South India Journal of Social Sciences, September'24, Vol. 22 - No.
3 3
ISSN : 0972-8945 (Print) | 3048-6165 (Online)
PROPERTY OWNERSHIP OF WOMEN IN CONTEMPORARY INDIA:AN
ASSESSMENT OF NFHS-V REPORT
Abina Ansary Ramya R
Introduction
The fight for recognition and equality continues for women in all spheres of life, including
the ownership of property rights. Women often give their efforts and time tirelessly for the
creation and accumulation of incredible assets, both natural and physical, only to end up
mostly disregarded, with rights of such assets bestowed on their counterparts through
clandestine ways. Many women work on their families or husbands agricultural land for
years but lose their rights to the land once the male dies or disappears, as many cultures
forbid women from owning assets(Daley et al., 2013). Cultures are apparently gender-blind
with regard to women's rights in society, especially, women's property rights. The poor
governmental support for women to claim their rights worsens the situation. Progress is
evident in society in the form of women's education and their awareness regarding the land
rights. Governments and organizations around the world are taking steps towards raising
the voice of women over these rights but in vain.
Land security and ownership are fundamental for social and economic empowerment.
Land and property accounts for up to 75% of a country's wealth, yet three-quarters of the
world's population cannot show ownership of the land on which they live or work. Also, it is
important to acknowledge that women own less than 20% of the world's land (World Economic
Forum 2020). Women constitute half the population and yet only own less than 20% of the
land on the planet. According to a United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization
assessment of 34 poor countries, that ratio might be as low as 10%.Over 400 million of
them farm, producing the vast bulk of the world's food supply. Nonetheless, in more than 90
nations, female farmers do not have equal rights to land ownership (World Economic Forum
2020). As per the World Bank Group's Women, Business, and the Law (2020), two-fifths of
nations globally restrict women's property rights. Women do not enjoy equal ownership
rights to immovable property in 19 nations. Male and female surviving spouses do not have
equal rights to inherit assets in 44 nations. The United Nations' Sustainable Development
Goals recognize the significance of women's rights to land and property, with a stated
Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Sri. C Achutha Menon Government College, University of Calicut, Kerala, India
Faculty of Economics, Sri. C Achutha Menon Government College, University of Calicut, Kerala, India
South India Journal of Social Sciences, September'24, Vol. 22 - No. 3 4
objective of equal rights to ownership and control over land by 2030. The World Bank has
begun a campaign in 2019 " Stand for Her land" to break down barriers and achieve real
change by channeling resources and tools to support national and local efforts for women's
land rights.The movement towards property ownership is a global phenomenon,
acknowledging inclusion and gender balance.
The objective of this paper is to examine the gender gap in house and land ownership
in India using secondary data from NFHS 5. The paper compares the ownership of assets
by men and women of all states and union territories. In addition, age wise comparison is
also conducted to further comprehend the saving and investment trend among men and
women. An urban -rural comparison also outlined the regional disparity regarding the
ownership of house and land.
Review of Literature
Owning of assets guarantees a certain level of security and financial stability for
people.According to a number of South Asian surveys, women who owned land had a
higher voice in household decision-making than women who did not own property.Friedman-
Sanchez (2006) discovered that in Colombia, women utilize property and social assets to
negotiate the right to work, manage their own income, travel freely, and live free of domestic
violence. It is noted that women's asset ownership may improve children's anthropometric
status, the prevalence of prenatal care, and their educational attainment (Duflo, 2003).
While other work options are vital for women's income, land is a permanent asset that
serves as a lasting safeguard against poverty and specifically in the event of divorce,
desertion, separation, or widowhood ( Agarwal,1989).Financial security and property
ownership reduce the likelihood of domestic violence for some women, because economic
independence allows them to exit an abusive relationship(Friedemann-Sánchez 2006).
Agarwal (1994) discovered that widows in Rajasthan cultivate plots provided to them by
joint family members as part of inheritance claims to their late husband's property which is
unusual. Typically, the deceased person's land rights are passed down to his sons or male
family members. According to Agarwal (1994), widows who owned land and lived with their
grown sons were treated with far more respect and consideration than widows who lacked
land and were financially dependent.Women can also get financial assistance using land
as collateral from banking institutions if they have a land title. Land titles also provide more
access to technology and knowledge on productivity thereby boosting agricultural methods
and inputs, which are not commonly accessible to women due to gender bias atthe
base(Agarwal 1994).
Property rights and women empowerment is closely related. Women are empowered
South India Journal of Social Sciences, September'24, Vol. 22 - No. 3 5
by secured land rights through enhanced intra-household bargaining and decision-making
power (Friedemann-Sánchez 2006). Also, ownership rights positively impact the fertility
decisions of women (Bose and Das 2020).Communities prosper when women have access
to assets, it improves their capacity to establish and expand enterprises by providing the
collateral required for loans. (Santos et al., 2014) found that women in West Bengal with
land documents under their names have a say over a larger share of their households' land
in terms of the decision on how to use the land, what to grow on it, and whether to sell the
produce from that plot. As noted by(Samarakoon & Parinduri, 2015), education and
employment provide women with economic independence and a sense of self-worth, which
can empower them socially and economically. Though the government laws are working in
favor of women, in rural India the decisions are mostly taken by village elders or close
relatives who indulge in patriarchy. The effectiveness of laws depends on awareness about,
the ability to invoke, and social acceptance of them, including to what extent cultural
norms and traditions are practiced and followed instead of formal law. Caste also plays a
crucial role in the decision-making power and economic status of women. Focusing on
social groups, the findings generally imply that SC, ST, and OBC women participate more
in decisions pertaining to farming and non-farming activities, which suggests that women
from the marginalized castes have greater bargaining power when it comes to their
participation in those decisions (Valera et al., 2018).
Another significant point is the wide gap between legal rights and customary rights.
Legal rights or formal rights provide people with security but customary rights or informal
rights are also equal essential to practice the right over the land (Roy and Tisdell, 2002). In
public platform, when property rights of women are discussed, it usually refers to the legal
rights over the property. However, in the actual world, women do not benefit from customary
property rights mainly due to the patriarchy. Women receive financial assistance when
they have both these rights over the land. (Roy and Tisdell, 2002). Due to the popular social
norms and practices officials often disregard the ownership of women and deny them
assistance in the absence of any male family member.
Method of Study
Secondary data from NFHS 5 Indian Report throws light at the gender gap in asset
ownership. The fifth in the NFHS series, the National Family Health Survey 2019-21 (NFHS-
5), includes population, health, and nutrition data for India, from each state/union territory
(UT). The percentage of women and men age 15-49 who own a house or land either alone
or jointly from all states and union territories are used from the report for the study. Data
that shows age- wise division of land and house ownership of men and women between the
South India Journal of Social Sciences, September'24, Vol. 22 - No. 3 6
age group of 15-49 is also used in this paper. To understand the depth of regional disparity
in terms of land and house ownership by men and women, the rural- urban classification of
asset ownership from NFHS 5 Report is also used. An independent t- test was conducted
to gather more information.
Results
The fifth in the NFHS series, the National Family Health Survey 2019-21 (NFHS-5),
includes population, health, and nutrition data for India, from each state/union territory
(UT), and 707 districts as of March 31st, 2017. In each round of the survey, a consistent
sample design that is representative at the national, state/union territory, and district levels
was used. Each district is divided into urban and rural zones.The survey provides information
on the land and house ownership by men and women. In this paper, we focus on the land
and house ownership of women as an economic asset, thus examining the data on house
or land owned jointly or individually by women.According to the NFHS 5 India report forty-
two percent of women and 60 percent of men own a house alone or jointly with someone,
and 32 percent of women and 42 percent of men own land alone or jointly with someone.
Ownership of assets by state/union territory
Table 1: Percentage of women and men age 15-49 who own a house either
alone or jointly
Tripura 15.8 53.4
State/Union Territory Women Men Dadra & Nagar Haveli 55.8 44.1
Chandigarh 30.4 40.2 and
Delhi 21.9 37.2 Daman & Diu
Haryana 38.6 50.4 Goa 22.8 21.2
Himachal Pradesh 22.4 52.8 Gujarat 42.2 63.7
Jammu & Kashmir 56.6 78.5 Maharashtra 21.5 44.0
Ladakh 71.9 74.6 Andaman & Nicobar 14.5 47.2
Punjab 63.2 58.2 Islands
Rajasthan 26.0 55.9 Andhra Pradesh 45.6 67.1
Uttarakhand 23.8 52.3 Karnataka 66.2 67.9
Chhattisgarh 45.1 71.7 Kerala 24.5 53.6
Madhya Pradesh 38.9 57.3 Lakshadweep 29.7 29.3
Uttar Pradesh 51.2 65.5 Puducherry 33.6 47.9
Bihar 54.4 67.8 Tamil Nadu 47.0 60.4
Jharkhand 63.6 82.6 Telangana 63.6 74.3
Odisha 42.5 73.1 INDIA 42.3 60.1
West Bengal 22.0 51.6
Arunachal Pradesh 68.7 76.0
Assam 42.2 74.2
Manipur 57.3 76.8
Meghalaya 64.1 48.0
Mizoram 19.4 50.4
Nagaland 25.5 52.1
Sikkim 52.4 75.6
Tripura 15.8 53.4
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 55.8 44.1
Source: National Family Health Survey (NFHS - 5), 2019-21-INDIA REPORT
South India Journal of Social Sciences, September'24, Vol. 22 - No. 3 7
Among the states and union territories, Ladakh with 71.9 has the highest percentage
of women owning a house jointly or individually. Arunachal Pradesh with 68.7 tops the list
of states followed by Karnataka with (66.2) and Meghalaya (64.1). The bottom of the list is
occupied by Andaman and Nicobar Islands (14.5) and Tripura (15.8) and Mizoram (19.4) in
the list of states. The situation in the national capital is nothing better. Delhi has only 21.9
of women who own a house. Punjab (62.3) and Jharkhand (63.6) holds a better percentage
compared to its counterparts. Among the southern states, Kerala, even with a better education
and health for women, performs poorly in case of ownership rights. Only 24.5% of women
in Kerala own a house jointly or individually while their counterparts in nearby states have
a better status (Telangana 63.6, Tamil Nadu 47.0, Karnataka 66.2 and Andhra Pradesh
45.6).
An analysis was conducted to draw better conclusions from the above data. The
mean of men is 58.2 and that of women is 41.2. The S.D of men is 14.7 and S.D of women
is 17.4. The minimum percentage of men and women are 21.2 and 14.5 respectively. While
the maximum percentage of men and women are 82.6 and 71.9 respectively. For the
purpose of conducting independent sample t-test, basic assumptions were tested. Both
normality test (p value-0.156) and homogeneity of variance test (p value-0.139) were satisfied.
Independent t- test rejected the null hypothesis and accepted the hypothesis that, mean of
women< mean of men. The p value obtained in the analysis was 0.999.
Table 2 : Percentage of women and men age 15-49 who own a land either alone
or jointly
Sikkim 39.7 70.1
State/ Union Territory Women Men Tripura 10.7 34.8
Chandigarh 9.0 26.5 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 50.1 39.0
Delhi 12.7 21.1 and
Haryana 30.8 36.8 Daman & Diu
Himachal Pradesh 20.3 48.2 Goa 9.2 5.2
Jammu & Kashmir 51.1 69.8 Gujarat 35.0 42.4
Ladakh 63.8 70.7 Maharashtra 14.7 27.0
Punjab 27.1 31.5 Andaman & Nicobar 8.9 29.0
Rajasthan 20.7 43.3 Islands
Uttarakhand 17.5 38.8 Andhra Pradesh 24.5 34.8
Chhattisgarh 38.8 66.3 Karnataka 53.7 51.1
Madhya Pradesh 32.3 45.4 Kerala 11.5 25.1
Uttar Pradesh 42.7 55.8 Lakshadweep 6.1 12.6
Bihar 43.8 52.9 Puducherry 10.0 7.2
Jharkhand 54.6 73.7 Tamil Nadu 21.9 26.3
Odisha 36.6 58.0 Telangana 42.6 51.1
West Bengal 16.7 33.6 INDIA 31.7 42.3
Arunachal Pradesh 62.8 71.5
Assam 34.8 63.5
Manipur 24.8 44.0
Meghalaya 44.6 38.3
Mizoram 13.9 40.4
Nagaland 15.8 41.4
Sikkim 39.7 70.1
Tripura 10.7 34.8
Source: National Family Health Survey (NFHS - 5), 2019-21-INDIA REPORT
South India Journal of Social Sciences, September'24, Vol. 22 - No. 3 8
While considering the above table it can be noted that except some states and union
territories, the land ownership of women overall is not quite appreciated. The national level
percentage shows 31.7 women own land whereas 42.3 men in the country own land.
Ladakh stands first in the list with 63.8 women holding land under their name. Among the
states Arunachal Pradesh tops with 62.8 women owning land followed by Jharkhand (54.6)
and Karnataka (53.7). The states with low percentage Chandigarh (9.0), Goa (9.2), Tripura
(10.7) and Kerala (11.5).
The southern states have one of the best and worst cases of women's land ownership.
Karnataka with 53.7 shows a better condition whereas,Kerala (11.5) has one of the poor
conditions in the country. The enigma of Kerala women is evident here. Even with high
education and other well- performing social indicators, women in Kerala are hesitant to
own land or the values embedded restrict them. The other southern states hold percentage
as follows: Andhra Pradesh (24.5), Tamil Nadu (21.9) and Telangana (42.6).
For the further understanding of the above data, an analysis was carried out. The
mean of men is 42.4 and mean of women is 29.3. The S.D of men is 18.1 and S.D of
women is 16.8. The minimum percentage of men and women are 5.20 and 6.10 respectively.
While the maximum percentage of men and women are 73.7 and 63.8 respectively. For
the purpose of conducting independent sample t-test, basic assumptions were tested.
Both normality test (p value-0.168) and homogeneity of variance test (p value-0.931) were
satisfied. Independent t- test rejected the null hypothesis and accepted the hypothesis
that mean of women< mean of men. The p value obtained in the analysis was 0.999.
Table 3 Percentage of women and men age 15-49 who own a house or land
either alone or jointly
Women Men
Age Own house Own land No of Own house Own land No of men
women
15-19 30.1 24.0 18,240 39.8 29.8 16,385
20-24 36.9 29.2 17,809 44.9 33.5 14,384
25-29 40.8 31.4 17,398 54.7 38.7 14,195
30-39 45.7 33.6 29,853 67.5 46.5 26,137
40-49 52.0 37.1 24,714 79.8 54.8 22,043
Source: National Family Health Survey (NFHS - 5), 2019-21-INDIA REPORT
The data shows age- wise division of land and house ownership. Women belonging to
the age cohort of 25-49 own house or land compared to women of the age cohort 15-24,
though it is less than their counterparts. The condition of men is similar to that of women.
Men of the age 25-49 own house or land compared to men of age 15-24. This trend could
be the result of employment and savings at the age of 25-49.
South India Journal of Social Sciences, September'24, Vol. 22 - No. 3 9
Table 4: Percentage of women and men age 15-49 who own a house or land
either alone or jointly
Women Men
Residence Own Own No of Own Own No of men
house land women house land
Urban 37.4 23.4 34,839 53.5 29.6 32,852
Rural 44.6 35.7 73,175 63.7 49.3 60,291
Source: National Family Health Survey (NFHS - 5), 2019-21-INDIA REPORT
Table 4 presents the percentage of women and men of the age group 15-49 who own
a house and land in rural and urban regions.There is evident gap between women who own
a house or land in rural and urban areas. It shows that rural women hold ownership title
more than urban women. Table shows 37.4% Men in both rural and urban areas have a
higher percentage than their counterparts. The land in urban area is expensive compared
to rural areas making it difficult for people to afford. Thus, the gap between women and men
who own land in urban area is narrow with 23.4% and 29.6% respectively.
Discussion
Ladakh has the highest percentage of women who own a house either jointly or
individually among all the states and union territories. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
Tripura, and Mizoram are at the bottom of the list. The ownership rights in these places
may also be influenced by geopolitical conditions in addition to cultural and socioeconomic
norms. Kerala is the poorly performed state in the south when it comes to ownership
rights, despite having higher health and education outcomes for women. In contrast to their
counterparts in neighboring states, women in Kerala own a residence either jointly or
individually in a lower percentage of cases. It should be mentioned that, with the exception
of a few states and union territories, women's land ownership is not widely acknowledged.
This is where Kerala women's mystery comes through. Kerala women are reluctant to own
property or are constrained by embedded values, even in the face of high levels of education
and other positive social indicators. Another significant observation is related to the age
category and ownership of assets. Though less than their counterparts, women in the 25-
49 age group own a house or land compared to women in the 15-24 age group. Men and
women are in similar conditions. Compared to males in the 15-24 age range, men in the
25-49 age range possess a house or land. The work and savings patterns of individuals
aged 25 to 49 may be the cause of this change in pattern.There is a clear disparity between
rural and urban women who own homes or property. It demonstrates that more rural women
than urban women own ownership titles. People find it difficult to purchase the pricey land
in urban regions when compared to rural ones. As a result, there is little difference between
South India Journal of Social Sciences, September'24, Vol. 22 - No. 3 10
men and women who own land in metropolitan areas. However, it is to be noted that a
general criticism against data from NFHS is regarding the lack of accuracy and
misrepresentation of the situations in India. The limited sample size might be a reason for
this inaccuracy. In spite of this, the NFHS data has been used widely in academic field.
Conclusion
This paper examined the asset ownership of women in India with the help of data from
NFHS- 5. Results from the independent t -test conducted shows the apparent gender
gap.The continuance of discriminatory cultural norms and behaviors may possibly prevent
women from enjoying their rights.Lack of awareness also hinders women from exercising
their rights to land and property in both rural and urban contexts.Governments and
international organizations are taking actions by providing more education for women and
improving awareness among people regarding the legal provisions for inheritance and rights.
This could lead to gender equity in land rights and eventually enhance the status and
decision-making power of women.
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