Chemical Engineering Interview Q&A

1. Define: Unit operation.

A unit operation is any physical step in a chemical process where only physical changes occur (no change
in chemical identity). Examples include distillation (separating components by volatility), filtration (solid–
liquid separation), drying (removing moisture), extraction, crystallization and absorption. In process design,
unit operations are the modular building blocks — designers combine them to create industrial processes.

2. Define: Unit process.

A unit process involves chemical change (a reaction) — the chemical identity of substances is altered.
Examples are oxidation, reduction, alkylation, sulfonation and chlorination. While unit operations handle
separations, heat and mass transfer, unit processes change the chemistry; both are combined in plant
designs.

3. Define: Boiling Point and Bubble Point.

The boiling point of a pure liquid is the temperature at which its vapor pressure equals the external (often
atmospheric) pressure — liquid and vapor coexist. For mixtures, the bubble point is the temperature (at a
given pressure) at which the first bubble of vapor forms when heating a liquid mixture. Bubble point
depends on composition.

4. When does a liquid boil?

A liquid boils when its vapor pressure equals the surrounding pressure. Raising temperature increases
vapor pressure; at the point vapor pressure = ambient pressure (often 1 atm), bubbles form throughout the
liquid and macroscopic boiling occurs.

5. Define: Volatile liquid.

Volatility describes how readily a liquid vaporizes; a volatile liquid has a high vapor pressure at a given
temperature and hence a lower boiling point. Volatility is influenced by intermolecular forces (e.g.,
hydrogen bonding reduces volatility).

6. Acetone and water — which is more volatile and why?

Acetone is more volatile than water because acetone has a lower boiling point (~56–57 °C) and higher
vapor pressure at room temperature. Water’s strong hydrogen-bonding network raises its boiling point
(~100 °C), reducing volatility relative to acetone.

7. What is Relative Volatility?

Relative volatility () quantifies how easily two components are separated by distillation. For components
A (more volatile) and B: _{A,B} = (y_A / x_A) / (y_B / x_B), where y and x are vapor and liquid mole
fractions. If >1, A is more volatile than B; larger  means easier separation.

8. Importance of Relative Volatility.

For conventional distillation to work effectively, relative volatility should be greater than 1. The larger  is,
the fewer theoretical stages (plates) and less reflux are required for a given separation. If  approaches 1,
distillation becomes impractical and alternative methods (azeotropic or extractive distillation, membranes)
are used.

9. Why is reflux used in a distillation column? Define Reflux Ratio.

 Reflux returns a portion of the condensed overhead liquid back to the top of the column, improving
vapor–liquid contact and enabling higher separation (product purity). The reflux ratio (R) = L/D, where L is
the liquid returned as reflux and D is the distillate collected. Increasing R usually increases purity but
raises energy (reboiler) and cooling costs.

10. Effect of reflux ratio on number of plates required.

There is a tradeoff (McCabe–Thiele): higher reflux ratio reduces the number of theoretical stages needed
for a target separation, while lower reflux requires more stages (taller column). Very high reflux reduces
stages but increases operating costs; an optimum R balances capital cost (stages) and operating cost
(reflux).

11. Distillation types: Simple, Steam, Vacuum, Azeotropic, Extractive, Fractional.

• Simple distillation: Suitable for binary mixtures with large boiling point gap; it's essentially a single
vaporization–condensation step. • Steam distillation: Useful to distill heat-sensitive, high-boiling or
immiscible compounds by co-distillation with steam (reduces effective boiling temperature). • Vacuum
distillation: Lowers pressure to reduce boiling points — used for thermally sensitive materials or very
high-boiling feeds. • Azeotropic distillation: An entrainer is added to form a new azeotrope so one
component can be removed; common when mixture forms an azeotrope. • Extractive distillation: A
high-boiling solvent (entrainer) changes relative volatility to help separation without forming a new
azeotrope. • Fractional distillation: Uses many theoretical stages and a fractionating column to separate
multicomponent mixtures (e.g., crude oil fractionation).

12. Principle of vacuum distillation & Define vacuum.

Vacuum means pressure below atmospheric. By lowering the absolute pressure above a liquid, its vapor
pressure equals the ambient pressure at a lower temperature — so the liquid boils at a reduced
temperature. Vacuum distillation prevents thermal decomposition of heat-sensitive compounds and allows
separation of high-boiling substances with less severe heating.

13. MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet) — short explanation.

MSDS provides product identity, hazard summary, first-aid procedures, handling & storage instructions,
personal protective equipment (PPE) recommendations, firefighting measures and regulatory information.
It is the primary safety reference for people handling chemicals in labs and plants.

14. Gas laws — Boyle, Charles, Gay-Lussac (brief).

• Boyle's law (T constant): PV = constant → V  1/P. • Charles's law (P constant): V  T (absolute
temperature). • Gay-Lussac's law (V constant): P  T. These are limiting ideal-gas relationships and useful
for simple process calculations.

15. Avogadro number & significance.

Avogadro's number (N_A  6.022×10^23 mol^−1) is the number of particles (atoms, molecules) per mole.
It links microscopic scale (molecules) to macroscopic quantities (moles and mass) and is fundamental to
stoichiometry and molar property calculations.

16. Freezing point (definition) and examples (common organics).

The freezing (melting) point is the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase between solid
and liquid in equilibrium. Examples (approx): methanol −97.6 °C, ethanol −114.1 °C, benzene 5.5 °C,
acetone −95 °C, toluene −95 °C. (Values are approximate; use standard tables for design.)

17. Define mole and mole fraction.

One mole is the amount of substance containing Avogadro's number of elementary entities
(6.022×10^23). Mole fraction (x_i) = n_i /  n_j, a dimensionless measure of composition often used in
vapor–liquid equilibrium and Raoult's-law calculations.
18. Normality, Molarity, Molality — definitions and when to use.
• Molarity (M): moles of solute per liter of solution (mol·L^−1). Common in lab volumetric work. • Molality
(m): moles of solute per kilogram of solvent (mol·kg^−1). Temperature-independent (useful for
colligativeproperty calculations). • Normality (N): equivalents per liter; depends on reaction
stoichiometry (e.g., acid–base). Normality is less preferred now because equivalents depend on
reaction context.
•
19. Enthalpy — definition and units.
Enthalpy (H) is a thermodynamic state function: H = U + pV, where U is internal energy. It is an extensive
property measured in joules (J) or calories. Enthalpy change (H) measures heat transfer at constant
pressure and is widely used in heat duty and energy balance calculations.

20. Driving force in transport operations.

Transport occurs down gradients: mass transfer is driven by concentration difference, heat transfer by
temperature difference, and momentum transfer (fluid flow) by pressure or velocity gradients. Quantifying
the driving force is the first step in designing equipment (e.g., dC/dx, T, P).

21. Define absolute (dynamic) viscosity, kinematic viscosity, thermal conductivity, heat capacity,
and heat transfer.
• Dynamic (absolute) viscosity : resistance of a fluid to shear; units Pa·s (or N·s·m^−2). • Kinematic
viscosity :  = / (m^2·s^−1). • Thermal conductivity k: ability of material to conduct heat (W·m^−1·K^−1).
• Heat capacity C: heat required to raise system temperature by 1 K (J·K^−1). • Heat transfer (flux): heat
per unit area per unit time (q'' = W·m^−2). These properties are central to equipment design.

22. Define specific heat.

Specific heat (c_p or c) is the heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass by one degree
(J·kg^−1·K^−1). It is essential in calculating sensible heat duties (Q = m·c·T).

23. Difference between drying and evaporation.

Evaporation concentrates a solution or removes large amounts of solvent by boiling to increase
concentration; it often occurs at or near boiling point and is used when high solvent removal is needed.
Drying removes residual moisture from a solid product at temperatures below bulk boiling, often in gas
streams; drying targets a low final moisture content and may use air drying, vacuum, or specialized dryers.

24. Typical dryers and their applications.

• Tray dryer: batch dryer for pharmaceuticals and chemicals (gentle drying). • Spray dryer: converts liquid
feed to dry powder quickly — used for detergents, milk powder and pharmaceuticals. • Fluidized bed dryer:
solids are fluidized by gas for fast, uniform drying — used in pharmaceuticals, fertilizers. • Rotary dryer:
continuous dryer for granular solids — used in minerals and cement. • Roto-cone vacuum dryer:
low-temperature drying for heat-sensitive or high-value pharmaceuticals.

25. Which evaporator is used for concentrating fruit juice?

Multiple-effect evaporators are typically used to concentrate fruit juices to save steam energy. Vapor from
one effect is used to heat the next, reducing overall steam consumption per unit of water removed.

26. Difference between single-effect and multiple-effect evaporator.

In single-effect evaporation vapor from the evaporator is condensed and discarded (or used for heating
elsewhere). In multiple-effect, vapor from one effect is used to heat the following effect, significantly
reducing steam consumption but increasing capital cost and operational complexity.

27. Forward-feed vs backward-feed evaporators — differences.

• Forward feed (feed flows parallel to steam): simpler and the feed is progressively heated; no pump often
required. • Backward feed (feed opposite to steam): can obtain higher concentration and better thermal
 efficiency in some cases but may require pumps and careful control.

28. Define humidity and instruments to measure it.

Humidity is the amount of water vapor in air. Common measures: absolute humidity (mass of water vapor
per unit volume), relative humidity (ratio of actual partial pressure to saturation vapor pressure at that
temperature — expressed in %), and specific humidity (mass of water vapor per unit mass of moist air). A
hygrometer (electronic or psychrometer) measures relative humidity. Boiling points of some common
organics (approx).
Methanol: 64.7 °C; Ethanol: 78.3 °C; Benzene: 80.1 °C; Toluene: 110.6 °C; Isopropyl alcohol (IPA): ~82.6
°C; Ethyl acetate: ~77.1 °C. Use standard data tables for design precision.

29. Examples of strong acids and strong bases.

Strong acids: perchloric (HClO4), hydrochloric (HCl), sulfuric (H2SO4), nitric (HNO3). Strong bases:
NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2. These fully (or largely) dissociate in water.

30. Out of phenol and acetic acid, which is more acidic?

Acetic acid is more acidic (pKa  4.8) than phenol (pKa  10). The carboxylate anion is resonance
stabilized across the C=O group making acetic acid donate protons more readily than phenol, whose
conjugate base is less stabilized in water.

31. Define saponification.

Saponification is the base-catalyzed hydrolysis of esters (fats/oils) to form soap (carboxylate salts) and
glycerol. Example: triglyceride + 3 NaOH → 3 RCOO^- Na^+ (soap) + glycerol. It's the classical process
for soap manufacture.

32. Define pH.

pH = -log10[H^+] (or activity of H^+). It quantifies acidity/basicity of aqueous solutions. Because activity,
not concentration, defines thermodynamic acidity, pH is technically defined via hydrogen ion activity; in
dilute solutions concentration approximates activity.

33. Difference between aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons.

Aromatic hydrocarbons contain a conjugated ring system (benzene ring) with delocalized  electrons and
characteristic chemistry (e.g., electrophilic aromatic substitution). Aliphatic hydrocarbons are non-aromatic
— they can be linear, branched or non-aromatic cyclic, and may be saturated (alkanes) or unsaturated
(alkenes, alkynes).

34. Define valency.

Valency (valence) is the combining capacity of an atom — the number of electrons an atom uses to form
bonds (or the number of hydrogen atoms it can combine with). For example, carbon valency = 4, oxygen =
2, nitrogen = 3 (typical values used in simple chemistry contexts).

35. Is ammonia a base or an acid?

Ammonia (NH3) is a weak base in water: NH3 + H2O ■ NH4^+ + OH^-. It accepts a proton to form the
ammonium ion; its basicity is much weaker than strong bases like NaOH.

36. Examples of weak acids and weak bases.

Weak acids: formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid (CH3COOH), hydrofluoric acid (HF), H2S. Weak bases:
ammonia (NH3), pyridine (C5H5N), ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), tertiary amines (e.g., N(CH3)3).

37. Difference between corrosion and erosion.

Corrosion is chemical or electrochemical degradation of materials (e.g., rusting of steel by oxygen/water).
Erosion is mechanical wear by particle impingement or fluid shear removing material. In many industrial
 contexts, both act together (erosion-corrosion).

38. What is an optically active compound?

An optically active compound can rotate plane-polarized light due to molecular chirality (presence of an
asymmetric carbon center or other chiral element). Enantiomers rotate light equal and opposite; optical
activity is used to detect stereoisomers qualitatively.

HR Questions — sample structured responses

39. Q: As a team leader your team is not following direction. What do you do?
Sample approach: First try to identify the root cause—skill gaps, unclear expectations, resource
constraints or morale issues. Hold one-on-one conversations to listen, clarify goals and reassign or coach
where needed. If performance doesn't improve, consider formal corrective steps while documenting
efforts.
40. Q: How do you handle work under pressure?
Short answer: Prioritize tasks, break work into smaller steps, delegate appropriately and communicate
clearly with stakeholders. Keeping a calm, methodical approach and focusing on the highest-impact tasks
reduces errors under pressure.

41. Q: Salary less than colleague — what do you do?

Recommended approach: Collect facts about role, responsibilities and performance. Discuss your
compensation with your manager professionally, focusing on your contributions and market benchmarks,
rather than comparing emotionally.

42. Q: Boss rejects your suggestion — how do you react?

Accept feedback gracefully, ask for specific reasons to learn and, if appropriate, provide additional data to
support your idea later. Demonstrating adaptability and constructive follow-up reflects well in interviews.

43. Q: Given a task not listed in duty — what do you do?

Show willingness to help while clarifying priorities: say 'I can do this — can we prioritize or shift something
else?' This demonstrates flexibility combined with time-management sense.