Most viruses are unable to be seen even with an optical
microscope.
The origin of viruses in the evolutionary history of life is unclear. Some may have evolved from pieces of DNA that
can move between cells. Other may have evolved from bacteria. Viruses are an important means of horizontal
gene transfer, which increases genetic diversity.
Viruses are considered by some to be a life form, however, this opinion varies among scientist. They have been
described by some as 'organisms that live at the edge of life.' Although they have genes, they do not have a
cellular structure which is often seen as the basis for life. Viruses do not have their own metabolism and require a
host cell in order the reproduce. They therefore cannot naturally reproduce outside of another living cell. This
alone is an argument that a virus is not a life form outside of a host cell.
Viruses spread in many ways. In plants, viruses are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on
the plant sap. In animals, viruses can be carried by blood-sucking insects. In human beings, viruses are spread
through a variety of ways. For example, influenza viruses are spread through coughing and sneezing. Noroviruses
are spread through bodily fluids which can be transmitted both orally and intravenously. Many viruses enter the
human body through food and water. HIV virus is an example of a virus transmitted through sexual contact and
by exposure to infected blood.
The range of host cells that a virus can infect is called its host range. This can narrow, meaning a virus is capable
of infecting only a few species, or it can be broad, meaning it is capable of infecting many species.
Viral infections in animals provoke an immune response that usually eliminates the infecting virus. Because
human beings do not have the same capability, immune responses are produced by vaccines which give an
artificial immunity to the specific viral infection. However, some viruses including those that cause AIDS and viral
hepatitis, evade these immune responses and result in long-lasting infections and death. Antibiotics have no real
effect on viruses, but there are several antiviral drugs that have been developed to attack specific viruses.
Classification seeks to describe the diversity of viruses by naming and grouping them on the basis of similarities.
However, because of the numerous varieties and the tiny size, it is difficult to complete a classification for all
viruses.
In summary, viruses duplicate themselves inside living organisms. They appear in a variety of sizes and shapes and
can only be seen with special microscopes. Many viruses can be quite harmful to humans and other living things,
but some viruses can be eliminated using medicines and other typical remedies.

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Big Bang Theory
The Big Bang Theory is an effort to explain what happened at the very beginning of our universe. Discoveries and
physics have revealed beyond a reasonable doubt that the universe did have a beginning. Before that moment,
there was nothing; during and after that moment there was something: our universe. The big bang theory is the
endless, debatable conclusion to explain what happened after that moment.
According to standard theory, the universe sprang into existence as a singularity around 13.7 billion years ago. No
one knows for sure what the exact definition of a singularity is, but is theorized as zones which defy the
understanding of physics. These zones are thought to exist at the very core of black holes. Black holes are areas of
intense gravitational pressure. The pressure is so intense that matter is believed to be produced through density.
It is the zones of density that are called singularities. Our universe is thought to have begun as a small, hot, and
infinitely dense something. We still are not certain where it came from or why it appeared.
After the initial appearance, it inflated, expanded and then cooled going from very small and hot to the size and
temperature of our current universe. It continues daily to expand and cool as we reside within it. Just think, the
universe, as a result of the big bang theory, leaves incredible creatures living on a unique planet circling a
beautiful star clustered together with several hundred billion other stars in a galaxy soaring through the cosmos
all of which lie inside of an expanding universe that began as a single moment that appeared out of nowhere for
reasons unknown.
There are many misconceptions surrounding the Big Bang theory. For example, we tend to imagine a giant
explosion. Experts however say that there was no explosion; there was, and continues to be an expansion. Rather
than imagining a balloon popping and releasing its contents, imagine a balloon expanding: an extremely tiny
balloon expanding to the size of our current universe.
Another misconception is that we tend to imagine the singularity as a little fireball appearing somewhere in
space. According to the many experts however, space did not exist prior to the Big Bang. According to their
calculations, time and space had a finite beginning that corresponded to the origin of matter and energy. The
singularity did not appear in space; rather, space began inside of the singularity. Prior to the singularity, nothing
existed, not space, time, matter, or energy - nothing. So where and in what did the singularity appear if not in
space? We don't know. We don't know where it came from, why it is here, or even where it is. All we really know
is that we are inside of it and at one time it didn't exist and neither did we.
If there is so much uncertainty about the existence of the Big Bang theory, what evidence supports such a theory?
First of all, we are reasonably sure that the universe had a beginning. Secondly, galaxies appear to be moving
away from us at speeds that are consistent with their distance from us. This supports the notion that the universe
was once compact and is always expanding away from us. Finally, there are an abundance of light elements of
helium and hydrogen that support the origin of the Big Bang Theory. When combined, there appears to be
sufficient evidence to at least consider the Big Bang Theory as a plausible event 13 billion years ago.
The only thing we know for sure is that the universe had a beginning. The Big Bang Theory is the effort to explain
what happened at the beginning of our universe. It may not be the only theory, but it remains as the most
popular theory.

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DNA
We all know that humans only give birth to humans; elephants only give birth to little elephants, giraffes to
giraffes, dogs to dogs and so on for every type of living creature. But why is this so? The answer lies in a molecule
called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which contains the biological instructions that make each species unique.
DNA, along with the instructions it contains, is passed from adult organisms to their offspring during
reproduction.
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every
cell in a person's body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA),
but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA).
The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine
(C), and thymine (T). Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are
the same in all people.
The order, or sequence, of these bases determines the information available for building and maintaining an
organism, similar to the way in which letters of the alphabet appear in a certain order to form words and
sentences.
DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each base is also
attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are called a
nucleotide.
Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands that form a spiral called a double helix. The structure of the double
helix is somewhat like a ladder, with the base pairs forming the ladder's rungs and the sugar and phosphate
molecules forming the vertical sidepieces of the ladder.
An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself. Each strand of DNA in the double
helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is critical when cells divide because each
new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the old cell.
DNA contains the instructions needed for an organism to develop, survive and reproduce. To carry out these
functions, DNA sequences must be converted into messages that can be used to produce proteins, which are the
complex molecules that do most of the work in our bodies. Each DNA sequence that contains instructions to make
a protein is known as a gene.
The size of a gene may vary greatly, ranging from about 1,000 bases to 1 million bases in humans. Genes only
make up about 1 percent of the DNA sequence. DNA sequences outside this 1 percent are involved in regulating
when, how and how much of a protein is made.
Forensic scientists can use DNA in blood, semen, skin, saliva or hair to identify a matching DNA of an individual.
This process is formally termed DNA profiling, but may also be called genetic fingerprinting. In DNA profiling, the
lengths of variable sections of repetitive DNA, such as short tandem repeats and minisatallites, are compared
between people. This method is usually an extremely reliable technique for identifying a matching DNA.

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Germs
Our bodies are pretty amazing. Day after day, they work hard digesting food, pumping blood and oxygen, sending
signals from our brains and much more. But there is a group of tiny invaders that can make our bodies sick; they
are called germs. Some people may think that germs are bugs or cooties or other gross stuff. Actually, germs are
tiny organisms, or living things, that can cause disease. Germs are so small and sneaky that they creep into our
bodies without being noticed. In fact, germs are so tiny that you need to use a microscope to see them. When
they get in our bodies, we don't know what hit us until we have symptoms that say we've been attacked!
Germs have favorite places to live, preferred ways to travel, and if they are harmful, their own unique ways of
causing disease. Germs can live in or on dirt, water, countertops, our skin, our intestines, and in many other
places around us. Some germs can survive on their own while others prefer living in people or animals. Some
germs live only in hot areas of the world while others live only in cold areas. When germs find a place that is good
for them, they multiply and set up a home for themselves.
The three major types of germs are: bacteria, viruses, and fungi. They can invade plants, animals, and people, and
sometimes their presence makes us sick.
Bacteria are tiny, one-celled creatures that get nutrients from their environments in order to live. In some cases,
that environment is a human body. Bacteria can reproduce outside of the body or within the body as they cause
infections. Some infections that bacteria can cause include ear infections, sore throats, cavities, and pneumonia.
But not all bacteria are bad. Some bacteria are good for our bodies and help keep things in balance. Good
bacteria live in our intestines and help us use the nutrients in the food we eat and make waste from what's left
over. We couldn't make the most of a healthy meal without these important helper germs. Some bacteria are also
used by scientists in labs to produce medicines and vaccines.
Viruses need to be inside living cells to grow and reproduce. Most viruses can't survive very long if they're not
inside a living thing like a plant, animal, or person. Whatever a virus lives in is called its host. When viruses get
inside people's bodies, they can spread and make people sick. Viruses cause chickenpox, measles, flu, and many
other diseases. Because some viruses can live for a short time on something like a doorknob or countertop, be
sure to wash your hands regularly.
Fungi are multi-celled plant-like organisms. Unlike other plants, fungi cannot make their own food from soil,
water, and air. Instead, fungi get their nutrition from plants, people, and animals. They love to live in damp, warm
places, and many fungi are not dangerous in healthy people. An example of something caused by fungi is athlete's
foot, that itchy rash that teens and adults sometimes get between their toes.
Germs spread in different ways. To catch an infectious disease, a person first needs to be exposed to a harmful
germ by touching, eating or drinking, breathing, sexual contact, needles, blood transfusions, or getting bitten.
Adopting healthy habits are the best and easiest way to prevent the spread of germs every day.
In summary, germs are tiny living organisms that can cause diseases are have other harmful effects on living
things. The three types of germs include bacteria, viruses, and fungi.

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International Space Station
The International Space Station is the most complex international scientific and engineering project in history
and the largest structure humans have ever put into space. This high-flying satellite is a laboratory for new
technologies and an observation platform for astronomical, geological, and environmental research. As a
permanently occupied outpost in outer space, it serves as a stepping-stone for further space exploration. This
includes Mars, which NASA is now stating is its goal for human space exploration.
The space station flies at an average altitude of 248 miles above Earth. It circles the globe every 90 minutes at a
speed of about 17,500 mph. It takes the space station one and a half hours to fly around the planet, making 16
complete orbits a day. For those on board, the visual effect is spectacular. When they open the covers over the
windows, the light can be so blinding that astronauts must reach for their sunglasses. But after 45 minutes of
daylight, a dark line appears on the planet, dividing Earth into night and day. For a couple of seconds, the space
station is bathed in a coppery light and then complete darkness. About 45 minutes later, and just as abruptly, the
sun rises to fill the station with brilliant light again.
Five different space agencies representing 15 countries built the $100-billion International Space Station and
continue to currently operate it as of 2016.
It was also planned to provide transportation, maintenance, and act as a staging base for possible future missions
to the Moon, Mars and asteroids. The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research. Small unmanned
spacecraft can provide platforms for zero gravity and exposure to space, but the space station offers a long-term
environment where studies can be performed over periods that exceed the capabilities of manned spacecraft.
The ISS simplifies individual experiments by eliminating the need for separate rocket launches and research staff.
The wide variety of research fields includes astrology, human research, space medicine, life science, physical
science, space weather, and meteorology. Scientists on Earth have access to the crew's data and can modify
experiments or launch new ones, which are benefits generally unavailable on unmanned spacecraft. Crews fly
individual expeditions lasting several months, providing approximately 160-man-hours per week of labor with a
crew of 6.
It takes a two-day journey dictated by speed and altitude to get to the space station. Before astronauts can get
aboard the station, they first have to chase it down and pull alongside. To accomplish this, it needs 900 tons of
solid rocket fuel and half a million gallons of liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen to burn in the main engine.
The space station will be orbiting Earth for at least another five years, but probably much longer. Of the agencies
that pay for it, only one agency has yet to finalize plans to keep it in orbit until 2020. Further moves are in place to
keep the station flying until 2028.
For those who built the space station, and the thousands of support staff at agencies around the world, seeing its
bright light shooting across the sky at night evokes feelings many others would be able to understand.

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Muscles
The human body contains over 600 muscles. They do everything from pumping blood throughout the body to
helping a person lift something heavy. A person can control some of their muscles, while others, like the heart
muscle, do their jobs without having a person to thinking about them.
Muscles are all made of the same material, a type of elastic tissue resembling a rubber band. There are
thousands, or even tens of thousands, of these small fibers that make up each muscle.
There are three different types of muscles in the body: smooth, cardiac, and skeletal.
Smooth muscles which are also called involuntary muscles are usually in sheets, or layers, with one layer of
muscle behind the other. A person can't control this type of muscle. The brain and body tell these muscles what
to do without a person even thinking about it. Smooth muscles are not used to make a muscle in the arm or jump
into the air. Smooth muscles are at work all over the body. In the stomach and digestive system, they contract
and relax to allow food to make its journey through the body. Smooth muscles come in handy if a person is sick
and needs to throw up. The muscles push the food back out of the stomach so it comes up through the
esophagus and out of the mouth.
Smooth muscles are also found in the bladder. When they're relaxed, they allow a person to hold in urine until
they can get to the bathroom. They then contract so that urine can be pushed out.
The muscle that makes up the heart is called cardiac muscle. The thick muscles of the heart contract to pump
blood out and then relax to let blood back in after it has circulated through the body. Just like smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle works all by itself with no help from the person. A special group of cells within the heart are
known as the pacemaker of the heart because it controls the heartbeat.
Other muscles are the ones that show how strong a person may be and lets them physically exert the body. These
are skeletal muscles which are the voluntary muscles, which mean a person can control what they do. A leg won't
bend to kick the soccer ball unless the person causes the muscle to move.
These are the muscles that cover the bones and provide strength and flexibility to the body. Skeletal muscles are
held to the bones with the help of tendons and they work as special connector pieces between bone and muscle.
The tendons are attached so well that when a muscle is contracted, the tendon and bone move along with it.
Skeletal muscles come in many different sizes and shapes to allow them to do many types of jobs. Some of the
biggest and most powerful muscles are in the back, near the spine. These muscles help keep a person upright and
standing tall.
Whether exerting physical energy to exercise, smiling, frowning, crying, sleeping or are just relaxing, muscles are
continuously at work keeping the body functioning. Although there are three categories of muscles and each
work independently, they combine to keep the body alive, healthy and in motion.

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Chemical Changes
Chemical changes occur when a substance combines with another to form a new substance, called synthesis or,
alternatively, decomposes into two or more different substances. These processes are called chemical reactions
and, in general, are not reversible except by further chemical reactions. Some reactions produce heat and are
called exothermic reactions and others may require heat to enable the reaction to occur, which are called
endothermic reactions. Understanding chemical changes is a major part of the science of chemistry.
When chemical reactions occur, the atoms are rearranged and the reaction is accompanied by an energy change
as new products are generated. An example of a chemical change is the reaction between sodium and water to
produce sodium hydroxide and hydrogen. So much energy is released that the hydrogen gas released
spontaneously burns in the air. This is an example of a chemical change because the end products are chemically
different from the substances before the reaction.
Chemists categorize chemical changes into three main classes: inorganic chemical changes, organic chemical
changes and biochemical changes.
An inorganic change describes the reactions of elements and compounds that, in general, do not involve carbon.
The changes typically take place in laboratories or industries. Typical types of change include neutralization, and
oxidization including combustion.
Organic changes are concerned with the chemistry of carbon and the elements and compound with which it
reacts. These compounds include mineral oil and all of its products and much of the output of industries
manufacturing of pharmaceutical, paints, detergents, cosmetics and fuels. Typical examples of organic chemical
changes include cracking heavy hydrocarbons at an oil refinery to create more gasoline from crude oil.
Biochemical change deals with the chemistry of the growth and activity of living organisms. It is a chemistry
where most reactions are controlled by complex proteins called enzymes and are moderated and limited by
hormones. This chemical change is always highly complex and is still not fully understood. Decomposition of
organic material is also within the scope of biochemistry although in this case it is the growth and activity of fungi
and bacteria and other micro-organisms that is involved. Typical types of change include all the process involved
in photosynthesis. This is a process where carbon dioxide and water are changed into sugars and oxygen by
plants.
There are several ways by which the evidence can be seen that a chemical change has taken place. Change of
odor and color reveals change. Change in temperature or the energy level of materials reveals that a chemical
change has occurred. When there is a change of composition, where light or heat is produced, or a formation of
gases is produced, all are evidence that a chemical change has taken place. Some examples of everyday chemical
changes include rusting iron, burning wood, cooking an egg, baking a cake, explosion of fireworks, rotting
bananas, or grilling hamburgers.
Chemical changes are reactions involve combining different substances. The chemical reaction produces a new
substance with new and different physical and chemical properties. Matter is never destroyed or created in
chemical change. The particles of one substance are rearranged to form a new substance. The same number of
particles that exist before the reaction exist after the reaction.

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Landforms
A landform is a natural feature of the solid surface of the Earth identified by terrain and arrangement and the
physical features that define the Earth's surface. Typical landforms include hills, mountains, valleys, canyons,
beaches, peninsulas, and submerged surfaces such as ocean floors. Landforms are categorized by characteristic
physical attributes such as elevation, slope, orientation, rock exposure, and soil type.
Oceans and continents exemplify the highest-order landforms. Other elements that characterize landforms are
hill-tops, shoulders, saddles, pits, peaks, channels, ridges, passes, pools, plains foreslopes and backslopes.
Landforms do not include man-made features, such as canals, ports, or harbors.
While hills, mountains, valleys, canyons, beaches, and peninsulas are well-known landforms, there are many
other landforms that are not as well-known. For example, an archipelago is a group or chain of islands clustered
together in a sea or ocean. An atoll is a ring (or partial ring) of coral that forms an island in an ocean or sea. The
coral sits atop a submerged volcanic cone. A channel is a body of water that connects two larger bodies of water
(like the English Channel). A channel is also a part of a river or harbor that is deep enough to let ships sail through.
A col is a mountain pass. A cove is small, horseshoe-shaped body of water along the coast; the water is
surrounded by land formed of soft rock. A delta is a low, watery land formed at the mouth of a river. It is formed
from the silt, sand and small rocks that flow downstream in the river and are deposited in the delta. A delta is
often (but not always) shaped like a triangle. An estuary is where a river meets the sea or ocean. A fjord is a long,
narrow sea inlet that is bordered by steep cliffs. An isthmus is a narrow strip of land connecting two larger
landmasses. An isthmus has water on two sides. A wetland is an area of land that is often wet; the soil in
wetlands is often low in oxygen. Wetland plants are adapted to life in wet soil. There are many other types of
wetlands which include swamp, slough, fen, bog, marsh, moor, muskeg, and peatland.
There are also many components that make up the landforms. The crust is rocky covering around the earth. Dirt
is a mixture of crusted rock and pieces of organic material from plants and animals which cover some of the crust.
There are elements such as iron, oxygen, and gold which cannot be broken down by chemical methods. Extrusive
rocks are formed by lava as it solidifies near the Earth' surface. Intrusive rocks are where coal solidifies beneath
the Earth's surface. Fossils are the remains of a living thing. Sediments are small particles that have settled across
the Earth's surface and have been varied by wind, water, or ice. Volcanos are openings in the Earth's surface that
have erupted molten rock. And weathering is a process where rocks are broken up into smaller parts. All of these
components combine to make up various landforms.
Whether landforms are well-known or not as well-known, they exist everywhere and are the core that makes up
the Earth' surface. They consist of many shapes, formations and arrangements. Geologists will continue to study
the topology of the Earth in order to further understand the importance of landforms here on Earth.

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Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis and Meiosis are two ways that cells reproduce. By mitosis a cell splits to create two identical copies of the
original cell. In meiosis cells split to form new cells with half the usual number of chromosomes, to produce the
ability for sexual reproduction.
The activities of mitosis and meiosis are similar in that they each create chromosomes, but in mitosis the created
cell has the 46 chromosomes, whereas in meiosis the two created cells combine to create a cell with the 46
chromosomes.
From a human prospective, nature had some real obstacles to overcome, and has overcome some of it with
creative engineering with the human body. Mitosis describes the process by which the nucleus of one cells
divides to create two new nuclei. Each of the nuclei contains an identical copy of the DNA. Each created cell will
contain the 46 chromosomes necessary. Just about the entire DNA duplicated in the human body is done through
mitosis. Chromosomes begin to condense and in doing so begin to take on the form that they are depicted from.
Each of the chromosomes at that time are two identical chromosomes, each copy is called a chromatid.
The system of reproduction made the move from being asexual to sexual reproduction possible. The parent cells
divide and allow two parent cells to combine to create offspring, or sexual reproduction. These parent cells
incorporate genetic information from both parents but retain only half the amount of DNA. With only half the
amount of DNA retained, when the two cells combine the produce the proper amount of 46 DNA chromosomes
are maintained. This systematic process is meiosis. Meiosis is the process by which sex cells are created. If you are
a male, the body uses meiosis to create sperm cells and if you are female, the body uses meiosis to create egg
cells. Other cells in the body contain 46 chromosomes: 23 come from the father and 23 come from the mother. In
meiosis, 23 chromosomes come from the father and 23 come from the mother. When the egg and the sperm cells
unite you have to 46 necessary chromosomes.
For a great example of mitosis, imagine a person scraping an elbow or knee. In addition to being uncomfortable,
some skin is lost. The body then begins to take a skin cell and duplicates it to produce identical matches of skin
cells to heal the scrap. The dividing and reproducing of healthy replacement cells is mitosis.
Human beings cannot just divide in two and make another duplicate human, which would be like cloning. Some
starfish can do this. They can break off an arm and grow an identical starfish. This process is an example of
asexual reproduction where offspring are produced genetically identical to the parent. In contrast, sexual
reproduction is needed to produce human life. In sexual reproduction, sex cells from two parents combine in the
process of fertilization, leading to the formation of a new genetically distinct individual. This is the process of
meiosis.
All living things, including human beings, are made up of cells. How these cells divide through mitosis and meiosis,
determines how the cell cycle is controlled and how the reproduced cell is incorporated to produce life.

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Planes and Levers
Two simple machines that help people move things, or even themselves, is the inclined plane and lever. They can
be seen everywhere in society, on streets, businesses, and in homes. They help make things easier to move from
one place to another place, or to use for everyday actions.
The inclined plane has a sloping surface, tilted at different angles, and is considered a machine that can help
move objects more easily. It is commonly called a ramp. People use them to move from one floor level to
another, or use it to carry a heavy load up a ramp instead of using stairs.
Moving things up one or more stairs is much more difficult because of the distance involved and the force of
gravity. However, using an inclined plane shortens the distance and the load is lighter, but it will take a bit longer
to move the object. There is basically an exchange or trade of force for the longer distance. Overall, it will take
less effort but may take more time, plus heavier loads could be moved that may not have been possible
otherwise.
There are several examples of inclined planes, including use by people in wheelchairs who use them to avoid
steps by going up a ramp; stroller use on sidewalks, or even a slide at a playground. Kids can move from one level
to the next much more easily on a slide than using a ladder or steps.
The second machine which is helpful is the lever. A lever is a bar that uses a single point to support something.
The single point is called the fulcrum. One can think of a see saw, with the center of the long board located at the
fulcrum. There are three parts of a lever: The effort, fulcrum, and load.
The effort is the force applied to use the lever. The fulcrum, as mentioned earlier, is the supporting point, and the
load is the force applied on the lever.
There are also three classes of the lever and each is used to help the it be used more efficiently. In the first class
lever, the fulcrum is between the load arm and effort arm, with an equal distance in between. Picture a see saw
with the effort on one end and the load on the other end. The effort and load move in the opposite direction just
like two kids on a see saw move it up and down.
For the second class lever, the fulcrum is at one end, the load is in the middle, and the effort is at the opposite
end. In this class, the effort and the load move in the same direction. Think of a wheelbarrow. The load is the dirt,
the fulcrum is the front wheel, and the effort is the handles. The wheelbarrow is much easier to move as the
effort is less strenuous for the user of the wheelbarrow.
The third class lever is special from the other two. The effort and load is the opposite of the second class lever,
with the fulcrum still remaining on the other end. Think of a person's forearm and a nail being hammered into
wood. The fulcrum is the elbow, the bicep muscles is the effort, and the load is the resistance of the wood.
In summary, there are inclined planes and levers used every day in many places allowing work to be done much
more easily. An example of an inclined plane is a ramp or slide. Levers are divided into three different classes,
first, second, and third. First class levers include a see saw, scissors, and pliers. Second class levers include
wheelbarrows, doors, and staplers, and third class levers include forearms, brooms, and a baseball bats.

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